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Download The The Leftovers of Planet Formation: Small Body Populations of Our Solar System and Exoplanet Systems by Samantha Lawler B.S., California Institute of Technology, 2005 M.A., Wesleyan University, 2009 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES (Astronomy) The University Of British Columbia (Vancouver) July 2013 c Samantha Lawler, 2013 Abstract The small body populations within a planetary system give information about the planet formation and migration history of the system. In our Solar System, we study these bodies (asteroids, comets, and trans-Neptunian objects), by directly observing them in reflected light. In other solar systems, dust traces the position of the planetesimal belts that produce it, and is observed as an excess above the stellar flux in the infrared. The dust is visible and not the planetesimals because of the much greater cross-sectional surface area of a swarm of dust particles. In this thesis, both leftover large planetesimals in our Solar System and dust around other stars are investigated. Data from the Canada-France Ecliptic Plane Survey (CFEPS) are used to mea- sure the absolute populations of trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) in mean-motion resonances with Neptune, as well as constrain the internal orbital element dis- tributions. Detection biases play a critical role because phase relationships with Neptune make object discovery more likely at certain longitudes. The plutinos (objects in the 3:2 resonance) are given particular attention because the presence of the secular Kozai resonance within the mean-motion resonance causes different detection biases that need to be accounted for to properly debias surveys that in- clude detections of plutinos. Because the TNOs that are trapped in mean-motion resonances with Neptune were likely emplaced there during planet migration late in the giant planet formation process, the structure within and relative populations of the resonances should be a diagnostic of the timescale and method of giant planet migration. ii Exoplanet systems that host several rocky planets are those that did not expe- rience giant planet migration, and thus are likely to host planetesimal belts which should be detectable as debris disks. The Kepler Mission has detected a host of such systems, and we use data from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) Mission to search for debris disks around these stars. Though we tenta- tively detect more excesses toward these stars than would be expected, contami- nation from warm dust in the Milky Way Galaxy makes detection unreliable for these systems, and will have to await future infrared space telescopes. iii Preface The text of this dissertation includes modified reprints of previously published material as listed below. Chapter 2 (published): B. Gladman, S. M. Lawler, J.-M. Petit, J. Kavelaars, R. L. Jones, J. Wm. • Parker, C. Van Laerhoven, P. Nicholson, P. Rosselot, A. Bieryla, and M. L. N. Ashby, The Resonant Trans-Neptunian Populations, AJ 144, 23 (2012). This paper presents an analysis of resonant TNOs detected in a large (five- year) observational program by Gladman et al. I contributed to this project by performing all of the modelling that was required to debias the observations and regain the orbital element distributions and true populations for the TNOs that were resonant. This involved planning and running many hundreds of simulations with varying parameters, comparing the resulting models to observed resonant objects, plotting the results, and doing statistical tests. The telescope time was originally proposed for by B. Gladman, J.-M. Petit, and J. Kavelaars. The observations for the survey were performed at the Canada-France-Hawaii Tele- scope during 2003-2008 by B. Gladman, J.-M. Petit, J. Kavelaars, R. L. Jones, J. Wm. Parker, and P. Nicholson. These observations were analyzed and orbits were fit by B. Gladman, R. L. Jones, and C. Van Laerhoven. In addition to writing my own code to analyze and display the results, I utilized the Survey Simulator code originally written by J.-M. Petit, J. Kavelaars, and B. Gladman. To test how iv well the models fit the data, I modified statistical analysis code originally written by R. L. Jones. The bulk of the paper was written by B. Gladman, with editing by myself, J.-M. Petit, and J. Kavelaars. Section 2.3 and all of the figure captions were written by me, and all of the figures were made by me. Chapter 3 (published): S. M. Lawler and B. Gladman, Plutino Detection Biases, Including the • Kozai Resonance, AJ 146, 6 (2013). I wrote the entire text, performed all of the modelling and simulated surveys, and made all of the figures. B. Gladman provided commentary, including the initial idea to separate this project from the larger resonant paper (Chapter 2). B. Gladman also helped my understanding of the complicated Kozai effect and dynamical disturbing function, as well as proofreading and editing. Chapter 4 (published): S. M. Lawler and B. Gladman, Debris Disks in Kepler Exoplanet Systems, • ApJ 752, 53 (2012) . I had the idea for and formulated the project, wrote the entire text, wrote all of the code for analysis, and made all of the figures. B. Gladman provided understanding of the dynamical background, timescales, and interpretation of results, as well as providing feedback and proofreading. Chapter 5 (submitted): S. M. Lawler and B. Gladman, Galactic Dust Limits Searches for Asteroid • Belts in Kepler Exoplanet Systems, submitted July 2013. This was a follow-up to Chapter 4, using the slightly modified code from the first project with an expanded WISE dataset and more Kepler exoplanet hosts, as well as dealing with the fact that another paper had been published calling in v to question all of the debris disks claimed in Chapter 4. B. Gladman provided extensive guidance and advice on how to proceed, as well as many rounds of editing and proofreading. vi Table of Contents Abstract.................................... ii Preface .................................... iv TableofContents .............................. vii ListofTables................................. xii ListofFigures ................................ xiii Glossary ...................................xvii Acknowledgments .............................. xxi Dedication ..................................xxii 1 Introduction ............................... 1 1.1 ABriefOverviewofPlanetFormation . 3 1.2 The Kuiper Belt: Our Solar System’s Outer Planetesimal Belt... 7 1.2.1 DiscoveryHistory. 8 1.2.2 TNOClassification . 10 1.2.3 GiantPlanetMigrationinourSolarSystem . 14 1.3 Debris Disks: Indirect Measurement of Extrasolar Planetesimal Belts................................. 16 vii 1.3.1 DebrisDiskObservations. 16 1.3.2 The Evolution of a Protoplanetary Disk into a Debris Disk 20 1.3.3 RemovalandReplenishmentofDust . 22 1.3.4 OurSolarSystemasaDebrisDisk . 26 1.4 ARelationshipBetweenPlanetsandDebrisDisks? . .. 30 1.4.1 DebrisDisksas aMarkerforDynamicalStability? . 32 1.5 DatasetsUsedinthisThesis. 33 1.5.1 SolarSystemObservations . 33 1.5.2 ExtrasolarObservations. 39 1.6 ThesisOutline............................ 40 2 The Resonant Trans-Neptunian Populations . 42 2.1 Introduction ............................. 42 2.1.1 ResonanceDynamics . 44 2.2 ResonantCFEPSObjects . 48 2.3 CFEPS SurveySimulationofaResonant Population . .. 54 2.3.1 Building the Simulated Populations for Each Resonance . 55 2.3.2 Simulatingthe5:2,n:3,andn:4Populations . 56 2.3.3 SimulatingthePlutinoPopulation . 58 2.3.4 Simulatingthen:1Populations . 62 2.4 ThePlutinos(3:2Resonators). 64 2.4.1 ThePlutinoInclinationDistribution . 66 2.4.2 ThePlutinoKozaiSubcomponent . 69 2.4.3 ThePlutino Size and Eccentricity Distribution . .. 70 2.4.4 PlutinoLibrationAmplitudes. 75 2.5 ThePopulationofPlutinos . 76 2.6 The5:2Resonance ......................... 77 2.7 Then:3Resonances......................... 81 2.7.1 The4:3Resonance . 82 2.7.2 The5:3Resonance . 83 2.7.3 The7:3Resonance . 84 viii 2.8 Then:4Resonances......................... 85 2.8.1 The5:4Resonance . 85 2.8.2 The7:4Resonance . 85 2.9 Then:1Resonances......................... 86 2.9.1 TheTwotinos ........................ 87 2.9.2 The3:1Resonance . 91 2.9.3 The5:1Resonance . 92 2.10 ResonanceswithNoCFEPSDetections . 93 2.10.1 TheNeptuneTrojans . 93 2.10.2 The4:1Resonance . 95 2.11 CFEPSComparisontoaCosmogonicModel. 96 2.12 ResonantPopulations . 99 2.13Discussion..............................105 3 Detection Biases for the Plutinos, Including the Kozai Resonance . 110 3.1 Introduction .............................110 3.2 ResonantDynamics . 114 3.3 Non-KozaiPlutinos . 116 3.3.1 0◦ LibrationAmplitudeToyModel . 116 3.3.2 95◦ LibrationAmplitudeToyModel . 116 3.3.3 ARealisticPlutinoDistribution . 118 3.4 KozaiPlutinoDynamics . 121 3.4.1 On-SkyDetectionBiasesforKozaiPlutinos . 124 3.5 SimulatingthePlutinos . 127 3.5.1 Non-KozaiPlutinos . 129 3.5.2 KozaiPlutinos. 130 3.6 On-SkyBiases............................131 3.6.1 EclipticLatitudeDistributionofDetections . 133 3.6.2 fkoz On-Sky.........................134 3.6.3 SizeDistributionEffects . 135 3.6.4 ExampleSimulatedSurveys . 135 ix 3.7 ComparisonwithPreviousLiterature . 141 3.7.1 The Kozai Fraction fkoz ...................141 3.7.2 DistributionofKozaiParameters . 145 3.8 Conclusion .............................148 4 DebrisDisksinKeplerExoplanetSystems. 149 4.1 Introduction .............................149 4.2 WISEData .............................151 4.2.1 DefiningOurSample . 151 4.2.2 FindingExcessesintheWISEData
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