Chapter Iii Regional Overviews

CHAPTER III REGIONAL OVERVIEWS

WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE

Due to the differences in trafficking patterns and flows, Countries covered Western and Central Europe has been split into two geo- in this section FINLAND graphical areas, or subregions. Countries in the subregion NORWAY of Western and Southern Europe111 are among the world’s SWEDEN wealthiest. The subregion of Central and South-Eastern DENMARK IRELAND UNITED 112 KINGDOM Europe includes some countries of the European Union NETHERLANDS GERMANY – of which, some are part of the Schengen area,113 and BELGIUM some not – as well as the countries of the Western Balkans. FRANCE SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA Most of the countries in this subregion have transitional ANDORRA PORTUGAL economies. SPAIN ITALY

TURKEY

GREECE

WESTERN AND SOUTHERN EUROPE MALTA Key findings Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on Most frequently detected victim profile: this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Women, 56% Nations.

Most frequently detected form of FIG. 45 Detected victims of trafficking in exploitation: Sexual exploitation, 67% Western and Southern Europe, by age and sex, 2014 (or most recent) Gender profile of convicted offenders: 78% males 56% Share of national citizens among offenders: 40% Summary profile of trafficking flows: Destina- tion; particularly for medium-distance trafficking.

Emerging trend: Increasing significance of 16 COUNTRIES trafficking for forced labour. Profile of the victims

The countries in the two subregions report similar pat- % terns regarding the profiles of detected victims. A clear majority of the approximately 15,200 victims detected, Boys with gender and age reported, in Western and Southern 19% 7% 18%

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 111 Western and Southern Europe: Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Nether- lands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Europe between 2012 and 2014 were women. Men and 112 Central and South-Eastern Europe: Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, girls were detected in near-equal numbers. Latvia, Poland and Slovakia (Central Europe); Albania, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia and the former Yugoslav The increasing global trend in detections of men is also Republic of Macedonia (South-Eastern Europe). reflected in the national data from some of the countries 113 An area that includes 26 European countries that have abolished in this subregion. Between 2012 and 2014, Austria, Den- passport and any other type of border control at their mutual borders, enabling citizens to cross internal borders without being subjected to mark, Germany, Greece, Norway and the United King- border checks. dom all registered clearly increasing shares of adult male

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FIG. 46 Trends in the sex and age profiles of victims detected in Western and Southern Europe, 2007-2014

100% 2% 2% 4% 5% 5% 5% 6% 7% TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 90% 16% 14%

80% 14% 16% 10% 17% 15% 18% 70% 60% 50% 77% 74% 72% 73% 66% 65% 59% 40% 56% GLOBAL REPORT ON 30% 20% 10% 13% 11% 16% 14% 19% 19% 0% 5% 5% 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

victims, compared to two years before. Other countries FIG. 47 Forms of exploitation among detect- reported stable shares; the Netherlands, for example, ed victims of trafficking in Western around 10 per cent, and Turkey, less than 1 per cent. and Southern Europe, 2014 (or most recent) Considering data from the last seven years, detections of Trafficking for men and children have fluctuated year-on-year, but clearly sexual exploitation increased over the period. The shares of detected women, 67% on the other hand, have decreased consistently and significantly.

Forms of exploitation 13 COUNTRIES

Trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation is the most commonly reported form in this part of the world. Out of the 12,775 victims detected between 2012 and 2014 whose form of exploitation was reported, some 67 Trafficking for forced labour per cent were exploited for sexual purposes and 30 per Trafficking cent for forced labour. Trafficking for forced labour for other purposes 30% includes exploitation in a range of sectors, such as agri- 4% culture, construction, commercial cleaning and domestic servitude. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

Nearly 4 per cent of the victims were trafficked for ‘other’ Women and girls are mostly trafficked for the purpose of purposes, including about 0.7 per cent for begging, and sexual exploitation. Some 4 per cent of the detected vic- another 0.7 per cent for the commission of crime. In addi- tims who were trafficked for sexual exploitation in this tion, victims were trafficked for sham and forced marriages subregion were males. Females were also trafficked into and for mixed forms of exploitation (usually involving a Western and Southern Europe for forced labour, however. combination of sexual exploitation and some type of During the reporting period, nearly one third of the vic- forced labour). About 85 per cent of the victims trafficked tims trafficked for different forms of forced labour were for other purposes were females, especially girls. females.

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FIG. 48 Trends in the forms of exploitation FIG. 49 Persons investigated for trafficking among detected victims in Western in persons in Western and Southern and Southern Europe, 2007-2014 Europe, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) (or most recent) 6% 4% 5%

100% 8% 8% 9%

12% 73% 27% 90% 80% 70% 60% 67% 76% 65% 57% 50% 66% 68% 77% 40% 65% 30% 20% 10 COUNTRIES 10% 31% 30% 29% 26% 24% 23% 17% 0% 18% Persons prosecuted for trafficking in persons in Western and Southern

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Europe, by sex, 2014 (or most recent)

Trafficking for other forms Trafficking for sexual exploitation Trafficking for forced labour 69% 31% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

Profile of the offenders Despite the fact that the vast majority of the detected victims in this area are females, either women or girls, and that the reported level of trafficking for sexual exploitation 8 COUNTRIES is among the highest in the world, the share of prosecuted Persons convicted of trafficking and convicted female offenders is among the lowest. in persons in Western and Southern About 31 per cent of the persons prosecuted and 22 per Europe, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) cent of the persons convicted of trafficking in persons in 2014 (or most recent) were women. A clear majority (58 per cent) of the convicted offenders were foreigners from outside Western and Southern 78% 22% Europe. Only North Africa and the Middle East reports a larger share of foreign trafficking offenders. The largest group of convicted foreigners were citizens of countries in South-Eastern Europe, and the third-largest group were citizens of Sub-Saharan Africa (mostly West Africans). Significant numbers of traffickers from the Americas and 11 COUNTRIES Asia were also convicted, which demonstrates that trafficking in persons in Western and Southern Europe is a Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. highly international crime. The citizenships of the convicted foreign traffickers in eign victims originates from South-Eastern Europe. The Western and Southern Europe were clearly connected to second most frequently detected regional origin is Sub- the citizenships of the foreign victims during the report- Saharan Africa, especially West Africa. Asian victims are ing period. 114 The most commonly detected flow of for- also often detected in this subregion.

114 The statistical correlation was measured by Pearsons coefficient 0.9 (sig 0.000; N: 48).

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FIG. 50 Share of offenders convicted in FIG. 51 Correlation between the citizenships Western and Southern Europe, of detected victims and the citizen- by their area of citizenship, 2014 ships of convicted offenders in (or most recent) Western and Southern Europe, 2014 (or most recent) TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS Western Central Europe 40% and Southern 2% Europe South-Eastern 35% 4% Europe 28% 30%

Eastern Europe 25% and Central Asia 20%

GLOBAL REPORT ON 12 COUNTRIES 2% 15%

East and 10% South Asia 6% 5% (2014 or more recent) National Americas 0% offenders Africa and the 5%

Middle East 0% 5%

40% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 13% Share of traffickers convicted, citizenshipby Share of victims detected, by Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. citizenship (2014 or more recent)

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

MAP 4 Countries of origin for victims detected in Western and Southern Europe, 2012-2014

Country or territory of origin for at least one victim detected in Western and Southern Europe

Source: UNODC. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Republic of Sudan the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).

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Trafficking flows affecting Western With regard to trafficking distance, for the reference year and Southern Europe 2014 (or most recent), about half of the victims detected at destination were trafficked medium distance. Just over Western and Southern Europe is a destination area for a quarter were trafficked long distance, and strikingly, 7 trafficking flows originating in many different regions. per cent of victims were trafficked from very distant coun- During the 2012-2014 period, 137 different citizenships tries, which again confirms that this area is attractive as a from all regions were detected in or repatriated from these destination for trafficking in persons. countries. Nevertheless, many trafficking flows are of short geographical distance. About 18 per cent of the about Some victims seem to be trafficked all over Western and 13,000 victims detected in this subregion between 2012 Southern Europe, particularly victims from South-Eastern and 2014 whose citizenships were reported were trafficked and Central Europe, but also from East Asia and West domestically. Africa. There are also trafficking flows that are not widely detected in the whole region, but frequently reported in Countries within the European Union are the most sig- specific countries, such as East Africans to the United nificant origins of trafficking into Western and Southern Kingdom, Eastern Europeans to Turkey, South Americans Europe. During the 2012-2014 period, about 47 per cent to Spain and France, and North Africans to France. of the victims detected in this part of the world were trafficked from Central and South-Eastern Europe. Victims Apart from intra-European flows, Sub-Saharan Africa was from Bulgaria or Romania, in particular, were detected in the most commonly detected origin of trafficking into almost every country of this subregion. Victims from the Western and Southern Europe, representing about 16 per Western Balkans, however, were not detected in significant cent of the victims. Many of these victims were from West numbers. Trafficking flows originating from Central Africa, and citizens of West African countries were Europe were detected in France, Germany, the Nether- detected in large numbers. Nigerian victims, in particular, lands and the United Kingdom, as well as in some other were detected in Scandinavia, Southern Europe, France, countries. Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and the United King-

MAP 5 Origins of trafficking victims detected in Western and Southern Europe, by subregion, 2014 (or most recent)

Domestic (within countries) 18% and within the subregion (cross-border) 2% 14% Central Europe 20% Eastern Europe Western 7% and Central Asia and Southern Europe 33% South-Eastern 16% Europe

North Africa East Asia and the Middle East and the South Asia Pacific Central America and the Caribbean

Sub-Saharan Africa South America Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

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FIG. 52 Shares of detected trafficking flows The East Asian trafficking flow into Western and South- in Western and Southern Europe, ern Europe largely comprises victims from China, Indo- by geographical distance,* 2014 (or nesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam. They most recent) comprise some 7 per cent of the detected victims; a share Medium that is relatively consistent across a number of countries.

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS distance Trafficking of South Asians is limited here; reported by a 52% couple of countries. Trafficking flows originating in the Americas account for about 3 per cent of victims in Western and Southern Europe. Most of these victims come from South America and are mainly detected in France and Spain. Reductions 16 COUNTRIES have been observed for these flows in recent years. GLOBAL REPORT ON There is a limited flow into Western and Southern Europe from Eastern Europe and Central Asia. There is no spe- Short Long distance distance cific country of origin, as both Eastern European and 22% 26% Central Asian victims are detected. However, there is a prominent country of destination, as many of these vic-

* Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national tims were detected in Turkey. Moreover, the vast majority borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows of the victims detected in Turkey (86 per cent) are citizens are between two countries that do not share a border and with the border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the of countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Thus, closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows con- this trafficking flow – small in the broader European pic- nect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. ture - mainly concerns Turkey. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. There is also a limited trafficking flow from North Africa and the Middle East into Western and Southern Europe. dom, accounting for about 7 per cent of the total number It originates mainly in the countries of the Maghreb. These of victims detected in 2014 (or most recent). Victims from victims can be found especially - though not exclusively Cameroon, Ghana, Guinea and Sierra Leone were also - in France, where they comprise 3.4 per cent of victims. widely detected. East Africans were also detected in several countries, and in the United Kingdom, more than 5 per The overall picture regarding long-term trends has not cent of the detected victims were East Africans. changed considerably. Trafficking from South-Eastern

FIG. 53 Trends in trafficking flows to Western and Southern Europe, by area of origin, 2009-2014 East Africa West Africa North Africa and the Middle East Central America and the Caribbean South America East Asia South Asia Eastern Europe and Central Asia Western and Southern Europe - cross border Central Europe South-Eastern Europe Domestic trafficking 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Detected in 2014 Detected in 2011 Detected in 2009

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FIG. 54 Trends in trafficking flows to trafficking in compliance with the UN Trafficking in Per- Western and Southern Europe, by sons Protocol definition by the end of 2012. A majority major area of origin, 2009-2014 of countries did so during the five years after the entry into force of the Protocol. 100%

90% 10% In many countries in this region, the offence of traffick- 16% 18%

80% 7% ing in persons predated the adoption of the UN Traffick- 7% 70% 7% ing in Persons Protocol; however, it often only covered 16% 18% 60% 19% trafficking for sexual exploitation. This was the situation 50% in the Netherlands and Germany, where the offence of 40% 20% 23%

17% trafficking for sexual exploitation was introduced in 1911 30% and 1971, respectively. The offence was amended in both 20% countries in 2005 to include the other forms of traffick- 10% 35% 40% 47% ing as defined by the Protocol. Similar processes took place 0% Detected in Detected in Detected in in Austria, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland. 2009 2011 2014 While Denmark and Greece have had legislation in com- Other regions pliance with the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol since East Asia 2002, the other Nordic countries, as well as France, Italy Sub-Saharan Africa and the United Kingdom, introduced full-fledged legisla- Domestic trafficking and sub-regional cross-border tion between 2003 and 2004. Just recently, Andorra Central and South-Eastern Europe amended its criminal code to align it with the Protocol. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. With the exception of Andorra, where the legal framework is too recent to record convictions, all the countries from Europe has been the most prominent trafficking flow into which information was available reported at least one con- Western and Southern Europe for a number of years now, viction during the period considered. However, about one and it continues to increase, according to the most recent third of the countries had less than 10. On the other end data. of the scale, about one quarter of the countries had more than 50 convictions per year, in particular the Netherlands With regard to the smaller flows, there have been some and Germany, which convict between 90 and 150 persons changes. Trafficking from Central Europe has been per year. This may be connected with the long-standing increasingly detected for a few years, rising from 9 to 14 existence of the offence of trafficking in persons - albeit per cent of victims from 2009 to 2014. Trafficking from partial until 2005 - in the penal law of these two countries. Eastern Europe and Central Asia, on the other hand, has The Nordic countries and Malta reported less than 10 been decreasing for the last decade, and does not affect convictions per year during the reporting period under countries equally. Flows from West Africa declined some- the specific offence of trafficking in persons. In general, what recently. This decrease was, however, compensated the number of convictions recorded during the reporting by increased flows from East Africa. Trafficking from the period has increased, with just a couple of countries having Americas and North Africa also appeared to be decreasing marked decreases. during the reporting period. On average, 62 per cent of the persons who were investi- If current trends continue over the next years, trafficking gated for trafficking were prosecuted during the 2012- into Western and Southern Europe will become even more 2014 period. About 32 per cent of those prosecuted regional and local. Most transregional flows appear to be received first instance convictions. About 20 per cent of decreasing, while intraregional flows are growing. This is the persons who were initially investigated were convicted particularly true for flows from Central and South-Eastern in the court of first instance in Western and Southern Europe. Europe.115

Criminalization of trafficking in persons

Nearly all the countries in this region had enacted a spe- 115 These may not be exactly the same offenders as the data was reported cific trafficking in persons offence with a definition of as annual totals (rather than longitudinal).

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FIG. 55 Share and number of countries in CENTRAL AND SOUTH-EASTERN Western and Southern Europe with a specific offence on trafficking in EUROPE persons that criminalizes all forms listed in the UN Protocol, by period Countries covered of introduction of the offence in this section TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

Period 2 Full trafficking ESTONIA offence introduced LATVIA between January 2004

and November 2008 POLAND

14 CZECHIA SLOVAKIA

HUNGARY SLOVENIA ROMANIA GLOBAL REPORT ON SERBIA MONTENEGRO BULGARIA THE FORMER YUGOSLAV ALBANIA REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA

Period 1 Full trafficking offence introduced before December Period 3 Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on 2003 Full trafficking this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United 6 Period 5 offence introduced Nations. Full trafficking offence between December introduced between 2008 and August 2012 Key findings September 2014 and 2 August 2016 Most frequently detected victim profile: 1 Women, 54% Most frequently detected form of Share of countries in Western exploitation: Sexual exploitation, 65% and Southern Europe, by number of trafficking convictions, 2012-2014 Gender profile of convicted offenders: (one year within the period) 84% males Share of national citizens among offenders: Between 96% 11 and 50 convictions per year Summary profile of trafficking flows: 5% Origin for trafficking within Western and Central More than Europe. Destination for intraregional trafficking 50 convictions and from Eastern Europe and Central Asia. per year 21% Emerging issue: Trafficking for begging and for forced marriage reported by various countries. 10 or fewer Profile of the victims convictions per year About 75 per cent of the approximately 6,870 victims 5% Information detected in Central and South-Eastern Europe between not available No 2012 and 2014 whose age and gender profiles were convictions 21% reported were female, either women or girls. 1% This subregion has reported decreasing shares of trafficking in males, both boys and men, over the last six years. However, this is not representative of all the countries; Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Czechia and Serbia reported increasing numbers of male Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than for the section on patterns and flows. victims. Decreasing detections of adult men were reported

78 Regional overviews - Western and Central Europe III

FIG. 56 Detected victims of trafficking in FIG. 58 Forms of exploitation among Central and South-Eastern Europe, detected victims of trafficking in by age and sex, 2014 (or most recent) Central and South-Eastern Europe, 2014 (or most recent) 54% Trafficking for sexual exploitation 65%

14 COUNTRIES 12 COUNTRIES Trafficking for forced labour 23%

Trafficking for Trafficking for organ removal Boys % other purposes 0.1% 21% 2% 23% 12%

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

FIG. 57 Trends in the sex and age profiles FIG. 59 Victims of trafficking for forced of victims detected in Central and labour detected in Central and South-Eastern Europe, 2009-2014 South-Eastern Europe, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) 2% 100% 2% 3% 4% 4% 5% 90% 86% 14% 80% 20% 22% 21% 24% 22% 70% 23% 60% 50% 40%

30% 46% 47% 13 COUNTRIES 52% 50% 51% 20% 53% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 10% 21% 24% 28% 28% 25% 0% 22% of forced labour accounts for one quarter of the traffick- 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 ing detected in this part of the world; the overwhelming majority of these victims are males. The share of female Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. victims of trafficking for forced labour (14 per cent) is small compared to other areas. by Romania, while the other countries had stable trends About 12 per cent of the detected victims were trafficked compared to previous years. for purposes other than sexual exploitation or forced Forms of exploitation labour. Nearly half of these were trafficked for the purpose of begging, and 1 per cent for the purpose of sham or The vast majority of victims – more than two thirds – were forced marriages. Other forms of exploitation reported trafficked for sexual exploitation. Of these victims, 97 per were trafficking for the commission of crime, for mixed cent were females. Trafficking in persons for the purpose exploitation, for pornography, and trafficking of pregnant

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women for the purpose of selling their babies. Seven cases FIG. 60 Persons investigated for trafficking of trafficking for the purpose of organ removal were also in persons in Central and South- reported in this subregion between 2012 and 2014. Eastern Europe, by sex, 2014 (or more recent) Profile of the offenders TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS Most of the persons prosecuted for and convicted of trafficking in persons during the 2012-2014 period in Central 70% 30% and South-Eastern Europe were males. Men comprised more than 70 per cent of the approximately 700 persons investigated for trafficking in persons, and more than 80 per cent of the 2,400 persons prosecuted for, and 550 convicted of this crime. The share of convicted females

GLOBAL REPORT ON was large in Latvia, where female participation resembles the levels reported in most Eastern European countries. 10 COUNTRIES Albania, Montenegro and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia rarely prosecute or convict women of traf- Persons prosecuted for trafficking in ficking in persons. persons in Central and South-Eastern Europe, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) Almost the entire offender population for trafficking in persons in this subregion were citizens of the countries where they were convicted. Only some 4 per cent were foreigners. Due to the high level of national offenders convicted in this subregion, it appears unlikely that traf- 82% 18% fickers from other regions operate in these countries. As seen in other parts of the world, this feature of ‘monopoly’ is typical for countries of origin for international trafficking flows. These traffickers, whether they operate alone or in groups, not only exploit fellow citizens domestically, but also transfer or sell them for exploitation abroad, 9 COUNTRIES mainly in Western and Southern Europe. Groups from South-Eastern Europe seem to be involved in trafficking in persons throughout most of Europe. Persons convicted of trafficking in persons in Central and South-Eastern An illustrative court case from Hungary concerned a loose Europe, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) trafficking network of at least four traffickers, three operating in Hungary, and one in Switzerland. The victims – Hungarian women – were recruited by Hungarian group members operating in Hungary. The victims were trans- 84% 16% ferred to a Hungarian citizen residing in Zurich, which is where the women were sexually exploited. The money was laundered via money transfers back to Hungary.116 A different case – reported by Portugal - concerned trafficking for forced labour. At least 30 victims were trafficked. The victims were Romanian citizens recruited in Romania by Romanian traffickers, but the exploitation took place in 11 COUNTRIES the agricultural sector in Portugal. The traffickers were aware of the victims’ difficult financial situation, which helped force them into exploitation at destination.117 Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

116 Case provided by Hungary, which concluded with a conviction by the Metropolitan Court of Budapest (sentence not available). 117 Case provided by Portugal, which concluded with convictions by the Court of Beja, with sentences ranging from 3 to 5 years of imprisonment.

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FIG. 61 Share of offenders convicted in FIG. 62 Victims of trafficking repatriated Central and South-Eastern Europe, to countries in Central and South- by their area of citizenship, 2014 Eastern Europe, by destination, (or most recent) 2012-2014

Western and Southern Europe 85% 12 COUNTRIES 10 COUNTRIES

National Central and offenders South-Eastern 95.8% Europe

Africa and Central and Eastern Europe 2% the Middle East South-Eastern Europe and Central Asia 0.8% East and 2.9% 13% South Asia 0.4% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. FIG. 63 Detected victims of trafficking in Central and South-Eastern Europe, Trafficking flows affecting Central by citizenship, 2014 (or most recent) and South-Eastern Europe

As discussed above, Central and South-Eastern Europe is Central and mainly an area of origin for international trafficking. The South-Eastern Europe - cross-border information concerning the victims that have been repat- Domestic 28% riated to their origin countries in this subregion sheds trafficking some light on the relevant trafficking flows. Most of the 41% trafficking originating in this region is directed towards Western and Southern Europe. However, victims from South-Eastern Europe, and less commonly Central Europe, have also been repatriated from the richer coun- 13 COUNTRIES Eastern Europe and Central Asia tries of Eastern Europe. 14% A large share of victims detected in Central and South- Eastern Europe are trafficked within national borders (41 East Asia and per cent). The most prominent international trafficking the Pacific flow into this area is intraregional; more specifically, from 10% Africa and the South South-Eastern Europe to the Central European countries. Middle East Asia That said, Central and South-Eastern Europe is also a 4% 3% destination for trafficking in persons; not only domestic and intraregional flows, but also, to a limited extent, for victims trafficked from other regions. Both Czechia and Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Poland have detected victims trafficked from Eastern Europe, particularly from Ukraine, as well as victims from trafficked domestically, and about 15 per cent of the vic- East and South Asia. Victims from West Africa were also tims were trafficked from a neighbouring country, espe- detected in Czechia during the reporting period. cially victims from Eastern Europe trafficked across the The vast majority of trafficking flows into this subregion border. Long-distance flows mainly involve Asian victims are short-distance. A large part of the victims have been trafficked to Central Europe.

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MAP 6 Destinations of detected trafficking victims from Central and South-Eastern Europe, by subregion, 2012-2014 TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

69% 47% Eastern Europe Central and and Central Asia Western South-Eastern and Southern Europe Europe North America GLOBAL REPORT ON

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Share of victims from Central and South-Eastern Europe detected Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries at destinations. Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

MAP 7 Origins of trafficking victims detected in Central and South-Eastern Europe, by subregion, 2012-2014

Domestic and within the subregion 14% 69% Eastern Europe Central and and Central Asia South-Eastern Europe 10%

East Asia and the Pacific

North Africa and South the Middle East Asia

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

82 Regional overviews - Western and Central Europe III

FIG. 64 Shares of detected trafficking flows FIG. 65 Share and number of countries in in Central and South-Eastern Europe, Central and South-Eastern Europe by geographical distance,* 2014 with a specific offence on trafficking (or most recent) in persons that criminalizes all forms listed in the UN Protocol, by period of introduction of the offence Short Medium distance distance Period 1 55% 28% Full trafficking offence introduced before December 2003 12 13 COUNTRIES

Period 2 Full trafficking Long offence introduced distance between January 2004 and November 17% 2008 3 * Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows Period 3 are between two countries that do not share a border and with the Full trafficking offence border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the introduced between closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows connect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 December 2008 and kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. August 2012 Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 2

Criminalization of trafficking Share of countries in Central and in persons South-Eastern Europe, by number of trafficking convictions, 2012-2014 Countries in this subregion were among the first to enact (one year within the period) legislation with a definition of trafficking in line with the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol definition and all Between 11 and 50 countries in Central and South-Eastern Europe had such convictions per year legislation before 2012. The South-Eastern European 46% countries of Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Mon- tenegro (the latter two having been a single state at the time) introduced the offence of trafficking in persons before the entry into force of the Protocol, between 2002 and December 2003. Similar developments took place in Latvia, Lithuania and other Central European countries. A few other countries expanded their existing definitions in order to comply with the Protocol after December 2003. Bulgaria and Romania convicted more traffickers than 10 or fewer More than convictions 50 convictions other countries in the subregion during the reporting per year per year period, between 60 and 100 per year. Other countries in 31% 23% South-Eastern Europe, like Serbia and the former Yugo- slav Republic of Macedonia, also reported relatively high numbers of convictions. This supports the theory that Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. offences that have been in use for a longer period of time Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than lead to more convictions. for the section on patterns and flows.

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In Central and South-Eastern Europe, 33 per cent of the FIG. 66 Detected victims of trafficking in persons suspected of or investigated for trafficking in per- Eastern Europe and Central Asia, by sons receive first instance court convictions. This figure age and sex, 2014 (or most recent) is much higher than the corresponding share for Western

and Southern Europe. Looking at the criminal justice pro- TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS cess in more detail, 64 per cent of investigated persons are prosecuted, and 56 per cent receive first-instance convic- 53% 40% tions (in other European subregions, this latter share is 33 per cent). No Central or South-Eastern European country reported an increasing number of convictions during the 5% 2% reporting period, and half of the countries saw decreasing trends.

GLOBAL REPORT ON 8 COUNTRIES EASTERN EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Key findings

Most frequently detected victim profile: FIG. 67 Detected victims of trafficking in Men, 53% Eastern Europe, by age and sex, 2014 (or most recent) Most frequently detected form of exploitation: Forced labour, 64% Gender profile of convicted offenders: 55% females 25% 66% Share of national citizens among offenders:

98% 8% 1% Summary profile of trafficking flows: Destination for intraregional and origin for transregional trafficking. 5 COUNTRIES Emerging trend: Trafficking from poorer to richer countries within the region. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Two distinct areas can be identified in this region, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia.118 Although the data is insuf- ficient to analyse the two areas separately, references will FIG. 68 Detected victims of trafficking in be made to only Eastern Europe or Central Asia where Central Asia, by age and sex, 2014 appropriate. The countries in this region vary in terms of (or most recent) socio-economic characteristics. Profile of the victims 63% 31% A total of 27,800 victims of trafficking whose age and gender profiles were known were detected in this region between 2012 and 2014. More than 90 per cent were 4% 2% adults and a majority were men. Even though men comprise the majority of detected victims, there are marked geographical differences within the region. Eastern Euro- 3 COUNTRIES 118 Eastern Europe: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation and Ukraine. Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

84 Regional overviews - Eastern Europe and Central Asia III

FIG. 69 Trends in the shares of men among FIG. 70 Forms of exploitation among detected trafficking victims, selected detected victims of trafficking in countries in Eastern Europe and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, Central Asia, 2007-2015 2014 (or most recent) Trafficking for 80% forced labour 70% 64% 60% 50% 40% 30% 8 COUNTRIES 20% 10% 0% Trafficking for sexual exploitation 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 31% Trafficking for Belarus other purposes Republic of Moldova 5% Ukraine Uzbekistan Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. FIG. 71 Trends in the shares of detected victims who were trafficked for pean countries detected a larger number of women, and forced labour, selected countries, Central Asian countries detected more men. Countries 2006-2015 across the region, however, reported increased shares of adult male victims over the last few years, which is related 100% 90% to the increasing share of detected victims of trafficking 80% for forced labour. 70% Forms of exploitation 60% 50% The increasing prevalence of men among trafficking vic- 40% tims across the region is also reflected in the detection of 30% cases of trafficking for forced labour. Considering the 20% 10% 10,950 victims detected during the reporting period 0% whose forms of exploitation was known, trafficking for forced labour accounted for more than twice as many victims as trafficking for sexual exploitation. Although the 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 available information is scattered, covering different years Azerbaijan and countries, an increasing trend in the detection of traf- Republic of Moldova ficking for forced labour can be observed in different Kazakhstan countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Russian Federation Ukraine Geographic variations can also be observed for forms of Source: UNODC elaboration of national data exploitation, even among countries that are very close or share a border. In Eastern Europe, victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation were more frequently detected in The profiles of victims trafficked for forced labour also most countries, whereas Ukraine reported more victims change between the two main geographical areas of the of trafficking for forced labour. In Central Asia, Kazakh- region. In Eastern Europe, about 40 per cent of victims stan and Uzbekistan detected more victims for forced trafficked for forced labour were women, whereas in Cen- labour while in Tajikistan, sexual exploitation was more tral Asia, the corresponding share was far lower, less than frequently detected. 10 per cent.

85 2016

FIG. 72 Detected victims of trafficking for FIG. 73 Persons investigated for trafficking forced labour in Eastern Europe and in persons in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, by sex, 2014 (or most Central Asia, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) recent)

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

100%

80% 7% 40% 46% 54% 60%

40%

20% GLOBAL REPORT ON 60% 0% 93% Eastern Europe Central Asia 3 COUNTRIES 5 countries 3 countries Persons prosecuted for trafficking Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. in persons in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, by sex, 2014 About 5 per cent of the victims detected in Eastern Europe and Central Asia between 2012 and 2014 were trafficked for purposes other than sexual exploitation or forced labour. Many of these victims were trafficked for begging, 42% 58% with females and males detected in equal numbers. Mixed forms of exploitation and trafficking for the purpose of committing crime were also sporadically reported. Profile of the offenders

In this region, the share of females among the persons 6 COUNTRIES investigated, prosecuted or convicted of trafficking in persons is higher than in other parts of the world. This is a Persons convicted of trafficking in long-standing pattern, and previous editions of the Global persons in Eastern Europe and Cen- Report have also flagged the preponderance of female tral Asia, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) offenders in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The shares of female involvement are similar across the different steps of the criminal justice process, and the pro- 45% 55% file of the offenders is broadly homogenous across the region. Most of the traffickers are citizens of the countries in which they were convicted. Very few foreign citizens were convicted of trafficking in these countries, and when such convictions were made, the offenders were either from other countries within the region or from Western and Central Europe. 5 COUNTRIES Trafficking flows into Eastern Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Europe and Central Asia

This region has traditionally been considered mainly as More than 7 in 10 of the approximately 1,700 victims an origin of transnational and local trafficking flows. The detected in this region between 2012 and 2014 whose information collected regarding detected as well as repat- citizenships were reported were trafficked within national riated victims, however, shows that it is also a destination borders. Another 22 per cent of victims were trafficked of cross-border trafficking flows. cross-border within the region.

86 Regional overviews - Eastern Europe and Central Asia III

FIG. 74 Share of offenders convicted in FIG. 75 Detected victims of trafficking in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, by Eastern Europe and Central Asia, by their area of citizenship, 2014 citizenship, 2014 (or most recent) (or most recent) National Domestic offenders trafficking 98% 72%

8 COUNTRIES

Eastern 8 COUNTRIES Europe and Central Asia -cross- border East Asia 22% 6%

Eastern Europe Western and Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Central Europe and Central Asia 1% 1% The richest countries in the region, Kazakhstan and the Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Russian Federation, are both destinations for trafficking in persons, as victims from other countries have been detected here. Victims from these two countries are less The cross-border trafficking flows within the region follow frequently detected in other countries. Flows from the patterns that have also been observed in other regions. poorer countries of Central Asia head towards both of Just like countries in Western and Southern Europe tend these destinations, though more prominently to Kazakh- to attract victims from Central and South-Eastern Europe, stan. Another origin country of trafficking to these desti- in this region, the trafficking generally flows from poorer nations is Ukraine; most prominently to the Russian to richer countries. Federation.

FIG. 76 Cross-border trafficking flows and gross domestic product per capita in selected countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 2011-2014

30,000.00

25,000.00

(2011-2014) 20,000.00

15,000.00

10,000.00 - mainly origin - mainly origin GDP per capita capita GDP per 5,000.00 - mainly origin - mainly origin - mainly destination - mainly destination - mainly 0.00 - destination and origin - destination and origin Russian Kazakhstan Belarus Ukraine Uzbekistan Republic of Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Federation Moldova

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data/World Bank.

87 2016

FIG. 77 Shares of detected trafficking flows Victims from Ukraine were also detected in Belarus, and in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, victims from the Republic of Moldova were detected in by geographical distance,* 2014 (or Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Victims most recent) Short from Belarus were detected in the Russian Federation, and distance victims from Uzbekistan were detected in the South Cau- TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 94% casus. Belarus and Ukraine are both destinations and origins, while limited information is available for the countries of the South Caucausus.

8 COUNTRIES The data also reveal some trafficking flows that originate in other regions, specifically East Asia. Moreover, repatriation data reveals that some 120 victims from South-East- ern and Central Europe were trafficked to the richer GLOBAL REPORT ON Eastern European countries during the 2012-2014 period. Trafficking flows out of Eastern Long Medium distance distance Europe and Central Asia 4% 2% Victims who were trafficked outside their countries were

* Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national mostly trafficked to other countries within the region. borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows About 8,100 citizens of Eastern European and Central are between two countries that do not share a border and with the border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the Asian countries were detected in and repatriated back from closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows con- other countries between 2012 and 2014; the vast major- nect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. ity from other countries in the region. However, a signifi- Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. cant number of victims were also trafficked to other

MAP 8 Destinations of detected trafficking victims from Eastern Europe and Central Asia, by subregion, 2011-2014

94% Eastern Europe and Central Asia Western 14% and Southern Central and Europe South-Eastern North Europe America East Asia North Africa and South and the Pacific the Middle East Asia

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Share of victims from Eastern Europe and Central Asia detected Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries at destinations. Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

88 Regional overviews - North and Central America and the Caribbean III

FIG. 78 Share and number of countries in few years, and all countries now have legislation defining Eastern Europe and Central Asia trafficking according to the UN Trafficking in Persons with a specific offence on trafficking Protocol definition. in persons that criminalizes all forms listed in the UN Protocol, by period Most countries in the region report making between 10 of introduction of the offence and 30 convictions per year. This number remained stable over the 2012-2014 period. Period 1 Period 2 Full trafficking Full trafficking offence This region has a high ratio of convictions to investiga- offence introduced introduced between tions, although, due to lack of data, this only reflects the before December 2003 January 2004 and 6 November 2008 situation in Armenia, Belarus and the Republic of Mol- 5 dova. On average, 45 per cent of the persons investigated in these three countries were convicted in the court of first instance.

NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

Key findings: North America

Period 3 Most frequently detected victim profile: Full trafficking offence Women, 60% introduced between December 2008 and August 2012 Most frequently detected form of 1 exploitation: Sexual exploitation, 55% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Gender profile of convicted offenders: Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than for the section on patterns and flows. 61% males Summary profile of trafficking flows: Mostly local trafficking, but also a significant regions. About 10 per cent were trafficked to Western and destination for long-distance flows. Central Europe, and about 25 countries in Western and Central Europe detected or repatriated victims from East- Emerging trend: Many women and girls ern Europe and Central Asia. This particular trafficking trafficked for forced labour. flow appears to have declined over the years, however. Another significant trafficking flow out of the region Key findings: heads to the Middle East, where seven countries have Central America and the Caribbean detected or repatriated victims from this region. At the same time, about 7 per cent of the victims detected in the Most frequently detected victim profile: Middle East are citizens of countries in Eastern Europe Girls, 46% and Central Asia, which means that both data sources Most frequently detected form of reflect the significance of this flow. exploitation: Sexual exploitation, 57% Criminalization of trafficking Gender profile of convicted offenders: in persons 51% males

Half of the countries considered in this region had legis- Share of national citizens among offenders: lation with a definition of trafficking in line with the UN 88% Trafficking in Persons Protocol before its entry into force. Summary profile of trafficking flows: Many Central Asian countries introduced the offence of Mainly domestic and intraregional flows. trafficking in persons shortly after the Protocol entered into force. However, many countries have also amended Emerging trend: Many children among the their legislation - some even multiple times - in the last detected victims.

89 2016

The countries considered under this section of the report FIG. 80 Trends in the shares of adults and can be separated into North America,119 which includes children among detected victims in countries with medium to high levels of socio-economic North America, 2007-2014 development, and Central America and the Caribbean,120 100% 90% with medium to low levels. 80% 11% 14% 17% 23% 21% 24% 19% 19% TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 70% Profile of the victims 60% 50% Both North America and Central America and the Carib- 40% bean detect many female victims. About 70 per cent of 30% the approximately 8,900 victims detected across the region 20% whose age and sex profiles were reported were females. 10% 89% 86% 83% 77% 79% 76% 81% 81% However, while girls are more frequently detected in Cen- 0% GLOBAL REPORT ON tral America and the Caribbean, in North America, 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 women predominate. Adults Children FIG. 79 Detected victims of trafficking in North America, by age and sex, Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 2014 (or most recent)

FIG. 81 Trends in the shares of adults and children among detected victims in 21% 60% Central America and the Caribbean, 2009-2014 100%

17% 2% 90% 80% 51% 49% 47% 46% 61% 58% 70% 60% 50% 3 COUNTRIES 40% 30% Detected victims of trafficking in 20% Central America and the Caribbean, 10%

by age and sex, 2014 (or most recent) 49% 51% 53% 54% 39% 42% 0% 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Adults Children 16% 26% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

51% 7% global patterns, with some increases during the 2010-2012 period, and stabilization more recently.

10 COUNTRIES In Central America and the Caribbean, child trafficking is the most frequently detected form of trafficking. This Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. area has the second-highest level of child trafficking detected globally, after Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the In North America, the share of children among the data for this subregion is not homogenous over a longer detected victims ranges around 20 per cent. Over the time period, large shares of children among detected vic- years, the trend in detections of child victims followed tims have been recorded over the last six years. Forms of exploitation 119 North America: Canada, Mexico and United States of America. 120 Central America and the Caribbean: Bahamas, Barbados, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Hondu- Trafficking for sexual exploitation is the most frequently ras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago. detected form in Central America and the Caribbean,

90 Regional overviews - North and Central America and the Caribbean III

FIG. 82 Forms of exploitation among FIG. 83 Forms of exploitation among detected victims of trafficking in detected victims of trafficking in Central America and the Caribbean, North America, 2014 (or most recent) 2014 (or most recent) Trafficking Trafficking Trafficking Trafficking for sexual for forced for sexual for forced exploitation labour exploitation labour 55% 39% 57% 15%

3 COUNTRIES 7 COUNTRIES

Trafficking for other Trafficking for purposes other purposes 27% 6%

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. with about 57 per cent of the victims detected in 2014 FIG. 84 Detected victims of trafficking (or most recent). The share in North America is similar; for forced labour in North America, about 55 per cent. by sex, 2014 (or most recent) The two areas differ in terms of the second most common form of exploitation, however. In Central America and the Caribbean, trafficking for ‘other’ purposes is frequently 50% 50% reported, accounting for about 27 per cent of the victims detected there. Many of these victims were trafficked for begging, and some, for illegal adoption. The share of victims who were trafficked for forced labour is small in a global perspective.

In North America, on the other hand, the level of forced 3 COUNTRIES labour is quite high, accounting for about 40 per cent of the approximately 6,800 victims detected between 2012 Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. and 2014 for whom the form of exploitation was reported. Few victims were trafficked for ‘other’ purposes; most of but born in Viet Nam – recruited women from Viet Nam. the 6 per cent of victims in this category were subjected She convinced them to travel to the United States by to mixed exploitation. making false promises of legal immigration status and a Looking at the gender profiles of victims trafficked for job. The victims were made to cross the United States - forced labour, North American countries report large Mexico border illegally, and once at destination, they were shares of women and girls. About half of the victims traf- exploited in forced labour in a restaurant that belonged ficked for forced labour in North America are females, to the trafficker’s son in order to pay down the debt con- whereas the global average is 37 per cent. Women and nected with the irregular migration.121 girls trafficked for forced labour may be exploited in dif- Trafficking for domestic servitude is illustrated by a case ferent economic sectors as well as for domestic from Canada. A young Filipino woman signed a two-year servitude. contract to work for a family in Hong Kong, China, to A court case from the United States of America illustrates 121 Case provided the United States, which concluded with a conviction how some women are trafficked for forced labour in this by the District Court for the district of Minnesota, and a 1-year part of the world. A woman – citizen of the United States prison sentence for the trafficker.

91 2016

FIG. 85 Persons convicted of trafficking in FIG. 86 Persons investigated for trafficking persons in North America, by sex, in persons in Central America and 2014 (or most recent) the Caribbean, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

61% 39% 52% 48%

GLOBAL REPORT ON 2 COUNTRIES 5 COUNTRIES

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data Persons prosecuted for trafficking in persons in Central America and take care of their children. After approximately one year, the Caribbean, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) the family moved to Canada. The family promised the woman that she would retain the working conditions she had had in Hong Kong. Once in Canada, however, she was exploited within the household.122 42% 58% Profile of the offenders

The gender composition of the detected victims of trafficking in this region – particularly in Central America and the Caribbean - is also reflected in the relatively large shares of women offenders. Many female victims are 5 COUNTRIES detected, and many women offenders are sanctioned. Approximately half of the persons convicted of trafficking Persons convicted of trafficking in persons in Central America and the Caribbean are in persons in Central America and females, with a share of about 40 per cent in North the Caribbean, by sex, 2014 (or most America. recent) All the covered countries in Central America reported large shares of convicted women traffickers. This was also 51% 49% echoed in the data concerning persons prosecuted and investigated for trafficking crimes in this subregion, while there is only scarce information on the sex profiles of persons investigated and prosecuted in North America. The prevalence of female offenders may be related to the local nature of the trafficking enterprise. It is often con- 5 COUNTRIES ducted by a few individuals targeting one or two victims. The offenders may be couples or relatives or friends of the Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. victim(s). For cross-border trafficking, Central America and the Caribbean is mostly an origin, which suggests that female traffickers might be more likely to be involved in Similar observations can be made regarding the citizen- the recruitment of women or children. ships of the offenders. Most of the convicted traffickers in Central America and the Caribbean are citizens of the country of conviction. About 8 per cent were from South 122 Case provided by Canada, which concluded with a conviction by the Supreme Court of British Columbia. The case is currently under America; especially from countries geographically close to appeal. the Caribbean and Panama.

92 Regional overviews - North and Central America and the Caribbean III

FIG. 87 Share of offenders convicted in FIG. 88 Shares of detected trafficking flows Central America and Caribbean, in North America, by geographical by their area of citizenship, 2014 distance,* 2014 (or most recent) (or most recent)

National Short offenders distance 88% 64% Medium distance 12% 7 COUNTRIES 3 COUNTRIES

Central America and the Caribbean 2% Long distance Western and South East Asia Central Europe 24% America and the Pacific 1% * Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national 8% 1% borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows are between two countries that do not share a border and with the border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows connect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. Near-identical situations were reported in Mexico and Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Canada for the year 2014 (or most recent), as the vast majority of traffickers were citizens of the country where In terms of the intensity of trafficking flows, East Asia they were convicted. Some 11 per cent of the convicted continues to be the most significant origin of transregional traffickers in these two countries were foreigners. In trafficking flows into North America. About 16 per cent Mexico, most of the convicted foreigners were citizens of of the victims detected in the year 2014 (or most recent) Central American countries. were East Asians. The United States detected many victims Trafficking flows affecting from the Philippines, in particular, as well as Chinese and North and Central America and Thai citizens. Smaller trafficking flows from South Asia the Caribbean (involving victims from nearly all countries in this region) and Africa and the Middle East were also detected in Most of the detected trafficking flows in this region are North America. short-distance flows. A large number of victims were traf- Despite the relative proximity of the two regions, there ficked domestically, such as citizens of the United States are relatively few victims trafficked from South America of America trafficked within that country. This type of to North America, only about 2 per cent of the detected trafficking comprised nearly half of the detected victims victims. This is equivalent to the trafficking flows from in this region. Europe to North America. That said, North America is one of three areas of the world Cross-border trafficking within the region is also signifi- - alongside the Middle East and Western and Southern cant. Such trafficking – originating from Central America Europe - in which long-distance trafficking is significant. and the Caribbean - accounts for about 12 per cent of the Nearly a quarter of the victims detected in the three coun- victims detected in North America, especially in Mexico tries of this subregion in 2014 (or most recent) were traf- and the United States. ficked from origins at least 3,500 kilometres away, and notably, 7 per cent were trafficked more than 7,000 kilo- Central America is mainly a region of origin, but also a metres. Victims detected in or repatriated from North destination. Guatemala and El Salvador detect victims America during the reporting period came from more from Honduras and Nicaragua, among others, and traf- than 90 different countries of origin, from all parts of the ficking between countries in this area is frequently world. detected. The 6 per cent of victims detected in Central

93 2016

MAP 9 Countries of origin for victims detected in North America, 2014 (or most recent) TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

GLOBAL REPORT ON

Country or territory of origin for at least one victim detected in North America

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. The final boundary between the Republic of Sudan the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).

MAP 10 Origins of trafficking victims detected in North America, by subregion, 2014 (or most recent)

Domestic (within countries) 47% and within the subregion (cross-border) 16%

63% North America East Asia 16% and the Pacific 12% North Africa and the Middle East South Central America Asia and the Caribbean

South America

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

94 Regional overviews - North and Central America and the Caribbean III

FIG. 89 Shares of detected trafficking MAP 11 Origins of trafficking victims flows in Central America and the detected in Central America and Caribbean, by geographical the Caribbean, by subregion, 2014 distance,* 2014 (or most recent) (or most recent)

Short distance 92%

Domestic (within countries) 56% and within the subregion (cross-border) 38% 8 COUNTRIES East Asia 94% and the Pacific Central America and the Caribbean 5%

Long Medium South distance distance America 1% 7%

* Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows are between two countries that do not share a border and with the border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the Flows: detected victims in destination countries closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows con- Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries nect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. FIG. 90 Flows of trafficking in persons between North and Central America and the Caribbean and per capita America and the Caribbean who were neither trafficked gross domestic product, 2011-2014 domestically nor between neighbouring countries were mainly trafficked from origins less than a few hundreds 60,000 kilometres from the border of the country where they were detected. Most of these victims were from South 50,000 America. 40,000 Most of the cross-border trafficking flows follow the broad

(2011-2014) patterns of economic differences; victims are trafficked 30,000 from poorer to relatively richer countries nearby. This was - mainly destination - mainly seen in several parts of Central America and the Carib-

20,000 destination - mainly

- mainly destination - mainly bean; to some extent in connection with flows originating - mainly destination - mainly 10,000 - destination and origin from or directed towards South America. Victims detected - destination and origin

- destination and origin - destination and origin in the richer countries of the Caribbean - such as Barba- GDP per capita - mainly origin - mainly origin 0 - mainly origin dos, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago - originated from neighbouring or close South American countries, such as

Haiti the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Colombia and Mexico Panama Guyana. Moreover, victims from Haiti were frequently Barbados Honduras Nicaragua El Salvador El Guatemala detected in the Dominican Republic. United States United Central America and the Caribbean is also an origin of trafficking outside the region. Trafficking from these coun- Dominican Republic Trinidad and Tobago and Trinidad tries accounted for about 10 per cent of the victims Source: UNODC elaboration of national data/World Bank. detected in South America. Most of these victims are traf-

95 2016

MAP 12 Destinations of detected traffick- FIG. 91 Share and number of countries in ing victims from Central America North and Central America and the and the Caribbean, by subregion, Caribbean with a specific offence on 2012-2014 (or most recent) trafficking in persons that criminalizes all forms listed in the UN Proto- col, by period of introduction of the TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS offence

Period 2 Period 3 12% Full trafficking Full trafficking offence introduced offence introduced North Western and America Southern Europe between January between December 2004 and 2008 and November 2008 August 2012 North Africa and

GLOBAL REPORT ON 94% the Middle East 7 8 Central America and the Caribbean

Period 4 Full trafficking offence between 10% September 2012 South and August 2014 America Period 1 1 Full trafficking offence introduced Period 5 Flows: detected victims in destination countries No or before December partial trafficking Full trafficking offence Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in 2003 offence in introduced between destination countries 2 September 2016 September 2014 and Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries 1 August 2016 1 Share of victims from Central America and the Caribbean detected at destinations. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than for the section on patterns and flows. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. Trafficking Victims Protection Act (TVPA) was introduced in the year 2000. ficked from the Caribbean to countries of the Southern Cone, as well as to the Andean countries. Smaller flows The number of convictions in North America is high of victims from Central America and the Caribbean were compared to the rest of the world. The United States detected in several regions outside of the Americas as well. reports around 150 - 200 convictions per year, while In total, victims from this part of the world have been Mexico has between 60 and 100. In Canada, there are 10 detected in more than 30 countries around the world. to 15 convictions per year. Mexico and the United States reported increasing numbers of convictions over the 2012- Criminalization of trafficking 2014 period. It appears that, on average, about half of the in persons persons prosecuted receive first-instance convictions. There is no information about the number of persons Legislation in the North American countries, Canada, investigated for trafficking in the region. Mexico and the United States of America, evolved quite rapidly towards the criminal definition of trafficking pre- In Central America and the Caribbean, only the Domini- sented in the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol. Both can Republic had legislation with a definition of traffick- Canada and Mexico had an offence on trafficking in per- ing in line with the UN Trafficking in Persons when it sons before the entry into force of the Protocol in Decem- entered into force. Before December 2003, many coun- ber 2003, but while Canada only criminalized international tries in Central America had an offence of trafficking in trafficking, Mexico only criminalized child trafficking. persons that only criminalized trafficking for sexual Both countries amended their legislation to comply with exploitation, while most countries in the Caribbean did the UN definition by 2008. In the United States, the not include the legal concept of trafficking in persons in

96 Regional overviews - South America III their criminal codes at all. Most of the countries in this many geographically large countries and wide socio-eco- area developed their legislation to align with the UN nomic differences; both within each country and within standard during the 10 years following the entry into force the region. of the Protocol. Profile of the victims Due to the relatively recent introduction of the offence of trafficking in persons, about one third of the countries in The vast majority of the approximately 5,800 victims the region, particularly in the Caribbean, have still not detected in South America whose gender and age were recorded a single conviction. The other two thirds reported reported between 2012 and 2014 were females. While fewer than 20 convictions per year. The limited numbers most were adult women (45 per cent), girls were also fre- of convictions may be related to these countries’ small quently detected. About one quarter of the victims were populations. Most of the countries reported stable num- males; more men than boys. bers of convictions, with a couple of countries reporting an increasing trend. FIG. 92 Detected victims of trafficking in South America, by age and sex, 2014 However, a relatively large number of investigations are (or most recent) generally reported in Central America. The analysis shows that, on average, 29 per cent of the persons prosecuted and 20 per cent of the persons initially suspected or investigated by the police authorities receive first instance court 15% 45% convictions. These shares are somewhat lower than the global average, but higher than the corresponding ones in South America. 29% 11%

SOUTH AMERICA 9 COUNTRIES Key findings: Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Most frequently detected victim profile: Women, 45% The level of child trafficking was particularly high, repre- Most frequently detected form of senting around 40 per cent of the victims detected during exploitation: Sexual exploitation, 57% the reporting period. Child trafficking was detected more frequently than adult trafficking in the Andean countries Gender profile of convicted offenders: of Ecuador, Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia. 63% males Adult victims were more frequently detected in the South- Share of national citizens among offenders: ern Cone countries of Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. 77% Forms of exploitation Summary profile of trafficking flows: More than half of the 4,500 detected victims of traffick- Destination for intraregional trafficking. Origin for ing in persons for whom the form of exploitation was trafficking flows to other regions. reported between 2012 and 2014 were trafficked for Emerging trend: Southern Cone countries as sexual exploitation. Around one third were trafficked for destinations and Andean countries as origins of forced labour. It should be noted that Brazil reported a regional and transregional trafficking. large number of victims, around 3,000 per year, for offences such as slave labour and forced labour. It is 123 The countries considered in the following analysis rep- unclear how many of these victims were in exploitative resent a geographically large area that neighbours Central situations as the result of a trafficking process. America and the Caribbean to its north, but is relatively distant from the rest of the world. South America has Countries in this region reported wide differences in the prevalence of trafficking for forced labour. Countries like Chile and the Plurinational State of Bolivia had large 123 South America: Argentina, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uru- numbers of victims trafficked for forced labour compared guay and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of). to sexual exploitation. Argentina and the Bolivarian

97 2016

FIG. 93 Forms of exploitation among FIG. 94 Detected victims of trafficking for detected victims of trafficking in forced labour in South America, by South America, 2014 (or most recent) sex, 2014 (or most recent) Trafficking for sexual

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS exploitation Trafficking 57% for forced 68% 32% labour 29% 9 COUNTRIES

GLOBAL REPORT ON 5 COUNTRIES Trafficking for other Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. purposes 14% FIG. 95 Detected victims of trafficking for ‘other’ purposes in South America, Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. by sex, 2014 (or most recent)

Republic of Venezuela reported equal shares of victims trafficked for forced labour and sexual exploitation. In Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay, traf- 52% 48% ficking for sexual exploitation is more frequently detected. The definitional issues related to the legislation in force in Brazil during the period considered make it difficult to undertake a comprehensive regional analysis. However, the implementation of the new Brazilian legislation – passed by the Senate in September 2016 – may bring 5 COUNTRIES about changes in the Brazilian data, which, in turn, would impact the regional totals. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. While most of the victims trafficked for forced labour are males, either men or boys, this form of trafficking also South American countries reported a relatively large share affects many females. Several South American court cases of trafficking for ‘other’ purposes. A significant portion describe trafficking for domestic servitude following a were victims of illegal adoption or baby selling; about 4 pattern where girls are trafficked by individuals or couples per cent of the detected victims in South America between for exploitation in a household. In Argentina, one case 2012 and 2014. About 2.5 per cent of the victims were involved a girl who was brought from the rural parts of trafficked for the production of pornographic material. the Plurinational State of Bolivia to Argentina by her aunt. Trafficking for the purpose of begging, for the commis- Her parents were promised that she would receive a proper sion of crime and for forced marriage were also reported. education, but instead, she was exploited as servant in the aunt’s household.124 Similarly, a Peruvian girl was traf- Profile of the offenders ficked to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela by a couple The gender profiles of trafficking offenders in this region of friends of the family. Again, the victim (and her family) are largely in line with global patterns. While the majority was promised a good education, but instead, she was of those investigated, prosecuted or convicted of traffick- 125 exploited in forced household labour. ing crimes are men, women participate in much larger numbers than what is seen for most other crimes. 124 Case provided by Argentina, which concluded with a conviction by the tribunal of Comodoro Rividavia. The sentence was 12 months’ About 40 per cent of the approximately 430 persons who imprisonment. 125 Case provided by the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (court and received first-instance court convictions between 2012 sentence information not available). and 2014 were female. Similar shares were reported for

98 Regional overviews - South America III

FIG. 96 Persons investigated for trafficking FIG. 97 Share of offenders convicted in in persons in South America, by sex, South America, by their area of 2014 (or most recent) citizenship, 2014 (or most recent)

National offenders 66% 34% 77%

8 COUNTRIES

9 COUNTRIES South Persons prosecuted for trafficking America in persons in South America, by sex, 19% 2014 (or most recent) Central Western and America and Central the Caribbean Europe 3% 1% 60% 40% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

The citizenships of the persons convicted of trafficking in persons in South America follow the global patterns in that the vast majority of the offenders are citizens of the 8 COUNTRIES countries in which they were convicted. Most trafficking appears to be conducted by offenders operating within Persons convicted of trafficking in their countries. However, more than 20 per cent of the persons in South America, by sex, persons convicted in South America in 2014 were foreign- 2014 (or most recent) ers, mainly from other South American countries. As for other regions, the citizenships of convicted offenders tend to mirror the trafficking flows of the region, 63% 37% which are mainly domestic and regional. Nevertheless, the citizenships of offenders vary significantly between countries of origin and destination of cross-border trafficking. While destination countries tend to report larger shares of foreigners among the convicted traffickers, convictions of foreign citizens are limited in origin countries. This is in line with the global pattern. 7 COUNTRIES About 60 per cent of the persons convicted in countries Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. of destination for cross-border trafficking in 2014 were citizens of the country in which they were convicted. In Chile, for instance, which is a destination country, half of those officially suspected or prosecuted, but in larger num- those convicted of trafficking in persons between 2012 bers (about 1,200 persons were prosecuted, and more than and 2014 were foreigners. This share is far higher than 6,000 were suspected in the covered countries during the what was reported by countries of origin (4 per cent). reporting period). The share of women among those investigated, prosecuted and convicted of trafficking in persons When foreigners are convicted in typical countries of was somewhat larger in the Bolivarian Republic of Ven- origin, they tend to be involved in the trafficking of fellow ezuela and Colombia. citizens into these countries.

99 2016

FIG. 98 Convictions of foreign offenders graphical distance from the rest of the world, and the size (relative to the convicting country), of the region and its constituent countries. by countries of origin and destination of cross-border trafficking in Cross-border trafficking flows in the region run mainly the Americas, 2014 (or most recent) between neighbouring countries. Between 2012 and 2014,

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS victims trafficked from the Plurinational State of Bolivia

Countries of were detected in Argentina and Chile, and victims from destination 62% 38% Paraguay were detected in Argentina. Citizens of Paraguay, Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia were detected in or repatriated from Brazil. Colombian victims were Countries detected in Ecuador and Peru. of origin 96% 4% What emerges is an intricate picture of multiple traffick-

GLOBAL REPORT ON ing flows; limited in terms of geographical reach, but 0% 50% 100% severe in terms of the numbers of victims involved. The National offenders Southern Cone countries of Argentina, Chile and Uru- Foreign offenders guay are mainly destinations for cross-border trafficking, while Paraguay and the Plurinational State of Bolivia in Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. the south, and Colombia and Guyana in the north, are mainly origin countries. The other South American coun- Trafficking flows into South America tries are both origins and destinations for cross-border trafficking, and are at the same time affected by domestic Most of the inbound trafficking involved South American trafficking, as is the whole region. victims, either originating from the country of detection (domestic trafficking) or from other countries in the A significant trafficking flow into the region originates from region. Domestic trafficking accounted for about 78 per the Caribbean. About 10 per cent of the victims detected cent of the flows detected in 2014 (or most recent). South in South America in 2014 were citizens of the Dominican American trafficking is largely regional, which can be Republic, Haiti and, to a lesser extent, Cuba. There are also explained by the diversity within this region, the geo- minor trafficking flows from East and South Asia.

MAP 13 Origins of trafficking victims detected in South America, by subregion, 2014 (or most recent)

East Asia and the Pacific Central America and the Caribbean

10% South America

89%

Domestic (within countries) 78% and within the subregion (cross-border) 11%

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

100 Regional overviews - South America III

FIG. 99 Shares of detected trafficking flows Trafficking flows out of in South America, by geographical South America distance,* 2014 (or most recent) As a destination of trafficking in persons, South America Short plays mainly a regional role, but as an origin, the region distance has transregional significance. South American trafficking 88% victims have been detected in or repatriated from about 50 countries around the world, mainly from the Americas and Europe, but also from East Asia and the Middle East. 10 COUNTRIES While these flows are widely diffused, their intensity is limited. In Western and Southern Europe, the share of victims from South America has been decreasing over the last years to about 3 per cent in 2014. Similar values are Medium reported in North America. In Central America and the distance Long Caribbean, it reached approximately 5 per cent, mainly distance 2% comprised of relatively short distance trafficking from the 10% northern countries of South America to nearby areas like Panama and various Caribbean countries. * Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national The repatriation data brings out additional trafficking borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows are between two countries that do not share a border and with the flows that are not discernible from data provided by des- border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the tination countries. About 9 per cent of the 600 South closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows connect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 Americans who were repatriated between 2012 and 2014 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. were trafficked to and repatriated from countries in East Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Asia. This data also confirms the flows within South America, and outside the region to Western and Southern Europe, Central America and the Caribbean, and North America.

MAP 14 Destinations of detected trafficking victims from South America, by subregion, 2014 (or most recent)

North Western and America Southern Europe

5% Central America East Asia and the Caribbean and the Pacific

South 89% America

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries Share of victims from South America Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries (magnitude unknown) detected at destinations.

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

101 2016

FIG. 100 Share and number of countries Criminalization of trafficking in South America with a specific in persons offence on trafficking in persons that criminalizes all forms listed in Among the South American countries, Colombia has had the UN Protocol, by period of intro- a trafficking in persons offence in the criminal code since duction of the offence TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 2002. This offence addressed all forms of exploitation

Period 3 included in the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol from Period 2 the beginning. At the time of entry into force of the Pro- Full trafficking Full trafficking offence introduced offence introduced tocol, most of the other South American countries only between January between December criminalized some aspects of trafficking, such as interna- 2004 and November 2008 and August tional trafficking or trafficking for sexual exploitation. 2008 2012 5 1 Period 4 Many countries introduced a trafficking offence or Full trafficking GLOBAL REPORT ON amended existing offences in order to comply with the offence between September 2012 Protocol definition after December 2003. Most of the and August 2014 changes and amendments focused on the inclusion of 1 domestic trafficking as part of the crime of trafficking in persons. Period 5 Full trafficking At the time of writing (September 2016), two South offence introduced American countries have legislation that defines the between September 2014 and August offence of trafficking not fully in line with the definition 2016 in the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol. Uruguay’s Period 1 1 offence only criminalizes trafficking in persons in cases of Full trafficking No or partial cross-border trafficking, while the Bolivarian Republic of offence introduced trafficking offence Venezuela’s criminal justice system uses offences from dif- before December in September 2016 ferent parts of the criminal code to prosecute all forms of 2003 2 1 trafficking in persons identified in the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol. All the countries covered reported at least one conviction Share of countries in South America, between 2012 and 2014, and most countries ranged by number of trafficking convictions, 2012-2014 (one year within the period) between 1 and 20 convictions per year. Only Argentina had more, with yearly totals between 30 and 60. The number of investigations is very high in South America; Between Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and the Plurinational 11 and 50 State of Bolivia all recorded investigations in the hundreds. convictions per year Less than half (46 per cent) are prosecuted, while less than 8 one third of the number of prosecuted persons (28 per cent) are convicted. On average, for every 100 persons officially suspected or investigated by the police, 13 are convicted in the court of first instance.

EAST ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

10 or fewer More than Key findings: convictions 50 convictions per year per year Most frequently detected victim profile: Information Women, 51% 3 not available 1 1 Most frequently detected form of exploitation: Sexual exploitation, 61% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Gender profile of convicted offenders: Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than for the section on patterns and flows. 60% males

102 Regional overviews - East Asia and the Pacific III

Share of national citizens among offenders: FIG. 102 Detected victims of trafficking, 95% selected areas, by sex, 2012-2014 Summary profile of trafficking flows: 100% Destination for intraregional trafficking. Origin for 90% trafficking flows to other regions. 80% 97% 61% 87% 86% 70% 100% Emerging trend: South-East Asia as destination 60% for short, medium and long-distance trafficking. 50% 40% This region includes highly developed areas, small Pacific 30% islands, transitional and emerging economies, as well as 20% least developed countries.126 As a consequence, it includes 10% a variety of socio-economic contexts that are reflected in 0% 3% 39% 13% 14% the patterns and flows of trafficking in persons. Unfortu-

nately, the available information on trafficking in persons China Taiwan Malaysia in this region is not as rich as for several other regions. Mongolia Myanmar Philippines Province of Province

FIG. 101 Detected victims of trafficking in East Asia and the Pacific, by age and Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. sex, 2014 (or most recent) FIG. 103 Detected victims of trafficking, selected countries, by age and sex, 2014 (or most recent) 17% 51%

100% 7% 26% 6% 90% 80% 79% 82% 55%

70% 52% 60% 8 COUNTRIES 50% 40% 30% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. 30% 21% 20% 7% 10% 15% 20%

Profile of the victims 13% 14% 0% Australia Japan Indonesia Thailand Most of the approximately 2,700 victims detected during the 2012-2014 period whose age and sex profiles were reported were females, including a significant number of Boys Men Girls Women girls. Due to the frequent trafficking of girls, children comprise nearly a third of the victims detected in East Asia and the Pacific. Trafficking of males is broadly in line Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. with the global average. Although there are significant differences within the Forms of exploitation region, females are widely detected across the board. Aus- Most victims in East Asia and the Pacific were trafficked tralia and Japan detect more women than girls, whereas for sexual exploitation. This was true for more than 60 girls are more detected than adults in some of the covered per cent of the 7,800 or so victims detected between 2012 countries in South-East Asia. and 2014 whose exploitation was recorded. About a third of the detected victims were trafficked for forced labour. 126 East Asia and the Pacific: Australia, Cambodia, China including Among the most frequently reported types of forced Taiwan Province of China, Fiji, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Solo- labour was trafficking in the fishing industry, which was mon Islands, Thailand and Viet Nam. detected in Cambodia, Indonesia and Thailand. Domestic

103 2016

FIG. 104 Forms of exploitation among detect- Trafficking for forced labour ed victims of trafficking in East Asia in the fishing industry and the Pacific, 2014 (or most recent) One form of trafficking which has recently been more prominently reported is trafficking for forced labour in Trafficking

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS for sexual

the fishing industry. South-East Asia is one of the areas exploitation where such trafficking is frequently detected, and sev- 61% eral relevant court cases have been reported. Indonesia provided one case involving about 200 Indonesian ship Trafficking for forced crew. These workers were sent by two Indonesian com- 9 COUNTRIES labour panies to work for a Taiwan Province of China-based company that owned ships operating in waters off West 32% Africa and the Caribbean. The crew members were GLOBAL REPORT ON forced to work 20 hours per day with no salary for almost two years.a

Moreover, Thailand reported cases involved trafficking Trafficking for syndicates from Myanmar recruiting victims in Myan- other purposes mar for exploitation in Thai waters. In March 2013, 7% one case was reported by a local NGO to the Thai authorities in which 11 victims were rescued, and the Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. ring leader was sentenced to 33 years of prison. In another case, also prosecuted by the Thai authorities in servitude was also reported in many countries in the 2013, the trafficking was carried out by a loose net- region; both in origin and destination countries. work of people from India, Myanmar and Thailand. Indian brokers recruited Indian workers through the The high prevalence of females among trafficking victims promise of employment in Thailand. At destination, is connected to the fact that women and girls are not only the victims were handed over to other network mem- trafficked for sexual exploitation, but also for forced bers who forced them to work on fishing boats with- labour and other purposes. A clear majority of the victims out compensation. The six traffickers were arrested, of trafficking for forced labour were females. and later also convicted.b Within the broad category of ‘other’ forms of exploitation, Trafficking for the purpose of exploitation in this eco- trafficking for forced marriage was prominently detected, nomic sector is not restricted to South-East Asia, however. Countries in different parts of the world reported accounting for 4 per cent of the victims detected in East cases of trafficking in the fishing industry. Traffickers Asia and the Pacific between 2012 and 2014. Forced mar- may operate in international waters, which makes this riages were reported in the Mekong area, Cambodia, particular type of trafficking very hidden and difficult China, Myanmar and Viet Nam. This form of trafficking to detect, or victims may be exploited in poor and involves the recruitment of young women or girls to be rural locations around the African lakes.c sold as wives, often abroad (see also Box on page 32). A different issue that also occurs in this part of the world a Case provided by Indonesia, which concluded with a conviction by the Jakarta Barat court. The traffickers received prison is the use of sham marriages as a means of deception for sentences and fines. the purpose of exploitation. A court case from Australia b Office of anti-trafficking in persons committee, National opera- is illustrative. The case concerned a victim of trafficking tion center on prevention and suppression of human traffick- for forced labour and domestic servitude. The offenders, ing, Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, 2013 Thailand Situation and progress report on prevention and a couple residing in Australia, convinced a Filipino woman suppression of trafficking in persons. to marry a friend of theirs in order to obtain a residence c See, for example, Commission Nationale Independante des permit. Once at destination, the couple forced her to work Droits de l’Homme, Etude Sur l’exploitation et le traffic des enfants au Burundi, May 2014; A/HRC/25/73, UN General in their shop for long hours, as well as to take care of three Assembly, Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent children.127 Expert on the situation of human rights in Côte d’Ivoire, January 2014; A/HRC/23/43/Add.2, UN General Assembly, Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences, Gulnara 127 Case provided by Australia, which concluded with convictions by the Shahinian, Mission to Madagascar (10-19 December 2012). Queensland Supreme Court. The sentences ranged from 4 to 12 years of imprisonment.

104 Regional overviews - East Asia and the Pacific III

FIG. 105 Victims of trafficking for forced FIG. 106 Persons investigated for trafficking labour in East Asia and the Pacific, in persons in East Asia and Pacific, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) by sex, 2012-2014

42% 58% 57% 43%

6 COUNTRIES 6 COUNTRIES Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Persons prosecuted for trafficking in persons in East Asia and the Pacific, Trafficking for begging was also detected, accounting for by sex, 2012-2014 around 2.3 per cent of the victims in East Asia and the Pacific. Other forms more sporadically reported include trafficking for illegal adoption and baby selling, and mixed forms of labour and sexual exploitation. 51% 49% Profile of the offenders

Out of the 4,800 or so persons prosecuted for trafficking in persons whose gender was reported in this region during the 2012-2014 period, nearly half were females. The corresponding share for convictions was smaller. Of 6 COUNTRIES the 1,300 persons who were convicted during the reporting period, 40 per cent were females. Persons convicted of trafficking in persons in East Asia and the Pacific, The vast majority of the more than 1,875 convicted by sex, 2012-2014 offenders whose citizenship was reported were citizens of the country in which they were convicted. Only 30 convicted offenders during this period were foreigners; mainly 60% 40% detected in destination countries for cross-border trafficking, such as Australia and Japan. The connection between the citizenships of offenders and victims can again be seen in the countries of destination in this region. Trafficking flows into East Asia and the Pacific 6 COUNTRIES The vast majority – more than 85 per cent - of the victims Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. detected in East Asia and the Pacific were trafficked from within the region. This also holds true for victims traf- More than half of the victims detected in East Asia and ficked into richer countries like Australia and Japan. the Pacific are trafficked along short-distance flows as a About 6 per cent of the victims were trafficked from South large part of the trafficking is either domestic or between Asia, in particular from Bangladesh and India. Another 5 neighbouring countries. Trafficking flows within the per cent of victims detected during this time period region are complex. The wealthiest countries, Australia belonged to ethnic minorities in South-East Asia whose and Japan, are destination countries. However, China, members are often deprived of citizenship.128 Malaysia and Thailand are also reported as destinations;

128 See A/HRC/32/18, Human Rights Council, Situation of human rights United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (Advance Edited of Rohingya Muslims and other minorities in Myanmar: Report of the Version), 28 June 2016.

105 2016

primarily for trafficking from countries close by. Thailand Victims from Cambodia, Indonesia, Mongolia and Viet mainly detects victims from neighbouring countries such Nam have been repatriated from China, and victims from as Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Indonesia, the Philippines and other countries in South- Myanmar, in addition to victims of domestic trafficking. East Asia have been detected in or repatriated from the Malaysia detects victims from Indonesia, as well as from area of Taiwan Province of China. In addition, victims TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS the Philippines and Viet Nam. from China have been detected in the Pacific Islands. In Japan, most of the detected victims were from South-East FIG. 107 Share of offenders convicted in East Asia, although domestic trafficking is also reported there. Asia and the Pacific, by their area of Australia detected some victims from the Republic of citizenship, 2014 (or most recent) Korea.

National About 47 per cent of the victims detected in East Asia and offenders the Pacific were trafficked from origins relatively far from GLOBAL REPORT ON 95% the country of detection, along medium-distance flows. This would generally include victims from South Asia detected in South-East Asia – a few hundred kilometres 8 COUNTRIES between origin and destination – or South-East Asian victims detected in the regional destinations reported above. Three significant, additional flows emerge from repatriation data. The first saw about 115 victims, mainly from countries in Central Asia, but also from Eastern Europe, East Asia and the Pacific 5% trafficked to different South-East Asian countries and repatriated during the reporting period. The second Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. involved more than 50 South American victims who were

MAP 15 Origins of trafficking victims detected in East Asia and the Pacific, by subregion, 2014 (or most recent)

Eastern Europe and Central Asia Domestic (within countries) 22% and within the subregion (cross-border) 69%

South Other and Asia 91% stateless 6% East Asia 5% and the Pacific

Sub-Saharan South Africa America

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

106 Regional overviews - East Asia and the Pacific III

FIG. 108 Shares of detected trafficking flows a global dimension. Victims from this region have been in East Asia and the Pacific, by geo- detected in and/or repatriated from more than 60 coun- graphical distance,* 2014 (or most tries in all regions and subregions of the world. Moreover, recent) there is no main origin country of transregional traffick- Short Medium ing. Victims from different countries – such as China, distance distance Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam – are 52% 47% detected in a variety of destinations around the world. Significant trafficking flows from East Asia and the Pacific have been detected by many countries in Western and 8 COUNTRIES Southern Europe, North America and the Middle East. Most other regions and areas have also detected East Asian victims, which demonstrates the wide geographical diffu- sion of trafficking flows from this region. The repatriation data broadly confirms trafficking flows that were already apparent from destination data. Most of the victims repatriated to their East Asian home coun- Long distance try were trafficked to other East Asian countries or to the 1% Middle East.

* Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows Criminalization of trafficking are between two countries that do not share a border and with the in persons border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows connect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 Most of the countries in East Asia and the Pacific intro- kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. duced an offence with a definition of trafficking in line Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. with the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol definition within five years after the entry into force of the Protocol. A few countries, mainly some Pacific islands and the Phil- trafficked to East Asia and later repatriated. Countries in ippines, criminalized trafficking for sexual exploitation, South America reported significant numbers of citizens forced labour and the other purposes included in the Pro- trafficked to at least seven East Asian countries. The third tocol before December 2003. A few more countries flow that emerged from repatriation data originated in adopted the Protocol definition of trafficking in persons Sub-Saharan Africa. More than 60 victims where traf- in their domestic legislation between 2012 and 2014. ficked from Sub-Saharan Africa to at least five East Asian countries and repatriated once detected. China and some Pacific islands have specific trafficking in persons offences that criminalize some of the forms of About 28 different citizenships were recorded among the exploitation listed in the UN Trafficking in Persons Pro- trafficking victims detected in or repatriated from coun- tocol. These countries may also prosecute trafficking tries in East Asia and the Pacific. Of these, 13 are countries crimes under other offences. within the region and 15 from other areas, including Europe, the Americas, South Asia and Africa. Consider- Countries with very recently enacted legislation did not ing destination and repatriation data together, it appears report any convictions during the reporting period. Three that East Asia and the Pacific is not only an origin of long- countries had less than 10 convictions, while the others distance trafficking, but also a destination. had between 50 and a few hundred convictions per year. There is an overall stagnation in the number of convic- Trafficking flows from East Asia tions in East Asia and the Pacific. Most countries reported and the Pacific stable numbers, although the Philippines reported a clear increase, and Indonesia a clear reduction. This region is affected by a variety of trafficking flows, of shorter and longer range, that broadly reflect the migra- Information from a limited number of South-East Asian tory and socio-economic realities in East Asia and the countries shows that 28 per cent of the persons investi- Pacific. What sets the region apart from most others, how- gated for trafficking in persons are convicted in the court ever, is that the trafficking flows that originate here have of first instance. This is in line with the global average.

107 2016

MAP 16 Countries where victims from East Asia and the Pacific have been detected, 2012-2014 (or most recent) TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

GLOBAL REPORT ON

Country or territory where East Asian victims have been detected Data not available Countries and territories not covered

MAP 17 Destinations of detected trafficking victims from East Asia and the Pacific, by subregion, 2012-2014

6% Eastern Europe 7% 10% and Central Asia Western Central and South- and Southern Eastern Europe 16% Europe North 89% America East Asia and the Pacific North Africa and Central America the Middle East 9% and the Caribbean

South Sub-Saharan America Africa

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Share of victims from East Asia and the Pacific detected at Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries destinations.

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

108 Regional overviews - South Asia III

FIG. 109 Share and number of countries SOUTH ASIA in East Asia and the Pacific with a specific offence on trafficking in Key findings: persons that criminalizes all forms listed in the UN Protocol, by period Most frequently detected victim profile: of introduction of the offence Adults, 60% Period 2 Most frequently detected form of Full trafficking offence exploitation: Forced labour, 85% introduced between January 2004 and November 2008 Period 3 Summary profile of trafficking flows: 15 Full trafficking offence Destination for intraregional and origin for introduced between December 2008 and transregional trafficking. August 2012 5 Emerging trend: Significant region of origin for victims trafficked to the Middle East.

Period 4 129 Full trafficking The available information concerning South Asia is very offence between poor. September 2012 and August 2014 Profile of the victims, forms of 1 exploitation and offenders

Period 5 Detailed information concerning the profile of the Period 1 Full trafficking detected victims of trafficking in persons was only avail- Full trafficking No or partial offence introduced offence introduced trafficking offence between September able from Nepal, where most of the detected victims were before December in September 2016 2014 and August adults. In Bangladesh, with regard to detections by the 2003 3 2016 national police, the vast majority of victims detected in 3 2 2013 were reportedly assisted by their parents, indicating that these victims were children. In India, the large Share of countries in East Asia number of convictions under the Child Labour Prohibi- and the Pacific, by number of tion Act, compared to the victims reported under traffick- trafficking convictions, 2012-2014 ing in persons offences, suggests that child victims may (one year within the period) outnumber adult victims also there. The lack of data means that no conclusive regional information for the 2012-2014 period can be presented. Information from More than 2010-2012 - published in the 2014 Global Report on Traf- Between 50 convictions ficking in Persons - showed that about 40 per cent of the 11 and 50 per year convictions 6 victims detected at that time were children. per year 1 Child trafficking in the region has also been reported by international organizations operating in South Asia. According to these sources, children are being trafficked 10 or fewer for the purpose of bonded labour, and girls, in particular, convictions are being trafficked for domestic servitude and for child per year marriage.130 3 129 South Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Nepal, Paki- stan and Sri Lanka. No Information convictions not available 130 See: CCPR/C/MDV/CO/1, UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Consideration of reports submitted by States parties 2 5 under article 40 of the Covenant: Concluding observations adopted by the Human Rights Committee at its 105th session, 9-27 July 2012, 31 August 2012, for Maldives; CEDAW/C/PAK/CO/4, UN Con- vention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Women, Concluding observations on the fourth periodic report of Paki- Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than stan, adopted by the Committee at its fifty-fourth session (11 February–1 for the section on patterns and flows. March 2013), 27 March 2013; A/HRC/26/38/Add.1, UN General

109 2016

FIG. 110 Detected victims of trafficking in FIG. 111 Detected victims of trafficking in South Asia, by age, 2010-2012 South Asia, by form of exploitation, 2010-2012

Trafficking for forced

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 60% labour 85%

40%

3 COUNTRIES 4 COUNTRIES

GLOBAL REPORT ON Source: UNODC elaboration of national data.

As there is no recent quantitative information available Trafficking on the types of exploitation, it is not possible to report for sexual the prevalence of the different forms of trafficking in exploitation South Asia during the reporting period. Statistics from 15% previous editions of the Global Report shows that traffick- Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. ing for forced labour is predominant. Trafficking for sexual exploitation has been reported by national authorities, international organizations and non-governmental organi- MAP 18 Origins of trafficking victims zations throughout the region. detected in South Asia, by subregion, 2014 (or most recent) The lack of information also affects the analysis of the profile of the offenders. The only data available refers to Eastern Europe the gender profiles of persons arrested in India under the and Central Asia previous legislation used to prosecute some forms of trafficking for sexual exploitation, the Immoral Traffic Pre- vention Act (ITPA). This data indicates that about 42 per North Africa and cent of the offenders were females. However, the legisla- the Middle East tion underlying this data is partial in terms of the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol standard, and the infor- South mation cannot be considered as conclusive regarding the 96% Asia gender profiles of traffickers in the region. In the case of Pakistan, the persons convicted under the different articles of the criminal code used to convict traffickers, are mostly males. Domestic (within countries) 88% and within the subregion (cross-border) 8% Trafficking flows affecting South Asia Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries Information regarding the citizenships of victims detected in this region is scarce; however, it is sufficient to confirm Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. that flows are primarily local (and regional) also here. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on About 88 per cent of the detected victims were trafficked this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United domestically. This is not surprising as the region comprises Nations. vast countries with high levels of socio-economic inequali- ties, large populations and intense internal migratory flows. Looking at South Asia as a destination of cross-border trafficking, 8 per cent of the victims detected during the Assembly, Human Rights Council, Report of the United Nations Spe- cial Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, reporting period were trafficked between neighbouring Rashida Manjoo, Addendum - Mission to India, 1 April 2014. countries, including victims trafficked from Bangladesh

110 Regional overviews - South Asia III

MAP 19 Destinations of detected trafficking victims from South Asia, by subregion, 2012-2014 (or most recent)

Western Central and and Southern South-Eastern Europe Europe North America

North Africa 6% and the East Asia 9% Middle East and the Pacific South Asia

96%

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Share of victims from South Asia Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries detected at destinations.

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations. and Nepal to India. In addition, some victims from other (mainly from Bangladesh, and to a lesser extent from regions, including Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and India) accounted for approximately 6 per cent of the vic- North Africa and the Middle East, were also detected. tims in 2014 (or most recent).

These trafficking flows were confirmed by repatriation The trafficking flow from South Asia to the Middle East data from countries of origin. Uzbekistan reported that is primarily directed towards the countries of the Gulf some Uzbek citizens had been trafficked to and repatri- Cooperation Council. About 9 per cent of the victims ated from India and Pakistan during the reporting period, detected in the Middle East in 2014 were citizens of South while victims from other countries in Eastern Europe and Asia, and nine countries in the Middle East have detected Central Asia were repatriated from India. The repatriation or repatriated victims from this region. data also confirmed trafficking flows from Africa and the Middle East to South Asia. For instance, Uganda reported Criminalization of trafficking some own citizens trafficked to South Asia, and South in persons Asian countries detected victims from the Middle East. South Asian countries have more recent legislative frame- Looking at South Asia as an origin of cross-border traf- works than other regions. Half of the countries considered ficking in persons, victims from this region have been had an offence that criminalized all aspects listed in the detected in many parts of the world. About 30 countries UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol within five years after reported detections of South Asian trafficking victims the entry into force of the Protocol in December 2003. between 2012 and 2014, including 12 countries in West- Before this date, countries either had no specific traffick- ern and Southern Europe (comprising 2 per cent of the ing legislation, or a situation where cases of trafficking in victims detected there). Victims from Bangladesh and persons could be prosecuted under a combination of other India were detected in four countries in South America; offences. and the United States of America detected victims from all the South Asian countries considered. In addition, vic- In recent years, more countries have introduced specific tims from South Asia were detected in or repatriated from offences of trafficking in persons with a definition of the East Asia and the Pacific, where South Asian victims crime in line with the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol

111 2016

definition. In 2013, India passed the Criminal Law tries. In addition, few countries have detected significant (Amendment) Ordinance, which includes a section numbers of cases, and when cases were reported, the (370A) that criminalizes trafficking in persons as defined details were not always available. As a consequence, the by the Protocol. The previously used Immoral Traffic Pre- basis for analysis in this region is limited. vention Act is still used to prosecute some forms of traf- TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS ficking for sexual exploitation. Some countries, including Profile of the victims Afghanistan and Maldives, criminalize all forms of The majority of the detected victims in Sub-Saharan exploitation included in the Protocol; however, the ‘acts’ Africa are children. Nearly two thirds of the approximately and ‘means’ are different from those of the Protocol. In 5,500 victims detected in this region between 2012 and the case of Pakistan, a combination of different offences 2014 were underage. African countries report more boys are used to prosecute different forms of exploitation. than girls among the detected trafficking victims. There were no convictions for trafficking in persons in GLOBAL REPORT ON Maldives and Sri Lanka during the reporting period. Ban- FIG. 112 Detected victims of trafficking in gladesh reported between 10 and 15 convictions in the Sub-Saharan Africa, by age and sex, first instance per year between 2012 and 2014, while 2014 (or most recent) Nepal had between 50 and 80. For the other countries in the region, information was either not available, or referred to a range of offences that could be used to pros- 9% 27% ecute different crimes, including trafficking in persons.

SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 25% 39%

Key findings:

Most frequently detected victim profile: 11 COUNTRIES Boys, 39% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Most frequently detected form of exploitation: Forced labour, 53% The high prevalence of child trafficking can be observed Gender profile of convicted offenders: in different parts of the region. It appears to be more pro- 60% males nounced in West Africa than in Southern Africa. The scarcity of data, however, does not permit conclusive anal- Share of national citizens among offenders: yses for sub-regional patterns. 89% Among the child victims, boys are more frequently Summary profile of trafficking flows: detected than girls. This is connected with the prevalent Destination for intraregional and origin for forms of exploitation in this part of the world, which transregional trafficking. include trafficking for forced labour and child soldiers. Emerging trend: Significant region of origin for For adult victims, trafficking of women is more prevalent transregional trafficking. than trafficking of men. Women victims are mostly The countries covered in this region can be grouped into detected in Nigeria and Uganda, while at the regional West Africa,131 East Africa,132 and Southern Africa.133 level, they accounted for 27 per cent of victims in the year Information on patterns and flows of trafficking in per- 2014 (or most recent). Trafficking of men is limited com- sons was only available from a limited number of coun- pared to trafficking in children and women. Forms of exploitation 131 West Africa: Benin, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Central African Repub- lic, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, More than half of the 2,580 victims detected in Sub- Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. Saharan Africa whose form of exploitation was reported 132 East Africa: Burundi, Comoros, Kenya, Mauritius, Rwanda, Sey- were trafficked for forced labour. Among the types of chelles and Uganda. 133 Southern Africa: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lesotho, Mada- forced labour, trafficking for domestic servitude was fre- gascar, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland and Zambia. quently reported. This form of trafficking affects children

112 Regional overviews - Sub-Saharan Africa III

FIG. 113 Detected victims of trafficking in FIG. 114 Forms of exploitation among persons, selected countries, by age, detected victims of trafficking in 2012-2014 Sub-Saharan Africa, 2014 (or most recent) 100% 90% Trafficking for 80% 76% 58% 52% 53% 37% 17% forced labour 70% 60% 53% 50% 40% 30% 20% 5 COUNTRIES 10% 0% 24% 42% 48% 47% 63% 83% Nigeria Guinea Uganda Lesotho Trafficking Trafficking Mauritius Swaziland for sexual for other exploitation purposes 29% 18% Adults Children

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. of both genders. For example, in Benin, it is reported the and post-conflict countries,136 United Nations peacekeep- phenomenon of ‘vidomégon’ children. Traditionally, these ing operations, such as MONUSCO in the Democratic children were placed in families who were responsible for Republic of the Congo, have reported the exploitation of their care and education, but many of them end up out children for use as porters, cooks and sex slaves.137 of school and exploited at markets, in street trading and The use of children as combatants takes place in some in domestic work.134 Similar situations are reported conflict and post-conflict countries of the region. The throughout West Africa, as well as in the Congo and the number of identified victims is significant. The 2014 edi- Great Lakes area. tion of the Global Report discussed the trafficking of chil- Trafficking of children for exploitation in the fishing dren in conflict areas such as the Central African Republic industry has been documented by different actors in many and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.138 Similar Sub-Saharan countries, from West Africa to the Great trafficking issues have been noted in post-conflict coun- Lakes, and on the African islands. Trafficking for exploi- tries, such as Rwanda, where the Committee on the Rights tation in agriculture has been reported by various national of the Child reported that armed groups operating in the and international authorities, including exploitation in eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo the cocoa and cotton plantations of West Africa. Traffick- recruited Rwandan children, including refugee children, ing in the mining sector and exploitation of children in for use as child soldiers.139 quarries has also been widely reported.135 In several conflict For the purpose of the Global Report, trafficking in children as armed combatants is included as an ‘other’ form 134 See, for example, A/HRC/25/48/Add.3, UN General Assembly, Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, Najat Maalla M’jid, 136 See also Chapter 2: Human trafficking, migration and conflict. Addendum – Mission to Benin, 5 March 2014. 137 See, for example, MONUSCO, Invisible survivors: girls in armed 135 See, for example, Commission Nationale Independante des Droits groups in the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 2009 to 2015, 25 de l’Homme (2014). Etude Sur l’exploitation et le traffic des enfants au November 2015. Burundi; Cameroon National Commission on Human Rights and Freedom, Report on the State of Human Rights in Cameroon 2013; A/ 138 See p. 42, UNODC, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2014 HRC/25/73, UN General Assembly, Human Rights Council, Report (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.14.V.10). of the Independent Expert on the situation of human rights in Côte 139 See CRC/C/OPAC/RWA/CO/1, UN Convention on the Rights of d’Ivoire, Doudou Diéne, 13 January 2014; A/HRC/24/43/Add.2, the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child, Concluding obser- UN General Assembly, Human Rights Council, Report of the Special vations on the initial report of Rwanda submitted under article 8 of the Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and Optional Protocol to the Convention on the involvement of children in consequences, Gulnara Shahinian, Mission to Madagascar (10 to 19 armed conflict, adopted by the Committee at its sixty-third session (27 December 2012). May-14 June 2013), 8 July 2013.

113 2016

of trafficking. This broad category also includes forced FIG. 115 Persons investigated for trafficking marriage, which is relatively widely reported in the region, in persons in Sub-Saharan Africa, by in both West and East Africa. Trafficking for rituals, for sex, 2014 (or most recent) the commission of crime and mixed forms of exploitation were also reported in Sub-Saharan Africa during the TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS reporting period. 50% 50% Trafficking for the purpose of begging is also widely documented. Many cases occur either in the context of religious schools, like the phenomenon of the talibe, children who are forced to beg by their teachers or in the street. Overall, 18 per cent of victims in Sub-Saharan Africa were trafficked for ‘other’ purposes, which is a large share in a 5 COUNTRIES GLOBAL REPORT ON global perspective. Persons prosecuted for trafficking Trafficking for sexual exploitation is reported throughout in persons in Sub-Saharan Africa, the region, either with regard to sexual slavery in the con- by sex, 2014 (or most recent) text of conflict, or in trafficking for the prostitution of others, which mainly occurs in urban centres and in tourist areas. About 29 per cent of the victims detected in this region between 2012 and 2014 were trafficked for sexual 62% 38% exploitation. Profile of the offenders From the limited information available, the global pattern of a prominent female role in the trafficking process seems to apply also in this region. About half of the approxi- 6 COUNTRIES mately 200 convicted traffickers whose gender was reported between 2012 and 2014 were females. Data from Persons convicted of trafficking Nigeria was significant in this respect, given that this coun- in persons in Sub-Saharan Africa, try convicted more traffickers than any other country in by sex, 2014 (or most recent) the region during the reporting period. The gender profiles of offenders in countries with fewer convictions, such as Guinea, Mauritius and South Africa, were similar. 60% 40% This pattern is also reflected in the gender profiles of persons who were prosecuted for trafficking in persons. Out of the about 400 people who were prosecuted in Sub- Saharan Africa between 2012 and 2014 whose gender was known, more than 40 per cent were females. About 1,300 persons were investigated for trafficking in persons in the region during the reporting period, with females account- 5 COUNTRIES ing for about half. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. The vast majority of the traffickers in this region are citizens of the country where they were convicted. A limited Trafficking flows into number of traffickers were citizens of other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa; usually convicted of trafficking fellow citizens into other African countries. Similarly, the East Trafficking flows into the countries of Sub-Saharan Africa Asians convicted in this region were often exploiting vic- are mainly domestic. Only a few countries report victims tims from their own countries in Southern Africa. With that have been trafficked from other countries, and even regard to Middle Eastern traffickers, the few detected cases fewer detect victims from other regions. About 2,850 vic- involve victims trafficked from North Africa and the tims whose citizenship was reported were detected between Middle East for exploitation in Sub-Saharan Africa. 2012 and 2014, and about 83 per cent of them were traf-

114 Regional overviews - Sub-Saharan Africa III

FIG. 116 Share of offenders convicted in FIG. 117 Detected victims of trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa, by their area persons in Sub-Saharan Africa, by of citizenship, 2014 (or most recent) citizenship, 2014 (or most recent)

National Domestic offenders trafficking 89% 83%

9 COUNTRIES 10 COUNTRIES

Sub-Saharan Sub-Saharan Africa North Africa East Asia North Africa East Asia Africa - cross and the and the 8% and the and the border Middle East Pacific Middle East Pacific 15% 2% 1% 1% 1%

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. ficked domestically. Of the 32 different citizenships FIG. 118 Shares of detected trafficking flows among trafficking victims, only 12 were from countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, by geographi- outside of Sub-Saharan Africa. cal distance,* 2014 (or most recent) Victims are normally trafficked from rural to urban areas, Short as is the case of children trafficked for different forms of distance domestic servitude or for use as vendors at street markets. 90% Children trafficked into the fishing, agricultural or mining sectors, or for sexual exploitation, largely come from poorer areas of the country. They are then exploited in locations with relevant economic activity, such as large quarries, coasts or lakes, tourist areas and similar settings. Although domestic trafficking is most prevalent, there is significant trafficking between neighbouring countries, Long Medium and also between countries in the region that do not share distance distance a border. In West Africa, for instance, victims from Benin, 1% 9% Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali and Niger were detected in neighbouring Nigeria, where victims from other West * Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national African countries, such as Côte d’Ivoire and Togo were borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows are between two countries that do not share a border and with the also found. At the same time, Nigerian victims were border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows con- detected or repatriated from the very same countries, nect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 revealing criss-crossing patterns of trafficking in persons kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. across borders, probably related to ethno-linguistic and/ Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. or tribal ties, and influenced by rural-urban and economic activity factors (as for domestic trafficking). Republic of the Congo, Kenya and South Sudan. Uganda Similarly, in East Africa, Ugandan victims were repatri- detected victims from Burundi, Rwanda, Somalia and the ated from the neighbouring countries of the Democratic United Republic of Tanzania.

115 2016

In Southern Africa, the trafficking flows appear somewhat About 13 per cent of the victims detected in North Africa more diverse and transnational. Victims detected in South and the Middle East between 2012 and 2014 were from Africa, for instance, are trafficked from different parts of Sub-Saharan Africa. The vast majority of these victims Sub-Saharan Africa, including West and East Africa. South were from East Africa, mainly from the Horn of Africa. Africa and other Southern African countries also detect In addition, some 2 per cent of the victims detected in TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS victims from other parts of the world, namely East Asia, North America were citizens of countries in Sub-Saharan South Asia and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Europe. Africa; almost equally distributed between East and West Africans. Trafficking flows out of Sub-Saharan Africa The repatriation data gives more details about the trafficking flows out of Sub-Saharan Africa. For one, East In addition to the large number of domestic and intrare- Africans were not the only victims from this region that gional flows, this region is an origin for transregional traf- were trafficked to the Middle East during the 2012-2014 GLOBAL REPORT ON ficking flows. Victims from Sub-Saharan Africa have been period. Nigerian authorities reported that some 130 Nige- detected in or repatriated from about 55 countries outside rian citizens were trafficked to the countries of the Gulf the region, including some 20 countries in Western and Cooperation Council. Moreover, there is also a trafficking Southern Europe. The majority of these victims were West flow that runs from West Africa to North Africa; a flow Africans. About 3 per cent of the victims detected in West- that may be underreported, as North African countries ern and Southern Europe were citizens of East African do not report many cases of trafficking in persons. Finally, countries, which may indicate an increasing trafficking the repatriation data also shows a trafficking flow from flow from this part of world - especially from the Horn Sub-Saharan Africa to South-East Asia. During the 2012- of Africa - towards Europe. A limited number of victims 2014 period, about 60 victims from East and West Africa were trafficked from Southern Africa to Europe. were repatriated from South-East Asian countries, and 40 from South Asian countries. Another relatively prominent trafficking flow originating from Sub-Saharan Africa was bound for the Middle East.

MAP 20 Destinations of detected trafficking victims from Sub-Saharan Africa, by subregion, 2012-2014

Eastern Europe and Central Asia 16% Central and Western and South-Eastern North Southern Europe Europe America

East Asia North Africa South and the Pacific and the Asia Middle East 13%

Sub-Saharan Africa 99%

Flows: detected victims in destination countries

Share of victims from Sub-Saharan Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries Africa detected at destinations. Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

116 Regional overviews - Sub-Saharan Africa III

FIG. 119 Share and number of countries in Criminalization of trafficking Sub-Saharan Africa with a specific in persons offence on trafficking in persons that criminalizes all forms listed Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa generally have recent in the UN Protocol, by period of introduction of the offence legislative frameworks for trafficking in persons. Among the countries covered, only two countries criminalized all or most aspects included in the UN Trafficking in Persons Period 3 Period 4 Protocol before the time of entry into force of the Proto- Full trafficking offence Full trafficking offence introduced between between September col. At that time, many countries in this region either only December 2008 and 2012 and August 2014 criminalized child trafficking or prosecuted trafficking August 2012 5 cases under other offences. 13 A first wave of legislative amendments were initiated by Period 5 the Anglophone countries in West Africa in the five years Full trafficking after the entry into force of the Protocol in 2003. Some offence introduced between countries in West Africa still only criminalize trafficking September 2014 in children or trafficking for sexual exploitation, however, and August 2016 and a few countries do not criminalize any aspects of traf- 2 ficking in persons. Mozambique and the United Republic of Tanzania also No or partial trafficking offence introduced the offence of trafficking in persons by the end Period 2 in September 2016 of 2008. The other countries in Southern Africa enacted Full trafficking Period 1 12 offences against trafficking in persons recently. With some offence introduced Full trafficking exceptions, the countries have by now adopted legislation between January offence introduced largely in line with the definition of trafficking contained 2004 and November before December 2008 2003 in the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol. Similar pat- 9 2 terns were seen in East Africa, where by the end of 2012, many countries had introduced or amended their trafficking in persons legislation. Share of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, by number of trafficking Considering that much of the trafficking legislation in the convictions, 2012-2014 (one year region is recent, it is not surprising that the number of within the period) convictions is very low. About 400 convictions were recorded in the region during the 2012-2014 period; 10 or fewer mostly from countries in West Africa. A few countries had convictions more than ten convictions per year; however, among these, per year 10 only Nigeria criminalized trafficking in persons in line with the Protocol definition. The other countries reported Between more convictions for offences considering only certain 11 and 50 aspects of trafficking. convictions per year Regarding the criminal justice process, on average, 36 per 5 cent of the persons investigated in the region were prosecuted, and out of these, 33 per cent were convicted in More than 50 convictions the court of first instance. Overall, 10 per cent of the per year number of persons investigated were convicted. 1 No Information convictions not available 9 5

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than for the section on patterns and flows.

117 2016

NORTH AFRICA AND FIG. 120 Detected victims of trafficking in North Africa and the Middle East, by THE MIDDLE EAST age and sex, 2014 (or most recent) Key findings TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

Most frequently detected victim profile: Women, 38% 34% 38% Most frequently detected form of exploitation: Forced labour, 44% 13% 15% Gender profile of convicted offenders: 75% males

GLOBAL REPORT ON Share of national citizens among offenders: 8 COUNTRIES 3% Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Summary profile of trafficking flows: Destination for transregional trafficking (Middle FIG. 121 Forms of exploitation among East). Origin for domestic and intraregional detected victims of trafficking in trafficking (North Africa). North Africa and the Middle East, 2014 (or most recent) Emerging issue: Conflict and persecution-driven trafficking along some migration routes. Trafficking Trafficking for sexual for forced This region140 is extremely diverse from a socio-economic exploitation labour point of view. It includes some of the most affluent coun- 39% 44% tries in the world - those of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) - and the much poorer countries of North Africa. The region also includes countries currently involved in 8 COUNTRIES severe conflicts, which could be contributing to the general lack of data on trafficking in persons here. Trafficking for Profile of the victims organ removal 3% There are different patterns within the region with regard Trafficking to the profiles of detected victims, but the available infor- for other purposes mation is too scarce to present the region’s constituent 14% areas separately. At the regional level, most victims are Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. adults, with somewhat more women than men. But while the GCC countries detect very few child victims and a large share of men, in North Africa, children are more economic sectors, including in domestic servitude, which frequently detected than adults. Both areas detect signifi- mainly affects women. cant shares of women. Trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation is wide- Forms of exploitation spread throughout the region, comprising around 39 per cent of the detected victims. Bahrain reported different In North Africa and the Middle East, trafficking for forced court cases of Eastern European, North African and labour is more frequently detected than trafficking for South-East Asian women who were promised employment sexual exploitation. Nearly half of the victims in this in the GCC countries, usually by traffickers from their region were trafficked for the purpose of forced labour. own country. Instead, they ended up being sexually Victims were trafficked for forced labour in a range of exploited in Bahrain.141 Trafficking for other purposes,

140 North Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia. Middle 141 Cases provided by Bahrain, which concluded with convictions by the East: Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Yemen. Countries of the Gulf First (two cases) or Third (one case) High Criminal Courts, with Cooperation Council (GCC): Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and the sentences of about 10 years of imprisonment plus permanent deporta- United Arab Emirates. tion for the foreign offenders.

118 Regional overviews - North Africa and the Middle East III especially for begging, was also widely reported, mainly FIG. 122 Persons investigated for trafficking from North Africa. in persons in North Africa and the Middle East, by sex, 2014 (or most Profile of the offenders recent)

The prevalence of female offenders in trafficking activities in North Africa and the Middle East seems to be lower than in other regions. Only about 25 per cent of the 480 74% 26% persons investigated in the region were female. Similar or somewhat smaller shares were reported for prosecutions and convictions. The relatively low share of female participation in trafficking in persons in this region may be explained by the high prevalence of trafficking for forced labour, and espe- 7 COUNTRIES cially by the predominance of trafficking of men. Female Persons prosecuted for trafficking traffickers tend to be more involved in the recruitment of in persons in North Africa and the women and girls, especially for sexual exploitation. Middle East, by sex, 2014 (or most recent) The citizenships of convicted offenders were only reported by some Gulf Cooperation Council countries, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Most of the persons investigated or convicted in these 80% 20% countries were foreigners; mainly from South and East Asia. A limited number of citizens of Eastern European and Central Asian countries were also convicted. The offenders’ citizenships were connected with those of the victims. The available information is too limited to draw solid regional conclusions, however. 4 COUNTRIES Trafficking flows into North Africa and the Middle East Persons convicted of trafficking in persons in North Africa and the Information was available for countries in the Middle Middle East, by sex, 2014 (or most East, as well as from North Africa. These two areas see recent) different trafficking flows. The Middle East, especially the GCC countries, is a globally affluent area and, like West- ern and Southern Europe and North America, is a signifi- 75% 25% cant destination for transnational trafficking in persons. About 48 different citizenships were reported among victims of trafficking detected there; 35 from countries in regions outside North Africa and the Middle East. Information concerning the citizenships of victims in North Africa is derived from detection and repatriation 7 COUNTRIES data. This region is also a destination of cross-border trafficking, but domestic trafficking is much more prevalent Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. than in other parts of the broader region. nificant numbers; particularly victims from the Horn of Most of the victims detected across the region were foreign Africa. In addition, Nigeria reported that Nigerian victims citizens of other countries in North Africa and the Middle had been repatriated from the Middle East, as well as from East, accounting for about 37 per cent of the victims North Africa. During the same period, Uganda reported detected in 2014 (or most recent). that some Ugandan citizens had been repatriated from the Citizens from Sub-Saharan Africa were detected in sig- Middle East.

119 2016

FIG. 123 Share of offenders in selected the Middle East, but more commonly detected in North Gulf Cooperation Council countries, Africa. by their area of citizenship, 2014 (or most recent) Most of the trafficking in this region occurs between coun- Other regions tries that are more than 3,500 kilometres apart, which is

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS 91% relatively unusual. These flows include, for instance, vic-

tims trafficked from most North African countries to the GCC countries, and from East Asia to the Middle East. Most of the trafficking from South Asia and Sub-Saharan 4 COUNTRIES Africa, however, is included in the medium-distance trafficking flows. Trafficking flows out of North Africa GLOBAL REPORT ON and the Middle East

This region is also an origin for cross-border trafficking. National North Africa and offenders the Middle East Some 30 countries have detected victims from North 3% 6% Africa and the Middle East; mainly flows within the region. However, Western and Southern Europe is also a Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. destination, with victims from North Africa and the Middle East accounting for about 2 per cent of the victims South Asians, mainly from Bangladesh, Nepal and Paki- detected there. Countries in the Americas and Asia also stan, accounted for about 9 per cent of the victims sporadically detect victims from North Africa and the detected in the Middle East. Victims from East Asia were Middle East. Among the most frequently detected victims also detected, comprising a similar share of the total. Most in the destination areas indicated above are victims from of these victims were citizens of Indonesia, the Philippines the countries of the Maghreb, as well as from Iraq and the and Thailand. Domestic trafficking is rarely detected in Syrian Arab Republic.

MAP 21 Origins of trafficking victims detected in North Africa and the Middle East, by subregion, 2014 (or most recent)

Eastern Europe and Central Asia Domestic (within countries) 28% and within the subregion (cross-border) 37% 9% East Asia North Africa and the Pacific 65% and the South Central America Middle East Asia 9% and the Caribbean 13%

Sub-Saharan Africa

Flows: detected victims in destination countries Flows: less than 5% of detected victims in destination countries Flows: victims repatriated from destination countries

Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

120 Regional overviews - North Africa and the Middle East III

FIG. 124 Shares of detected trafficking flows FIG. 125 Share and number of countries in in North Africa and the Middle East, North Africa and the Middle East by geographical distance,* 2014 (or with a specific offence on trafficking most recent) in persons that criminalizes all forms listed in the UN Protocol, by period Medium Long of introduction of the offence distance distance 21% 49% Period 3 Full trafficking offence introduced between December 2008 and August 2012 6 Period 4 Full trafficking offence between September 2012 and August 2014 2 Period 5 Short distance Full trafficking offence introduced 30% Period 2 between September Full trafficking 2014 and August * Short-distance trafficking flows see victims trafficked within national offence introduced 2016 borders or between neighbouring countries; medium-distance flows No or partial are between two countries that do not share a border and with the between January trafficking offence 2 border of the origin country less than 3,500 kilometres away from the 2004 and in September 2016 closest border of the destination country; and long-distance flows con- November 2008 nect countries in which the border of the origin is farther than 3,500 2 kilometres away from the closest border of the destination. 4 Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. Share of countries in North Africa and the Middle East, by number of Criminalization of trafficking trafficking convictions, 2012-2014 (one year within the period) in persons

All the countries in this region that have legislation on 10 or fewer Between trafficking in persons introduced it after the entry into convictions 11 and 50 force of the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol. More per year convictions than half of the countries did so after 2008. With some 3 per year exceptions, countries in the region did not previously con- 4 sider trafficking in persons as an offence, and a few countries criminalized either only child trafficking or trafficking for sexual exploitation. Among those with either partial or no legislation, Libya does not have a specific trafficking in persons offence, and More than the ongoing conflict there makes future improvements No 50 convictions unlikely, at least in the short term. Similarly, in Yemen, a convictions per year draft law was under preparation before the eruption of 2 Information 1 conflict. The current criminal code in Yemen does not not available include a trafficking in persons offence. 1 With regard to the criminal justice process, on average, Source: UNODC elaboration of national data. about 34 per cent of the number of persons investigated Note: For the criminalization analysis, more countries are covered than in the region receive convictions in the first court instance. for the section on patterns and flows. This is above the global average.

121