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Working equids in refugee camps

Citation for published version: Pollock, P 2018, 'Working equids in refugee camps', Forced Migration Review.

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Download date: 06. Oct. 2021 Issue 58 June 2018

Economies rights and access to work

plus mini-features on: refugee-led social protection humans and animals in refugee camps Forced Migration Review (FMR) provides a forum for the From the editors regular exchange of practical hen people are forced by conflict or other circumstances to leave their experience, information and ideas Whomes, they usually also leave behind their means of economic activity and between researchers, refugees subsistence. In their new location, they may not be able, or permitted, to work and internally displaced people, to support themselves. This has wide-ranging implications not only for people’s and those who work with them. immediate earning capacity and well-being but also for community relations, It is published in English, Arabic, economic development and the capacity of future generations to lead fulfilling Spanish and French by the lives. In our main feature on Economies, authors explore the complex interactions Refugee Studies Centre of the of the constraints and opportunities involved, drawing on case-studies from Oxford Department of International around the world and highlighting the roles of new actors, new technologies and Development, University of Oxford. new – or renewed – approaches. Staff We are also pleased to include two ‘mini-features’ in this FMR, one on Refugee- Marion Couldrey & led social protection and one on Humans and animals in refugee camps. (See Jenny Peebles (Editors) the back cover if you are interested in collaborating with FMR on a mini-feature Maureen Schoenfeld (Finance – or a full feature.) and Promotion Assistant) Sharon Ellis (Assistant) We would like to thank Karen Jacobsen (Tufts University) and Khalid Koser (Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund) for their assistance Forced Migration Review as advisors to the Economies feature theme. We are also grateful to the following Refugee Studies Centre donors for their support of this issue: ESRC-AHRC (Economic and Social Research Oxford Department of International Council and Arts and Humanities Research Council) Global Challenges Research Development, University of Oxford, Fund, the Global Program on Forced Displacement of the World Bank Group, 3 Mansfield Road, Mercy Corps, UNHCR Division of Resilience and Solutions (Livelihoods Unit) and Oxford OX1 3TB, UK the Wellcome Trust. [email protected] See www.fmreview.org/economies to access the magazine, its accompanying Skype: fmreview ‘digest’ and all individual articles. A podcast of each article is also available. Tel: +44 (0)1865 281700 FMR 58 will be available in English, Arabic, Spanish and French. For printed www.fmreview.org copies, please email us at [email protected]. Disclaimer: Opinions in FMR do not Forthcoming issues (see www.fmreview.org/forthcoming) necessarily reflect the views of the • FMR 59: Twentieth anniversary of the Guiding Principles on Internal Editors, the Refugee Studies Centre Displacement (October 2018) or the University of Oxford. • FMR 60: Education (February 2019) Copyright: FMR is an Open Access Follow us on Facebook or Twitter or sign up for email alerts at publication. For details visit www.fmreview.org/request/alerts. www.fmreview.org/copyright. Marion Couldrey and Jenny Peebles Editors, Forced Migration Review

ISSN 1460-9819 Front cover image: A 27-year-old Burundian refugee and former truck driver in front of his grocery shop, Kashojwa village (Nakivale Designed by: settlement), Uganda. UNHCR/Frederic Noy Art24 www.art24.co.uk Editors’ note: In selecting the cover image, we debated whether Printed by: it was too stereotypical, and if we should instead use an image reflecting new work technologies, or global organisations run by refugees, or validation of refugee qualifications… But in the end, as Oxuniprint no image could reflect all the aspects explored in this issue, we opted for this one: not only a great www.oxuniprint.co.uk photo but one that shows personal initiative in difficult circumstances.

FMR International Advisors Advisors serve in an individual capacity and do not necessarily represent their institutions. Lina Abirafeh Eva Espinar Khalid Koser Kathrine Starup Lebanese American University University of Alicante GCERF Danish Refugee Council Nina M Birkeland Matthew Gibney Erin Mooney Emilie Wiinblad Mathez Norwegian Refugee Council Refugee Studies Centre UN Protection UNHCR Jeff Crisp Rachel Hastie Capacity/ProCap Richard Williams Independent consultant Oxfam Steven Muncy Independent consultant Mark Cutts Lucy W Kiama Community and Family OCHA HIAS Kenya Services International Forced Migration Review issue 58 • www.fmreview.org/economies Economies 45 Quality of work for Syrian refugees in Jordan Maha Kattaa and Meredith Byrne 4 Refugees’ right to work and access to labour markets: constraints, challenges and ways 47 The gig economy in complex refugee situations forward Abigail Hunt, Emma Samman, Dina Mansour-Ille and Roger Zetter and Héloïse Ruaudel Henrieke Max 50 The power of markets: lessons from Uganda 8 Supporting recently resettled refugees in the UK Marwa Belghazi Alison Hemberger, Sasha Muench and Chelsea Purvis 51 Livelihoods programming and its influence on 10 Integrating refugees into the Turkish labour market secondary migration Ximena V Del Carpio, Sirma Demir Seker and Ahmet Richard Mallett, Jessica Hagen-Zanker, Clare Cummings Levent Yener and Nassim Majidi 54 The shortcomings of employment as a durable 14 From refugee to employee: work integration in rural Denmark solution Martin Ledstrup and Marie Larsen Nora Bardelli 16 Integrating refugee doctors into host health-care systems Refugee-led social protection Shahla Namak, Fatin Sahhar, Sarah Kureshi, Fadya El 56 Refugee-led social protection: reconceiving Rayess and Ranit Mishori refugee assistance 19 Refugees’ engagement with host economies in Evan Easton-Calabria and Kate Pincock Uganda 59 Refugee paralegals Naohiko Omata Musenga Tshimankinda Christian 22 Refugees and host communities in the Rwandan 60 Kobciye: empowering Somali refugees in Nairobi labour market Afrah Hassan Özge Bilgili and Craig Loschmann 62 Syrian refugee-led organisations in Berlin 24 The role of rural grocery stores in refugee Jennifer Wood, Evan Easton-Calabria and Yahya Alaous reception 64 Refugee-led education in Indonesia Zachary Whyte, Birgitte Romme Larsen and Mona Thomas Brown Schaldemose 67 Lessons from LGBTIQ refugee-led community- 26 Collaboration with criminal organisations in Colombia: an obstacle to economic recovery based organisations Hester K V Moore Christopher M Hays 29 Syrian economies: a temporary boom? Ahmad Al Ajlan Humans and animals in refugee camps 30 Obstacles to refugees’ self-reliance in Germany 70 Humans and animals in refugee camps Elizabeth Ekren Benjamin Thomas White 32 The new world of work and the need for digital 71 The role of livestock in refugee-host community empowerment relations Miguel Peromingo and Willem Pieterson Charles Hoots 34 Investing in refugees: building human capital 75 Working equids in refugee camps Lili Mottaghi Patrick J Pollock 36 Towards greater visibility and recruitment of 76 Sheltering animals in refugee camps skilled refugees Lara Alshawawreh Leah Nichles and Sayre Nyce 78 Understanding risk in human–animal interactions 37 Validating highly educated refugees’ Sara Owczarczak-Garstecka qualifications 80 Animal and human health in the Sahrawi refugee Katarina Mozetič camps 39 Refugee livelihoods: new actors, new models Giorgia Angeloni and Jennifer Carr Ziad Ayoubi and Regina Saavedra 83 A field study of migration and adversity 42 The macro-economic impacts of Syrian Derek Robertson refugee aid Tobias Schillings

Thank you to all FMR’s donors We are grateful to the following current and recent Refugee Council • Open Society Foundations • Oxfam • donors for their support. Platform on Disaster Displacement (PDD) • RefugePoint • Regional Development and Protection Programme for ADRA International • Better Shelter • CAMMINA (Central the Middle East • Suricatta Systems • Swiss Federal America and Mexico Migration Alliance) • Catholic Relief Department of Foreign Affairs • UN-Habitat • UNHCR Services-USCCB • Danish Refugee Council • Entreculturas • Wellcome Trust • Women’s Refugee Commission • ESRC-AHRC • Global Program on Forced Displacement of the World Bank Group • Government of the Principality of We would also like to thank those who have made Liechtenstein • Happold Foundation • Hunter & Stephanie individual donations. Even small donations help Hunt • IOM • Luxembourg Ministry of Foreign Affairs to keep FMR going, so please consider making a • Mercy Corps • Mohammed Abu-Risha • Norwegian donation: www.fmreview.org/online-giving. 4 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Refugees’ right to work and access to labour markets: constraints, challenges and ways forward Roger Zetter and Héloïse Ruaudel

For refugees, the right to work and access to labour markets are key for becoming self- reliant, building their lives and securing dignity, and allowing them to contribute to their host communities. Host countries need to assess the potential for opening their labour markets to refugees, and enhancing access to decent work.

The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status to labour markets. The study covered 20 of Refugees accords refugees the right to countries, including low- and middle- work1 but many host countries are reluctant income countries that together host the to allow this right. This reluctance reflects majority of the world’s refugees but also varying concerns about labour market upper-income countries. Both signatory distortion and limited capacity to absorb and non-signatory States were included. new labour, the crowding of certain sectors, availability of jobs for citizens, reduction in Frameworks, policies and other factors wages and decline in working conditions. affecting labour market access Host governments may also be swayed by A restrictive approach to the right to work popular opposition to refugee rights to work prevails in most countries, even upper-income and by security concerns about large-scale economies such as the United Kingdom. In refugee populations settling and working. many countries that have received greater Of the 145 States Parties to the 1951 Refugee numbers of refugees, the barriers can be Convention, almost half declare reservations, tougher, such as for Colombian refugees in and even States that grant the right to Venezuela, while a formal prohibition exists work usually impose conditions on access in many countries, such as Bangladesh (for to labour markets. The same limitations Rohingya refugees) and Sudan (for Eritrean apply to many of the 48 States that are not refugees because of their lack of legal status States Parties to the Refugee Convention. in the country). These constraints force For refugees, however, the right to refugees to use irregular pathways both to work and access to labour markets are enter and to work in the country. Even in prerequisites for allowing them to secure countries that adhere to the relevant articles sustainable livelihoods, thereby reducing of the 1951 Refugee Convention, the legal vulnerability, enhancing resilience and entitlement to work for refugees is rarely enabling a dignified life. Acknowledging unconditional. In Iran, for example, refugees this, intergovernmental organisations such can only work in 16 professional categories. as the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) and In general, these protectionist policies the Organisation for Economic Co-operation characterise countries with limited labour and Development (OECD) now promote market capacity, more narrowly based and access to labour markets and the right to work weaker economies, and less resilience to as core elements of development-oriented, economic shocks – such as Chad, Zambia and sustainable refugee programming, especially Pakistan. While in some sense an obvious for those living in protracted displacement. point, this has a bearing on how international A desk study and comparative analysis donors should support wider strategic undertaken in 20162 investigated the role objectives for sustainable development-led and impact of international legal provisions responses in countries where the presence – specifically Articles 17-19 of the 1951 of refugees has a significant impact. Refugee Convention – that provide and There is little consistency in implementing protect refugees’ right to work and access the right to work, and there are significant Economies 5 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

variations between signatory States, for entrepreneurship and ability to accumulate example Italy, UK, Germany and the capital: in Pakistan, refugees cannot hold real United States (US), as well as – perhaps estate or own a business without a Pakistani less surprisingly – between non-signatory partner; in Ecuador and Turkey refugees States, such as Pakistan, Lebanon and have limited access to financial institutions Jordan. Signatory States do not necessarily to obtain loans; and in Zambia there are offer ‘best’ or ‘better’ practice than non- high fees for refugee business start-ups. signatories – demonstrated, for example, Indirect barriers to the right to work take by the leadership shown by Jordan (a other forms. Backlogs in status determination, non-signatory State) in providing a quota in a country like South Africa, slows down of work permits to Syrian refugees as access to formal labour markets, while part of the donor-supported Compact. immigration offices in Venezuela are located A key finding of the study is that in hard-to-access remote border areas. By assessing refugees’ right to work based contrast, the Turkish government now allows simply on a country’s legal and normative Syrian refugees who possess temporary frameworks and its policies towards identity cards and have resided in Turkey refugees is rarely sufficient. Certainly, for six months to apply for work permits. providing refugees with a legal right to Restrictions on the right to work force work is insufficient without corresponding the majority of refugees to work informally. compliance and enforcement mechanisms. This is evident in Bangladesh and Pakistan, where work outside camps is tacitly accepted Additional constraints and mediating despite being illegal, and in countries in factors the Middle East hosting large numbers of Refugees often need a work permit Syrian refugees, where informal economies (usually obtained through a costly and have expanded. In upper-income countries, administratively burdensome process) refugees also work in the informal sector, and/or residence permit in addition to although in smaller numbers. Such work their refugee status, or need a job offer entails significant disadvantages and risks from an employer before they can obtain a – limited livelihood sustainability, marginal work permit – as in Lebanon and Zambia, wages, lack of decent work, and exploitation. for example. In other countries there are Other factors affect access and type of limitations, albeit indirect, on refugees’ work. In Ecuador, Colombian refugees are UNHCR/Rocco Nuri UNHCR/Rocco

A Congolese refugee feeds tilapia at a fish farm collective run jointly by refugees and locals on Lake Rwamunga, western Uganda. 6 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

treated the same as economic migrants, who Integration Plan, adopted in 2012, covers generally experience limited job opportunities language tuition, education provision and poor working conditions. Negative and social and labour market integration gender stereotypes, gender-based social for refugees, aiming to maximise the discrimination and violence against women contribution of refugees to German society. are prevalent in labour markets across our Proactive policies, usually in upper- sample. For instance, female Myanmar income economies, often reflect strict refugees in India are grossly overworked and government expectations for refugees to underpaid; female refugees are harassed in become economically self-sufficient as the workplace in Ecuador and Colombia; soon as possible, as in Germany and the and refugee widows and unmarried women US. However, this may mean that refugees in Uganda may be targeted for abuse by miss out on training opportunities or employers. There is also evidence that the lack are compelled to take work that does of formal employment opportunities and right not reflect their skills and qualifications. to work for adults increases levels of youth Unsurprisingly, accreditation of prior and child labour, such as in Lebanon, with skills and qualifications and opportunities obvious short- and long-term negative effects. to access education, language training A significant implication of all these and skills development can significantly limitations – and others beyond those enhance access to employment for refugees. mentioned here – is that refugees are rarely Countries such as Ecuador, Germany, the able to accumulate sufficient capital or US and Zambia all have procedures to skills either to finance their own legitimate recognise foreign professional diplomas. pathway to self-reliance (and possible The more recent efforts towards enabling integration) or to support their return and refugees to contribute to the economy of host reintegration to their home countries. countries and to achieve greater self-reliance have been triggered by the response towards Tackling the constraints the Syrian ‘crisis’. Once the host countries in There is some evidence that governments, the region and donors realised the protracted international organisations and non- nature of the displacement they attempted to governmental organisations are beginning adopt a coherent response with development to tackle some of these constraints, albeit objectives alongside the humanitarian unsystematically, such as through easing response, as illustrated in the Syrian Regional processes for obtaining work permits, Refugee and Resilience Plan (3RP). Receiving providing incentives for refugees to find significant support from the international employment, recognising qualifications community, countries like Jordan shifted and improving skills training. their policy towards refugees, opening up In Chad and Uganda refugees are access to employment by providing a quota allowed to settle in host communities and of work permits.3 This model is also being some are granted arable land for agricultural tested in other contexts such as Ethiopia production. The International Labour with the creation of a Jobs Compacts, an Organization (ILO), UNHCR and the ambitious endeavour given the poor record of government of Ethiopia are collaborating industrial parks across Africa on job creation.4 on an ‘out-of-camp’ policy which allows Positive attitudes among employers can of some relaxation of restrictions on movement course improve the conditions for decent work and place of residence and eases access to for refugees and can help reduce xenophobia. employment/self-employment in camps and Many employers, however, may be reluctant surrounding host communities. Community- to employ refugees because of lack of clarity based organisations in Kenya provide over the legal provisions allowing refugees fellow refugees with practical assistance to work. In Ecuador, for example, there and language lessons and facilitate links to appears to be confusion among employers labour opportunities. Germany’s National over the varying right to work for refugees Economies 7 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

and for foreign nationals, while the study to promote effective legislation, regulation found that in South Africa refugee documents and compliance. At the same time, national state that they are allowed to work but governments, employers, trade unions and employers do not recognise this entitlement. civil society all share the responsibility to Social capital and ethnic or linguistic promote equality of rights and to counter ties play an important role in access to negative discourse or stereotypes of labour markets and type of work. In Uganda refugees which limit their participation and and Kenya these networks help refugees, integration. These initiatives should also notably Somali refugees, obtain employment include developing a better awareness, among from co-national businesses, while there refugees as well as among judiciary and is some evidence that Somali refugees in regulatory agencies, of refugees’ workplace South Africa find work with South African rights; too often refugees are unaware of Muslim businesses. Common language or frightened to exercise their rights and and culture or marriage may ease access to are poorly protected by the authorities. work; Eritrean refugees from the Tigrinya Improved training, education and ethnic group now in northern Ethiopia have language/skills development are critical a strong advantage over other Eritreans elements for enhancing refugees’ access to in securing employment opportunities. labour markets, and employers and training providers need to design innovative ways Ways forward of promoting and delivering these. Governments, with the support of donors Donors and international and and international actors, should better align intergovernmental organisations should refugee law and practice with national play a more significant role in addressing employment policies. Often, these seem to crises of forced displacement through work in opposite directions. Better coherence introducing policies providing for refugees’ would enhance access to labour markets right to work and access to labour markets, and make the right to work a reality for especially in poorer countries hosting large many more refugees. To this end, better numbers of refugees where labour markets coordination between ministries involved are most constrained. Here the international with refugee/immigration affairs and funding and underwriting of labour market those responsible for labour rights would developments and job promotion should enhance implementation of refugees’ right be buttressed by support for legislation, to work and labour market inclusion, policies and standards for decent work. removing some of the administrative and Roger Zetter [email protected] bureaucratic barriers discussed above. Professor Emeritus of Refugee Studies, University Labour market policies that lead to more of Oxford www.oxford.ac.uk sustainable livelihoods and better economic conditions for refugees (and their hosts) are Héloïse Ruaudel [email protected] essential. Too often the lack of the right to Independent consultant and researcher work or constraints on this right prevent 1. See Articles 17-19 www.refworld.org/docid/3be01b964.html refugees from engaging in decent work in the 2. Zetter R and Ruaudel H (2016)Refugees’ Right to Work and formal sector, leaving them more exposed – in Access to Labor Markets – An Assessment, Part 1, World Bank Global Program on Forced Displacement (GPFD) and the the informal sector – to precarious incomes, Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development the absence of contractual rights, and greater (KNOMAD) Thematic Working Group on Forced Migration risks of exploitative working conditions. http://bit.ly/KNOMAD-Zetter-Ruaudel-2016-1 Employers, employers’ organisations and 3. See articles on the Jordan Compact in FMR 57 www.fmreview.org/syria2018 trade unions can also contribute to proactive 4. Ruaudel H and Morrison-Métois S (2017) ‘Responding to policies that deliver access to labour markets Refugee Crises in Developing Countries, What Can We Learn and decent employment. They can promote From Evaluations’, OECD Working Paper 37 good practice among their membership and http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/ae4362bd-en work with governments and local authorities 8 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Supporting recently resettled refugees in the UK Marwa Belghazi

Organisations supporting recently resettled refugees to find employment should focus on providing them with the tools to navigate the employment market in a sustainable way that leads to their personal development.

Our organisation supports refugee families calls to potential employers is the main who have recently been resettled in the UK. tactic used by our group of adults (initially We help them navigate the welfare system, in the local diaspora, although promised claim relevant benefits and we also set jobs often do not materialise); as this is their up a support plan that takes into account preferred approach, it seemed unrealistic to their objectives in terms of professional suddenly change their approach so we instead development. We accompany adults to their helped them prepare CVs and print enough first appointment at the job centre, where the copies to take on their door-to-door visits. discussion with the centre’s work coaches is about employability and being job-ready. Language as an asset, not an obstacle: When The question for our organisation is always discussing work opportunities for recently about expectations – do we encourage the arrived refugees, we tend to focus on their low people we support to dream big or to lower level of English. But what if the combination their expectations and look for a source of two languages compensates for lack of of steady income? In the first weeks and fluency in English? A refugee’s first language months following resettlement they are could well be an asset in bilingual positions, eager to find a job, to reconnect with that for example as teaching assistants in schools part of their identity as providers for their where there is a need for professionals families. The initial excitement, however, is to liaise with parents and to support the slowly replaced by bitterness and a feeling pupils who speak that same language. of failure as obstacles emerge. From our experience of supporting refugees in their Professional mentoring: We try to find search for employment we present some mentors who have a similar background. This lessons relating to the following areas: allows the refugees to have conversations about their interests and to tell their stories of Continuous support to navigate a new past work to someone who can relate to them. system: We run weekly outreach surgeries Through this relationship they can adapt their where we discuss the frustrations that expectations to the reality of what that job families encounter in their daily life in the entails in the UK (for example, working as a UK. We discuss the importance of work lawyer in a country in the Middle East is not contracts, national insurance and tax systems, the same as in a city such as London in terms minimum wage and living wage, expectations of earnings, working hours and laws). Where versus reality, and personal development. possible, it makes an even greater impact to We respond to doubts and anxieties in a foster peer mentorship between members group conversation environment and also of different families who arrive through the offer individual conversations with the help same resettlement scheme. When there is a of bilingual support workers as we have success story within the community, people found that addressing issues and working are able to feel more inspired by it. And on personal development plans in refugees’ it’s a win-win situation: the peer mentors first languages helps them better assimilate feel empowered by their positive impact on information. In the group environment, newcomers and can tangibly measure how people share their strategies for looking for they have progressed since they themselves work. For example, making door-to-door arrived. For their part, the newly settled Economies 9 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

refugees can project themselves into the incubator to help him develop his idea and future through their interactions with build skills in business administration was their mentors and aim to reach a similar unsuccessful, and the client considered level of independence and initiative. the rejection email from the organisers as a failure. On contacting the organisation Universal vulnerability: For adults who have for feedback, however, they explained spent their lives being independent, providing that the person’s business plan was not for their families and taking on different clear and his level of English insufficient roles in their societies, it is difficult to find for the project but that they were keen to themselves suddenly reliant on other people offer him other options of training within to provide them with support and on agencies their structure. We then discussed those to provide them with means of subsistence. programmes with the client, and how their In this context, it is important to embed the requirements fitted with his ambitions. support provided to refugee families within a framework of universal vulnerability. We Motivating employers: Many of our clients are all vulnerable to differing degrees and seem to be ready to enter the labour market but our vulnerability is situational. Although the market is not ready for them. Taking time we as practitioners act as role models and and employing creativity to attract employers’ respond to the questions and requests of the attention therefore becomes essential. By families we support, we should find ways building on the current momentum around to share reflections with them on our own citizens and organisations interested in vulnerabilities. Doubt and self-consciousness helping refugees we can harness the interest are an inherent part of entering the job of institutions, agencies and individuals market, no matter what our background. and potentially turn them into employers.

Time to heal: It is important to acknowledge Exploring new opportunities: In their that, sometimes, although a person presents attempts to reconstruct their lives, sometimes all the skills necessary to find employment, refugees remain attached to the positions they they might not be ready to enter the labour occupied in their home countries and hope market. Traumas endured and the upheaval to be able to do the same thing again. This of displacement can require long processes is completely understandable but it can also of healing. Mental health provision is an pose an obstacle in terms of forming realistic essential aspect of support that goes hand- plans. The process of obtaining equivalent in-hand with restoring the ability to provide professional status in the host country can be for the family. Therefore we should be able very complicated and difficult, and refugees to encourage those individuals who require should be encouraged to consider what skills respite, and create support plans that take they have that could be used in other roles. For into consideration their mental and physical example, many people we support show great health needs. This might mean focusing on initiative in terms of supporting other families, restoring confidence and building resilience offering peer mentoring and guidance through different activities, all of which that improves the quality of life of many contributes in the long run to preparing the others, although they have no experience of person to re-join the search for employment. working in a charity or in the community care sector. It is important to explain to these Challenging perceived failure: Having an community champions that their initiative application rejected can be very distressing and sense of empathy are great skills that and discouraging. It is good to encourage could be used in a professional setting. feedback from employers or partner organisations so the person understands the One example of our organisation’s work reason for it. For example, the application of illustrates these recommendations. A child a client whom we had referred to a business resettled with their family needed a one-to- 10 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

one assistant at the nursery but the nursery ESOL classes around the working hours. We struggled to meet this child’s specific needs. provided support throughout the induction We saw that if this support were provided and stayed in close contact with the employer, in the mother tongue of the family, it would providing, for example, a character reference. allow the assistant to be of greater use to Ultimately, it was the promise of on- the child and enable greater communication going support to both the employer and the with its parents. Furthermore, having candidate that reassured them. The creation an understanding of displacement and of the position of nursery assistant was resettlement would also be beneficial. also made possible through a Home Office We identified a candidate among the provision specifically for the educational group of people we work with who had a needs of children resettled within this refugee lot of experience in teaching and early years scheme. In this way, a refugee was offered work. The obstacles to this person filling the a paid position to support another refugee position were several: lack of work experience and the local authority facilitated this by in the UK, insufficient level of English and applying for the appropriate funds allocated lack of appropriate training. However, we to the project. The results changed the life acted as facilitators, working with the child’s of the child’s family, the nursery improved parents, with health professionals and with the service it was offering, and the person the nursery to agree on the core skills needed employed secured a stable and stimulating for the position. We demonstrated that our job matching their skills and aspirations. candidate had them and then worked on a Marwa Belghazi [email protected] plan to address the missing elements. We Team manager, Refugee resettlement support, contacted partner agencies to help with the Single Homeless Project required training and arranged suitable www.shp.org.uk/welcoming-refugees

Integrating refugees into the Turkish labour market Ximena V Del Carpio, Sirma Demir Seker and Ahmet Levent Yener

The granting to Syrian refugees in Turkey of the right to access formal work was a first step towards their economic integration but a number of challenges remain. With support from the international community, the Turkish government is taking action to overcome some of these.

Turkey hosts nearly 3.3 million registered Economic development varies refugees, mostly from Syria. The country widely across Turkey and in some cases has shown exemplary openness, and divergence between regions has increased has made considerable efforts to support over the last few years. Rising general Syrians despite the strain on social unemployment (peaking at 13% in early services. It has facilitated their access to 2017) and persistent youth unemployment critical public services including health, (with a national average of around 19%)2 housing, education and social assistance. highlight that the number of jobs available Recognising that refugees cannot rely is insufficient to absorb all job seekers. solely on social assistance, however, the Ominously, many of the provinces with government of Turkey passed a regulation a large population of Syrians relative to in January 2016 to allow Syrian refugees1 to the local population and to the total Syrian obtain formal work permits. The goal was refugee population in Turkey are among the to help Syrian refugees be economically most disadvantaged, having significantly independent, graduate from social assistance, lower density of formal businesses, low and contribute to the Turkish economy. net formal job creation, a less educated Economies 11 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

population, lower labour force participation for Syrians under Temporary Protection and and higher unemployment rates than the Host Communities in Turkey, were designed national average. Statistics compiled by in 2017. Their activities are aimed, respectively, Turkey’s Disaster and Emergency Management at addressing supply-side challenges Agency, the Ministry of Health and the World (relating to employability) and demand-side Health Organization suggest that at least half challenges (relating to employment and of the over two million working-age Syrians economic activity) and will be implemented work informally. Of these, most are men; from 2018 to 2021. During the current pilot the percentage of women working is low, phase of each project the aim is for services peaking at 7% among women aged 30 to 44. – and, where possible, jobs – to be provided to 15,700 people; the systems now being set Barriers to formal economic integration of up will later provide for thousands more. refugees Refugees currently receiving cash support Labour supply-side activities from the EU-financed cash transfer (social ‘Supply-side’ activities in the case of Syrian assistance) programme risk losing benefits if refugees in Turkey address challenges they work formally. There are also location- which hinder their access to formal work related disincentives since the place in which a (namely, access to a work permit), as well refugee is registered determines where they can as employability challenges that hinder seek formal work. Therefore, many Syrians who job placement. Activities include language have moved to more dynamic labour markets training, setting up systems for assessing such as Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir cannot seek skills, counselling and job search assistance formal employment there unless they change in Arabic, and a variety of financial their registration location – a cumbersome incentives and support. Beneficiaries and costly administrative procedure. can also be referred to the Vocational Low education levels and limited data Qualification Authority for validation of their on the types of skills and experiences of foreign credentials or assessment of their Syrians living in Turkey are further barriers to educational level and work experience. facilitating their employment. Data from before There is a need for better information the war show that in the provinces near the to be provided to job seekers about how to Turkish border, Syrians’ educational attainment obtain a work permit, and for improvements was low compared with that of Turkish people. to the still largely manual application and Around 20% (from Aleppo and Idleb) were issuance processes. 15,022 work permits were educated to secondary- or post-secondary issued by MoLSS to Syrian refugees between levels. Estimated figures are lower (15%) for January 2016 and November 2017, which was people from Raqqa and higher (40%) for those fewer than expected and is indicative both from Lattakia. In Turkey, on average around of information barriers faced by refugees 45% of people have completed secondary or and employers and of IT system-related post-secondary education. Syrian refugees’ issues hindering the processing of permits. lower levels of education and lack of recognised The Employment Support for Syrians under or formally documented skills are associated Temporary Protection and Host Communities with the low issuance of formal work permits. programme focuses on conducting outreach The Ministry of Labour (MoLSS), Turkish campaigns via multiple channels and Public Employment Services (ISKUR), the World languages to improve knowledge of the Bank and the European Union are collaborating process, and on improving the IT system. on two joint programmes to adapt services Many efforts to provide language and that are already available to Turkish citizens in vocational skills for Syrian refugees have order to support Syrians. These programmes, been made by various humanitarian and Employment Support for Syrians under development actors from the first years of Temporary Protection and Host Communities, their arrival. Some of these efforts were and Strengthening Economic Opportunities effective in imparting valuable skills that 12 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

helped many refugees enter the economy, and obtaining Turkish work experience albeit mostly informally. However, many can help beneficiaries remain employed or of the programmes offered were limited in facilitate their transition to another job. scale, designed largely outside government For those who are the least employable, institutions, almost fully dependent on cash-for-work programming is more suitable, external funds, and not built on the existing although it is the last resort because it does system of labour integration used for the local not, alone, lead to permanent employment. population. As a result, many training courses The target populations are women and young delivered were not formally recognised by the people aged 15–29, residing in selected localities. Turkish national education system, making ISKUR finances the gross minimum wage and it difficult for refugees to secure relevant work permit costs for these workers. Those credentials or formal credit for such training. taking part in cash-for-work programmes are As part of the programme, ISKUR has been given extensive support to develop familiarity mandated to help refugees enter the formal with the workplace, increase motivation and labour market, building on its experience of build their networks. Refugee job seekers will providing employment support services for over be provided with continual support through three million Turkish citizens annually.3 It is counselling, job-search assistance, and designing a tool to assess refugees’ language, support when starting a new job, delivered cognitive and technical skills; with this by trained counsellors from ISKUR, and information, ISKUR can help Syrian refugees supported by interpreters when needed. find jobs, and identify those who require additional training prior to being integrated into Labour demand-side activities the workplace. As with the local population, the An important challenge faced by all training programmes to be offered to refugees stakeholders investing in skills training is will be delivered by public training providers the gap in knowledge of the occupations and or private training providers certified by the skills most in-demand by employers, especially Ministry of National Education, accompanied in locations where most Syrians reside. The by a financial stipend for participants. limited availability of reliable information has ISKUR’s active labour market programmes hindered training providers from designing for Turkish citizens – such as on-the-job and imparting appropriate skills programmes training, entrepreneurship training and cash- to encourage sustainable employment. The first for-work programmes – are also being modified activity as part of the Strengthening Economic in order to be provided to Syrians. During on- Opportunities for Syrians under Temporary the-job training, the participant is employed, Protection and Host Communities in Turkey with the programme financing the net minimum programme is the creation of a data-based wage and covering insurance premiums for system that assesses employers’ demand for accidents at work, occupational diseases and occupations and skills, with a special focus on health insurance. Receiving on-the-job training provinces with the greatest numbers of refugees. The information gleaned from this exercise can guide training providers, with changing demands being continuously monitored. Promoting economic activity and entrepreneurship is also at the core of the demand-side activities. Such activities are

UNHCR/Claire Thomas being designed jointly by the World Bank and the Government of Turkey to promote entrepreneurship, business start-ups and formal job creation among Syrian refugees and Turkish citizens residing in selected local communities. Syrian women, particularly those coming from border provinces where very low levels of The Boukah book café/lending library in Istanbul set up by a Syrian refugee who received a UNHCR/Habitat Association development grant. Economies 13 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

education are common, are unlikely to become to guide future work in Turkey and elsewhere. economically active in standard private The teams have therefore designed a strong sector wage employment. Thus, the social monitoring and evaluation framework entrepreneurship support project within the and will undertake periodic assessments. wider demand-side interventions includes an Two lessons have emerged to date. activity targeting women who are bound to First, it is critical to identify contextual a specific location (either within their home barriers to employment and employability or their city) for cultural or family reasons. from the outset in order to address them It promotes the creation of social enterprises early on. There is a clear advantage to having to produce goods for sale. Activities include knowledge early on about the disincentives for technical assistance to support the government institutions to promote formal employment, and local authorities to develop and implement for employers to offer formal employment, a sustainable business model for social and for workers to seek formal employment, enterprises engaging self-employed females, in order to set out realistic expectations of financial support for the creation of the social regulatory changes and investments, and to enterprise, business-related support, and preempt unexpected (negative) behaviours. support to document the experiences of social Second, investments to serve people enterprises for scaling-up similar initiatives. should be made in such a way that they are The model will prioritise sustainability to sustainable and increase the efficiency of ensure that more women become economically spending and effective use of resources. As active after the initial investment. early as possible, actors should seek to ensure About 6,000 formal businesses were the strengthening of national systems rather established by Syrians in Turkey as of 2017, than create separate structures that depend a figure rising to 20,000 when informal on external financial and technical support. businesses are included.4 As part of the In so doing, development practitioners can programme, and with the support of support governments in strengthening their development partners, a micro-grants scheme institutional systems for the provision of is being designed jointly with the government critical services, ensuring the sustainability of to encourage Syrian entrepreneurs to set up investments, and better supporting refugees and register new businesses or to formally in their transition to self-reliance and to register currently operating informal becoming contributors to the economy. businesses. A second micro-grant scheme is Ximena V Del Carpio [email protected] being designed to target existing Syrian- or Program Leader, Social Inclusion Turkish-owned formal businesses located in areas where large numbers of Syrians reside Sirma Demir Seker [email protected] to enlarge their production capacity in order Economist, Social Protection and Jobs to hire new workers. The pilot phase of the Ahmet Levent Yener [email protected] programme will enable the effect on new Senior Specialist, Health Nutrition and Population business and job creation to be measured. World Bank www.worldbank.org

Evidence and monitoring 1. Officially referred to by Turkey as ‘under temporary protection’ During the preparation of the various but for ease of reading referred to here as ‘refugees’. Law No. 6458 on Foreigners and International Protection, adopted in 2013, and programmes, expert teams relied on the Regulation No. 29153 on Temporary Protection of Syrians, which evidence available from Turkey and around entered into force in 2014, regulate their protection. Syrians who the world. However, the lack of assessments entered the country after 27 April 2011 were retroactively placed under temporary protection. and impact evaluations of labour-related 2. www.turkstat.gov.tr programmes targeting refugees limited the 3. ISKUR (2017) Annual Report http://bit.ly/ISKUR2017 team’s ability to build on previous experience, 4. Karasapan O (2017) ‘Syrian businesses in Turkey: The pathway either in Turkey or in similar contexts. to refugee integration?’, Brookings Institution Fortunately, all stakeholders agreed on the http://bit.ly/Syrian-businesses-Turkey-2017 importance of learning from this experience 14 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 From refugee to employee: work integration in rural Denmark Martin Ledstrup and Marie Larsen

The launch of Red Cross Denmark’s Fast Track programme, which focuses on early refugee employment, offers an opportunity to explore the relationship between local employment of refugees and the sustainability of rural life.

Since 2015 Denmark has turned the for example, by providing translation of a employment of refugees into a national refugee’s documentation into Danish – to strategy. Through a tripartite agreement with understand the educational background of the Confederation of Danish Employers and a particular refugee. Local Government Denmark (the union of Many of these initiatives are tied together municipalities) this reconfiguration of thinking by a newly launched, practice-oriented and about integration has reverberated throughout state-initiated programme of employment municipal and corporate Denmark. education, the ‘Integrationsgrund- suddannelse’ (IGU), or ‘basic integration education’, which – through a combination of formal schooling and practical internships – is aimed specifically at aligning competencies of refugees with demand in the Danish labour market. But while the IGU is oriented towards recognised refugees, the new Red Cross initiative begins in the asylum phase.

The Fast Track programme The Fast Track programme is an effort to facilitate early access to the local labour market for refugees while they are still in the asylum phase, and it has been tested and implemented in five Danish municipalities between 2015 and 2017. Normally refugees UNHCR/William Ek Uvelius in Denmark are distributed across its 98 The ‘Me and My Friendly Neighbour’ photographic exhibition on municipalities, in effect detaching the locality World Refugee Day in Copenhagen, Denmark, telling stories of of where they claimed asylum from the refugees and Danes who have become close friends. locality where they come to live as refugees. For example, a major initiative was set With Fast Track, however, the asylum seeker up by the eight municipalities of Copenhagen signs up for the programme at a Danish Red to establish refugee internships, for which Cross-run asylum centre and the immigration promotional posters have been distributed authority places the participant, if granted around the capital. Employment initiatives refugee status, in the local community in aimed at refugees have also been established in which they have claimed asylum. When the larger companies such as IBM, Microsoft, asylum seeker is not someone in transit but Danfoss, Grundfoss, Arriva and NCC. In has the potential to remain as a refugee, it addition, in order to facilitate quicker naturally motivates both local people and assessment of refugees’ work competence, refugees to invest in their mutual relations. the government has sponsored a phone Asylum seekers prepare for Fast Track by hotline to provide assistance to municipal undertaking a skills assessment. The eight- authorities, in particular to help employees – week Fast Track programme then provides Economies 15 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

participants with a hands-on introduction to growing conversation about the depopulation Danish culture, language skills, vocational of rural Denmark, including its island training and potential local internships, communities. The island of Bornholm, for techniques for job search, information about instance, has lost nearly 20% of its population local work culture, network building and since 1965. The islands of Samsø, Ærø, Læsø sustaining motivation. Taken together, these and the Association of Danish Small Islands represent a holistic effort to link employment have therefore actively been promoting integration and local belonging. Throughout themselves as locations that are particularly the months of waiting in asylum centres, this suitable for asylum seekers and refugees. facilitates a crucial sense of purpose. The In March 2018 the Fast Track programme new resident might have a job or internship began on Bornholm, a socio-economically to continue when moving into the local vulnerable island of 40,000 inhabitants, located community, thus making the transition from far away from urban Denmark, in the Baltic asylum seeker to refugee more a continuous Sea. Bornholm’s vulnerability is due not least process than a series of new beginnings. to depopulation and lack of skilled labour. Previously, municipalities often reported Our interviews on the islands of Bornholm that refugees arrived with unrealistic and Samsø, conducted in 2016 and 2017, expectations about housing and employment presented three main findings that identify the opportunities. But according to feedback challenges that lie ahead. While the interviews from both municipalities and refugees, we were conducted in light of the Fast Track have found that refugees who have been initiative, they concentrated more generally on through the Fast Track programme are asking about the encounter between refugees, less disappointed and more realistic, as integration, and the local labour market. well as, generally speaking, less confused, The first and most often repeated more motivated and altogether more challenge, perhaps unsurprisingly, is confident in beginning their life in a locality language; although having sufficient that is already well known to them. Danish to function in the workplace is Of the 70 participants over these two key to stable employment for refugees, years who were granted refugee status, continuous language development is needed 61% are now self-supporting, 9% have for career advancement as well as to extend moved to other municipalities for various interactions beyond the context of work. reasons, 4% are on maternity leave, and The second challenge relates to the 26% have continued internships that are uncertainty around whether refugees preparing them for mainstream jobs. will stay in the local community after the mandatory three-year placement period. For Implementation in rural and island the local municipality, there is an important communities difference between asylum seekers and In 2015 a team of anthropologists from the refugees. While the state is responsible for University of Copenhagen concluded research all expenses connected with asylum seekers, on the encounters between asylum centres those expenses connected with refugees are and rural societies.1 They found anxieties the responsibility of local municipalities. about crime and declining house prices, but In interviews with representatives from the at the same time these familiar concerns municipality of Samsø, the most important were entangled with a surprising local question raised was rooted in deeper optimism. In rural areas where asylum centres concerns about how local investment in successfully form part of the social fabric, refugee employment can at the same time be alongside nurseries, schools, supermarkets part of the struggle against depopulation. and local associations, they were seen as a Thirdly, the type and size of workplaces much-needed boost to local sustainability. are significant in terms of facilitating Changes in Denmark’s approach to refugee integration. Typically, larger workplaces are employment are taking place as part of a able to assign refugee employment to certain 16 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

employees, often on a voluntary basis, as refugee employment in Denmark. This means a specialised task within the organisation. that the islands and what we can learn from Smaller workplaces obviously do not have them do not form part of discussions around the same organisational means to work with the question of integration. In addition, stable refugees. In addition, there is an acute demand employment and successful integration are for skilled labour but not for unskilled labour. often assumed in statistics to be mutually This means that when refugees come as dependent but we know nearly nothing about skilled workers, they play a crucial role in whether and how this connection unfolds local sustainability, but when refugees search in daily life. The Fast Track programme for unskilled jobs they compete with local offers an opportunity to explore just that. Danes. More research is needed, however, in order to understand more fully the resulting Martin Ledstrup [email protected] perspectives of locals and refugees. Postdoctoral researcher, Centre for Contemporary A municipality that performs statistically Middle East Studies, University of Southern better in terms of including refugees in the Denmark www.sdu.dk/en/ labour market is also seen as a success with regard to integration. But because rural Marie Larsen [email protected] refugee populations are often too small for Developmental consultant, Danish Red Cross statistical research, they are often not included http://bit.ly/DanishRedCross-asylum in surveys. For instance, while the island 1. Larsen B R, Whyte Z and Fog Olwig K (2015) Den nye municipalities of Samsø and Ærø have been landbefolkning: Asylcentrenes betydning og konsekvens for lokale fællesskaber i danske landdistrikter, Institut for Antropologi, deeply engaged with and affected by refugees, Københavns Universitet they are not included on comparative maps of http://bit.ly/Larsen-Whyte-Olwig-2015

Integrating refugee doctors into host health-care systems Shahla Namak, Fatin Sahhar, Sarah Kureshi, Fadya El Rayess and Ranit Mishori

Refugee doctors face a number of barriers to practising medicine, despite the significant contributions that they can make.

Despite being highly motivated to or refugee backgrounds. This issue is close practise medicine, refugee doctors1 in the to our hearts as medical professionals United States (US) and elsewhere often and we would like to explore how we can find themselves working in low-skilled empower and assist refugee doctors to join jobs while waiting to get into residency the workforce, resuming their professional programmes.2 They may face difficulties in lives and identities and helping to fill gaps. communication, providing documentation and verifying previous training. This Lessons from other countries may represent a missed opportunity not Integrating refugee doctors into a host only for the refugee doctors themselves country’s health-care system requires but for the host country’s own health-care the involvement of different stakeholders system, especially in countries or areas with including medical associations, regional doctor shortages and/or a high proportion and national health services, private of immigrant or refugee populations. organisations and universities. The UK, The authors of this article are themselves for example, recognised that overcoming former refugees or asylum seekers, barriers such as recognition of equivalency of immigrants to the US and/or have immigrant qualifications and training, and employment Economies 17 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

regulations, would require specific national A number of private, public and non- and local policy changes to enable refugee profit programmes have been established doctors and dentists to practise in the UK.3 to support refugee doctors in the US: UK-wide policy initiatives included the The Welcome Back Initiative (WBI), creation of the Refugee Health Professionals founded in 2001, used the untapped pool Steering Group which supervised the of IMGs living in California to provide development of programmes to help retrain linguistically and culturally competent refugee doctors to National Health Service care to local populations.6 The WBI has standards, cover examination costs and since expanded to a national network of relocate doctors to under-served areas. 11 centres in nine states, serving almost Many local programmes assisted refugee 15,000 individuals from 167 countries. doctors to register with the General Medical These centres provide free services to Council and pass the Professional Linguistic refugee doctors, including orientation, Assessment Board exam. Although career counselling, support in obtaining subsequent immigration laws have since credentials and licences, assistance in made it more difficult for refugee doctors exploring educational programmes, job and to enter the workforce rapidly and remain volunteer opportunities, and alternative in the UK permanently, most of the refugee career options. Success has been modest: doctors participating in these projects 23% of participants obtained employment have remained in the UK to practise. in the health sector for the first time, 21% In 2015, the Swedish government passed licensing exams, and 87 doctors ‘fast-tracked’ refugee doctors into their were accepted into training programmes.7 health-care system by rapidly verifying The Minnesota Department of Health’s their credentials and providing individual International Medical Graduate Assistance training, mentoring and Swedish language Program aims to increase access to primary lessons. And in Turkey, Gaziantep University care in rural and under-served areas by and the World Health Organization teamed providing clinical readiness assessment of up to train and employ 500 Syrian refugee IMGs and funding non-profit organisations doctors to help care for the Syrian refugee to provide career guidance, additional population, with local clinics providing clinical experience and primary-care opportunities for the doctors to familiarise residency positions for IMGs willing themselves with the Turkish health system.4 to practise in under-served areas. In 2014, Missouri was the first State to The current situation in the US pass legislation creating a new category of To practice medicine in the US, refugee licensed ‘assistant doctors’ who can provide doctors must undergo a process that is primary care under the direct supervision very intensive in terms of time, labour and of a doctor in a health-care shortage area for finances, involving certification, examination, the first 30 days, and thereafter with indirect residency periods and licensing. While supervision from a doctor who practises advocates of this system point to the need to within a 50-mile radius. Although there ensure the best and most consistent quality has been criticism of the law,8 as of May of care for patients, other experts argue that 2017 127 doctors had applied for the licence foreign-trained doctors have more advanced with 23 being issued a licence, 55 deemed bedside clinical skills than domestically ineligible, and the others under review. trained doctors, having generally practised Several US academic institutions, medicine in settings with less technology. such as University of California San A recent study, for example, showed that Diego and University of California Los older patients in US hospitals treated by Angeles, have created programmes to International Medical Graduates (IMGs) were place multi-lingual, culturally competent less likely to die within 30 days of treatment family doctors in areas with large than those treated by US-trained graduates.5 immigrant and refugee communities. 18 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

Recommendations Finally and critically, refugee doctors Despite the creativity and early successes themselves should help drive new initiatives. of some of these US programmes, what Professional development efforts may help almost all of them have in common is their identify leaders who would run IMG-support small scale. Compared with other refugee- programmes, seek partnerships in strategic hosting countries, the US lags behind in planning, and organise – and perhaps partner making concerted efforts to recognise the with – existing IMG advocacy organisations. training of refugee doctors and to find more streamlined ways of harnessing their Shahla Namak [email protected] knowledge, talents, language and lifesaving Department of Family and Community Medicine, skills to benefit our communities. We propose: Wake Forest School of Medicine A task-force consisting of stakeholders from federal and State governmental, Fatin Sahhar [email protected] private and public organisations, medical Department of Family Medicine and Public boards and professional associations, as Health Sciences, Wayne State University School well as refugee doctors themselves, to of Medicine collect basic statistics on the number of refugee doctors, their demographics and Sarah Kureshi [email protected] current specialisms and to study other Department of Family Medicine, Georgetown countries’ approaches, review certification University School of Medicine requirements and explore the integration of refugee doctors into different clinical roles. Fadya El Rayess [email protected] Training incentives for residency Department of Family Medicine, Alpert School of programmes that are geographically Medicine at Brown University or specialism-focused, based on local Ranit Mishori [email protected] population needs; this may also include the restructuring of observerships Department of Family Medicine, Georgetown (shadowing), internships and fellowships University School of Medicine specifically tailored to refugee doctors. 1. In this article, we use ‘refugee doctors’ to include both refugee Easing re-training requirements as a and asylum-seeker doctors. 2. A formal period of supervised training for medical school temporary or permanent solution for some, graduates, usually three to five years in length, during which a alongside other measures to strengthen job doctor specialises in a field of medicine. opportunities that recruit refugee doctors 3. Steward E (2007) ‘Addressing the Challenges Facing Refugee in other roles initially (to gain exposure to Doctors in the UK’, Local Economy Vol 22 (4) http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02690940701736868 the US system). 4. Özdemir V, Kickbusch I and Coşkun Y (2017) ‘Rethinking the A more centralised scholarship and needs- right to work for refugee Syrian healthcare professionals: a call for based grant or stipend system to help innovation in global governance’, British Medical Journal 357 www.bmj.com/content/bmj/357/bmj.j2710.full.pdf with the significant financial burden of re- 5. Tsugawa Y J, Anupam B J, Orav E J and Ashish K J (2017) certification and licensing exams. ‘Quality of care delivered by general internists in US hospitals who graduated from foreign versus US medical schools: Robust, accessible programmes to provide observational study’, British Medical Journal 356 supervision and guidance through the www.bmj.com/content/356/bmj.j273 complex certification and licensing process 6. Fernández-Peña J R (2012) ‘Integrating Immigrant Health in the US, as well as instruction on the US Professionals into the US Health Care Workforce: A Report from the Field’, Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health Vol 14 (3) health-care system. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-011-9496-z Free, easily accessible toolkits including 7. This figure relates to the 10,700 individuals in the programme national and State-based resources, in 2012. 8. For example, Freeman B D (2016) ‘The Implications of communication modules, test-taking Missouri’s First-in-the-Nation Assistant Doctor Legislation’, strategies and information about the Journal of Graduate Medical Education Vol 8 (1) application process. www.jgme.org/doi/10.4300/JGME-D-15-00341.1 Economies 19 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies Refugees’ engagement with host economies in Uganda Naohiko Omata

Multi-sited fieldwork in Uganda allows for an exploration of the complex patterns of engagement between refugees’ economic activities and local economies, in urban, emergency and protracted settings.

The Government of Uganda has made self- economic structures that extend beyond their reliance central to the country’s approach geographical boundaries. Goods and services towards hosting refugees. Currently, Uganda are imported and exported, with refugees hosts more than one million refugees of playing an active role in these supply chains. diverse nationalities, including from the Upon arrival, refugees in both settlements Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), have historically been given access to a plot of Somalia, South Sudan and Rwanda, who live land to cultivate; not surprisingly, therefore, in both rural camps and urban areas. Refugees commercial farming is the most common in Uganda generally enjoy the right to work, economic activity. Kyangwali settlement freedom of movement within the country, is known widely among Ugandan crop and access to basic services. Such policies traders for its good-quality maize. During have an important role in facilitating refugees the harvest season Ugandan trucks and to engage in business activities and enable minivans regularly travel out of Kyangwali, them to become embedded within local and loaded high with sacks of maize purchased national markets and industries in Uganda. from refugee farmers and destined for sale Between 2013 and 2015, my colleagues in local markets, in Kampala and other and I conducted a study on refugees’ Ugandan cities, and even in neighbouring economic lives, looking at their interaction countries such as Tanzania and South Sudan. with local host communities across While agricultural activities dominate four sites with three different contexts: both settlements, over time an array of Kampala – the capital city; Kyangwali and vibrant businesses has emerged and become Nakivale – long-established camps; and deeply embedded within both national Rwamwanja – a newly established camp.1 and regional commercial networks. In fact, This multi-sited research offers an interesting many of the well-established shops in both comparison of economic relationships Kyangwali and Nakivale buy goods from between refugees and hosts over time and existing supply chains run by Ugandan in different geographical environments. wholesalers who regularly come to the settlements and sell goods to satellite shops. Kyangwali and Nakivale: ‘import and export’ economies “Kyangwali settlement is one of our important selling points. In Kyangwali, we have seven refugee Nakivale settlement has existed since 1959 shops that we sell our items to.” (sales manager and Kyangwali settlement since 1989. They for local Ugandan brewery) are formally designated as ‘settlements’ rather than ‘camps’ because of their relatively open In Nakivale, we observed similar layout and the economic freedoms afforded to commercial interactions between refugees refugees. Both are located in the rural south- and Ugandan wholesalers. Many Somali west of the country but though geographically business owners in particular would remote they are far from economically regularly import products including milk, isolated. Not only is there diverse economic pasta, camel meat, clothing, cosmetics and activity within the settlements but also medicines to the settlement from their their economies are embedded in wider Somali-Ugandan counterparts in Kampala. 20 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

Rwamwanja: an emerging economy Owners of pre-existing businesses Rwamwanja settlement opened in April in the host area have also benefited 2012 in a rural village in Western Uganda significantly from the presence of refugees in response to the emergency influx of and humanitarian workers. One local Congolese refugees. By late 2013, when we family renovated their bar to target the did our initial research, people were still growing population; the business grew arriving. New arrivals are provided with rapidly and in 2014 the family expanded food rations and relief supplies, including it to create a lodge with a restaurant just cooking items, a hoe, blankets, jerry cans outside the entrance of the settlement. and machetes. Similar to Kyangwali and Compared with Nakivale and Kyangwali, Nakivale, the refugees are allocated a plot refugees’ economic activities in Rwamwanja of land for their residence and cultivation. were still embryonic and less extensively According to refugees who came to connected with national and transnational Rwamwanja when it was first established, economies. Nevertheless, Rwamwanja economic activity inside the settlement reveals the dynamic process through which emerged almost immediately, with the first a new ‘refugee-induced economy’ emerges visible commercial transactions based around following a mass influx of refugees even the exchange of food and non-food aid items in an underdeveloped host region. between refugees. Soon Ugandans from neighbouring villages joined in the bartering, Kampala despite the refugee and host populations With an estimated population of more than 1.5 having very little pre-existing ethnic or million, Kampala is the largest city in Uganda. cultural affinity or shared language. Refugees Here refugees live and work side by side with exchanged bags of maize or cooking oils for both Ugandan nationals and migrants from Ugandan crops such as bananas and cassava, across the continent. Most Somali refugees and sold non-food items. These initial trading live alongside Somali-Ugandans and Somali activities have since transformed into more economic migrants in Kisenyi in Kampala, organised refugee markets. For instance, the taking advantage of their ethnic ties with market in Kaihura village, one of 36 villages in the vibrant Somali-Ugandan economies and the settlement, currently attracts about 2,000 filling gaps in labour demand in sectors sellers and customers, including both refugees where most non-Somali Ugandans would and Ugandan nationals, every market day. not seek employment. Several large-scale The arrival of refugees and aid Somali-Ugandan enterprises in the oil, petrol workers into this scarcely populated rural and retail industries hire a large number of village has stimulated local economies Somali refugees. A Somali-Ugandan manager in the surrounding areas. According to from one of these companies explained that Ugandan villagers who live nearby, many hiring Somali refugees is a simple decision: new businesses began to appear after the “We feel more comfortable working with Somali influx of refugees, including restaurants, people because we have a lot in common such as bars, guesthouses and shops. Henry, the language, religion and cultural habits.” Ugandan owner of a popular restaurant located at the entrance of the settlement, In contrast, Congolese refugees live established his business in January 2014: scattered in several areas in Kampala such as Nsambya and Katwe, and live “I used to run a small restaurant in Kampala. alongside Ugandan communities. While I came and checked the area and found no they are associated with a range of economic good restaurants so I decided to move here. activities, the selling of bitenge (traditional Currently, I receive about 200 customers per Congolese fabric) is the most common, for day. Many of them are working for the aid two main reasons – firstly, the up-front agencies but some of them are refugees and investment needed is relatively small and, Ugandan business people visiting the camp.” secondly, positive stereotyping of Congolese Economies 21 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies UNHCR/Eunice Ohanusi

Fresh produce exporters load the chilli peppers they have bought from Congolese refugee farmers at Rwamwanja settlement in Uganda. craftsmanship among Ugandans provides a themselves in host economies differ in helpful market opportunity. These Congolese each setting, refugees clearly play an refugees find mutually beneficial economic important, perhaps indispensable, role in links with Ugandan merchants; these wider commercial sectors in Uganda. Ugandans have come to rely heavily on Some implications for policy and practice Congolese refugees, who act as the primary follow from this analysis. Often, attempts distributors and retailers for their products. to support refugees’ income-generating activities are conceived in abstraction Countering prevailing perceptions rather than with an understanding of wider Among policymakers, there is a prevailing market contexts. Actors working to enhance perception that the presence of refugees economic opportunities for refugee and intensifies competition for employment host populations need a clear and better with national populations in a host country. understanding of the relevant economic Contrary to this perception, however, in systems and structures. Furthermore, Kampala, Congolese and Somali refugees interventions should aim either to build have sought their own economic space in the upon existing markets and businesses or wider host economy, not necessarily in conflict help refugees to more effectively engage with nationals. And in each of our study sites, with those markets. And, finally, external the presence of refugees’ economic activities actors need to help create an enabling has resulted in interdependence between environment. Refugees can be market creators refugees and host communities, rather than if certain conditions and rights are granted, a zero-sum game of economic rivalry. enabling them to identify and employ unique In the protracted refugee contexts of livelihood assets while avoiding intensifying Nakivale and Kyangawali, refugee settlements competition with host populations. have become embedded in regional commerce Naohiko Omata [email protected] through ‘import and export’ of items and Senior Research Officer, Refugee Economies have become active trade hubs in their Programme, Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford remote, rural locations. Even in recently Department of International Development, established Rwamwanja, refugees’ business University of Oxford www.rsc.ox.ac.uk activities are being gradually linked with surrounding economies and appear to play 1. See Betts A, Bloom L, Kaplan J and Omata N (2016)Refugee Economies: Forced Displacement and Development a role in revitalising host communities. www.bit.ly/RefugeeEconomies2016 While the ways in which refugees position 22 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Refugees and host communities in the Rwandan labour market Özge Bilgili and Craig Loschmann

In Rwanda, Congolese refugees have the same freedom of movement and right to work as Rwandans but the experiences and economic activities of these two populations are very different.

Of the approximately 164,500 officially themselves, relates to local employers’ lack registered refugees residing in Rwanda of knowledge of the refugees’ right to work. today, 45% are from the Democratic Republic According to the focus group participants, of Congo (DRC). The Rwandan government finding a job outside the camp is rare due to has adopted a relatively progressive policy the fact that they do not have the appropriate approach to support the integration of refugees, identity papers requested by potential and refugees have the freedom to move employers. As one participant from Kiziba outside their designated camps and the right camp said, “They mostly ask if you have to engage in wage-earning or self-employed an identity card to prove that you are a activities. This enabling environment helps Rwandan citizen. So, if you do not have an increase the economic and social interaction identity card then you can’t have a job”. between refugees and local populations, It is not sufficient simply to provide the and as a result one might expect the areas right to work; there needs to be practical around the camps to have a labour market follow-through. This may mean issuing freely accessible to locals and refugees alike. specific identity documents to refugees Analysis of the experiences of refugees and that local employers recognise and locals, however, brings to light the varying accept and/or an information campaign dynamics, opportunities and challenges for targeting employers to help make sure the both groups. As part of a project examining refugees’ legal rights are clear to all. the impact of Congolese refugees on host Focus group participants also mentioned communities in Rwanda,1 in May 2016 we that most work opportunities were in local conducted household surveys with refugees commercial hubs far from the camps, and that in three of the largest camps – Gihembe, the considerable travel costs involved and low Kiziba and Kigeme – and with locals living earnings often deterred them from taking these nearby. For the latter we differentiated our jobs. Providing cheaper transportation can make sample between those living within 10km it more viable for refugees to find employment of the camps, and those living more than well beyond the immediate camp areas. 20km away, in order to identify the highly localised effect of being in contact with the Jobs and skills in camps refugee population on a daily basis. We also Job opportunities for refugees are quite limited organised a number of separate focus group outside the camps but within the camps discussions among refugees from each camp as themselves non-governmental and international well as with host community members living organisations employ a significant number at various distances from the camps. A key of refugees. It is clear, however, that these finding is that although Congolese refugees organisations cannot address the employment officially have the right to work, in reality their needs of all refugees. This situation also experiences in the local labour market differ raises the question of refugees’ dependency considerably from that of local Rwandans. on humanitarian organisations beyond basic Congolese refugees are significantly more protection and needs. It seems evident that likely to be unemployed than locals, and a the more refugees are able to integrate in the major reason for this, given by the refugees wider Rwandan economy and not remain Economies 23 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

within the confines of the camp-based setting, that interaction. Again, this demonstrates the the better off they will be in the long term. need to consider heterogeneity within the host Unsurprisingly, we found that the work- community as well, when trying to understand related experiences of refugees differ also by how a refugee camp may influence local skill level. Those refugees with professions and populations. who have diplomas are in a more advantageous On a positive note, we found that locals’ position than others with fewer skills. As labour market activities do not seem to be a participant from Kiziba said, “There are negatively affected by refugees; indeed, the [refugee] teachers and even health providers resulting, more dynamic local economy but … ordinary people have nothing to do.” provided increased opportunities for Keeping this heterogeneity in mind is key wage-earning jobs and self-employment. when designing policies to facilitate greater Moreover, we did not find evidence of either participation in the local labour market. increased competition in the labour market or resentment from local people due to the Locals in the labour market presence of refugees. On the contrary, the Our research finds evidence of a shift away economic and social interaction between from subsistence agricultural activities groups was given as an explanation for the among locals in the host communities. More good relations between the two populations. specifically, working-age individuals within For Congolese refugees, however, 10km of a camp are more likely to be engaged the experiences were more mixed. Being in wage employment (that is, working for an granted the right to work and thus to access employer with steady pay) than in farming the local labour market is not sufficient to or livestock production. In addition, we promote sustainable self-reliance, and a observed that females living near a camp more comprehensive strategy is needed to are more likely to be self-employed than provide opportunities for the wider refugee those residing further away, illustrating population. This strategy could incorporate an important gender-specific dynamic to standardised identity documents for refugees, this adjustment in the local labour market.2 information provision for local employers, Focus group discussions again uncovered and better transportation provision outside more nuanced findings. For instance, it was the camps. We hope that these observations often stated that refugees from Gihembe can guide not only the relevant actors in have small shops or hairdressing salons Rwanda but also the governments of other outside the camp that employ local people, refugee-hosting countries in adopting while locals are also hired in the camps for effective measures to promote economic construction projects. As one participant from and social integration for the benefit of Gihembe said, “Since [the refugees] arrived refugees and host communities alike. here, economic activities have increased. Many houses were built and selling activities Özge Bilgili [email protected] multiplied. There are different market centres Assistant Professor, European Research Centre on which were created because of the camp.” Migration and Ethnic Relations (ERCOMER), Utrecht University www.ozgebilgili.com Finally, the discussions also shed light on Craig Loschmann some distributional effects among the local [email protected] population with regard to who benefits from Research Fellow, Maastricht Graduate School of the presence of refugees. Participants who Governance / UNU-MERIT, Maastricht University live near Kigeme, for example, emphasised www.maastrichtuniversity.nl differences in economic interaction based on personal circumstances, in particular that it 1. Funded by the UN Refugee Agency, UNHCR. tends to be the financially better-off from their 2. See also Bilgili Ö, Loschmann C and Siegel M (2017) ‘The Gender-Based Effects of Displacement: The Case of Congolese community who engage commercially with Refugees in Rwanda’, KNOMAD working paper 21 refugees and who presumably benefit from http://bit.ly/KNOMAD-WP21 24 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 The role of rural grocery stores in refugee reception Zachary Whyte, Birgitte Romme Larsen and Mona Schaldemose

Our research with rural grocery store managers in Denmark suggests that the integration of asylum centres into the local social and economic life in rural areas is a key factor in successful refugee reception.

In Denmark, asylum seekers are required local schools can stave off school closures. to stay in asylum centres while their Similarly, asylum seekers of all ages can asylum applications are processed. During support local associational life, for example this time they are not allowed to work or by participating in local football clubs. pursue education but are provided with Finally, because of the relative isolation of accommodation and a small stipend to buy many rural asylum centres, asylum seekers food and other essentials. Waiting times often have little option but to spend their range from around six months to more than money locally, which in particular means ten years in some extreme cases, and the buying their food at local grocery stores. number of asylum centres fluctuates with When we asked grocery store managers the number of asylum applicants and the to rate the importance of asylum centres length of processing times: in 2007 there to their overall business only one felt were only seven asylum centres in Denmark; the centre had no positive effect on their in 2016 the number exceeded 100, and it is business; seven reported a small effect, currently 22. While the Danish Immigration eight a medium effect, and three a powerful Service is responsible for asylum seekers effect. Three managers told us that their in Denmark, they subcontract the work stores were dependent on the business to asylum centre operators, either the from the asylum centre for their survival. Danish Red Cross or one of several rural municipalities. Rural municipalities now Social hubs and gatekeepers administer more than half of the centres. As well as being merchants, the store owners Rural communities in Denmark, as across and managers whom we interviewed the Global North, are characterised by an saw themselves as upholders of their ageing and reducing population, declining communities. One said, “We say that we are job opportunities, and the closure of local kind of an unofficial mayor. It is important businesses as well as welfare institutions that we are present at town events and such as schools and retirement homes. There support local initiatives.” Partly as a result are therefore good economic arguments for of the closure of other informal social rural municipalities to host asylum centres. meeting places such as schools, stores were First, the closure of many welfare increasingly central to local community institutions in rural areas means that there life. They provided locals with a place to are unoccupied buildings – often municipally meet and talk but they also supported local owned and relatively cheap to rent – that associations and institutions in a deeply can be quickly refitted. Second, rural interwoven circuit of economic and social municipalities are particularly interested in exchange. The threat of closure of such the jobs and secondary economic benefits stores was understood to have real economic derived from the asylum centres, such as consequences for the entire community. the creation of demand for other services In this context, grocery stores could including remodelling and maintenance, function as gatekeepers for asylum centres. which means more work for locals in a One store manager on the island of context where the creation of even a small Langeland, for example, asked his staff to only number of jobs has a big impact. Third, the speak positively of the town’s newly opened enrolment of asylum-seeking children in asylum centre, feeling that so long as there Economies 25 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

had not yet been any negative experiences it on the hosting municipalities to limit their was important to support it as he would any cooperation with the Danish Immigration other new institution in town. This was in Service. At best, this would mean a failure part due to his appreciation of the custom that to capitalise on the opportunities available the asylum centre brought to his store but also through local cooperation; at worst, this could as a way of bolstering the collective spirit in spell the closure of the local asylum centre. the town and showing that the community There is thus important work to be could make it work. For him this also meant done in building and expanding relations working with local voluntary associations and communication with local associations (particularly the local football club, which and institutions. Managers and staff at the he sponsored) to create opportunities asylum centres may contribute to this shift for asylum seekers to participate. by buying necessities for the centre locally, Another store manager explained using local venues for events, and hiring that she quickly found herself helping locals, thereby involving the institution asylum seekers to navigate her store, the in local economic life. These steps in turn local community and in some cases even create dialogue and intersections with local the asylum system, and so had become a associations, who can provide opportunities contact point for interactions between the for asylum seekers and voluntary support asylum centre and the local community. for the asylum centre. This might mean For asylum centres, having good developing and sharing a local playground relations with local communities can open rather than building a separate one for the opportunities for cooperation with local asylum centre, or asking local associations institutions and voluntary associations, if they can use unneeded furniture from which can widen the social opportunities the centre rather than throwing it away. of asylum seekers and combat the sense Local communities prove useful of isolation and frustration that tends partners for asylum centres but this to characterise their waiting time.1 relies on actively working to interweave asylum centres with local social and Social and economic incorporation economic life, rather than operating them While polarised national debates often as isolated – and isolating – institutions. frame asylum seekers as either victims Zachary Whyte [email protected] in need of saving or threats to the social Associate Professor order, local communities tended to be more pragmatic through experiencing Birgitte Romme Larsen asylum seekers’ participation in local [email protected] community life, for example as consumers, Postdoctoral Fellow football players or school pupils. One of Centre for Advanced Migration Studies (AMIS), our rural respondents said, “Now that University of Copenhagen http://amis.ku.dk [the asylum centre] is here, the question Mona Schaldemose [email protected] is ‘How do we make the best of it?’”. Research Assistant However, local communities sometimes complained about the relative seclusion of Department of Anthropology, University of asylum centres from local community life Copenhagen http://anthropology.ku.dk

– often understood as a lack of involvement 1. Whyte Z (2011) ‘Enter the myopticon: Uncertain surveillance in with local institutions and a certain obscurity the Danish asylum system’ Anthropology Today 27(3), 18–21 as to their daily operation – as well as a https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2011.00808.x perceived lack of communication from authorities and centre operators. The resulting FMR Podcasts disapproval could exacerbate the local Podcasts of all articles in this issue at isolation of asylum centres and those living https://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/series there, as well as put local political pressure (search for ‘forced migration review’). 26 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Collaboration with criminal organisations in Colombia: an obstacle to economic recovery Christopher M Hays

Those seeking to support economic development for internally displaced people in Colombia need to understand how and why many IDPs collaborate with armed groups and criminal organisations.

To date, the Colombian government has Córdoba) and two small rural communities registered over 7,300,000 victims of forced (in the regions of Córdoba and Cauca). displacement as a result of the nation’s many years of conflict.1 Given that forced Forms of collaboration displacement is known to result in high Given their isolation and economic levels of extreme poverty (affecting 85% vulnerability, and the lack of government of those displaced from rural to urban and police presence, IDP settlements are seen environments2), economic development is as conducive to organised crime. IDPs are a priority. Among the many factors which known to collaborate with criminal groups create challenges for the economic recovery both directly and indirectly; some will engage of victims of the Colombian conflict, one directly in the illegal activities of the criminal that is often not sufficiently taken into groups, most prominently drug trafficking consideration is the incidence of collaboration and the extortion of protection money by internally displaced persons (IDPs) with (called vacunas, ‘vaccinations’), while others armed groups and criminal organisations. will provide the groups with support, for These armed groups – guerrilla example, providing supplies or transporting organisations, paramilitary groups, drug gasoline to those cultivating illicit crops. cartels, and local mafia and gangs – have Additionally, armed groups in certain a dramatic impact on the local economy communities will control the supply of of displaced communities. Furthermore, water and the sale of basic foodstuffs such collaboration with armed groups can as eggs and arepas (a Colombian staple, significantly undermine third-party efforts made from maize dough). They also control to foster economic development through the transportation in and out of the community. creation of new income-generating activities Under such conditions, local vendors, drivers and the pursuit of formal employment. It is and anyone who needs water are all drawn therefore vital that those involved in economic into various degrees of complicity with development with Colombian IDPs appreciate or submission to the criminal groups. how and especially why IDPs collaborate with armed groups and criminal organisations. Reasons for collaboration Numerous obstacles impede the study It is essential to understand why IDPs of this phenomenon, in particular the risk collaborate. Without such understanding, of reprisals facing both the researcher and economic development efforts can founder, the research population. Additionally, and agencies may put themselves and displaced people settle in highly diverse those they seek to help in danger, should and sometimes remote locations, and so their activities be perceived to threaten research must be similarly wide-ranging. illegal actors. The reasons that IDPs are In undertaking this research, the author complicit with or directly participate in interviewed 15 community leaders and NGO the activities of armed groups are far workers in three major cities (Medellín, more complex than many appreciate. Bogotá and Cartagena), two municipalities One reason given is the perceived lack (Tierralta and Puerto Libertador, in of economic opportunities. Interviewees Economies 27 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies UNHCR/Ruben Salgado Escudero UNHCR/Ruben

Displaced community in Colombia.

report that, at least for some IDPs, the leader of a community development having an alternative way to support organisation which works with IDPs) puts it: one’s family would dissuade them from “The justification is that … [since] 2 kg of coca is engaging in criminal productive activities. worth around 4,600,000 pesos, then I am going to Interviewees also highlight the inducement dedicate myself to cultivating coca and not corn. of ‘easy money’. María Esperanza3 (a social They justify it because the price of corn often goes worker with a community development through the floor, and the farmers … almost always faith-based organisation in Bogotá) lose.” summarises the dynamics as follows: IDPs whose involvement is “Marginalised, excluded, segregated communities limited to supporting roles, such as are an excellent environment for hiding organised transportation, may find it easier to justify crime. The trafficking and the fact that these their collaboration since they are not communities have such needs, especially economic producing or selling narcotics directly. ones, and the culture of easy money make it very Fear is unsurprisingly one of the likely that they [the IDPs] will resort to illicit most frequently cited reasons why businesses.” IDPs go along with or support the The culture of ‘easy money’ is no doubt work of criminal organisations in their the result of a combination of factors, chief communities. This fear is rooted not only among which are probably the influence in the danger that the armed groups of drug cartels and the dependency represent but also in a feeling that IDPs dynamics created by government and non- have been abandoned by the government governmental aid.4 But when one combines and the police. In the words of Susanna, that culture with the realities of low wages or a social worker leading a development the low profit margins of much agricultural project with IDPs outside of Medellín: production, one begins to see why collusion “Many are afraid… They feel like … the best thing with a criminal organisation becomes that they can do is keep quiet. But there are others attractive. As Jorge Miguel (a pastor and to whom this seems like the easiest life, especially 28 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

given the abandonment by the State… they don’t economic motivations are only a small part have anyone to protect them, they don’t have of why IDPs end up working with criminal anyone to hear them, or if someone hears them, they entities, efforts to direct IDPs away from will be denounced [to the criminal groups].” criminal groups need to take account of other The perception of having been abandoned factors; this is likely to be beyond the scope of by the State is compounded by the fact a typical economic development organisation that the local neighbourhood assemblies and therefore will require cooperation with often push people to comply with extortion government agencies, non-governmental requests by the criminal groups, even organisations and faith-based organisations. sometimes directly collecting for them. Since some of the factors discussed But fear and poverty are not the only relate to the absence of the State and the factors. To a certain degree, criminal weakness of local community leadership, groups maintain order in many of these attention to economic development should marginalised communities, functioning – also go hand-in-hand with a more robust in the absence of police and government governmental and police presence in the representatives – as local government and communities, along with initiatives to help meting out punishment for violations of raise the communities’ civic and political self- community norms. Susanna explains: awareness. Similarly, insofar as some factors relate to ethical and psychological issues, “People have grown accustomed to [the criminal they can be best addressed in cooperation group’s] presence there and have legitimated it in a with local religious communities and certain way, because, when something happens to faith-based organisations, as well as with them, they go and seek out [the group members], so NGOs that provide psychological care. that they can solve things, so they can play the role While such cooperation would of the judges.” undoubtedly be complex, an appreciation Because local mafia and criminal groups of the non-economic factors that fill the governance void, cooperation with stimulate cooperation with criminal them can be seen by IDPs as more legitimate groups and impede legitimate economic than an outsider might appreciate. development is vital when working to Finally, IDPs may choose to collaborate foster the economic recovery of IDPs. with or even join an opposing criminal group Christopher M Hays [email protected] as a reaction against the violence they suffered Associate Professor, Fundación Universitaria at the hands of a different armed group. In Seminario Bíblico de Colombia, Medellín; director this way, they feel a greater sense of security of the project ‘Integral missiology and the human and are able to extract a sort of vengeance. flourishing of internally displaced persons in Angélica Pinilla Mususú elaborates: Colombia’.5

“If the paramilitaries expelled me, I become an 1. Registro Único de Víctimas (2018) Informe General enemy of the paramilitaries and close to the http://bit.ly/ColombiaRUV guerrillas. [Or] if the guerrillas were the ones 2. Carrillo A C (2009) ‘Internal displacement in Colombia: who expelled me, and I am a displaced person and humanitarian, economic and social consequences in urban settings and current challenges,’ International Review of the Red Cross 91, a victim, I end up being part of the paramilitary no 875 www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc-875-carrillo.pdf groups, in pursuit of a justice that the State has not 3. All names have been changed. been able to give, in pursuit of a reparation that the 4. See Thoumi F E (1999) ‘Relación entre corrupción y narcotráfico: State has not been able to provide.” un análisis general y algunas referencias a Colombia’, Revista de economía de la Universidad del Rosario 2, no 1: 24, 28 Implications for development work http://bit.ly/Thoumi-corrupcion-narcotrafico-1999 All of this underscores the reality that 5. This project was made possible through a grant from the Templeton World Charity Foundation, Inc. The opinions agencies focusing on the economic expressed here are those of the author and do not necessarily development of IDPs in Colombia need to reflect the views of Templeton World Charity Foundation, Inc or adopt an alliance mentality, coordinating their the author’s institution. efforts with complementary organisations. As Economies 29 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies Syrian economies: a temporary boom? Ahmad Al Ajlan

Some displaced people and their host communities have benefited economically from the consequences of conflict in Syria’s Raqqa province. Others need support – and the type of support needed will change as circumstances change.

When civil war erupted in 2011, Raqqa in As well as winners, there were of course northeastern Syria was not directly engaged losers. Many people had their sources of in the conflict, and thus many Syrians from income cut off by the war, people such as other provinces – such as Deir Az Zor, Homs those who conducted trade between the and Hama – fled to Raqqa. They mainly settled rural areas and the city and those who were in Raqqa city, where the pre-war population dependent on renting land and property, while of some 220,000 nearly doubled in 2012 with thousands had to flee Raqqa with little more the influx of internally displaced people than the clothes they were wearing. Little (IDPs). This created huge pressures on Raqqa’s assistance gets through. Displaced families fragile infrastructure but also created job in Al-Jurnia, as in other towns in Raqqa, have opportunities for many people. When Raqqa received a small amount of financial support was captured by the so-called Islamic State only twice in one year. As a result, children group – ISIS – in 2014, the city enjoyed a boom in these families have been forced to sell in commercial activity for a short time, because vegetables and bread in the street. Women of two main factors: firstly, Raqqa became the who have lost their husbands are particularly capital of a very large area of Syria and Iraq affected, since this also usually means the controlled by ISIS and, secondly, ISIS did not loss of the household’s breadwinner, and enforce a specific price for goods, nor did they many widows have been obliged to remarry. enforce payment of taxes (except zakat1). Since the withdrawal of ISIS from Raqqa But the city’s commercial boom was of in late 2017, the short-lived boom is over and short duration. Because of increasing air raids, the circumstances have changed once again many civilians were forced to leave the city. for everyone. The biggest mistake that the Some moved to Lebanon or Turkey but many international community has made concerning travelled to nearby towns and villages to the humanitarian situation in Raqqa now is stay with relatives. Towns like Al-Mansoura, that the aid provided usually consists of food Al-Rashid, Al-Qahtaniyah and Al-Jurnia and a small amount of money. This kind of aid took on the economic roles that Raqqa city is rapidly consumed. Support should rather had previously played. Towns’ populations concentrate on rebuilding the infrastructure: expanded, bazaars proliferated, small shops roads, irrigation systems, hospitals and schools enjoyed increased sales, and new shops were (and, eventually, clearing the landmines built. Some families gained a new source of planted in Raqqa city by ISIS). Then people income by renting rooms to displaced people. will be better able to produce what they need People took advantage not only of the and once more establish livelihoods, rather new economic opportunities created by the than be dependent on external assistance. presence of those who had been displaced but Ahmad Al Ajlan [email protected] also of the lack of strong authority in the area. Formerly of Raqqa province, now a researcher at For decades, people had had to ask permission the Institute of Interdisciplinary Research on from the central government in Damascus even Conflict and Violence, Bielefeld University to build a small shop on their own land, and www.uni-bielefeld.de/ikg/ getting that permission had been neither easy nor cheap. People, particularly those in rural 1. Zakat is a form of alms-giving treated in Islam as a religious areas of Raqqa, took advantage of the removal obligation or tax. of these obstacles to build homes and shops. 30 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Obstacles to refugees’ self-reliance in Germany Elizabeth Ekren

The majority of Germany’s refugees and asylum seekers rely on government welfare and face serious obstacles to self-reliance. Integration policies must eliminate these obstacles to

promote mutual long-term benefits for refugees and their new McConnell UNHCR/Andrew communities.

Since the height of the so-called refugee to capitalise on these diverse capabilities, crisis in 2015, Germany has accepted around refugees have far greater potential to become 830,000 asylum applications.1 Given the autonomous and self-reliant, driving their country’s ageing population, falling birth own positive socio-economic outcomes.4 rate and decreasing availability of skilled The reality is that large numbers of workers, fully utilising refugees’ capacities refugees will remain in the long term. in the labour market has the potential to Germany must therefore focus on policies result in wide-scale socio-economic benefits. that promote refugees’ lasting self-reliance. Research suggests that it may take 10–15 Despite some attempts at this, refugees’ years before refugees produce a positive access to work opportunities and potential effect on national budgets, but they also self-reliance is still precarious, impeded have the potential to help strengthen fiscal by institutional structures, practical sustainability in the long term, providing they constraints and the extreme uncertainty are well integrated.2 Unfortunately, current that still characterises their daily lives. trends indicate a slow start to such integration in Germany, with little more than 100,000 Practical barriers to work refugees in full- or part-time employment In July 2016, Germany’s Integration Act and the vast majority reliant on government improved labour market access criteria – in welfare benefits. In 2016, costs to provide theory at least – for both asylum seekers these benefits (in the form of housing, health and those whose applications have been care, food, basic daily provisions, language accepted. The law shortened work prohibition training and spending money) were higher periods, reduced the extent of citizen than planned, reaching over €20 billion. If priority checks for job applications and the current trajectory does not change, costs guaranteed a right to stay for the duration will continue to grow exponentially, and of a job training programme. Despite the long-term welfare dependency in refugee reforms, finding a job and independently communities could also drive long-lasting meeting material needs remain fraught cycles of poverty and social discontent.3 with legal and practical complications. Receiving acceptance of an asylum Self-reliance and its benefits application can take upwards of six months, In accepting the highest number of asylum and the accompanying employment applications of any European Union (EU) restrictions and benefits vary according to country, Germany has embraced a position the type of status awarded. For those still of humanitarian leadership within the bloc. awaiting decisions, their country of origin It is important, however, that Germany does and the likelihood of their application not fall into the trap of viewing refugees being successful determine their access to as a homogenous collective of victims who government language courses, employment have no capacity (or desire) for self-help. In programmes and job offers. Some localities, reality, refugees have diverse educational due to their high unemployment rates or backgrounds, professional experiences, their concentrations of specific technical technical skills, social networks and jobs, can still require citizen priority checks creativity to draw upon in building new when refugees apply for jobs, meaning that lives. When policies encourage refugees the employer will first check whether a Economies 31 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

suitably qualified German or EU candidate is Due to housing shortages and difficulties available. The local authorities who conduct finding private rentals, refugees tend to these checks have a high degree of autonomy live in shelters for far longer than policies and little obligation to justify the decisions stipulate they should. Crowded living they make. State and municipal residency conditions can cause constant noise and requirements for refugees prohibit them from residential conflict that hamper daily routines moving away from areas in which it is difficult and disrupt bathing, studying, eating and to find employment unless they can find sleeping on a schedule that is compatible with jobs in advance of moving that meet legally working hours. Shelters in smaller cities are defined minimum salary requirements. often poorly connected to public transport, Even lower-skilled jobs tend to require creating difficulties commuting to jobs in a working knowledge of German and, metropolitan areas. Further discouraging given the varying waiting times for access the search for work is the fact that once they to a government language course and the report income, refugees become responsible time it takes to complete (12–24 months), for paying their own accommodation costs in immediate access to even the most basic shelters, which are frequently unaffordable. jobs is limited. Furthermore, the official government-provided language integration Unreliable resources, unpredictable needs course does not provide the specialised While their asylum applications are being language training required for higher-skilled assessed, refugees living in shelters receive jobs. With little disposable income, engaging a nominal monthly allowance (€81–145, in private study to overcome these barriers depending on age). Shelters may also provide is often financially impossible for refugees. additional in-kind benefits such as catered The rigid structure of the German food, hygiene items or clothing. After 15 education and employment training systems months, or once their asylum applications adds additional complexity for refugees are approved, refugees receive a slightly with foreign qualifications. As a part of higher monthly amount (€237–409). With employment readiness procedures, job most or all of their material resources having centres and local guilds assess whether been depleted in flight, until they can earn or not refugees’ credentials meet German income refugees have little else to draw upon, standards, for both technical and non- making moving beyond subsistence difficult. technical jobs. Even when refugees’ skills are Already complex benefits schemes evident, there is little possibility of avoiding change rapidly at both federal and local these long bureaucratic review processes or levels, resulting in implementation delays, taking simple practical skills tests to enter inconsistent payments and incorrect directly into work; where alternatives do disbursements. Frequent, forced (and exist, they are offered at the discretion of often unannounced) moves to new shelters local government authorities and businesses. often mean that either refugees must Given the difficulties around qualification find or purchase new household items or recognition, entering the job market through furniture when they are not provided, or formal apprenticeships and employer-run have to abandon what they have already training courses is often one of the only accumulated but cannot take with them viable routes to access many professions. due to differing shelter rules or the However, job centres are under no obligation inability to afford moving services. to find ways for refugees to fill perceived Without other reliable means of skills gaps so they can practise or retrain in connectivity, refugees must use large portions their previous professions. Even surpassing of their allowances to pay for phones and such hurdles to find and complete such an data (vital for contacting family, friends apprenticeship or training programme does and services). They must also pay for other not guarantee any follow-on employment expenses related to their asylum claims, or the legal right to remain in Germany. including translators and legal advisors. 32 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

A shift towards reciprocity skills testing, easier entry into lower-skilled Germany must commit to a more consolidated or in-demand jobs and more opportunities vision of how it sees the place of refugees for on-the-job learning of both skills and in its future society. Are refugees merely language. Most critically, policies must temporary guests whose basic needs should stem from the premise that refugees have be attended to only until they can be sent the capability and desire to become self- elsewhere? Or are they a new population reliant; the role of institutional structures of permanent residents who are expected should be to empower them to achieve this. to integrate – to put down roots, build Elizabeth Ekren [email protected] independent lives and give back? PhD candidate, Center for Development Studies, Presuming the goal is the latter, policies University of Bonn should find more productive ways to harness www.zef.de/staff/Elizabeth_Ekren refugees’ vast socio-economic potential. At a minimum, the laws and processes This article is based on ongoing dissertation regarding asylum applications, shelter research and fieldwork in four refugee shelters in transfers, residency status renewals, case Cologne. appeals and deportations should be further 1. In addition to those who have been recognised as refugees, this streamlined, shortened and simplified. This number includes those who have been granted other recognised would reduce the protracted uncertainty residency statuses – such as ‘ban on deportation’ or ‘subsidiary protection’ – which are not legally equivalent to recognised that decreases refugees’ motivation to refugee status. overcome obstacles to employment, financial 2. European Commission (2016) ‘An Economic Take on the security and independent living. Policies Refugee Crisis: A Macroeconomic Assessment for the EU’, Institutional Paper 033 should furthermore continue to expand legal http://bit.ly/EC-Economy-Refugees-033-2016 rights to work while striving to eliminate 3. Sources for the figures cited in this paragraph and throughout existing barriers – including greater are available (in German) from the author. flexibility in job equivalency reviews and 4. See for example UNHCR (2006) Refugee Livelihoods: A Review of the Evidence www.unhcr.org/4423fe5d2.pdf The new world of work and the need for digital empowerment Miguel Peromingo and Willem Pieterson

References are often made to forced migrants’ digital literacy, including their use of smartphones to organise journeys and communicate once at their destinations. Other digital skills, however, including those relating to the workplace, are of greater relevance to supporting their integration.

The digital divide broadly speaking refers to Digital skills are broken down into gaps created in society based on access to and five types: operational (being able to use of technology.1 It is typically described as operate a computer), mobile (being able a twofold concept: a divide based on access to use a mobile device), information to technology and a divide based on skills navigation (being able to find and interpret and usage. In most developed economies, the relevant information), social (sharing divide based on access is diminishing as a information and curating friendships) result of general growth in internet access. In and creative (creating online content).2 the European Union, for example, household Although traditionally the use of access to the internet is around 85%. However, technology is associated with operational scholars argue that the skills and usage divide skills, successful participation in society is much more pertinent than the access gap. depends much more on information Economies 33 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

from private parties – relating for example to housing, communication services and legal services. Such digital skills required by citizens in order to participate in such societies are also required by forced migrants. UNHCR/Agron Dragaj UNHCR/Agron Refugees are by definition greater risk- takers and more mobile than residents, which can make them more adaptable to these labour market changes. However, those arriving in the country of destination need to be able to make their skills visible, get them recognised and avoid ending up in a digital version of the less-skilled- low-pay equilibrium that affects many developed and emerging economies alike. A Congolese refugee, now an IT trainer, teaching at the Women’s Centre for urban refugees, Nouakchott, Mauritania. Beyond pushing buttons navigation skills, social skills and creative It may well be that the provision of skills. For example, being able to find humanitarian assistance to forced migrants the most appropriate financial services and the regulation of the protection system increasingly depends on one’s ability to will continue to be digitalised. In addition formulate the proper queries and filter and to such digital assistance, however, forced sort through online information. Those migrants need digital empowerment. Digital arriving in destination countries, who tools can improve forced migrants’ lives, might bring well-developed operational while changing labour markets are creating skills, and devices, may well lack the more opportunities for motivated and skilled crucial digital skills for societal inclusion. individuals to embed themselves in their Generally, digital skills are increasingly new societies. Digital skills, however, go correlated with people’s level of education beyond pushing buttons and knowing how (instead of, for example, with age and to operate a mobile device; in particular, the gender), suggesting that the digital divide crucial skills required to find, understand will persist. In practice this means that and utilise online information are often substantial sections of the population lack the neglected. Lower-skilled forced migrants, skills to successfully use the internet, despite or those whose long journeys have had a having access to it. Forced migrants who negative impact on their access to further enter the country with low socio-economic education, are in danger of falling by status – and therefore a low level of digital the wayside. Inclusion programmes for skills – can therefore end up in a vicious migrants should therefore consider focusing circle of poor digital skills and exclusion. on digital skills training at all levels. With the workplace evolving quickly, Miguel Peromingo [email protected] having digital skills becomes ever more Consultant and writer integral to every industry. Furthermore, as the workplace is evolving, so are requirements Willem Pieterson [email protected] for workers to stay up-to-date with relevant Co-founder, Center for eGovernment Studies technological developments. As education https://cfes.bms.utwente.nl/ is also increasingly technology-driven, 1. Van Dijk J A G M (2005) The Deepening Divide: Inequality in the workers are increasingly required to use information society, SAGE technologies in order to update themselves. 2. Van Deursen A J A M, Helsper E J and Eynon R (2016) Users also require increasingly developed ‘Development and validation of the internet Skills Scale (ISS)’ Information, Communication and Society 19(6) pp804-823 digital skills in order to benefit from many http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/64485/ digital service offerings and services tie-ins 34 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Investing in refugees: building human capital Lili Mottaghi

Investing in refugees’ well-being is a global public good, and the international community should work to reduce malnutrition and increase access to education for refugees in order to help build human capital and achieve better economic outcomes for all.

The protracted nature of forced displacement system of the host country where the worldwide has brought to the fore not official language taught at school differs only refugees’ humanitarian needs but from their home language. Many students also the development challenges they face. who excelled in their home countries These daunting challenges emerge in four cannot follow the course materials in host critical and interlinked areas.1 Refugees – in countries due to language barriers. The particular, refugee children – face tremendous challenging environment of learning can hardship in meeting their basic nutritional, impede their academic success and increase educational, health and livelihoods needs. frustration. These negative experiences and Recent studies by the UN Refugee Agency, the trauma they have already experienced UNHCR, have found acute malnutrition in damage children’s cognitive functioning, many refugee camps in Kenya, Sudan, Sierra affecting their educational performance Leone and Chad where refugees have been throughout adolescence and into adulthood. displaced for protracted periods of time. Evidence shows that low levels of education Another study indicates that while acute reduce productivity and income, which malnutrition is relatively low in the assessed makes breaking the cycle of poverty Syrian refugee populations in Jordan, Iraq more challenging. Cognitive damage to and Lebanon, the prevalence of anaemia children from receiving no or low-quality suggests a serious public health problem education in crisis-affected settings not among women and children.2 The economic only has an impact on their well-being costs of malnutrition are very high, with poor but also cuts their future earnings. nutrition prolonging the cycle of poverty Sustainable job opportunities are not and impeding growth in two main ways. readily accessible to refugees residing outside Firstly, poor physical health leads to their home country. Consequently, refugees low productivity and high rates of disease. are less likely to be employed, and the longer Women, the elderly and children under refugees are unemployed, the more their five, in particular, are at higher risk of chances of finding a job diminish as they lose respiratory and communicable diseases due skills and find themselves dependent on State to overcrowded shelters, lack of nutritious support. Many of these refugees work in the food, safe drinking water and poor hygiene. informal sector due to their lower education They can also suffer from mental stress after levels and lack of work permits. Refugees tend displacement, which affects their general to accept lower wages than unskilled host/ well-being. Secondly, there is evidence that local workers, and lower incomes not only malnutrition contributes to a longer-term mean poorer nutrition but also weaken an development problem, especially in education. individual’s resilience to further shocks. Lack Studies have shown that malnutrition of decent jobs and low earnings contribute causes stunting and wasting in children to increased child labour and child marriage and is linked to a wide range of cognitive as families become more indebted and deficiencies. Poor cognitive development leads struggle to access livelihood options. In other to missed years of schooling in childhood words, they are caught in a vicious circle. and lost years of employment in adulthood. Poor educational learning outcomes and Development challenges worsen for poor health translate into massive social refugee children entering the education costs not only for the host country but also Economies 35 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

for the global community. The cost of lack of (by investing in skills through strengthening access to quality education,3 lack of decent childhood and adult education and jobs, malnutrition and uncertainty about the vocational training) are equally important. future is high. The resulting loss in human The economics literature has found strong capital formation in terms of the knowledge links between education and human capital, and skills that are crucial for enhancing and between human capital and long-term labour productivity has consequences growth and productivity. These links should for economic growth, regional economic encourage the international community and development and the long-term processes policymakers to extend quality education of peace, stability and reconstruction. and job skills training to registered and Investing in refugees is a global public unregistered children and adult refugees, good and goes beyond the responsibility of regardless of gender or nationality. the hosting country. Therefore, collective Lili Mottaghi [email protected] action is required to address these challenges. Senior Economist, Chief Economist Office, Middle Investing in health and education for refugees, East and North Africa Region, The World Bank especially women and children, will benefit www.worldbank.org not only the host country and other nearby countries but also those further afield. It will 1. See Devarajan S and Mottaghi L (2017)Refugee Crisis in MENA: Meeting the Development Challenge, Middle East and North Africa also help prepare refugees for return, laying Economic Monitor, World Bank the foundation for economic development https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/28395 and inclusive growth in their homeland. 2. Moazzem Hossain S M, Leidman E, Kingori J, Al Harun A and The international community and Bilukha O O (2016) ‘Nutritional situation among Syrian refugees hosted in Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon: cross sectional surveys’, policymakers need to do more to provide Conflict and Health 10:26 an opportunity for refugees to thrive and www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5111203/ grow. Increasing access to health care, 3. The February 2019 issue of FMR will include a major feature on Education. Call for articles at: nutrition and safe water and facilitating the www.fmreview.org/education-displacement participation of refugees in the labour market UNHCR/Georgina Goodwin

Girls at Paysannat L school in Mahama refugee camp, eastern Rwanda. Eighty per cent of the students are Burundian refugees and 20 per cent come from the Rwandan host community. 36 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Towards greater visibility and recruitment of skilled refugees Leah Nichles and Sayre Nyce

Showcasing refugees’ skills connects refugees to global work opportunities, and also shifts the narrative from one of refugees being burdens to host countries to one in which refugees are recognised as skilled workers for whom countries should be competing.

Refugees face multiple barriers to gaining the economic and humanitarian case for access to employment. In addition to the hiring refugees. To date, five companies frequent lack of access to the right to work have offered jobs in Australia and Canada in host countries and the lack of accessible, to 11 candidates currently in Lebanon and legal and safe economic migration pathways, Jordan, while 60 other candidates are in there are added barriers of lack of visibility various stages of recruitment processes of refugees’ skills and difficulty in verifying with 20 other Australian and Canadian qualifications. Talent Beyond Boundaries employers. Meanwhile, other employers (TBB) is conducting a pilot in Jordan and in South America, Europe, the Caribbean Lebanon to determine how labour mobility and North Africa are either already pathways to protection that address exploring the Talent Catalog or have these obstacles might be opened up. committed to do so when vacancies arise. Employers need detailed information TBB works closely with both refugees about work histories and skill sets in order and employers to clarify with employers the to make informed recruitment decisions. particular skills and qualifications they are The first step, therefore, to opening up looking for, identify qualified candidates international work opportunities to refugees from the Talent Catalog for hard-to-fill roles, is to map and demonstrate the depth and and facilitate remote recruitment processes. breadth of what refugees have to offer. TBB As part of this, TBB assists refugees to has created an accessible electronic platform showcase their skills and expertise by, for – the Talent Catalog, the first of its kind – example, helping them prepare or update in which refugees in countries of asylum CVs, providing guidance on recording video can document their qualifications, skills introductions to employers, providing access and experience to share with international to interview skills training and facilitating employers who are seeking to fill skills access to language classes in anticipation of gaps. In order to encourage refugees to formal language skills assessment. Employers register with and create a profile in the may conduct their own tests – effectively Talent Catalog, TBB conducted information an informal qualifications recognition sessions with refugees across Lebanon and process – to ensure that candidates meet Jordan to explain labour mobility pathways their standards, although such processes to protection. Since July 2016, more than may be insufficient to meet visa requirements 10,000 refugees in Jordan and Lebanon have for certain regulated professions. The registered and created profiles in the Talent opportunities TBB offers are also seen by Catalog. Those registered represent some refugees as being of longer-term benefit to 180 occupations; more than one third have them. One candidate in Lebanon said, “You a tertiary qualification; and more than one will gain a lot of benefits even if you cannot third speak a language other than Arabic.1 get the job. Your confidence will increase, Another element of the equation your skills will improve and you will be ready is to find employers willing to recruit for any challenge in the world of work.” skilled refugees to fill skills gaps. TBB Draft 2 of the Global Compact on Refugees identifies potential employers and makes proposes the collection of population and Economies 37 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

socio-economic data – including on labour carry out advocacy markets, investment and skills – which work targeting both “Attracting and retaining would, among other benefits, help foster governments on how global talent is critical to inclusive economic growth for both host existing skilled visa Canada’s digital future. communities and refugees. The Talent systems may take Refugees should Catalog is one example of capturing data account of skilled absolutely be a part of

on and demonstrating the range and refugees’ unique that talent pipeline.” (Sandra Saric, Vice President of depth of refugee skills – skills which could circumstances. It Talent Innovation, Information meet employers’ needs and contribute to is also in similar and Communications economic growth anywhere in the world. discussions with three Technology Council, Canada) other States. Engaging States Talent Beyond Boundaries is helping Governments have a critical role in creating to advance an effective framework – one economic opportunities for skilled refugees that may be replicated by others – for and in recognising qualifications but, to date, refugees to rebuild lives of self-reliance economic migration pathways have not been with protection and dignity, while designed with the circumstances of refugees contributing to the global economy. in mind. Those fleeing conflict zones may not Leah Nichles have access to evidence of their qualifications [email protected] or legal identification documents, and may International Advocacy Director not be able to provide traditional work histories, references and evidence of annual Sayre Nyce [email protected] earnings. Recognising this, the Government Executive Director of Canada is funding a pilot project in Kenya Talent Beyond Boundaries to identify barriers to refugees’ access to its www.talentbeyondboundaries.org skilled migration schemes. In both Canada and Australia, while working with increasing 1. See Talent Beyond Boundaries (Sept 2017) Mapping Refugee Skills and Employability: Data and Analysis from the Talent Catalog numbers of employers to recruit skilled http://bit.ly/TBB-Sept2017 refugees, TBB continues to consult with and Validating highly educated refugees’ qualifications Katarina Mozetič Qualification certificates play a central role in the labour market integration of highly educated refugees but validating them presents considerable challenges. Sweden and Norway have introduced some positive developments to address such difficulties.

Whether doctors, teachers, engineers different occupational groups, with the or IT specialists, the highly educated principal division between occupations refugees I interviewed in Norway, Sweden regulated by law (for instance, medical and Germany between 2016 and 2017 doctors and teachers) and non-regulated ones aspired to continue working within their (such as IT engineers). For individuals in occupational fields. In order to do so they non-regulated occupations, the qualifications need to validate their foreign qualifications validation process is often simple and short. but the validation process for certain For those in legally regulated occupations the occupations is extremely lengthy, preventing experience is very different. In order to be able some highly educated refugees from re- to continue working as, for instance, medical entering their professions for years. doctors and teachers, foreign professionals Qualifications recognition and validation have to obtain national licences, usually processes differ substantially between needing to provide proof of destination- 38 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

country language skills, pass an exam, teachers. Practical work experience enables attend supplementary courses and (often) the individual to enhance their Swedish undergo a period of practical training. language skills and establish the professional All of the medical doctors and teachers contacts necessary for future job seeking. who participated in my research project who Moreover, the decision about whether an embarked upon these licensing processes in individual must undergo a programme of Norway, Sweden and Germany described supplementary training for foreign teachers numerous difficulties. Some felt that the in order to obtain their teaching licence – a required knowledge tests and supplementary decision taken by the Swedish National training ignored their existing knowledge Agency for Education upon a request to and experience, and some medical specialists validate their qualifications – can be re- were sceptical that the destination country evaluated depending on how that individual licence would equal the professional level performs in the fast-track programme. they had achieved in their home country. Most of the research participants criticised Physical possession of certificates the long duration of the licensing processes. In order to be able to validate their In Sweden, for instance, foreign qualifications, highly educated refugees teachers require an estimated five to have to be in physical possession of their eight years to obtain a Swedish teaching qualification certificates. Many respondents licence. In order to enable migrants to recounted, however, how they had lost gain faster access to the labour market, part or all of their certificates in the the Swedish Public Employment Service, rubble of their bombed homes or on their commissioned by the Swedish government journeys. Obtaining new certificates from and in cooperation with industry partners, the educational institutions where they established fast-track programmes.1 studied was often a nearly insurmountable Designed for occupations that experience obstacle – state institutions were often labour shortages, the first programmes were reluctant, unwilling or even legally initiated in 2015 and programmes currently constrained from issuing educational exist for migrant chefs, social workers certificates to individuals abroad. and those in regulated occupations such In order to address this problem, and to as teachers. The programme participants meet the requirements of the Convention on undergo a qualifications validation process, the Recognition of Qualifications concerning occupation-specific Swedish language Higher Education in the European Region, courses, internships and supplementary the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance theoretical courses. Participants take in Education (NOKUT) developed a part in these activities simultaneously, Recognition Procedure for Persons without thereby reducing the time it takes to get the Verifiable Documentation (also known as national licence. Moreover, the programmes the UVD-procedure).2 The UVD-procedure provide participants with an institutional is oriented towards individuals with foreign framework that sketches out the steps they higher education for whom the general need to take in order to reach their goal recognition procedure is not appropriate, due and offers them guidance along the way. to either missing, insufficient or unverifiable One such fast-track programme is a 26- educational and/or identity documentation. week programme aimed at foreign teachers Thereby, it is directed mainly at refugees in Malmö, Sweden. This consists of courses and persons in a refugee-like situation. The in pedagogy and about the Swedish school UVD-procedure includes input by one or two system that are taught in both Swedish NOKUT employees with knowledge about and Arabic (since it is anticipated that the educational system in the applicant’s most participants are Arabic-speaking), an country of origin and two external experts internship at one of the local schools and a with subject-specific expertise. An applicant’s Swedish language course that is tailored for educational background is verified through a Economies 39 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

questionnaire, an interview and both oral and available documentation and a structured written assignments relating to the applicant’s interview carried out by an experienced field of expertise. Although Norway is the NOKUT case officer with the applicant. only European country with the UVD- The attempts outlined here are procedure, a couple of others, including examples of positive developments aimed Sweden, employ similar procedures. at addressing the difficulties of qualification Due to increasing numbers of refugees, recognition. It remains to be seen how these the time-consuming and resource-intensive programmes will continue to evolve and nature of the UVD-procedure, and the fact how they can be implemented elsewhere. that an ever expanding group of refugees Katarina Mozetič does not fulfil the requirements for [email protected] evaluation according to the UVD-procedure, PhD Research Fellow, Department of Sociology NOKUT has, along with the United and Human Geography, University of Oslo Kingdom National Academic Recognition www.sv.uio.no/iss/english/people/aca/ Information Centre, developed a new type katarmo/index.html of faster, cheaper evaluation procedure for those without verifiable documentation. 1. http://bit.ly/SwedishGovt-fasttrack The new Qualifications Assessment for 2. http://bit.ly/NOKUT-UVD-procedure Refugees3 combines an evaluation of 3. http://bit.ly/NOKUT-QualPassport-2016

Refugee livelihoods: new actors, new models Ziad Ayoubi and Regina Saavedra

The international community is increasingly emphasising the need to bridge the humanitarian–development gap. But what does this mean on the ground in terms of refugees’ livelihoods and economic inclusion?

In addition to shelter, water, food and preferable for work rights to be granted as education, refugees (just like everyone else) early as possible in order not to prevent or need productive employment. Generating delay the potential contribution of refugees an income to meet one’s basic needs and to economies. Restrictive work rights provide for one’s family is essential for encourage informal economic activities and human dignity, and is a human right deprive host countries of an economically under the Universal Declaration of Human active population who could otherwise Rights. Furthermore, there is growing pay taxes and consume, produce and sell evidence that refugees can contribute to goods and services. It is neither desirable economic development in host countries if nor logical to postpone work rights until given the chance to participate. Refugees’ refugees become legally integrated (for human capital (skills and experience) can example, through naturalisation), which bring new products and services to the can take a long time; people will still local market, while financial capital such work but will be excluded from formal, as remittances and international aid can decent employment opportunities. Good stimulate economies. However, in most practice (in Norway, Sweden, Denmark countries refugees still lack the right to work. and Germany, among others) shows that From a host country’s perspective, supporting early labour market insertion governments should recognise, firstly, that a – for example, through skills certification, legal framework which allows the economic apprenticeships and job matching schemes inclusion of refugees can generate benefits – allows refugees to become contributing for host countries and, secondly, that it is members of host communities. This is 40 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

naturally more easily accomplished in private sector actors. However, identifying countries where local economies can opportunities that can achieve real impact absorb a labour influx and where resources for refugees and host communities can be and infrastructure exist to efficiently link a painful and lengthy process, particularly refugees to appropriate opportunities. when discussions between humanitarian However, 84% of the world’s refugees and private sectors are conducted only at are hosted by developing countries, many the global level, far from local reality. of which suffer high rates of poverty and unemployment. In such contexts, policy Improving ways of working development and programme design The humanitarian community is increasingly promoting refugees’ livelihoods must speak aware of the need to change its usual ways to the concerns of host countries. This is of working. The UN Refugee Agency, where development actors can help. One UNHCR, has made many strategic changes significant example is the World Bank’s recently such as in cash-based interventions Global Concessional Financing Facility which and biometric identification, in developing provides concessional loans to middle-income multi-year, multi-partner strategies, and in countries hosting refugees in order to expand livelihoods programming. Traditionally, labour opportunities and improve local many livelihoods interventions focused infrastructure, benefiting host and refugee on skills development and subsidies, and populations. Meanwhile, the International were implemented without real analysis of Labour Organization’s ‘Guiding principles refugee needs and capacities. They lacked the on the access of refugees and other forcibly potential to generate real, sustainable impact displaced persons to the labour market’1 speak for refugees, let alone for host communities. to the need for proper governance frameworks UNHCR, along with many of its partners as well as the importance of the private sector and other humanitarian organisations, is in generating decent, productive employment. now moving towards more targeted, market- Economic inclusion is of course impossible based and results-oriented programming. without the engagement of employers, The most important aspect of this is the investors, service providers and other emphasis on understanding market dynamics UNHCR/Mark Henley UNHCR/Mark

Two Eritrean refugees involved in IKEA Switzerland’s six-month internship programme. On completing, refugees can apply for a permanent position. By September 2017, 13 of the 36 interns who had completed the internship programme had been employed by IKEA. Economies 41 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

when programming for livelihoods. In order there is no genuine economic participation to support this, UNHCR has issued Minimum of refugees nor long-term benefit for the Criteria for Livelihoods Programming2 and host community. The role of humanitarian (in partnership with the International Labour agencies is facilitation: ensuring access of Organization, ILO) guidance on the need refugees and vulnerable host community to identify and prioritise specific sectors, members to market opportunities, without and then to analyse the opportunities for agencies becoming direct producers, vendors refugee inclusion within the ‘value chains’ or consumers. Agencies can, however, of each sector3 based on potential for growth, add value by developing models that relevance to refugee capacities and feasibility prove that refugees have the potential to of intervention. The sector selection takes contribute positively to the local economy; into account economic trends but also the these models should later be handed over political, legal and socio-cultural context, to be led by development partners, private including rules, regulations and norms; sector actors and/or governments. available supporting services; and the profile of the refugee and host communities. This The Graduation Approach analysis allows practitioners to identify An example of such a model is the Graduation opportunities and interventions that might Approach, which UNHCR and partners increase refugee participation without have piloted in various contexts since exacerbating tensions between refugees 2013, including in Burkina Faso, Costa and the host community. Some examples of Rica, Ecuador and Egypt. Graduation is such sectors include food services in Egypt, an approach to lifting households out of maize, cassava and groundnuts in Zambia, poverty through providing – within certain and food and beverage in Costa Rica. In time limits – short-term humanitarian Egypt, joint ILO–UNHCR analysis found assistance, livelihoods training, employment that entrepreneurial training and start-up or self-employment support and a strong grants could help Syrian refugees to capitalise coaching component. Coaches identify a on the popularity of Syrian cuisine, and household’s protection and other needs and programmes were designed accordingly. link participants to existing national and At the global level, UNHCR and other local services. A mid-term evaluation of the organisations are linking refugee artisans graduation pilot in Santo Domingo, Ecuador, to global markets through the MADE51 shows that the approach is promising. After (Market Access, Design and Empowerment) less than one year of implementation (and initiative4 which aims to build the technical during a year of financial crisis and a natural capacity of local, ethical social enterprises disaster in Ecuador), 57% of households had to manage unique collections produced by a regular source of income (compared with refugees and to support them in branding 49% prior to the start of the programme); and marketing products internationally. the average monthly household income The overall aim of this way of working increased from US$269 to $282; 34.6% of is to work within existing market dynamics households earned an income above the to promote sustainable economic inclusion national poverty line (28.3% previously); for refugees. In doing so, UNHCR and and 78% of households were able to eat humanitarian agencies need to avoid three meals a day (60.4% previously). becoming market players. Historically, The Graduation Approach is increasingly this has been challenging. There are many being used by governments and development examples of humanitarian-implemented actors in a variety of non-refugee contexts as livelihoods trainings where refugees a social protection tool, and these actors are produced goods that were later sold now beginning to engage with UNHCR and directly to the humanitarian agencies; the humanitarian agencies about incorporating moment the humanitarian agency runs displaced populations into their plans. USAID out of funding, the activity ceases and is investing in a $37 million graduation 42 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

pilot in Uganda that will target both host Development Fund has also committed to communities and refugees; in Ecuador, the supporting refugees’ access to financial Ministry of Social and Economic Inclusion is services in several countries in Africa by interested in collaborating on the Graduation providing financial and technical support to Approach in order to expand its own social service providers who provide refugee access. protection programme; and returnees and IDPs in Afghanistan and Pakistan What’s next? are included in Graduation Approach More models need to be tested and more programmes run by microfinance institutions. development funding should be invested; some models will work better than others, Financial inclusion and some interventions that work for some Access to financial services is another area populations may not work for others. Failures where major innovation has been required, should be expected as the international as traditional approaches to microfinance community learns how to meet the needs initiatives by humanitarian agencies have of this vulnerable population while in many cases proved unsustainable. Rather also achieving positive results for host than managing revolving funds directly, communities. Continuous monitoring – and, UNHCR and partners are beginning to take therefore, investment in evaluation – will a facilitative approach to ensure access to be needed in order to identify lessons and financial services for refugees. UNHCR is enable good practices to be replicated. working with the Swedish Development Ziad Ayoubi [email protected] Agency to establish a credit guarantee facility Senior Livelihoods Officer, UNHCR Geneva for financial service agencies providing loans to refugees and host populations. The Regina María Saavedra [email protected] guarantee scheme will help finance three to Associate Durable Solutions Officer, UNHCR four financially viable and socially oriented Mexico financial service providers, and is meant to www.unhcr.org encourage lending to refugees and to build 1. http://bit.ly/ILO-guiding-principles-refugees evidence that microfinance for this segment of 2. www.unhcr.org/54fd6cbe9.pdf the population can be viable. The UN Capital 3. www.unhcr.org/594b7d7f7.pdf The macro-economic impacts of Syrian refugee aid Tobias Schillings A new study on the effects of humanitarian assistance in response to the Syria crisis finds significant positive impacts for regional economic growth and job creation.

With currently 5.6 million registered Syrian Conference for Supporting Syria and the refugees being hosted by neighbouring Region in February 2016, is complemented countries and over six million internally by commitments from the affected national displaced within Syria, creating economic governments neighbouring Syria (to open opportunities has become a central up their labour markets and improve component of the resilience approach in their regulatory environment), the response to the crisis. Acknowledging international community (to strengthen the destructive impact of the conflict on job creation through access to concessional livelihoods and economic resources, the financing and external markets) and the international community committed to private sector (to foster economic growth creating 1.1 million jobs for refugees and by providing new investments). host communities by the end of 2018. This The core response of the international ambitious goal, announced at the London community is the Regional Refugee and Economies 43 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies UNHCR/Scott Nelson UNHCR/Scott

Syrian refugees sell soaps and detergents in their shop in Alexandria, Egypt. UNHCR supported this and other job creation projects in Egypt. Resilience Plan (3RP)1 which is based on assistance has been the subject of significant plans developed under the leadership of the debate. The Syrian crisis has clearly had relevant national authorities – namely, Egypt, an overall negative impact on many Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey. The 3RP neighbouring countries’ economies by combines humanitarian and development affecting trade flows, GDP and growth, and elements, spans eight different sectors, could threaten regional stability. However, including livelihoods, and is supported by as over 90% of refugees live outside camps, a total annual funding appeal of US$5.6 they have become important customers billion for 2018. A recent study of the macro- for local goods and services, paid for with economic impacts of the 3RP (undertaken savings, labour income, remittances and in cooperation with the UN Development humanitarian assistance. Local businesses Programme’s Sub-Regional Response also benefit from humanitarian assistance Facility for the Syria Crisis)2 demonstrates programmes as they get contracted its noticeable contribution to economic as suppliers for non-governmental growth and job creation in the region – a organisations (NGOs) and humanitarian contribution that has mostly been overlooked agencies. Furthermore, the arrival of Syrian in public discourse yet offers a powerful refugees’ private capital and expertise has narrative for policymakers in fostering accelerated business growth in countries social cohesion among host communities. such as Egypt, Jordan and Turkey.3 Syrian businesses have become an important The qualitative evidence engine for refugee job creation and represent In many host communities, the economic a premier example of the ‘growing the impact of Syrian refugees and humanitarian pie’ approach in host communities. 44 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

The quantitative evidence The study’s results indicate the potentially To further support these qualitative significant impact of the 3RP programming statements, the new study uses an economic on host countries. With a total spending framework to estimate fiscal stimulus and over 2017 and 2018 of about $9 billion, the employment effects of the 3RP. As a first step, response plan creates a much larger fiscal we estimate the potential GDP impact based stimulus. The short-term effects account for a on ‘fiscal multipliers’. Public investments projected GDP impact of about $17–25 billion, generate higher economic effects than their while the associated job creation impact adds initial value, as the economy benefits from up to an estimated 75,000–110,000 jobs.6 spillover effects. For example, building a The relative effect for each country refugee camp creates income not only for depends mostly on the size of its economy the construction company but also for the and the amount of funding received, suppliers of materials and labour. This with Lebanon and Jordan being the income is then spent on other goods and largest recipients. With a relatively small services which in turn create additional market, these countries are expected to economic effects. Fiscal multipliers capture experience a much stronger momentum in these spillover effects. In a 2015 study of economic growth due to the large inflow of Lebanon, UNDP and the UN Refugee humanitarian assistance. However, even large Agency (UNHCR) found that each dollar economies such as Turkey and Egypt are spent of their US$800 million refugee aid expected to contribute between 12,000 and package generated an additional 0.6 dollars 23,000 jobs to the London target. Emphasising of revenue, making the multiplier 1.6.4 the positive economic impacts of refugee aid, The second step of the analysis is to this research advocates a fully funded 3RP. quantify the potential for job creation. By Although the job target seems unlikely to be using historic data (including data that achieved by the resilience response alone, captures recent national developments) the 3RP represents a significant contribution to quantify the relationship between to expanding economic opportunities for changes in unemployment and output at refugees and supports long-term growth by the macro-economic level for each country, fostering resilience in host communities. it is possible to translate the national GDP impact into expected job creation.5 Tobias Schillings [email protected] It is important to note that the study’s MPhil in Economics candidate, University of final estimate is a projection for the general Oxford, and Economic Consultant, UNDP Sub- job creation potential in each country. It does Regional Response Facility for the Syria Crisis not distinguish between refugees and host www.economics.ox.ac.uk/graduate-students/ nationals, nor does it claim the kinds of jobs tobias-schillings that are created. This micro-level impact will 1. 3RP (2018) Regional Refugee and Response Plan 2018-2019: Regional depend on 3RP programme implementation, Strategic Overview http://bit.ly/3RPStrategicOverview2018-19 targeting and national economic policies. 2. Schillings T (2018) ‘Jobs Make the Difference – Estimating job Especially with regard to refugees, labour creation potential of the 3RP Regional Refugee & Resilience Plan’, Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and International Affairs market barriers must be taken into account. Working Paper No. 44, American University of Beirut Refugees experience much stronger economic, http://bit.ly/Schillings-3RP-2018 legal and social restrictions to employment 3. See for example Ucak S, Holt J and Raman K (2017) ‘Another than do citizens of host countries. As long Side to the Story: A Market Assessment of Syrian Businesses in Turkey’, Building Markets http://anothersidetothestory.org/ as these barriers exist, refugees will not 4. UNDP/UNHCR (2015) Impact of humanitarian aid on the Lebanese be able to benefit fully from the estimated economy http://bit.ly/UNDP-UNHCR-Aid-Impact-Lebanon-2015 expansion of economic opportunities. 5. The full explanation of the framework and results is available at It is therefore up to the international http://bit.ly/Schillings-3RP-2018 community and host governments to target 6. This projection assumes that the 3RP is fully funded. Given the significant funding gap in recent years, especially with regards to their programmes and policies in such a the livelihoods sector, achieving these results will require further way as to promote inclusive growth. financial support by donors. Economies 45 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies Quality of work for Syrian refugees in Jordan Maha Kattaa and Meredith Byrne

Work permits have been at the centre of the policy debate on the hosting of Syrian refugees in Jordan. This approach needs also to involve ensuring decent working conditions for all.

The issuing of over 100,000 work permits systems deduct contributions from workers’ to Syrian refugees in Jordan as of May wages to contribute to national social security 2018 – following a joint commitment funds, insurance schemes do not operate by the Government of Jordan and the in the same way. Protecting Syrian workers international community – is in itself an through social security is important not important achievement. However, work only for securing equality of treatment but permits can also be a deceptive indicator also for extending social protection coverage because they measure the legalisation to unemployed and retired Jordanians – and formalisation of employment but not because unregistered workers increase necessarily actual job creation nor the the supply of unprotected labour, while quality of work. Evidence from a 2017 decreasing the share of workers making International Labour Organization (ILO) contributions to social security funds. rapid impact assessment1 suggests that Only 20% of interviewed Syrian workers obtaining a work permit is only the first step who had work permits reported being towards formalising Syrian workers. Policies covered by social security; 13% did not must also improve working conditions. know whether they were covered, nor what benefits social security provided. Many Social protection and decent work Jordanian employers interviewed during With few exceptions, employers in Jordan are the rapid impact assessment did not believe required to enrol their employees in social that they were required to register Syrian security, irrespective of nationality, and must workers in social security, even in sectors do so for new employees soon after their work where they were in fact required to do so. permits are issued. In the agriculture sector, Since the adoption of non-employer and however, Syrian workers are permitted to non-profession specific work permits, the obtain work permits through cooperatives. responsibility of insuring against injury This de-links them from a sponsor and at work has shifted to the permit holders. thereby also bypasses the requirement for Early focus group discussions held with employers to register Syrians in the social Syrian construction workers who had security system. Similarly, in the construction obtained employment via ILO Employment sector, Syrians may obtain a work permit Service Centres across Jordan indicate through the General Federation of Jordanian a generally positive reaction to having Trade Unions (GFJTU). Under the GFJTU insurance (and that they do not consider the scheme, workers are not required to register cost prohibitive) but that there is a lack of with the national social security system but awareness of the provisions and benefits of must instead obtain an insurance policy, insurance. It is also unclear whether Syrian costing approximately 45 Jordanian dinar workers who are young and in good health (US$65) annually. will want to invest in insurance policies as The implications of protecting a large they may not perceive the risk of illness, number of Syrian workers through work injury or death as being relevant to them. injury insurance schemes are not yet clear, although insurance schemes do not provide Labour inspection minimum social protection coverage as Our research suggests that labour inspectors defined by ILO’s Social Security Convention appear to prioritise verifying that all foreign No. 102.2 Furthermore, while social security workers, including Syrian workers, have the 46 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

required permits but pay less attention to protection systems. In some sectors, clear decent work conditions. Of those interviewed information on the benefits of social security Syrian workers who had permits, only 8% coverage or employment insurance, as well reported that their working conditions, as as workers’ entitlements, may be of use. well as work permits, were checked during Clear communication is also needed around labour inspections. It would seem therefore the social security system as a whole and its that not all indicators of decent work have reliance on workers’ contributions. Labour improved with formalisation. Overall, inspection could also play a more prominent Syrians with work permits do report an role in promoting decent work if inspectors increased likelihood of having written work were better equipped to provide relevant contracts; however, hourly wages, safety recommendations to employers and workers provisions and relations with employers to help them comply with regulations and are not necessarily any better. Our evidence standards, rather than only playing an suggests that Syrians with permits are enforcement role. Reasonable and well- actually working in excess of the standard regulated penalties can, when necessary, 40-hour work week, although none reported play a part in encouraging compliance. receiving overtime compensation. Focus A comprehensive review of work permits’ group discussions, however, showed a accordance with applicable international more complex picture. Some Syrian workers labour standards3 could be of use for workers, wanted to work more hours so that they employers and government representatives. could increase their income, even though More work needs to be done to identify the they knew they might not be compensated challenges Syrians face in obtaining work for the additional work. Despite having been permits but of equal importance is to support briefed on occupational safety and health the Jordanian government to find the right (OSH) procedures, others preferred not to balance of incentives and sanctions that wear protective gear, finding that it got in the serve the interests of employers, Jordanian way of their work. Employers reported that citizens and Syrian workers alike. fines for non-compliance were not substantial Maha Kattaa [email protected] or evenly applied, that OSH provisions were Syria Response Coordinator in Amman not usually checked during inspections, and that there was a general lack of consistency Meredith Byrne [email protected] in the enforcement of labour laws. Technical Officer in Labour Migration International Labour Organization www.ilo.org Finding the right balance By facilitating the employment of Syrian 1. International Labour Organization (2017) Work permits and employment of Syrian refugees in Jordan: toward formalising the work of workers, the Government of Jordan has Syrian refugees http://bit.ly/ILO-permits-Syria-Jordan-2017 taken proactive steps to turn the arrival This assessment was based on questionnaires completed by 450 Syrian workers (half of whom had work permits and half of whom of Syrian refugees into a development did not) in the service, agriculture and construction sectors, and opportunity. Government policies must on two focus groups. continue to promote decent work conditions 2. http://bit.ly/ILO-Convention-102 which should include mechanisms that 3. ILO (2016) Guiding principles on the access of refugees and gradually bring workers into national social other forcibly displaced persons to the labour market. Principle 14 (d) http://bit.ly/ILO-guiding-principles-refugees

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FMR57_English_Syria_2018.indd 1 Economies 47 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies The gig economy in complex refugee situations Abigail Hunt, Emma Samman, Dina Mansour-Ille and Henrieke Max

Research with Syrian women refugees in Jordan suggests that, despite significant challenges, the gig economy has some potential to help refugees participate in host communities and to bolster their economic participation.

As elsewhere in the world, the gig economy generous recent estimate being 1.5%.3 – in which companies develop mobile Our research in Jordan suggests that gig platforms which bring together workers work may involve a few hundred Syrian and the purchasers of their services – is fast refugee women at most. On this basis taking root in Jordan. These platforms enable alone, it could be argued that engagement businesses to order timed and monetised with gig work is not a good use of scarce tasks from an available worker, with a fee or development and humanitarian resources. commission commonly charged to the worker The gig economy does not – as it or client by the platform. Workers take on currently stands – offer decent work particular ‘gigs’ without any guarantee of as defined by the International Labour further work and are typically classified as Organization (ILO). Therefore, a wider self-employed or independent contractors focus on improving access to livelihoods in by gig economy companies. The operating sectors which offer opportunities for a more model of gig economy platforms can be stable income, coupled with better working divided into ‘crowd work’ and ‘on-demand’ conditions, may be more appropriate. work. Crowd work refers to tasks which are Furthermore, structural constraints – both commissioned and carried out via the internet practical and political – to accessing gig work using suitably skilled ‘crowd workers’ located present a barrier to entry for marginalised anywhere in the world. On-demand tasks are communities. For example, for many carried out locally, assuming close physical refugees in Jordan, internet connectivity proximity of service purchaser and provider. is limited or non-existent. Women face A 2017 study commissioned by the further constraints to digital connectivity, International Rescue Committee (IRC) and sometimes requiring permission to use carried out by the Overseas Development the internet or due to access restrictions Institute (ODI) explored the potential of imposed by limited digital literacy. the gig economy to provide economic The legal implications of involvement opportunities to Syrian women refugees in gig work may also be of concern to currently living in Jordan.1 Although the practitioners. It remains unclear whether sector is still in its infancy, international non-Jordanian gig economy workers are companies (such as Uber and Careem) and entitled to work permits. Expanding gig home-grown companies (such as Bilforon work may therefore appear to be supporting and Mrayti) have already established workers to access informal work, bearing operations in the country. To understand the potential risks for both practitioners and implications for humanitarian practitioners workers themselves. Crowd-work platforms of this fast-developing form of paid work in complicate matters further because of their complex refugee situations, we examined transnational character: workers can be the potential and challenges of including the based in one country and undertake tasks gig economy in livelihoods programming.2 for clients based in a second, via platforms located in a third – leaving it unclear which Challenges is the legally responsible jurisdiction. The gig economy remains indisputably Finally, gig workers in general confront small. Worldwide, it involves a very modest many challenging working conditions, share of the active workforce, the most including a lack of social protection and 48 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

bargaining power. Refugee gig workers The gig economy also has potential in particular face yet greater difficulties, to help overcome the barriers that restrict such as heightened apprehensions around the mobility – and therefore participation the submission of private information – of Syrian women refugees in the labour online that might put them at risk. force. Some focus group members reported how home-based gig work could open up Opportunities opportunities for women’s livelihoods. Notwithstanding the challenges, the gig Moreover, on-demand work could expand economy does present some opportunities for possibilities for engagement in sectors livelihoods programming. Early engagement in which these women may already be with the expanding gig economy offers an skilled, such as catering or tailoring. opportunity to understand its positive and negative implications (for gig workers and Avenues for gig economy livelihoods the labour market more broadly), and to programming address them proactively while there is time We believe there is a case for livelihoods to shape these technologies and their impacts. programming in Jordan to include Although the gig economy may, in some opportunities in the gig economy, if integrated ways, be little different from other forms of alongside robust protection measures and casual, informal work available to refugees, other employment options. Potential avenues gig workers appear to value some features for such livelihoods support include: of platform apps – such as their independent log of hours worked, which alleviates the Engaging in dialogue with government: risk of wage theft and facilitates prompt Given the lack of clarity around the payment on task completion.4 The gig applicability and enforcement of existing economy also makes it possible for refugees labour regulation in relation to the gig to undertake crowd work, which is not tied economy, practitioners need to engage with to a particular location. This could present the legal implications and potential risks of new economic opportunities for suitably supporting gig work. One approach could skilled and equipped workers, although it be to engage in dialogue with the Jordanian introduces challenges around the governance government to clarify what engagement and the precariousness of such work. the government is willing to permit. At the same time, it would be valuable to undertake a range of advocacy activities, including calling for government-led (c) Western Union (c) Western social dialogue around opportunities and conditions in the gig economy and policies to promote digital inclusion and permit freedom of association.

Supporting refugee engagement in navigating gig work: Practitioners should monitor the policy environment relating to refugee engagement in gig work. They should provide timely, ongoing information Syrian refugees and Jordanian citizens take part in crowd work, outsourced from Western Union. Why have we pixellated their faces? See www.fmreview.org/photo-policy Economies 49 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

to refugees seeking or involved in gig work to refugees on the work permit process and about the relevant regulations and the their rights and entitlement under labour associated opportunities and risks, as well laws. Developing platform cooperative models as specific support such as digital literacy with existing women-inclusive cooperatives training and legal advice. Considering the in Jordan and technology company leaders challenges that gig work poses, this support could provide an opportunity to harness should include building transferable skills digital technology to expand workers’ that would enable refugees to seek alternative access to paid work and markets, while economic opportunities if they wish. mitigating some of the challenges posed to workers by gig economy models. Encouraging responsible company engagement: Practitioners may be well- Finally, we recommend that practitioners placed to encourage companies to pay serious support the collection of evidence attention to workers’ concerns, including about gig worker experiences in order around privacy. In addition, practitioners to inform programming (to support might initiate connections with those women’s economic empowerment) and crowd-work companies which operate on a advocacy (to raise awareness about worker more ethical and inclusive model in order experiences and needs). Taken together, to explore their interest in working with these steps could help increase the vulnerable communities, such as Syrian individual capacity of workers to engage women refugees. Central to this should within the gig economy and – critically – be ensuring that companies consider the improve the conditions of work itself. specific needs of these groups (for example, Abigail Hunt [email protected] for robust digital literacy training) and that Research Fellow the work offered is decent and desirable. Emma Samman [email protected] Facilitating refugee association: Even in Research Associate contexts in which refugee association is Dina Mansour-Ille [email protected] prohibited, refugees are usually permitted Senior Research Officer to come together for training led by non- governmental organisations. This could Overseas Development Institute www.odi.org provide a very good opportunity to link Henrieke Max [email protected] with (registered) women’s groups to train Carlo Schmid Fellow and Policy Officer – and support women, and to enable them to Economic Programmes, International Rescue advance collective action in different areas of Committee www.rescue-uk.org their lives, including by developing economies 5 1. Hunt A, Samman E and Mansour-Ille D (2017) ‘Syrian of scale in small businesses. Practitioners women refugees: opportunity in the gig economy?’, Overseas could also facilitate links between refugees Development Institute engaging in gig work and labour unions. www.odi.org/syrian-refugees-jordan-gig-economy This would raise unions’ awareness of the 2. The authors thank Kimberly Behrman, Sawsan Issa, Daphne Jayasinghe, Ghadeer Al Majali, Barri Shorey and Elizabeth Stuart experiences of workers as the gig economy for their contributions to this article. emerges, so that they can amplify gig 3. Based on author computations of ILO data and Codagnone C, workers’ voices and advocate on their behalf. Abadie F and Biagi F (2016) ‘The Future of Work in the Sharing Economy: Market Efficiency and Equitable Opportunities or Unfair Precarisation?’, JRC Science for Policy Report EUR 27913, Exploring cooperative models: In a recent Institute for Prospective Technological Studies precedent, the Jordanian government has http://bit.ly/Codagnone-Abadie-Biagi-2016 permitted agricultural cooperatives to apply 4. Hunt A and Machingura F (2016) ‘A good gig? The rise of on- demand domestic work’, ODI for Syrian refugee work permits, acting as the http://bit.ly/ODI-GoodGig-Domestic-2016 ‘employer’ and handling their paperwork. 5. Ritchie H A (2017) ‘Towards inclusion and integration? Syrian These cooperatives have also supported the refugee women’s fragile new livelihoods in Jordan’, SLRC Briefing Ministry of Labour by providing information Paper http://bit.ly/SLRC-Jordan-livelihoods-2017 50 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 The power of markets: lessons from Uganda Alison Hemberger, Sasha Muench and Chelsea Purvis

Market-based approaches in northern Uganda demonstrate the benefits of supporting local markets instead of distributing in-kind aid.

Markets help crisis-affected populations in-kind food assistance (such as cereals, access goods, services and economic beans and cooking oil). Households sell the opportunities that are critical to meeting excess to buy goods they need more in local their basic needs and supporting their marketplaces, undermining the market’s livelihoods. Nevertheless, many aid ability to provide food to local populations organisations continue to provide in-kind and reducing farmers’ incentive to grow assistance in areas where markets are crops for sale. One trader in Yumbe (the functional. This may help in the short term nearest town to Bidi Bidi settlement) notes but it sidesteps, and often undermines, that, prior to the refugee response, 10 large markets’ short- and long-term roles in traders used to bring in cereals to the local coping and recovery. This is particularly market. Since aid distributions have started relevant in protracted refugee crises. only one of them remains, while the others Northern Uganda is one such context, have shifted to other types of businesses. where nearly one million refugees who By providing seeds and tools, aid have fled South Sudan’s conflict currently organisations also undercut the availability live. Refugee settlements have developed of agriculture inputs in local markets. To in this area previously, and the most date very few input sellers exist in the West recently arrived refugees are expected to Nile settlements; agro-dealers in nearby remain in the West Nile region for many towns say that free distribution of in-kind years. Recognising this, the Government inputs prevents them from expanding of Uganda and the UN Refugee Agency, their sales in the refugee settlements. UNHCR, have called for aid actors to promote sustainable livelihoods for the refugees. Promoting market-driven activities The vast majority of host communities in Cash programming fuels spending and West Nile have historically been reliant on investment in West Nile without undercutting subsistence agriculture and, as a result, the critical markets but more cash transfers supporting markets necessary to produce alone cannot be a long-term strategy for and expand commercial agriculture (such as refugee support. Aid organisations need of supplies of seed and fertiliser, technical to support market-driven activities that advice and sales channels) have remained help households earn an income in the underdeveloped. Yet spending and investment longer term. Mercy Corps, Palladium and by South Sudanese refugees is helping to fuel DanChurchAid are working together in West new growth in this underdeveloped economy. Nile to strengthen agricultural markets and Refugee investment is also likely to continue improve refugees’ participation in them.1 as refugees begin to establish themselves in Their ReHope project2 comprises several the settlements. There is thus real potential components. The first involves partnering for continued economic growth in ways that with agro-dealers to help them access provide longer-term livelihoods opportunities improved seeds and expand their sales for both refugees and host communities. networks into settlements, and providing However, while aid organisations and marketing support to agro-dealers for the first donors have made commitments to transition growing season; rather than handing out free to an increasingly cash-based response, agricultural inputs to farmers directly, the nearly all households in West Nile’s Bidi project funded a coupon-based promotion for Bidi and Palorinya settlements still receive purchase of agro-dealers’ inputs. The second Economies 51 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

component involves working directly with encourage investments that strengthen the refugee populations to provide advice on capacity of local market actors on whom production and to support land sharing with refugees and host communities rely for host communities. Finally, the project works their livelihoods to attract output buyers and strengthen their capture learning about market systems networks, with the goal of helping refugees to for current and future refugee responses increase incomes from the crops they harvest. in West Nile and provide feedback on the Donors and implementing partners successes and challenges of market-driven can draw several lessons from the early, approaches and the inter-related impacts encouraging results of the ReHope project, on refugees and host communities. including the need to: reduce in-kind food distributions in favour Alison Hemberger [email protected] of cash transfers where possible, scaling up Senior Advisor, Markets and Learning cash transfers gradually, accompanied by Sasha Muench [email protected] transparent investments in market analysis Senior Director of Markets, Economic Recovery and learning and Growth reduce in-kind distribution of agriculture Chelsea Purvis [email protected] inputs in favour of gradually reduced Policy and Advocacy Advisor subsidies Mercy Corps www.mercycorps.org move to joint funding across humanitarian and development portfolios and increase 1. See Mercy Corps (2017) Refugee Markets Brief: The power of markets to support refugee economic opportunities in West Nile, Uganda project timeframes, in order to enable http://bit.ly/MercyCorps-RefugeeMarkets2017 aid organisations to more effectively 2. Funded by the UK government. strengthen market opportunities for refugees facing multi-year displacement Livelihoods programming and its influence on secondary migration Richard Mallett, Jessica Hagen-Zanker, Clare Cummings and Nassim Majidi

Improving access to work, as well as livelihoods programming itself, is required if the lives and livelihoods of Eritrean refugees in Ethiopia are to improve.

In search of greater freedoms and in Ethiopia’s refugee camps, providing opportunities, thousands of Eritreans have capital to help participants establish fled their country in recent years – many micro-enterprises or equipping them directly across the border to Ethiopia. with vocational skills in a particular One estimate by the UN Refugee Agency, sector, such as tailoring or computing, UNHCR, in 2016 put the number of registered and/or basic educational skills such as Eritrean refugees residing in Ethiopia at numeracy. Although such interventions nearly 800,000. But for many the journey attempt to achieve humanitarian and does not stop there. Secondary migration developmental outcomes (by generating of Eritreans from Ethiopia is considerable, improvements in participants’ well-being), with some evidence suggesting that as much they are also increasingly justified in the as two thirds of the Eritrean population name of migration control – and more in Ethiopia moved onwards in 2015.1 specifically the prevention of onward Humanitarian organisations have long movement. Through 63 interviews with been delivering livelihoods programming Eritreans across three different sites 52 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

in Ethiopia we examined the extent to We observed a similar pattern for skills which these measures actually influence and vocational training: while respondents the way people plan for their futures.2 often expressed gratitude for, and satisfaction with, the experience, they reported little The logics and limits of livelihoods significant or long-term impact. Our research programming points to refugees being unable to put Livelihoods programming is an example newly acquired skills to use in their wider of a policy measure designed to steer environment, primarily as a result of existing migration decision making at the individual legislation. One man described how he had level. Part of the objective of livelihoods planned to get a driving licence and start programming is to prevent movement before working as a taxi driver, before hearing it occurs, based on the assumption that by from the Administration for Refugees and providing greater economic opportunity Returnee Affairs and from fellow Eritreans and security to people living in ‘sending’ that he – as a refugee barred from engaging countries, it is possible to create a viable in the formal economy – would not be alternative to (primarily irregular) migration. allowed to do this. For others, the range of It is hoped that the option of migration is training programmes currently available then seen as relatively less attractive. are simply not relevant to their interests and With the caveat that our research aspirations, which deters take-up altogether. looked only at a sample of certain types of Ultimately, these forms of livelihoods programming (mainly lending initiatives support are addressing the symptoms and vocational training), our evidence rather than the underlying structures of suggests that while such interventions are poverty and economic marginalisation capable of helping people to meet basic facing Eritrean refugees – which are likely needs, there appears to be little meaningful to be driving the desire among so many for effect on more transformative change in secondary migration. In particular, these people’s livelihoods or migration plans. underlying factors include refugees’ lack A number of respondents in Adi Harush of rights to formal, better paid and higher camp in the north of the country described skilled employment. One woman told us: how they had received financial support “In the Netherlands you can get a job with from non-governmental organisations better wages. My husband tells me that (NGOs), which they used to start up their it is also much better to access the basic own micro-enterprises such as small shops infrastructure services in the Netherlands within the camp or buying and raising than in Ethiopia. […] I know it is possible livestock. Many welcomed this support: to travel to the Netherlands.” Another one man, for example, was now running man illustrated what might prevent him a successful horse and carriage transport making a similar onward move: “If I am service, having received an initial loan; not working, I will run out of patience a single mother told us that her NGO- and I may attempt the dangerous move to funded chicken farm was doing well. Europe but I hope I can get a job and will However, many interviewees also not need to risk this.” Without meaningful discussed the limitations of these improvements in refugees’ access to decent programmes. Although one woman had work – work that is reliable, adequately paid, used her loan to establish a small shop and makes use of their skills – the support within the camp, her main problem was one provided by livelihoods programming simply of marketplace saturation, which made it cannot be expected to reduce secondary hard to make a profit and expand. The point migration in any significant sense. here is that although camps form their own economies, it is evident that the markets Improving livelihoods programming within them are often limited, creating little To better align livelihoods interventions with opportunity to accumulate 2017 Muñoz Acebes Human Rights Watch/César reasonable profits. both the intended beneficiaries’ needs and Economies 53 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

the dynamics of the local context, efforts 2017 – a US$500 million agreement between should be made to (re)evaluate the local the Ethiopian government and external relevance of the training that is offered and to donors to create 100,000 new jobs (roughly expand the types of work in which refugees one-third of which will be allocated can participate. Further to this, more could to refugees).3 Such initiatives, already be done to provide ongoing mentoring and implemented in some major refugee-hosting supervision for those refugees who have countries such as Jordan, are designed to received loans and training, to help them improve access to work for both refugees maximise their potential gains. At the and members of the host community. same time, however, NGO programme staff Based on our research, this seems told us that administering effective long- a positive step in the right direction. term programming is difficult precisely However, much of the success of both the because of the nature of the implementing roadmap and the compact will ultimately environment. In a context of high secondary depend on the detail of their design and migration, interventions are intentionally implementation. To that end, we offer designed to be quick and simple, purely to five suggestions to policymakers: encourage enrolment; this limits innovation First, information about any initiative space and encourages inflexibility, thus must be transparent, clear and accessible placing obvious constraints on those in order for refugees to make informed responsible for design and implementation. decisions about their options. Not only Putting questions of programming should potential participants be made to one side, refugees’ ability to build fully aware of eligibility criteria but they successful, dignified lives will largely should also be provided with information hinge on their capacity to access decent about what to expect regarding the terms, work. This is fundamental, underpinning nature and returns of the work on offer. both the challenge of survival in Ethiopia, Second, some refugees may reject jobs in as well as the resolve (formed by many) to industrial parks because the jobs either do not move on. Although there are no guarantees align with their backgrounds and interests that livelihood security automatically or for reasons of location: recent analysis of follows from moving into the formal labour work provided in special economic zones market (particularly in urban contexts in Jordan, for example, shows that low take- of generalised high unemployment), our up among Syrian refugees is often related findings suggest that people may become to factory location, with people reluctant to more inclined to remain as a result of take on long journeys or be separated from improved access to better forms of work. family.4 Take-up will also be influenced by the way in which these jobs are perceived Government steps by those at whom they are targeted: are they Recent policy developments suggest that seen to offer ‘decent’ work, or is the activity Ethiopia is shifting its stance on the right to considered demeaning or exploitative? work. In September 2016, the government Third, the politics of job allocation announced nine pledges to improve the must be anticipated and taken into account. rights of, and services available to, refugees Urban unemployment in Ethiopia remains in the country. These pledges have now high across all groups in society, and been developed into a national ‘roadmap’ economic growth has slowed in recent with six thematic priorities; one of these is years. In a context where significant work and livelihoods, which will include numbers of Ethiopians are also affected work permits for refugees, an increase in by poverty and vulnerability, the way in livelihoods programming and the creation which allocation procedures are framed, of industrial parks. These parks are a key conveyed and implemented is likely to element of the Ethiopian Jobs Compact affect the nature of social relations between which was officially rolled out in December ‘host’ and ‘refugee’ communities. 54 Economies FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

Fourth, refugee policies should be Jessica Hagen-Zanker [email protected] consistent with the realities of local labour Senior Research Fellow markets. With widespread informal Clare Cummings [email protected] employment in Ethiopia, attempts to Research Fellow formalise refugee employment might be challenging. The feasibility and future Overseas Development Institute www.odi.org sustainability of industrial parks thus need Nassim Majidi [email protected] to be carefully considered in light of the Co-Director, Samuel Hall www.samuelhall.org country’s broader economic environment. 1. Amnesty International (2016) Tackling the global refugee crisis: Finally, rather than focusing exclusively from shirking to sharing responsibility on quotas and number of work permits www.amnesty.org/en/documents/pol40/4905/2016/en/ issued, pledges and related monitoring 2. Mallett R, Hagen-Zanker J, Majidi N, Cummings C with Sturge G, Schaefer K and Vidal P (2017) Journeys on hold: How mechanisms should consider the extent to policy influences the migration decisions of Eritreans in Ethiopia ODI which policies and interventions – such as the Working Paper 506 http://bit.ly/ODI-Eritreans-Ethiopia-2017 Jobs Compact – are actually improving the 3. World Bank (2017) Program-for-results information document (PID) lives and livelihoods of refugees and hosts. concept stage http://bit.ly/WorldBank-JobsCompact-Ethiopia 4. Barbelet V, Hagen-Zanker J and Mansour-Ille D (2018) The Richard Mallett [email protected] Jordan Compact: lessons learnt and implications for future refugee Research Associate compacts http://bit.ly/ODI-JordanCompact-lessons-2018

The shortcomings of employment as a durable solution Nora Bardelli

The refugee assistance regime that prevails today seems to insist that the best, or only, solution to protracted refugee situations is firmly rooted in improving access to employment. This approach, however, inevitably favours some and excludes others, while also ignoring the deeper political and social issues at stake.

Labour and capital investment are themselves rather than relying on the State”1 increasingly seen as the solution to is promoted by two principal tendencies in protracted refugee situations. Aid agencies contemporary humanitarianism: first, by the expect forced migrants to be good increasing emphasis that the UN Refugee entrepreneurs and to become self-reliant Agency (UNHCR) and other agencies put by finding jobs and/or starting businesses. on economic livelihoods programmes and This puts the responsibility of ‘succeeding’ economic self-reliance and, second, by firmly on the refugees’ shoulders. While the growth of public-private partnerships this is not an official durable solution in refugee assistance programmes. (yet), local integration (which is) is This imposes on refugees the increasingly understood to mean being responsibility to create their own durable able to participate in economic activity. solution through employment. Within this I am not questioning the desires and framework, the official durable solutions aspirations of refugees to become self- – which are all based on the idea of re- sufficient, nor the need to support refugees to creating someone’s link with the State and access job opportunities, but I am concerned the possibility of citizenship – become by the deeper implications of this change in out-dated. The solution to displacement attitude. The “need for individuals to help is now re-defined in developmental Economies 55 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

terms and made into an economic issue refugees, even those qualified as vulnerable, rather than a political and social one. are surrounded by job opportunities – This approach to refugee assistance and especially in a place like Burkina Faso where protection also ends up homogenising people Malians have the right to work – or that they and excluding those who cannot fulfil the have someone in their close network who will ‘entry requirements’. Of course, cash-based have a job and thus be able to support them. interventions and support to enter the job Many studies exist that discuss why an market (although most jobs in the informal idea of development as economic growth, market are not classified as employment by in all its forms, cannot work, particularly international agencies) seem more dignifying in the long term, serving rather to favour ways of providing aid than delivering some and exclude and marginalise others.2 purely material assistance in that they give The ‘refugee problem’ has become a matter refugees a choice, but this only helps some of access to the job market rather than of the many. A wide variety of reasons – a political question about inequalities, whether linked to personal situations and exclusion, conflict, exploitation, asymmetrical experiences or structural unemployment power relations, and so on. The human, – can prevent a person from working. social and political issues are replaced by market solutions. This depoliticised vision Depoliticising refugee protection constructs refugees’ hardships as being The shift of responsibility in ‘succeeding’ due to a lack of access to jobs and does not in one’s refugeehood is already perceptible in any way address how and why people in Burkina Faso, where I have conducted have become refugees in the first place. ethnographic research with Malian For well over two decades, forced urban refugees in Bobo-Dioulasso. migration and refugee studies have Aminata, a Malian refugee of around 80 questioned the ‘refugee’ category and how years of age, who had physical disabilities and those thus labelled are represented and was in frail health, shared her house with her portrayed, in order to highlight the impact granddaughter. Aminata was categorised as on refugees’ lives of labels, representations a vulnerable refugee by UNHCR, as was her and language – and the practices and policies granddaughter, being a minor living with that derive from such discourses. Today, there an old and ill grandmother. They received is a tendency for many researchers to focus food and cash assistance nearly every month on showing how refugees have economic for three and half years but in January 2016 agency, or on providing data on how to the assistance stopped. UNHCR and WFP support them in their economic livelihoods. Burkina Faso, who provided this assistance, What seems to be seen as less important cited lack of funding and the fact that now – and yet what is surely still vital – is assistance does not need to be provided for what this means in terms of protection and urban refugees but can be provided if there what impact such neoliberal discourses is sufficient funding and willingness. When and practices have on refugees’ lives. the decision to stop the assistance was taken, Nora Bardelli [email protected] agency representatives promised that it would DPhil candidate,3 Oxford Department of still be provided to those refugees categorised International Development, University of Oxford as vulnerable. Despite this promise, Aminata www.qeh.ox.ac.uk and her granddaughter did not receive any 1. Scott-Smith T (2016) ‘Humanitarian neophilia: the ‘innovation further support. At her age and with her turn’ and its implications’, Third World Quarterly 37(12), p2238 caring responsibilities, how was she supposed http://tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01436597.2016.1176856 to take advantage of “all the opportunities 2. See for example Rist G (2014) The History of Development: From refugees have in cities” (a widely held view, Western Origins to Global Faith repeated to me by various humanitarian http://bit.ly/Rist-G-Development-2014 actors when discussing the help that never 3. Doc.Mobility fellow, Swiss National Science Foundation. came)? It is generally thought that urban 56 Refugee-ledEconomies social protection FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018 Refugee-led social protection: reconceiving refugee assistance Evan Easton-Calabria and Kate Pincock

The help and assistance that refugees offer each other is central to the lives of many displaced people. Recognising this allows support for displaced people to be reconceived in more sustaining and empowering ways.

‘Social protection’ commonly refers to and instead must find ways to become self- programmes and policies that aim to reduce reliant. However, competition within local the poverty, vulnerability and risks that economies, discrimination, a lack of access populations can face. These were traditionally to work permits and limited or non-existent state-led initiatives. The term, however, has recognition of foreign qualifications can also recently become common in international make the pursuit of an individualised form of development where international actors strive ‘self-reliance’ extremely challenging. Formal to alleviate poverty both in collaboration and informal groups and organisations, led with and in the absence of States. by refugees, offer ways for fellow refugees Social protection for refugees also includes to draw upon and contribute to networks refugee communities’ own efforts to support of assistance beyond the limited means themselves. Our research in Uganda and of UNHCR (the UN Refugee Agency) and Kenya1 reveals the ways in which refugees are and its partners. Our research in Kenya working to support, protect, advocate for and and Uganda has found that these support transform the prospects of their communities. systems may be organised along tribal, This assistance, which we term ‘refugee- ethnic or national lines of solidarity, led social protection’, includes activities to as shown by organisations such as the address vulnerability, such as providing Community of Banyamulenge in Nairobi food, shelter, education and health care, but and the Somali Community Association in also involves advocacy and the resulting Kampala, or can be religious in origin, with transformation of local and international mosques and churches across both cities structures, such as laws and humanitarian holding collections for refugee families. systems, which may hinder rather than In addition to less structured religious enable refugees’ access to such provisions. and cultural support are formal and informal community-based organisations established Refugee-led social protection by refugees. These organisations take a Humanitarian actors usually assume social variety of forms, and some are interlinked protection in both Kenya and Uganda to with the informal religious and cultural fall entirely under the remit of government support networks described above. In initiatives, social enterprises and civil Nairobi, refugee-led social businesses such society actors. This assumption is deeply as L’Afrikana train both refugees and locals problematic and driven by a now debunked in arts and tailoring, and reinvest profits perception of refugees as passive recipients from sales of their products into projects of assistance. Despite the increasing to support vulnerable children from both emphasis in refugee research and policy local and refugee communities with school making on recognition and affirmation fees. URISE in Kampala similarly provides of refugee agency, refugee-led social training for young people, including in protection remains inadequately explored by graphic design, t-shirt printing, music, academics, policymakers and practitioners. videography and computer literacy, with Refugees in urban areas are not provided the aim of equipping them with the skills with basic necessities such as food and shelter to support themselves and build a better Refugee-ledEconomies social protection 57 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

future. Other groups such as RefugeeCare clinic. As homosexuality is illegal in Uganda in Nairobi focus on distributing food and and the camp clinic is staffed by Ugandans, clothing to refugees in need. Others still, like LGBTI people risk discrimination and Kobciye in Nairobi and Hope for Refugees even persecution if they are identified; this in Action in Kampala, operate savings and community organisation therefore fills an loan cooperatives and business training important gap in assistance to a marginalised programmes to enable members to start refugee group. Wakati Foundation trains their own income-generating schemes. otherwise inactive young men in construction Groups such as Tawakal and Save World to assist with building homes for vulnerable Trust in Nairobi provide counselling and families who would otherwise have to sleep trauma services to refugees, for whom under plastic sheets. And informal Somali overcoming trauma and coping with women’s groups welcome new arrivals and mental health issues is a huge challenge. offer food, shelter and kindness to those who Other work focuses on political activism; arrive when UNHCR’s offices are closed. displaced South Sudanese activists work Many refugees told us that official across Kampala and Nairobi to coordinate providers of assistance are usually their peace-building activities back in their home last port of call when they need help. Both country, and the Federation of Congolese in Kenya and Uganda, agencies’ huge Abroad seeks to change the image of the caseloads deter refugees from seeking country and advocate for an end to war. officially provided services; refugees also These activities constitute social protection have concerns about corruption. The beyond the individual scale, as improving impersonality and lack of real investment in the security of countries of origin enables refugee futures that respondents associated refugees to repatriate, and peacebuilding and with these services were also described as advocacy efforts often focus on the building major factors influencing their preference or rebuilding of national social services. for smaller, local groups. There refugees Even within camps and settlements (where receive help from people they know, formal assistance is more readily available which often fosters a relationship that goes and more easily accessible), refugees also find beyond that of benefactor and recipient. their own ways of supporting themselves and their communities. One community Improving support for refugee-led social organisation in Nakivale settlement draws protection on the professional skills of a doctor and a Some refugee-led social protection efforts lawyer, both refugees, and treats lesbian, gay, are backed by funding from international bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) actors; since 2009, for example, UNHCR has individuals in their own homes at night to used its Social Protection Fund to offer small help them avoid stigmatisation at the camp grants to projects that refugees conceive and UNHCR/Frederic Noy UNHCR/Frederic

These young Burundian refugees in Kashojwa village, Uganda, belong to the Talented Orphan Refugees’ Association. “We learn English, we make baskets and hats, we sing together, we play sports together, we’re a family now. We sell what we make and share the money with everyone. In Kirundi, there is a proverb that says ‘If we work together, we can improve all our lives.’” 58 Refugee-ledEconomies social protection FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

implement themselves – so-called refugee organisations from which they in theory self-help projects. Non-governmental might receive funding or other assistance. organisations (NGOs) working with refugee In addition to contributing to the silos in communities have often been criticised for which refugee-led organisations often work, having a simplistic understanding of these this distrust precludes opportunities for communities that is divorced from wider awareness-raising about the existence of historical, regional and national contexts. this important type of social protection. By better understanding the contexts within There is also a risk that international which refugee-led social protection takes organisations see refugee-led social protection place, the conditions under which external activities as a means of economising by actors can most effectively support or partner shifting work onto other organisations (even with refugees themselves become clearer. those that are under-resourced), with the A major challenge reported by many of resulting risk that the quality of assistance the groups described here is their lack of declines. International organisations access to partnerships with more powerful and local partners must remain aware of actors, whose funding and training can offer the inequalities between different forms the groups opportunities to grow, increase of organisational assistance and take impact and become more sustainable. steps to ensure that refugees’ vital work Forming partnerships rather than inviting is properly supported and valued. refugees to participate as implementers or Our research challenges the idea that mobilisers for pre-defined programmes refugee-led organisations are fringe actors; means refugee-led social protection actors can rather, they are central to the lives of many retain those characteristics that make them displaced people. The role of refugees in better positioned to reach poor communities. providing not only community-based safety As well as understanding when and nets but also genuine opportunities for change where partnership is likely to be empowering, in the positioning of refugee communities it is important to note that establishing a as assistance actors cannot be understated. transformative social protection agenda However, the effectiveness of refugee-led – that is, one that not only goes beyond social protection is only assured if it continues protecting people against the risks associated to be driven by refugees themselves, given with being poor but also addresses the that they are best placed to understand these structural causes of poverty – requires needs. Those looking to partner with refugee- cohesive action. This need for solidarity can led organisations must preserve and value be seen through the building of consortia refugees’ proximity to those they seek to help, of refugee-led organisations. Together or else risk losing what makes them such they can work for common causes and, in important actors within the international principle, networks can be a way to share humanitarian system in the first place. expertise and knowledge and ‘raise up’ less Evan Easton-Calabria established organisations. Strengthening [email protected] networks can make refugee-led organisations Researcher more visible and formalised, and can create avenues for advocacy. However, while such Kate Pincock [email protected] efforts to promote solidarity in Kampala and Research Officer Nairobi are underway, strategic cohesion Refugee Studies Centre, Oxford Department of is difficult in part because of distrust. International Development, University of Oxford UNHCR’s implementing and operational http://bit.ly/RSC-TheGlobalGoverned partners are suspected by refugees of co- 1. ‘The Global Governed? Refugees as Providers of Protection and opting the ideas of refugee-led organisations, Assistance’ is a two-year ESRC-AHRC funded project which aims which can do little to stop it. This makes to document and understand the activities of over 60 refugee-led initiatives across urban areas (Nairobi and Kampala), settlements refugee-led organisations less inclined (Nakivale) and camps (Kakuma). The project is led by Principal to reach out to national and international Investigator Professor Alexander Betts. Refugee-ledEconomies social protection 59 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies Refugee paralegals Musenga Tshimankinda Christian

Refugees in Kenya face multiple barriers to accessing their rights. The work of paralegals who are themselves refugees and who support and facilitate refugees’ access to justice offers a vital service that many NGOs, whose scope and budgets are limited, insufficiently provide.

Refugees in Kenya face multiple challenges. authorities on matters of documentation. In addition to the long process of recognition They provide refugees and asylum seekers or rejection of refugee status, these challenges with information regarding their asylum include lack of access to documentation and application and their refugee status, offering services – including refugee registration advice on their cases, making referrals and processes, business and work permits, following up on cases. They advocate for student pass, bank accounts, social security the release of arrested refugees, asylum numbers, travel documentation and mobile seekers and other forced migrants at police communication. Refugees also experience stations, prisons and places of detention, and difficulties relating to police harassment, accompany refugees on visits to organisations a general lack of knowledge of refugee and institutions to seek assistance on issues, negative and discriminatory attitudes various social issues (for example, to police from local populations and barriers to stations in order to report crimes). foreign qualifications recognition. As a lawyer, I have a legal background In order to address this, some refugees and therefore have an obligation to help my in Nairobi have been trained by the non- community, so I became a refugee paralegal. governmental organisation (NGO) Kituo Refugee paralegals are able to undertake Cha Sheria, supported by the UN Refugee work that large international NGOs have Agency (UNHCR) and the UN Migration difficulty with or do not undertake due to Agency (IOM), as paralegals to support fellow their budget limitations and the scope of their refugees. A paralegal is someone who has work. For example, I am able to intervene either a basic legal training or more extensive in refugee cases (especially arrest and practical legal experience, who provides legal harassment cases) at any time of the day or assistance to facilitate access to rights and night, including on weekends and holidays; justice. Their work is generally supervised by large organisations only intervene during a lawyer, law office or any legal institution. their hours and days of work. We also advise, Refugee paralegals sensitise refugee refer and follow up on cases, giving feedback groups and public authorities on refugee to refugees, which means they do not have rights through forums, workshops, training to pay the costs of transportation to these and conferences and also contribute to the NGOs, whose offices are all far from where capacity building programme of authorities refugees live. Importantly, refugee paralegals to appropriately handle refugee cases, are based where refugees live. We deal with including how they conduct, stop, arrest and refugees on a daily basis as the majority detain forced migrants and on how refugee of us are also refugees and live as part of documents should be issued and verified. the refugee community. In the community They also contribute to awareness-raising where I live and work we have established activities for government representatives to a forum where refugees can share their improve their knowledge of refugee issues. own ideas on legal and livelihoods issues. Refugee paralegals also work to empower In the course of my work as a refugee the refugee community by providing paralegal I have assisted many refugees. guidance on their rights and obligations, One Congolese refugee, who was conducting including how to react when stopped, business without a business permit, was UNHCR Ecuador arrested or detained and how to approach arrested for being in Nairobi unlawfully. 60 Refugee-ledEconomies social protection FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

He had previously been refused a business refugees in Nairobi. Refugee paralegals permit by the local authorities because are currently lobbying the Government they felt he lacked adequate identification. of Kenya to apply all the provisions of the I advocated for his release by proving Refugee Act 2006 to ensure refugees receive that his registration papers (from both the full protection in Kenya. We must also government and UNHCR) were issued to him advocate for the government to facilitate local in Nairobi, thereby giving him the right to live integration, opening doors to make refugees there. Following his release I also assisted him feel welcomed and safe, since many cannot to obtain a business permit so that he could return to their countries and their chances continue to do business lawfully in Nairobi. of resettlement are low. One way of doing I also helped a Somali refugee who was this would be by establishing a permanent living in Dadaab refugee camp by advocating awareness-raising programme for police on her behalf with the Refugee Affairs and other public administration officers Secretariat (RAS) in Nairobi when she was in order to build their capacity to handle dealing with logistically complex demands for refugee cases. Both refugees and government paperwork during the process of preparing to authorities must know refugees’ rights and join her mother, who had been resettled in the have the power and knowledge to advocate United States. My intervention on her behalf, for them. Refugee paralegals in Nairobi which included accompanying her to the RAS are working to make sure this happens. office, helped to avoid a delay in the process. Musenga Tshimankinda Christian There are still important steps that need [email protected] to be taken to make life legally secure for Refugee paralegal, Nairobi

Kobciye: empowering Somali refugees in Nairobi Afrah Hassan

Established by a resettled Somali refugee and now under the leadership of his children, Kobciye resource centre works to empower Somali refugees in Eastleigh, Nairobi.

In the early 1990s my father was one of engagement with the community and ability millions of refugees fleeing the civil conflict to gain legitimacy and trust within Eastleigh. engulfing Somalia. Relative to many others Kobciye, which means ‘empowerment’ he was lucky – he was educated and able to in Somali, is a resource centre that secure scholarship opportunities in the United assists vulnerable individuals (including States, where he was resettled. From there he undocumented refugees) within the Eastleigh worked to bring over his still young family community, and provides skills trainings and to eventually settle in Toronto, Canada. such as basic computer literacy, sewing and Escaping a violent conflict and settling into a tailoring and other programmes. Kobciye new community sparked my father’s passion aims to equip individuals with relevant to help his native community. It began in skills that will build their capacities and lead 1993, when he helped the new wave of Somali to further opportunities. The organisation refugees who were arriving in Toronto having identifies the needs of the community escaped war, and it continues today with through broad consultations with community Kobciye, a community resource centre in the stakeholders; this includes organising Eastleigh neighbourhood of Nairobi, Kenya, sustained engagement events and working which he established. In the intervening with established community partners. years, and in spite of the challenges of After my father’s death in 2012, my sister keeping the organisation going, Kobciye has and I returned to Nairobi to try to carry continued to grow. Its success is built on its on his legacy. Having settled in Canada as Refugee-ledEconomies social protection 61 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

refugees when very young, we had grown up thriving businesses and integrated fairly well in a completely different country, culture and within the local community; others struggle, community and we were initially taken aback particularly outside the infrastructure of a by the sheer demand and impact that Kobciye formal refugee camp. Understanding these was generating in Eastleigh. Although we factors has helped us create a framework were always aware of the challenges facing where we understand vulnerabilities and Somali refugees, particularly those in Kenya, respond by targeting individuals who will truly understanding the circumstances of benefit most from our programmes. urban refugees was a profound learning With formal education rates lower in process. Learning how to effectively create Eastleigh than in neighbouring communities, programming that accounts for and responds we focus on equipping our members with to the needs of the diverse local refugee tangible and applicable skills, including in population was a large part of this learning computer literacy, sewing and tailoring and process. Eastleigh is a dynamic community basic financial literacy. For example, our of individuals of varying backgrounds, all computer literacy programme aims to give tightly packed within a dense urban area. students a basic knowledge of computer Adapting to the needs of the community and functions, on which they can build with personally building trust and legitimacy further training. We also provide a sewing while building on the legacy of our father and tailoring programme that complements was all part of learning on the job. Eastleigh’s thriving textiles business, and Integrating ourselves into the community which can be a transition point for potential and acquainting ourselves with the issues that employment opportunities within the local individuals care about has helped Kobciye to community. Over the course of the last eight continue to develop. Our own experiences as years of reliable and consistent programming, part of a family of first-generation immigrants Kobciye has provided vocational skills gave us a unique insight into how we can training to hundreds of Somalis. cultivate new programming and community There has long been a negative perception engagement. Some of the transitional of the Somali refugee population in Eastleigh,1 challenges that refugees face in Canada and in 2014 tension peaked with the police are comparable to those faced by refugees crackdown known as Usalama Watch. This in Eastleigh, whether that be accessing presented a significant challenge to our resources or navigating the legal frameworks organisation. We responded by moving that govern their existence. Drawing these from empowerment and skills training to parallels between our experiences and those advocacy and awareness raising in order of refugees in Eastleigh has helped us focus both our programmes and how we position ourselves within the overall community. Afrah Hassan

Appropriate programming Alongside being a renowned regional business hub, Eastleigh is also the destination of thousands of refugees who are looking for a long- term home or to relocate to other (particularly Western) countries. Many individuals have set up Weekly seminar, run by Kobciye. 62 Refugee-ledEconomies social protection FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

to create a dialogue to combat some of the is still being contested and negotiated negative perceptions and stereotypes created within the Eastleigh community. by the police and security offensive. We Kobciye’s impact in the community has held forums where discussions were held continued to grow, with my father’s vision with local authorities and political offices, serving as a roadmap for our progress arranged rallies condemning police brutality and evolution. I am immensely proud and and promoting cohesion, and organised fortunate to be able to lead this organisation, cultural exhibitions that highlighted the helping the community from which I came contributions of each community within and enjoying the continued support of our immediate region. We also produced the community which Kobciye serves. literature that aimed to counter some of the Afrah Hassan [email protected] negative narratives that have surrounded Director, Kobciye www.kobciye.org the urban refugee population, particularly 1. See Carrier N (2017) ‘What Can We Learn From the “Little Somalis. Although today the tension has Mogadishu” Migrant Hub?’ Refugees Deeply largely receded, there remains social stigma http://bit.ly/Carrier-RefDeeply-Eastleigh around the urban refugee population that Syrian refugee-led organisations in Berlin Jennifer Wood, Evan Easton-Calabria and Yahya Alaous Many of the approximately 50,000 Syrian refugees living in Berlin continue to depend largely on State assistance; some refugees have also created and found additional support in active, vibrant community initiatives.

Refugees in Germany receive considerable Despite the wide-ranging support State support. Those whose asylum provided by State agencies, gaps in services applications are accepted are assigned to a exist and, in many cases, unmet needs are local city or town, gain temporary residency addressed by grassroots initiatives found and begin the integration process. Although across the country. Hundreds of projects, new arrivals in 2015 were initially housed networks and organisations exist, almost in school gyms and other emergency all of which have formed since 2015. shelters, there are now longer-term refugee Initially, grassroots support by Syrians hostels and continuing efforts to help in Berlin mainly took the form of helping refugees find apartments of their own. refugees to access emergency assistance and Once residency has been established or navigate Germany’s asylum and registration looks likely, refugees attend an integration bureaucracy. In the early days of high course to learn the language and culture, and numbers of refugee arrivals, for instance, have their first meeting at a job centre to learn groups of Syrian refugees – often recent about employment prospects. Unemployed arrivals themselves – positioned themselves refugees receive a monthly sum to cover living at main train stations in Germany, equipping costs. Refugees receive support from the newcomers with maps, directions and advice municipality with local orientation, logistics about registering and finding shelter. such as transportation and medical resources, However, in the last three years there has and access to organisations and clubs. been a shift from providing logistical and However, finding a job without recognised day-to-day assistance to offering cultural, qualifications or German language skills is community and creative support that difficult; so too is finding decent housing meets refugees’ psychological, emotional – already an acute problem in Berlin for and personal needs. In many cases, these low-income earners, even before taking into refugee-led efforts are now registered German consideration the needs of refugee families. organisations. Over 75 Syrian assistance Refugee-ledEconomies social protection 63 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

organisations exist in Germany,1 and our in Berlin which were more conservative, as research2 identified 10 in Berlin alone. Safi felt that Syrian culture as he understood The Salaam Culture and Sport Club it was not being adequately represented or (Salaamkulturklub) is one such example. experienced through them. This reveals The club was founded by four Syrians – an a division that is more widely evident academic, judge, journalist and interpreter among Syrian refugee-led organisations in – who recognised that Syrian refugees Berlin: some aim to reinforce conservative desperately needed translation and other forms of Syrian culture, religion and law logistical support in order to register as while others aim to use Syrian culture to refugees, apply for jobs and learn about promote Syrian integration and the social Germany’s complex administrative and cohesion of Syrians and Germans. educational systems. The club also offered Another significant refugee-led free overnight accommodation at the height cultural initiative is Berlin’s first Arabic of refugee arrivals in 2015 so that people library: Baynetna, meaning ‘between us’.4 could join the long queue at the nearby Staffed by a team of committed volunteers, registration office the following morning. the library offers Arabic books to local Over the last few years, Salaam’s readers, and promotes learning for Germans assistance activities have both formalised and ‘Westerners’ about Arabic culture and and broadened. Advice is provided in the literature. Maher, a publisher and refugee from form of weekly presentations on different Syria, and Baynetna’s co-founder, first had themes, such as how to search for and apply the idea to create a library in 2016, prompted for a job, or how to register children in by the lack of Arabic books in Berlin. He school. There is also a monthly presentation started the project in rooms at a German highlighting ‘success stories’ by refugees who refugee housing facility which was used have accomplished something in Berlin, be it for learning and community gathering, and securing employment or achieving a higher slowly gathered donated books. The project German language level. The club also now also hosts regular literary events – often offers a café to promote intercultural exchange featuring both Syrian and German performers and a range of other support, including – and strives to use these as opportunities language practice, sport and leisure activities for intercultural exchange and learning. In (including for refugees with disabilities) this way, it is “not just a library but a literary and intercultural and creative projects. salon”, according to Dana, another co-founder. In February 2018, Berlin’s public library Differing aims offered Baynetna shared space to house the One of the most established Syrian cultural library, which is now open to the public four organisations in Berlin is Mada,3 housed in days per week. However, books, shelves and the cultural community centre Ulme 35 in a furniture need to be packed and unpacked quiet part of former West Berlin. The cultural weekly because the main library still uses the centre provides office and event space and the space on the other days – a regular reminder opportunity for collaborations with German that this home, too, may be temporary. artists and activists. Mada was founded by Maher, like many refugees seeking to create Safi, a Syrian refugee, and focuses on dialogue, meaning in their new lives, comes to the art, culture and community by offering a library every day because it reminds him cultural programme of lectures, theatre, of his former publishing work in Syria. For films, readings and art exhibitions. There are him, books are a powerful tool for facilitating events almost every day, including German the integration of Syrians into Germany. language training and events for children and The success of refugee-led organisations families, and many activities are intended for and initiatives in Berlin in addressing the both Syrian and non-Syrian participants. different needs of refugees stems in part from The idea behind establishing Mada arose their flexible and adaptable structure. Many in reaction to other Syrian cultural groups organisations have over time adjusted their 64 Refugee-ledEconomies social protection FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

activities based on the skills of volunteers Jennifer Wood [email protected] and the changing needs and interests of Educational consultant and mindfulness trainer, participants. While Berlin was once thought Berlin of as a place of temporary refuge, it has now Evan Easton-Calabria become the beginning of a new life and Researcher, Refugee Studies Centre and DPhil identity for many. Yet the majority of Syrian Candidate, Oxford Department of International refugee-led organisations in Berlin do not yet Development, University of Oxford consider themselves sustainable, as they are www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/people/evan-easton-calabria-1 run largely by volunteers and are dependent on donations and other ad hoc sources of Yahya Alaous [email protected] funding. While this reveals a need for reliable Independent journalist and columnist, funding that will allow them to continue their Sueddeutsche Zeitung work in the long term, in many ways such 1. www.citizensforsyria.org constraints are inevitable. These refugee-led 2. This research was generously funded by a two-year grant from the Toyota Foundation. organisations are still new, and the story of 3. http://bit.ly/Ulme35 Syrians in Berlin is still only at the beginning. 4. www.baynetna.de Refugee-led education in Indonesia Thomas Brown

Refugee-led education initiatives in West Java, Indonesia, show how refugee communities can work with supporters to overcome service gaps faced in host countries, demonstrating a community-led approach to refugee assistance that is empowering and sustainable.

Indonesia allows asylum seekers and use of their skills and experiences, while refugees to live in the country until they also delivering badly needed services in a can be resettled through the UN Refugee responsive and cost-effective way. After all, Agency, UNHCR, but does not offer any it is refugees who know best the needs of legal pathways for them to naturalise, their community and in most cases have the and also prohibits them from working skills and experience required to serve them. during their stay. Consequently some Cisarua, a small mountain town in West 14,000 asylum seekers and refugees live Java, just a few hours drive from Jakarta, has for years in a state of limbo in Indonesia in recent years become the home of some while awaiting resettlement, with a lack of 2,500 asylum seekers and refugees, mostly formal rights and limited access to services ethnic Hazaras from Afghanistan, Pakistan like education. Faced with the prospect and Iran. Unlike other refugees in Indonesia, of children missing years of schooling who are often supported by international at a critical stage of their development, or local assistance groups, refugees in this groups of Afghan Hazara refugees living area live independently in the community, in the Indonesian province of West Java largely relying on savings or remittances. have independently initiated a number of The movement of refugee-led education education centres to serve their community. initiatives in Indonesia started in this small There are more initiatives like this in township with the Cisarua Refugee Learning refugee communities across the globe than Centre (CRLC), established in August 2014 by we realise. Providing capacity building and four Hazara men with media and business guidance to refugee-led initiatives to address backgrounds. The project quickly attracted challenges themselves, rather than simply the attention of outside supporters from doing it for them, is an approach which Australia, who founded Cisarua Learning serves to empower refugees by making Limited (CLL), a non-profit group that Refugee-ledEconomies social protection 65 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

supports the centre. Following the success of the skills that refugee volunteers can offer, the CRLC, two further refugee-led education the centres support English classes for hubs were opened in 2015 by different adults, sports programmes, community- groups of Hazara refugees – the Refugee based health workshops, vocational Learning Nest (RLN) and the Refugee skills-sharing programmes, and arts and Learning Centre (RLC). There are now five handicraft classes for women refugees. such education centres operating in the area, One of the most popular activities in the which are independent but all follow the learning centres is football, which is hugely same basic model established by CRLC. popular with both students and teachers. Each Between them, the five learning centres centre has a coach who runs training sessions serve approximately 300 children aged 5–16, and matches, which are open to women and as well as providing English education for girls as well as men and boys. These activities adult refugees. Each centre is run by refugee act as community gatherings for both volunteers, who fulfil administration, participants and spectators, and the benefit management and teaching roles. Modest of such activities on the mental well-being of fees charged to parents are supplemented by those involved should not be underestimated. donations from benefactor groups or private Besides the learning centres, there are a individuals, usually from abroad or from number of other notable refugee-led initiatives expatriate communities living in Indonesia. operating in the Cisarua area. The Refugee Some of the centres have also formed strong Women Support Group Indonesia is run relationships with international schools and by a young Hazara woman, and focuses on civil society groups in Indonesia. Members textiles and jewellery making. The group also of the community are often called upon conducts workshops on health (including to support the schools by lending their reproductive health) and hygiene, sexual and skills, whether in cleaning, maintenance or gender-based violence, and family planning. construction, and community members are The group sells their textile products in heavily involved in decision making within stalls in Jakarta and Australia through a the schools through regular meetings. Melbourne-based non-profit organisation. The curriculum has a distinct focus on Through such refugee-led initiatives English since refugees are hopeful they will volunteers are able to put their skills to use be eventually resettled in an English-speaking and make an impact on their community, country or one where it is a common lingua franca. Having a strong command of English will not only enable faster integration with a new host community but is also perceived to strengthen their chances of being accepted for resettlement. The use of English is also important for inclusivity; while most of the children, like their teachers, are ethnic Hazaras, there are also a number of students from Iraq, Myanmar and Sudan. In addition to providing vital education for children, these centres also support a range of additional activities that benefit the wider refugee Abdullah SarwariAbdullah community. Depending on A young refugee volunteer teaches her students in the Refugee Learning Centre in Cisarua, Indonesia. 66 Refugee-ledEconomies social protection FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

while gaining experience that may prove Same Skies also provides remote useful in securing employment once ‘coaching’ through regular video-link resettled. The learning centres also serve as meetings to identify needs in the centres and community hubs, acting as much-needed provide appropriate guidance and support places for socialisation and community to the volunteer team. Providing guidance activities. They give structure and hope remotely is both cost-effective and a strategic to refugees’ lives, offering social and choice – it avoids creating a permanent mental health benefits to those living in physical presence in the community and uncertain and difficult circumstances. the dependency that can follow. Like CRLC, Following these examples in refugee volunteers at RLN and RLC make Cisarua, in late 2017 a number of similar effective use of digital communications education centres emerged in Jakarta, to engage with other refugees as well as a major urban hub for refugees living foreign audiences. Same Skies has supported in the community in Indonesia. this by providing capacity development and guidance on digital marketing and Supporting grassroots initiatives fundraising strategies in order to enhance The extent of external support provided to the centres’ independent sustainability. As each of the refugee education centres varies, a result, RLC and RLN have been able to with some receiving ad hoc financial support build an extensive international following from private donors, and others having more and leverage it to attract donations through structured support that extends to mentoring, online crowd-funding campaigns. guidance and capacity development. Multilateral institutions such as UNHCR As well as providing financing through are also getting behind refugee-led models fundraising efforts, the CLL benefactor of assistance. UNHCR Malaysia’s Social group supports CRLC by connecting the Protection Fund initiative supports a range centre’s teachers with trainers and mentors of small-scale self-help projects which are via video link and field visits, and has developed and implemented by refugee provided them with cameras and media groups. The fund has supported 320 training, allowing them to document their projects, including income-generation activities and maintain an active social projects, skills-training programmes media presence. Leaders in the CRLC have and community service initiatives like also been highly effective at engaging local community centres, sports and recreation and international (in particular, Australian) halls, and day-care and shelters services. media, and have a high profile in expatriate Refugees who are involved in community circles in Indonesia, Australia and elsewhere. initiatives like these demonstrate significant Same Skies, the Swiss-Australian non- agency in their ability to come together to governmental organisation (NGO) that overcome obstacles they face, challenging supports RLN and RLC, provided start-up the perception that they are helpless or in financing for the centres but now concentrates need of outside assistance. The refugee- its efforts on building the capacity of refugee led education initiatives of West Java, and volunteers to develop the projects so they the manner in which non-profit benefactor become largely self-sufficient. Same Skies groups support them, show just how effective volunteers conduct capacity-building a model of refugee assistance this can be – workshops for school staff, on topics one that empowers and builds resilience by including teacher training, child protection, utilising and developing the human capital financial management, conflict resolution that exists within the refugee community. and first aid. This has helped the two schools Thomas Brown improve their overall educational and [email protected] managerial capacity, leading to the provision Researcher and Indonesia Country Director, of better services, while also building the Same Skies www.sameskies.org skills and confidence of the volunteers. Refugee-ledEconomies social protection 67 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies Lessons from LGBTIQ refugee-led community-based organisations Hester K V Moore

The work of community-based organisations led by and in support of lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans*, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) refugees in Nairobi, Kenya, provides important insights into how humanitarian agencies can form effective partnerships that help to ensure access to services for all.

Refugee-led community-based organisations CBO must also be clearly defined. Will it, (CBOs) have emerged across countries for example, involve the CBO becoming of asylum to address various issues an implementing partner, or will it mean affecting refugee populations. In Nairobi, working together to achieve mutual strategic organisations led by and working on behalf goals? Precedence, transparency and of lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans*, intersex sustainability – all key to establishing and and queer (LGBTIQ)1 refugees are proving maintaining healthy relationships – must to be resourceful and promising providers all be taken into sufficient consideration. of community-based protection. Their LGBTIQ refugee-led CBOs in Nairobi contributions complement the broader work run multiple diverse programmes to of humanitarian agencies and, at a time of address the specific needs of LGBTIQ financial uncertainty for UNHCR (the UN people. These programmes include: Refugee Agency), they are also avenues of alternative, private sector-funded assistance Community health: One CBO has harnessed for refugee communities. By emphasising the pre-existing medical skills and training overall community development, these CBOs of community members to provide refugee- combine economic activities with pertinent led health training to groups of LGBTIQ legal, psychosocial and medical issues, clients, whose access to health services can be thereby promoting the overall well-being of limited because of discrimination. Refugee refugee communities and ensuring a holistic community health workers subsequently lead response to the question of self-reliance. targeted outreach to sections of the wider Humanitarian agencies can encourage refugee community on various issues such and support CBOs’ development through as sexual health awareness (for persons at external advocacy, building their capacity by risk of or engaging in survival sex work); developing and guiding their organisational information about communicable diseases strategies and the strengthening of financial (for those living in communal housing); accountability mechanisms, and cultivating and prenatal and maternal health care (for networks and connections with potential lesbian, bisexual and queer – LBQ – women). partner organisations (including other Leaders of these programmes also identify refugee-led CBOs). At the same time, agencies appropriate health-care partners and should remain conscious of the need to establish and strengthen referral systems. encourage a broad network of CBOs that takes account of the diversity of refugee Psychosocial support: One CBO in Nairobi communities. Failure to pay attention to runs a monthly group counselling session divisions that already exist between different for refugees who are living with HIV. communities could result in agencies The CBO has created partnerships with reinforcing negative power structures, national counsellors who have experience and pushing already marginalised voices of working with LGBTIQ individuals. These further away. The nature and extent of any counsellors both facilitate sessions and train agency’s partnership with a refugee-led members of the CBO in order to promote 68 Refugee-ledEconomies social protection FMR 58 www.fmreview.org/economies June 2018

programme sustainability. Another CBO The leader went on to suggest that seeks to mitigate the negative effects of UNHCR needs to formulate a long-term social isolation among LGBTIQ refugees support strategy which should facilitate and encourage community development avenues between refugee communities through a coaching programme that and third parties – such as donor cultivates their sporting and artistic skills. organisations – who support LGBTIQ initiatives. UNHCR’s eventual role Legal protection: Given that physical would be one of capacity building and security is an important issue for all overall mentorship of emerging CBOs. LGBTIQ refugees, one CBO has partnered In response to a survey about outstanding with a local community-based paralegal needs, three refugee-led LGBTIQ CBOs in organisation that offers legal assistance to Nairobi noted the need to develop longer- refugees in the form of accompaniment term strategies, including succession plans to police stations, paralegal training and to ensure continuity of leadership. They also emergency shelter and relocation. stated a need to develop overarching financial frameworks to guide programmes, business Livelihoods initiatives: Empowering initiatives and projects, as well as to develop LGBTIQ refugees with livelihoods skills financial management procedures. Other is a crucial part of a holistic protection needs were identified, including for: the strategy. Several CBOs are running development of monitoring and evaluation livelihoods courses for LGBTIQ refugees, procedures for projects (procedures that are including in barbering, electronics consistent with standards applied by other and phone repairs, tailoring, bead and professional organisations); connecting craft making and poultry farming. and sharing best practices with other CBOs and humanitarian agencies; and Crucially, these initiatives draw upon guidance on reporting and grant writing. LGBTIQ refugees’ pre-existing skills and Including refugee-led CBOs in talents, sending a potent message to refugees professional networks is key for the that they are able to engage with agencies development of these internal capacities. By on their own terms, and take ownership of drawing on and learning from the experiences their issues. One refugee spoke of the effect: of other established organisations, refugee-led CBOs can grow, be supported and potentially “If you build the capacity of the community to emerge as partners in the provision of engage in these projects, they won’t worry [as services to refugee communities. UNHCR much] because they are receiving services from should balance the positive outcomes of places other than humanitarian agencies.” this development with the need to preserve refugees’ autonomy over their own initiatives. Humanitarian agencies: supporting It should also consider carefully the question LGBTIQ refugee-led CBOs of financial support – particularly the One leader of a refugee-led LGBTIQ potentially divisive effects of supporting organisation suggested how agencies can some CBOs over others. The selection better support these organisations: process for such financial support must be accessible and transparent, and take into “The first step is acknowledging we are here. Why account refugee communities’ particular doesn’t UNHCR act as a bridge between all CBOs vulnerabilities. CBO leaders also require – not only sexual orientation and gender identity non-financial support, such as training and [SOGI] groups but non-SOGI groups also? We mentorship, to develop their potential. expect more from agencies, in terms of support Some LGBTIQ refugees believe that CBOs for our projects. Right now, what we want from could also act as a bridge between their own UNHCR is not money but guidance. What we need marginalised communities and the wider is networks.” refugee community: “Why don’t we interact Refugee-ledEconomies social protection 69 FMR 58 June 2018 www.fmreview.org/economies

with other groups? I don’t want to stay strong network of organisations working [working with my own CBO], all about sexual with MSM, and are generally more vocal orientation and gender identity (SOGI). We than members from other communities. need to be refugees as a whole community.” These issues also raise more probing In developing professional networks, the questions surrounding how far humanitarian CBO leaders liaise with a broad group of agencies are willing to extend partnerships non-LGBTIQ refugees, including other CBO with refugee-led CBOs. The social effects of leaders. As well as potentially providing the funding of community-based initiatives avenues for employment of LGBTIQ refugees, by humanitarian agencies have not yet been there is scope for such professional networks comprehensively researched. These effects to become forums for social dialogue, and could be felt in relationships, power dynamics potent tools for advancing LGBTIQ rights. and risks of gender-based violence, including sexual exploitation linked to the unequal Networks and diversity distribution of financial capital among refugee In Nairobi, many LGBTIQ CBO leadership communities. Agencies should consider structures are dominated by men who carefully the effects of providing financial and have sex with men (MSM). LBQ women other support to CBOs and in particular the refugees have expressed concern at not potential effects upon already marginalised being represented in these organisations individuals and groups. How will that or in forums where decision making that support affect relationships between refugees, affects their communities takes place: and between refugees and service providers? “If you’re not masculine, you can’t talk. And is that support likely to increase the Even in meetings, the boys dominate. overall self-reliance of a community, or We need to empower the lesbians.” will it instead promote unrepresentative As CBO structures grow in influence, leadership structures, hindering the space for members of marginalised empowerment of marginalised groups? communities to assert themselves in The growth of CBOs and the increasing decision making can decrease. Further, as roles they are playing in refugee protection CBOs increasingly become interlocutors make greater interaction between key actors between UNHCR and other refugees, risks – which include the CBOs themselves – arise that include the monopolisation of necessary. Agencies must assess how best leadership structures, missed identification to harness the positive efforts of CBOs, of vulnerable cases, mistrust between while avoiding potentially negative effects community members, and questions of partnership. Private sector partners and surrounding the presence and extent of donors must remain aware of their influence, agencies’ support. Refugee communities strive to understand issues and facilitate can become polarised – and politicised – by access to funding for marginalised groups. power dynamics inherent in the relations The opportunity to work more closely with between humanitarian agencies, private refugees carries a duty of care to ensure sector partners and CBOs, particularly where that support does not polarise vulnerable financial support is involved. To counter this, communities, nor promote some issues agencies (including private sector actors) over others that are equally as important. must remain aware of the potentially divisive Hester K V Moore [email protected] effects of their engagement with CBOs, and Consultant for RefugePoint2 www.refugepoint.org seek to promote diverse refugee leadership and Assistant Resettlement Officer, UNHCR structures, as well as remain sensitive of N’Djamena www.unhcr.org the intricate social dynamics of refugee communities. It must be acknowledged that 1. ‘Trans*’/‘trans asterisk’ is a term used to denote all transgender, MSM are proportionately greater in number non-binary and gender non-conforming identities. 2. This article is based on ‘Disaggregating LGBTIQ protection than other communities (including LBQ, concerns: experiences of displaced communities in Nairobi’, trans* and intersex), are empowered by a written for RefugePoint by the same author. 70 relationship. the human–animal on focused specifically has article short one only Review Migration Forced in while animals, to references passing afew only are there Studies Forced Migration and Refugee of Handbook however. 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Algeria, in camps of Sahrawi feature architectural a distinctive are markets animal ‘goat and humans: barns’ as well as animals accommodate to need the by shaped often are Camps encampment. of settings in visible particularly is this and displacement of forced experiences human in role important play an Animals camps refugee in animals and Humans history and geography, as well as the geography, the and as well as history architecture, including disciplines from researchers and Refuge Art Without Borders, Agency), Vets Refugee (theUNHCR UN including organisations from practitioners funded by the Wellcome Trust, by the funded of meetings, aseries from emerges feature The take. it might directions of the some suggest topic, and the on research further spur to Second, of contributors. team international of an experiences the on drawing camps, in interactions of human–animal importance and variety the policymakers and for practitioners highlight to First, Benjamin ThomasWhite www.fmreview.org/economies This special FMR feature has two aims. aims. two has feature FMR special This 4 Practitioner literature highlights highlights literature Practitioner 2 Displaced people’s Displaced Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps 3 Animals may Animals 1 6 Domesticated Domesticated between between 5 through zoonotic disease (disease which can can which (disease disease zoonotic through for example intertwined, are health animal and health human as begin to place obvious an are approaches medical and Veterinary themes. different many across macro) and to micro (from scales at different needed is research camps, refugee in of people lives the play in animals roles of the understanding For afuller point. astarting only are But they show. here pieces the as cases, contemporary elsewhere. more durably them resettling for and inhabitants human its transporting for both animals, draught and pack more for still caring and involved assembling camp, meanwhile, the close to plans British population. host the and refugees between of friction source akey became over grazing camp.waged Competition work outside the oxen –for 1,000 and men 2,500 as many as –numbering labour animal and of human out teams hiring to flocks own refugees’ the with production dairy commercial from animals, around built were refugees the among activity economic to promote attempts camp. British of the shape and siting the affected refugees the with arrived that animals The sick. of the treatment and isolation with observation, involved close it also for animals, regime veterinary the like of lice; elimination the with arrived, they as started, humans for regime camp’s (lice). The tiny medical and andgoats) cattle), mules, (sheep smaller (horses, large of animals: by thousands Anatolia. from refugees 50,000 nearly accommodated World First of the end War at the forces British occupying Baghdad, where at near Baquba, acamp study: case ahistorical on research Council. Refugee Scottish the with collaboration in place taking group, is reference arefugee with of meetings, strand Asecond sciences. medical and veterinary Many of these issues recur in more more in recur issues of these Many The project has grown out of my own grown has project The 7 The refugees were accompanied accompanied were refugees The June 2018

FMR 58 FMR 58 relations between all three groups of people and their livestock was key to finding solutions. key to finding was livestock their and people of groups three all between relations the Understanding peoples. nomadic and population local the between relationships existing the disrupting livestock, their with arrived refugees when arose tensions Sudan, South In saw hostilities rekindled in September September in rekindled saw hostilities regions both Sudan’s and independence, way for South the opened that agreement peace the in clarified fully not was states Sudan’sin Kordofan South Blue and Nile regions of border war. However, status the of civil decades after Sudan from separating July 2011, world’s in the country newest became Sudan of South Republic The relations The role of livestock in refugee–host community can that disciplines of different range the indicates migration, of studies scientific in part taken also who has artist by an piece, This connected. closely are migration, of experience the shape and migration, animal and human to contribute that factors environmental shows, the Robertson Derek by article the As environments. natural larger within situated always dynamically are ones, urban even camps, And landscape. surrounding its and itself camp the to enclosures or nearby shelters own their from animals, of their needs the around spaces (or reorganise) organise refugees which ways in the inform will turn in This lives. economic and social refugees’ by, in role their affected be and affect, also it will have –and they impact psychological the influence will animals different of significance cultural outrage. The but an unwelcome just not be home would the adog in others in while ‘a ahouse’,that just adog is home without believe people places some in vary: will matter they how Precisely of humans. health emotional and psychological the in matter how animals much illustrates network our in psychotherapist by aclinical Nepal and Calais in work camps therapy in done art The simply not biomedical. are connections those to Buthumans). animals from transmitted be Charles Hoots June 2018 Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps www.gla.ac.uk/schools/humanities/ University ofGlasgow [email protected] Benjamin ThomasWhite relevance. of are fields which diverse and many of the any in researchers and practitioners from project own of our stage initial this to We would welcome responses subject. of the understanding our to contribute community have sometimes been difficult, difficult, been have sometimes community local outnumbered heavily the with relations refugees’ the state, Upper Nile in Sudan. South in border the across refuge seek to Blue state Nile from goats, and sheep of cattle, of thousands tens with along people, drove nearly 125,000 offensives ground 2011. and bombardment Aerial http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fey024 Baquba, Iraq,1918–20’,JournalofRefugeeStudies 7. WhiteBT(2018)‘Humansandanimalsinarefugeecamp: 205708/Z/16/Z]. Award inHumanitiesandSocialScience 2016[award reference 6. ‘Humansandanimalsinrefugeecamps’,Wellcome TrustSeed http://bit.ly/UNHCR-Livestock-handbook-2005 Returnee Situations: A PracticalHandbookforImproved Management IUCN (2005)Livestock-Keeping and Animal HusbandryinRefugeeand www.livestock-emergency.net/resources/download-legs; UNHCR/ Standards (2ndedition)Practical Action Publishing 5. SeeforexampleLEGS(2014)Livestock EmergencyGuidelinesand www.fmreview.org/climatechange-disasters/beirne-keltyhuber migration’, ForcedMigrationReview OUP; BeirnePandKelty-HuberC(2015)‘Animals andforced (2014) TheOxfordHandbookofRefugeeandForcedMigrationStudies 4. Fiddian-Qasmiyeh E,LoescherG,Long K andSigonaN(Eds) Camp, Cox’sBazar Situation, andPossibleIntervention SitesinandaroundKutupalong Survey ReportonElephantMovement, Human-ElephantConflict 3. InternationalUnionfortheConservation ofNature(2018) Refugee Camp,PortobelloBooks 2. Rawlence B(2016)CityofThorns:NineLives intheWorld’sLargest Western Sahara,LarsMüllerPublishers302–303,340–347 1. HerzM(Ed)(2012)FromCamptoCity:RefugeeCampsofthe Living in four camps in Maban County County Maban in camps four in Living www.unhcr.org/5a9946a34 www.fmreview.org/economies issue49:97–98

, 71 72 this area – number approximately 45,000. approximately –number area this in community host –the people Maban The The peopleandtheiranimals tensions. reduce to groups various the between able forge agreements were to (NGOs) organisations governmental non- and agencies (UN) Nations United however, communities, local and refugee both and government local and State involving efforts Through conflicts. the in role important an playing livestock with also grow a variety of crops on small plots plots small on of crops a variety grow also people Maban member. The of acommunity death or accidental murder event of injury, the in compensation as given be may also cash, to addition in Livestock, wife. prospective of his family the to groom’s by the family payment the in component important an are and emergency, an in or bartered sold for cash be can They roles. important play other animals people, their Maban by the minimally only consumed are products their and livestock day. the Although during scavenge and graze to free are animals cow. one at these least All own households of Maban thirds two about while chickens, up ten to and goats, and sheep pigs, eight to up cattle, six to up four to one typically livestock, some keep families Maban Nearly all villages. as to referred often are what forming of others, anumber to loosely connected group each with homesteads, thatch of mud and groups small in live They Gendrassa refugee camp, South Sudan. South camp, refugee Gendrassa www.fmreview.org/economies Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps

1 entered South Sudan between November and November and between Sudan South entered Mbororo 2011, hundred afew only perhaps Sudan’s in South independence following situation political uncertain the With survival. for livestock their on exclusively almost but depend people Ingessena and Maban the of ways those to similar in livestock their use Mbororo The then. begin that rains heavy the tolerate do not cattle their May as in north November, in returning season dry the of onset the andat goats sheep cattle, their with County Maban in arrive Mbororo The of grazing. search in Ethiopia neighbouring and Sudan Blue South state, Nile between moving lifestyle, nomadic entirely follow an – population Sudan’s Fulfulde-speaking prestige. of social asymbol and parties, third on inflicted or death injury damages, for compensation awife, of securing means a emergencies, in of cash asource as and occasions, for special meat on and for milk transport, and agriculture in for use animals their on depend Ingessana At home, the Ingessana. the –is them with of livestock numbers large bring to people only the and – group single largest Blue the state, Nile Sudan’s from groups linguistic numerous from come County Maban in refugees the While Maban. of conditions wetter the to unused and long trek the from stressed have to perished, thought is livestock refugee of the up half to year of that end The Mbororo nomads – a subset of –asubset nomads Mbororo The

UNHCR/C Pouilly although by the by the although County, Maban to goats and sheep and 150,000 cattle around 100,000 haveto brought estimated were state Sudan’s Blue Nile from refugees villages. the around and in living livestock by the damage prevent to order in dwellings their from more or akilometre half located are which By mid-2012, By mid-2012, June 2018

FMR 58 FMR 58 date on vaccinations – than are the local local the are –than vaccinations on date up to them by keeping –notably livestock of their care the in proactive more are generally Mbororo the that recognises population Maban However, local the pass. they which through communities the between diseases infectious of spreading capable are animals, all but, like robust are nomads mobile highly of the animals The arrangements. by long-standing regulated well are communities Maban local and Mbororo the between arrangements Grazing Mbororo: the and community host Maban Sources ofconflict lifestyles. their about rumours but also admiration move freely, about exciting and languages local no other speak often ‘cautious’. themselves, to keep Mbororo The as described best is nomads Mbororo the peopletowards Maban the of attitude general war. The civil long Sudanese the during suffering mutual by their reinforced been has communities these between solidarity the and affinity, have acultural diverse, culturally and linguistically although Sudan, South in County Maban and Sudan of in Blue state peoples Nile indigenous The Sources ofsolidarity and goats. sheep 50,000 and cattle at 50,000 nomads by Mbororo goats; and and sheep 80,000 and cattle at 50,000 Blue refugees Nile pigs; 20,000 by and goats and sheep 40,000 cattle, at 20,000 people Maban by local owned numbers livestock estimated (VSF) Germany refugees. by the owned those to number in comparable were and Maban local of the those outnumbered far still cattle but their normal, 2013, than fewer December many grazing rights in the areas they traverse. they areas the in rights grazing for communities and government local pay also nomads The cattle. additional as well provide, as cannot animals their necessities few those purchase to cash the use and markets local in milk the sell Mbororo The months. dry the during none little or produce cattle own whose however, population, Maban for the of milk June 2018 In March 2014, Vétérinaires sans Frontìeres Frontìeres sans 2014, March In Vétérinaires The Mbororo are an important source source important an are Mbororo The Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps 2 3 the war was over. was war the once way of life their resume to refugees for the it impossible would make disease to animals of these loss the that fact of the acknowledgement in livestock refugees’ on by VSF Germany, implemented focused and for it. blamed invariably were refugees the and increased also livestock of local Theft problem. the aggravated further fuel for trees of down cutting the and feed as use to trees from of branches lopping The animals. of refugee number the with step in increased which of discontent, source another was Maban in water sources and areas grazing livestock of common degradation The shortages. of food risk aserious posed crops of these loss the that meant area the in of farming nature subsistence The communities. Maban of the crops the to livestock refugees’ by the caused damage the proved be to problem immediate and serious most The tensions. created inevitably populations animal and latter’s human large the Blue refugees, Nile the towards population Maban felt by empathy the general the Despite refugees: the and community host Maban unhindered. relatively movement continued their so and lose to important too considered were Sudan South in Mbororo by the paid 2014, late rights least however, grazing the Up at to risk. asecurity as them citing and loyalty political their questioning Sudan, South into Sudan from of Mbororo crossing the of forbidding spoken have occasionally officials Sudanese South independence. Sudan’s of South implications political the are Mbororo for the More ominous unconcerned about the risk of disease. risk the about unconcerned relatively therefore are people local the and communities, refugee the and Maban slaughtered sheep and goats to decrease the the decrease to goats and sheep slaughtered and purchased VSF also programmes. treatment and vaccination animal and clinics medical boreholes, village-level establishing ways, by for example various in done was This refugees. the alongside beneficiaries as population local smaller much the include –to agencies other most –and us motivated of it much legitimate, population, local the My own project, funded by VSF Canada by VSF Canada funded project, My own www.fmreview.org/economies 5 However, resentment by However, resentment 4

73 74 military environment. When civil war war civil When environment. military and political the in shifts to vulnerable highly are relations such Unfortunately, Conclusion crops. damaged animals whose refugees on fines hefty imposing began communities population. local the among vulnerable most the on meat, focusing the distributed then and these from pressure population conflict with the refugees were minimised. were refugees the with conflict for but occasions nomads the with trade and rights grazing for payments from benefited still communities local and government the while access, their maintained thus Mbororo The Sudan. South into moving when camps refugee of the west well pass to Mbororo the instructed authorities Sudanese South To state. Nile 2013 avoid in problems, the in Blue of fighting units military irregular Mbororo suspect to refugees the led has of Sudan parts various in rebellions quell to militia of local use Khartoum’s by mistrust. characterised are nomads Mbororo the and refugees the between Relations Mbororo: the and Refugees of acrisis. stages early the in priority higher given be should situations livestock refugee/ other in arrangement an such negotiating that suggest outcomes positive The points. watering few waterto at the animals refugee then and animals for local aside set were times owner. Specific animal the on imposed was afine damaged, were crops example,of Newfor Guffa, when village the In areas. these in place put in were protocols resolution Conflict tensions. reduced significantly communities, Maban local the with by agreement for them designated area an in camps, away the from animals the having and this, miss not did families refugee the any,so if little, milk very giving were animals The worked overall. well system The camps. refugee the from 60km as far as located areas grazing populated sparsely afew to herds moved their refugees the by mid-2013 agreement result, by mutual As a damage. crop to related fighting to attributed were deaths 20 human as many www.fmreview.org/economies Nevertheless, tensions flared and local and local flared tensions Nevertheless, Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps 6 As As and the appropriateness of possible solutions. of possible appropriateness the and for conflict potential the understanding to key always be will animals, their and people the between relationship of the awareness informed an involved, including cultures of the Knowledge elsewhere. situations similar in possible be also could County, and Maban in again achieved be could this 2013–14 in Sudan that South hope offers in implemented effectively and found were solutions which with rapidity The them. mitigate to found be can compromises and arrangements well-considered challenge, with fraught is conditions difficult very under equilibrium new a finding and inevitable, are conflict and tensions doubly so. While them makes equation the to livestock adding complex, and are communities theirs. protect to amilitia formed communities local while families, their protect to camps refugee the to returned in state Blue Nile fighting Soldiers herders. livestock of several deaths the and by locals, retaliation subsequent by refugees, animals and of food theft increased triggering at atime, for weeks suspended was camps the to aid Food conflict. unlooked-for into County Maban in communities host and refugees drew soon uncertainties and rivalries renewed 2013, December in Sudan South outbroke in around YusifBatilcamp. 6. Finesamountedtothe equivalent ofover US$1,000per offence http://bit.ly/animalspeoplepathogens02082016 about theMabanrefugeesituation,seeauthor’s blogat 2014; theprogrammeendedin August 2014.Formoreinformation 5. TheauthorworkedinMabanCountyfrom June2013untilMay they arenotinthehabitofvaccinating. have littletono refrigerationcapacitytostore vaccines; asaresult, normal timesarecutofffromsuppliesforhalf ofthe year and good insurancepolicyforthem.LocalMaban populationsin their ownanimals;beingsodependenton cattle,thisisa 4. Thenomadspurchasevaccines mostlyinSudanandvaccinate Maban Countyinthe2012–13dryseason. 3. Thisreportedlytotalledtheequivalent ofUS$5,000across sorcerers. 2. Forexample,theMbororoarewidelyreputedtobeskilled 1. According toSouthSudan’s2008census. Frontiers inAgriculture Livestock Technical Lead,Cultivating New Charles Hoots [email protected] Refugee interactions with host host with interactions Refugee www.cnfa.org June 2018

FMR 58 FMR 58 welfare organisations for the benefit of displaced people and their working animals. working their and people displaced of benefit the for organisations welfare animal and humanitarian between cooperation for opportunities good offer camps Refugee The Society for the Protection of Animals of Animals Protection for the Society The have to survived. reported were 2,300 around later, only months Eighteen Sudan. Darfur, in camp refugee Shouk Abu the into disaster natural and by war displaced families carried or non-existent. poor may be care veterinary to access their where locations, or other settlements informal camps, refugee to whether displaced, have people been where case the particularly may be This care. of veterinary form any from far live often and care animal about information access to poor too are owners many assets, are face. they challenges the and animals of these needs the quantify to and people displaced with travelling equids working of numbers the determine to things, other among seeking, is project camps’ refugee in animals and ‘Humans The camps. refugee in and people displaced with associated equids of working numbers the about known However,is owners. little date to equid and surgeons veterinary for local training and care of veterinary provision the work includes This globe. the across equids of working welfare and health improve the to working individuals and organisations non-governmental groups, many are There transport. and for agriculture of energy source main its power as animal on reliant is world’s 50% of the a remarkable population that poverty. It estimated of whom in live is many owners, for their income of generating means sole the are cases many in and energy agricultural and transport provide mules (96%). and donkeys horses, working These (98%) mules donkeys 13 and million million (84% worldhorses 41 of the population), 55 million care: by veterinary underserved world are of the that parts –in mules and donkeys –horses, equids working million over 100 are there that It estimated is camps refugee in Working equids Patrick JPollock June 2018 In 2003, approximately 14,000 donkeys 14,000 donkeys 2003, approximately In equids healthy, well-managed While Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps interest in ‘one in health’ interest have acommon and equipment similar use often needs, have similar they together; working to suited well are organisations welfare animal and Humanitarian equids. of working presence the to responding for develop to frameworks and animals fate of these the order understand to in displacement of animal scale the determine of transport or of earning aliving” or of earning of transport means sole their was cases, many what, in lost owners their while death, miserable and unnecessary an died donkeys the agencies, welfare animal and aid humanitarian between collaboration “For of better want Tess Sprayson noted, veterinarian as Shouk, how it But be. to perhaps ought at Abu is which humans, to place second take Sudan. in reported that as such situations manage better to published have been or protocols few,guidelines any, if specific To feed. to of access date lack through died (SPANA)Abroad 84% had that estimated return home, return to likely less are they livestock their lose acamp. have reached owners their after equids fate of working the about known is little world. the Furthermore, in anywhere camps refugee or to from travel to either used equids of working numbers the on However,exist data little survived. very camp Shouk Abu the in animals remaining the and care, veterinary basic fodder and SPANA provide to Darfur, In intervened camp. outside the afuture to lifeline critical few examples of this; examples few very To are environment). the there date and for people, animals health optimal attain –to globally and locally, nationally – working disciplines of multiple effort veterinary and animal welfare agencies agencies welfare animal and veterinary for opportunity agreat represent camps In resource-limited settings, animals animals settings, resource-limited In Since it is recognised that once refugees refugees once that recognised it is Since 2 it is time to undertake work to undertake to time it is www.fmreview.org/economies 4,5 3 however, refugee however, refugee (the collaborative (the collaborative 1 – and a –and 75 76 of equids and other animals in need of need in animals other and of equids presence the flag to personnel veterinary non- would allow that tools screening simple development of simple. The relatively be should number and presence their recording identifiable, readily are equids since and year each flee to forced of people number the tracks Agency, Refugee UNHCR, UN of the Section Support Coordination and Field Information The increased. also has animals of affected number the that assume to logical seems world the today, in people itdisplaced diseases. of zoonotic control and management prevention, for the policies and systems surveillance vaccines, medicines, methods, diagnostic shared tools, screening of evaluation and development, integration the to extend might Co-operation animals. their and people displaced of benefit the long-term for adifference make to animals for transportation, security and and security for transportation, animals who use people services, other and feed or provide products or animal animals who sell those for pastoralists, whether livelihoods, to human contribution significant a provide Animals aliving. of making for ways searching start people time but in organisations support on heavily have rely to may refugees of emergencies, stages initial continue to benefit from this interaction. this from to benefit continue to people displaced for order in account greater into needs animals’ to take need managers and planners Camp displacement. in lives people’s many in role important an play Animals after settling into their new shelters. new their into settling after soon animals trading and buying start will or camps the to them with animals their welfare. that to contribute animals –but priority the of course is of humans welfare The response. initial the during neglected also are cases most but in support of long-term lack a from only not suffer however, camps, refugee in Animals support. long-term planning is response emergency in challenges key of the One camps refugee in animals Sheltering Lara Alshawawreh www.fmreview.org/economies With an unprecedented number of number unprecedented an With In most emergencies, refugees will bring bring will refugees emergencies, most In Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps 1 In the the In Edinburgh Senior LecturerinEquine Surgery, University of Patrick JPollock [email protected] them. upon heavily so rely that people the and for animals, of population forgotten this for benefits welfare considerable offer to potential the has intervention veterinary http://bit.ly/Zinsstag-Lancet-2005 strengthen healthsystems’,TheLancet,Vol366(9503):2142–5 ‘Potential ofcooperationbetween humanandanimalhealthto 5. ZinsstagJ,SchellingE,WyssKandMahamatMB(2005) The BMJ,330:858www.bmj.com/content/330/7496/858 4. Alder MandEastonG(2005)‘Humanveterinary medicine’, http://veterinaryrecord.bmj.com/content/157/22/673 interconnected globalcommunity,’Veterinary Record157,673–679 3. GibbsEPJ(2005)‘Emergingzoonoticepidemicsinthe Lexington Books Confronting theMilitary-AnimalIndustrialComplex Nocella A J,SalterCandBentleyJK(Eds) AnimalsWar: 2. Andrzejewski J(2013)‘War: Animals inthe Aftermath’ in http://bit.ly/InPractice-SpraysonT-2006 disaster relief’,InPractice 1. SpraysonT(2006)‘Taking thelead:veterinary intervention in for both their health and human health. human and health their for both essential is that support veterinary the and land, grazing and water to points access as such –aspects animals for sheltering appropriateness its ensure to considered be to need or settlement camp the to relating of aspects Anumber need. animals that care the provide to important very is organisations support and government host the community, host the refugees, between Cooperation banks. to of access absence the in capital financial of storing away as used even are Animals income. or for food animals on dependent are who or simply families activities, cultural the materials they are given for their for their given are they materials the sacrificing of refugees Examples camps. in life new their establishing in animals of importance the understand Refugees Key considerations www.ed.ac.uk , 28:1,p50 , Lanham, Md: June 2018

FMR 58 FMR 58 being vaccinated to prevent spread of disease. of disease. spread prevent to vaccinated being after shelters communal put were in livestock surviving The earthquake. 2005 the following response emergency Pakistan the from comes organisation external by an provided shelters aconcern. is safety animal where areas in necessary may be doors shelter lockable location; structures’ by their affected also is animals of the safety The cold climates. with areas in used be should structures well-sealed while essential, are shade and ventilation good climates, hot In animals. the for sheltering decisions human. to animal from of disease transmission as such –risks shelters human to of animals proximity close of the health human to risks potential the against balanced be should This access. easy and of secure sake for the shelters human the to close be should shelters animal ‘vulnerable’, the then more considered usually individuals are members family these If animals. of the care for taking responsible who are members family of those status gender, health age and animals. of their location the regarding preferences owners’ consideration into taking settlements, successful for creating crucial is information This species. animal certain with in dealing taboos and rules specific have do communities not; some others while plots, household their inside animals their keep to prefer Some animals. their with interaction their regarding norms cultural solutions. practical securing in elements important are stakeholders all with cooperation avenues for good establishing and management good occupy. Pre-planning, animals their and they land over the haveno longer control people displaced internally and Refugees by Cyclone Aila. 2009 in displaced 2009, Bangladeshis in and returnees Kenya’s in camp,refugees Dadaab Afghan –include theft and weather, predators extreme from protection provide – to shelters animal build to shelters own June 2018 One of the few examples of livestock of livestock examples few of the One the design affect conditions Climate the consider to important It also is refugees’ is consider to aspect Another concern. afrequent are rights Land Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps additional spaces within shelters. within spaces additional do require not they camp, since the in allowed animals only the are birds there, allowed to build additional constructions; not are residents Jordan, in refugees Syrian for camp largest next camp, the Azraq built purpose- In for them. shelters build to and have to animals residents allows grown, has camp the as overlayout time have altered materials. affordable and available few of the –two and/or canvas sheets corrugated using shelters own their to or adjacent close shelters animal have built Residents goods. and people for transporting used are horses and Donkeys companionship. perhaps and income, and for food kept are Chickens Syria. in back birds keep to used residents of the many of home, as camp’s asense provide market at the bought birds caged residents, many For space. living their into of animal species different bring of howexample refugees shelters. for livestock technique construction earthquake-resistant an –as straw and of clay, ‘cob’ sand introduce –amixture to established was programme anew and Donkey shelter built by Za’atari camp residents. interventions. livestock evaluating and implementing for designing, guidelines and standards published has (LEGS) project Standards and Guidelines Emergency Livestock The Recommendations combination of factors. There needs to be be to needs There of factors. combination or a and/or time, of funding shortage existence, of their of awareness lack from whether emergencies, in widely used not Lara Alshawawreh Za’atari camp, whose structure and and Za’atari structure camp, whose arecent provides Jordan Za’atari in camp 2 Unfortunately, these are are these Unfortunately, www.fmreview.org/economies 77 78 social factors as well as by individuals’ by individuals’ as well as factors social and environmental political, of cultural, by acombination shaped are inequities health in refugee camps. refugee in animals with associated of hazards sources potential the mapping to approach one offers Whitehead and 1991 by Dahlgren poor. generally is camps refugee within by animals posed risks of the understanding and of risk, asource be can humans and of animals a home. However, proximity close into ahouse what turns –is culture Syrian in – abird such because bird asinging on income monthly of their part asubstantial spend to prepared are Jordan in camps in refugees For example, Syrian life. of normal a marker as serve can and identity cultural preserve how best to mitigate these risks. these to mitigate best how and interactions byhuman–animal incurred risks potential the of also but people displaced of lives the in animals of importance the of only not understanding better to be needs There comfort, of psychological asource be also can Animals investment. an as or kept sold or exchanged be can which acommodity and of food source a are They well-being. people’s and health improve can camps refugee in Animals human–animalinteractions in risk Understanding for done animals’ be can that pre-planning level of The settlements. within problems of health possibility the reduce will skills. construction necessary have the already will many and design, preferred the as well as animals, own for their shelters appropriate build to needed materials the know They animals. of the owners the and space of the users the are –they themselves people the consult to is disasters after animals and humans to aid of LEGS. application practical the enhance how on to users end the consulting time same at the stakeholders, workersaid and organisations, to standards and guidelines the introduce to effort concerted a more Sara Owczarczak-Garstecka www.fmreview.org/economies A public health model published in in published model health A public Constructing appropriate animal shelters shelters animal appropriate Constructing way appropriate provide to best The 1 can potentially help refugees to to help refugees potentially can 2 The model shows model how The Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps programme depends also on aspects such as as such aspects on also depends programme of avaccination (as success herds the within of diseases outbreaks preventing entirely in may suffice not alone example, vaccination For area. this have in they that of expertise degree the and ground the on are agencies which on depend will interactions animal of human– management the of effectiveness the and health, animal and human on impact have an will aspects these All camps. support and run that organisations of the policies the built) –and are camps the where and displaced who is (including animals their movement and of people global the dictate that fighting and wars –the climate political national and international the is scenario this level in widest At the Political/organisational environment: access the resources needed for recovery. to ability their and illness an experience how they also and animals with contact in who is individual an to risks the both influence factors These attributes. www.napier.ac.uk Built Environment, EdinburghNapierUniversity PhD candidate, SchoolofEngineeringandthe Lara Alshawawreh [email protected] them. with interacting from benefit to continuing while safety in animals their with co-exist to camps refugee in people help displaced will needs shelter and health animals’ their to relating issues all of awareness However, owners’ raising community. host the with cooperation and emergency of the nature the on depend will displacement in requirements shelter 2. www.livestock-emergency.net alongside thehumanneeds. evidence abouttheneedforanimalsheltershastendedtoemerge 1. Theauthor’s researchfocusesprimarilyonhumansheltersbut June 2018

FMR 58 FMR 58 engage in behaviours which could reduce reduce could which behaviours in engage to is aperson how likely shape could and family, and community immediate by the influenced also are of vaccinations, efficacy of perception as such animals, around animals. handling to linked injury of physical risk the and diseases infectious of of arange risk the alter could turn in This consumed. and prepared meat is how their by whom, and and killed are how animals influence religion and tradition culture, For example, risk. to a person’s exposure shape factors Social environment: Social people. to diseases of certain transmission and population animal the to diseases of risk the increasing sanitation, poor in may result for animals spaces designated of suitable, Lack accommodation. human by transforming often poultry, of keeping ways own their developed example, people for Jordan, in camp Za’atari In refugee camps. of refugee design the into factored seldom is of animals presence The interactions. human–animal in level of risk the on impact susceptible. are populations animal local which to diseases carry or may themselves have no immunity they which to diseases new to exposed be may owners their with flee that population. mosquito the boosted which of blood, source easy an with mosquitos provided livestock the as of malaria prevalence greater experienced livestock, more with camps and animals, with who arrived Families disease. the to no immunity had Pakistan in arriving refugees war, the Soviet-Afghan the to prior programme control malaria asuccessful run had Afghanistan As malaria. encourages which waterlogged terrain, marginal on situated were of Pakistan boarder western 1990 early the on in established camps refugee Afghan For instance, of risk. burden the to contribute can itself camp of the setting the and travel people which through environment: Physical risk. reduce but it can programme) vaccination of the timing coverage and the June 2018 Attitudes and beliefs about practices about practices beliefs and Attitudes have an also can environment built The 3 More broadly speaking, animals animals speaking, More broadly Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps The environment environment The comprehensive guidelines, checklists and and checklists guidelines, comprehensive (LEGS) provides Standards and Guidelines Emergency Livestock risk, such how assess to on policies existing are there level. Although individual level, or at the management and construction design, camp at the of camps, location about making level of decision the at whether mitigated, be could risks these how determine to and migration of forced context the in interactions human–animal (and benefits) of map risks systematically to used be above could outlined model The for livestock. care to tend men whereas goats) poultry and and sheep (such as ruminants for small responsible be to likely more are girls women and cultures, many in For instance, risk. their modify to likely are on so and health gender, age, personality, aperson’s Meanwhile, poses. animal this that risk the to contribute also will handling to habituation and species/breed temperament, animal’s individual dogs may bite. An and kicked, or being due crushing to of injury risk of cows adds the to Presence for humans. arisk may become of tapeworm types certain for example, humans, to and other each to proximity close in kept are livestock dogs and camp; where the in kept of animals range the on is dependent risk of profile The risk. same the may pose not circumstances normal in which tuberculosis) or brucellosis (like cattle by carried diseases certain to susceptible more may be animals and humans of stress, people.Under periods prolonged and animals of immunity the compromise to likely is environment camp the and evacuation with linked Stress attributes: Individual by animals. caused or illness injury an from improve recovery and animal of an loss of the impact the reduce also could support recently. Social arrived who only or isolated who is someone than readily help more able access to be may therefore family extended an with acamp in living Individuals risk. help reduce to could which access resources – such as care – veterinary order on) to so in and contacts information, (for networks finance, social their on rely to may need aperson addition, In risk. www.fmreview.org/economies 79 80 response. emergency an of stages different during livestock protecting to related ‘decision trees’ livestock and poultry. and livestock on primarily focusing again areas, similar covers which husbandry animal and keeping livestock on ahandbook developed also has b) provide space for small-scale cultivation. b) for small-scale space provide and malaria like diseases of animal-borne risk the may increase environment the where areas a) should sites avoid planned that but suggest for animals of space for provision guidelines doexplicit offer not Standards Planning broadly, the involvement of veterinary broadly, involvement of veterinary the may nearby). live More which or birds dogs, (such cats as well as camps in live that animals other with interactions in risks identifying include to need models the crucial, is livestock keeping in risk assessing While detection. disease in trained communities animal-keeping local and organisations non-governmental veterinary veterinarian professionals, international local include could for animals assessments health and Counting management. risk in step first the is camps refugee near and human and animal populations, and therefore responses must benefit both. benefit must responses therefore and populations, animal and human byboth faced are desert Algerian the in camps refugee Sahrawi the in challenges Health at approximately 173,600at refugees. approximately population camp the (UNHCR) estimates Agency Refugee UN later, the years Forty camps. refugee in settling Algeria, into border the crossed of people thousands Sahara, Western Spanish former the in 1975. in conflict Following Sahrawis of the displacement mass since cities de to facto camps from have grown and of Tindouf settlement Algerian the to close situated are camps refugee Sahrawi The camps refugee Sahrawi the in health human and Animal has a unique set of circumstances and and of circumstances set aunique has Giorgia AngeloniandJennifer Carr www.fmreview.org/economies Surveillance of animals that live in in live that of animals Surveillance Each case of mass forced displacement displacement forced of mass case Each 4 The UN Refugee Agency, Refugee UNHCR, UN The 5 UNHCR’s Camp Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps 1

6 http://bit.ly/UNHCR-camp-planning 6. UNHCRCampplanningstandards(plannedsettlements) http://bit.ly/unhcr-livestock-handbook-2005 Refugee andReturneeSituations 5. UNHCR(2005)Livestock-Keeping and Animal Husbandryin www.livestock-emergency.net 4. Livestock EmergencyGuidelinesandStandards http://bit.ly/Rowland-Nosten-2001 Tropical MedicineandParasitology control inrefugeecampsandcomplexemergencies’, 3. Rowland MandNostenF(2001)‘Malariaepidemiology http://bit.ly/Dahlgren-Whitehead-1991 promote socialequityinhealth’,InstituteforFuturesStudies 2. DahlgrenGandWhiteheadM(1991)‘Policiesstrategiesto https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01612.x Well-Being’, JournalofSocialIssues 1. Wells DL(2009)‘TheEffectsof AnimalsonHumanHealthand www.liverpool.ac.uk/risk-and-uncertainty University ofLiverpool Health andInstitute for RiskandUncertainty, PhD candidate, EpidemiologyandPopulation [email protected] Sara Owczarczak-Garstecka animals. for the care medical basic and water, of food, shelter provision the and education may include which responses, local coordinating and needs basic assessing with help could settlements refugee running and up setting planning, in professionals Cross Societies mission in June 1977, June in mission for Societies Cross of Red ALeague agencies. by humanitarian conducted assessments needs and reports official in noted often it is indeed ignored; not is of animals presence The for humans. – provided are care medical and sanitation water, food, shelter, protection, response; of the form the shape distress acute in of people needs The concerns. –human that namely are concerns humanitarian the crisis of time at the community, humanitarian international of the perspective the from However, challenges. health resulting

95(8) , 65(3)

June 2018 Annals of

FMR 58 FMR 58 environment. inhospitable by the least not constrained, practices remained pastoralist for mobile opportunities 2000s by the and refugees by the transported were animals few displacement, mass initial the during the main problems present in the camps camps the in present problems main the of One established. not were systems food quality higher produce to mechanisms so alike, agencies international and refugees the by temporary be to intended were camps The problems. nutritional widespread counter to struggling is diet, of a diversification on than calories on mainly based basket in a food reflected camps, the in status emergency chronic the that have suggested population Sahrawi of the studies Recent The roleofanimalsinhumannutrition mid-1970s the 1980s. early in and process new afairly being sedentarisation with encampment, a nomadic in life with experience) or recent more (from childhood familiar were exile in refugees Sahrawi most of meat diets. to addition occasional the enabled that increase –an year previous over the camps Sahrawi the in of animals numbers the in increase an example, reported responses led by the refugees themselves. refugees by the led responses of new creation for the opportunities provides However, practices. it also these constrains and disrupts camp refugee of the sedentarism enforced any and practices by nomadic only guaranteed is desert the in survival supported non- fact, In aid. international on dependent largely them leaving self-sufficiency, of food hope the of population the deprives desert of the middle the in camp refugee June 2018 Alice Wilson’s research suggests that that suggests Wilson’sAlice research Life in a in Life

A veterinary clinical visit, Sahrawi refugee camp. refugee Sahrawi visit, clinical A veterinary

VSF Italia/Germano Cassina Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps 2 However, However, these are pressing challenges, not helped by helped not challenges, pressing are these age, women of reproductive 45% among and children 39% as among high as camps the in rates anaemia With women. nursing and and pregnant fiveof age under years children among malnutrition moderate acute and stunting reduce to and of anaemia, treatment and improve to prevention working is (WFP) World the and Programme Food malnutrition, acute severe with of children numbers reduce to interventions leading age. is UNHCR women of childbearing in of anaemia prevalence increasing the is today also goats and sheep) in refugee camps lies lies camps refugee sheep) in and goats also but (camels, of livestock importance the so for sale, of camels numbers large raise to opportunities limited are there means pasture of suitable Alack camps. refugee the to close pasturelands in life of their part spend camels while waste, organic domestic with exclusively almost fed are sheep and Goats camps. the in present are camels 80,000 and sheep and goats About 80,000 camps. of the problems nutritional the help address can and proteins of animal availability the increases by refugees breeding identity. Animal cultural of their ahallmark be to continues and Sahara Western the in survival their enabled for centuries has livestock their aid, food on long underserved. been has population the Despite the Sahrawis’ overall dependence dependence overall Sahrawis’ the Despite www.fmreview.org/economies – also suggests that that suggests – also Energy Biscuits. Energy High as such interventions of supplies inadequate and rations diminished to lead can which funding insecure in official statistics statistics official in given 90,000 the than higher far of over 170,000 – apopulation be to there found which 2018 assessment, UNHCR’s March of results the Furthermore, 3

81 82 surveying the dominant zoonoses, dominant the surveying been supervising slaughter procedures, has camps, the in operators of 24 Saharawi now composed Directorate, 1996, aVeterinary Since health. human and animal possible best the ensure to system veterinary alocal needs enrichment. and diversification diet for solution sustainable a offers and micronutrients, and macro other and iron C, vitamin proteins, in rich very being nutrition, animal and human both for benefits wide-ranging has conditions, dry extremely in able grow to source, leguminous This ’70. Africa (VSF) and Italy Frontières Sans Vétérinaires (NGOs) including organisations non-governmental by several supported example, one is desert Hammada the in oleifera Moringa above-mentioned place. The take projects refugee-initiated Several passive. from far is population refugee the and skills, organisational and tolerance religious resilience, for their culture. of local part not are systems the since context local the in difficult is which maintenance need and deterioration to susceptible are transportable, easily not are systems These camps. outside the from sources energy non-sustainable and of investment levels higher require but they production food in increase aprovisional may provide hydroponics as such projects More high-tech oleifera Moringa tree of the of plantations creation The camps. leave the they if them with learn they skills the take can refugees and or lowtechnology, little require should camps the in diets derived livestock- and insufficient) currently is (which production livestock support to feeding animal for self-sufficiency. opportunities increase to contribution potential its in predominantly Rift Valley fever, echinoccosis, rabies and and rabies Valley fever, echinoccosis, Rift resources is strong. Brucellosis, tuberculosis, maximise and capacities stretch to alike refugees and NGOs among desire but the limited may be Resources diseases. infectious of prevention the on working and practices management animal of good awareness raising smallholders, to assistance clinical www.fmreview.org/economies The presence of a large number of animals of animals number of alarge presence The renowned are refugees Sahrawi The improved for projects establish Attemptsto Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps is one such project. project. such one is plantations plantations 4 giving giving animals. 4. Zoonosesarediseases whichcanbetransmittedtohumansfrom http://bit.ly/WFP-Algeria-2017 3. WFP(2017) Algeria CountryBrief, August 2017 18 (1):38–60.DOI:10.3197/np.2014.180104 camp andnomadicencampmentmeet’, 2. Wilson A (2014)‘Ambiguities ofspaceandcontrol:whenrefugee 2018 http://bit.ly/UNHCR-Algeria-2018 1. UNHCR(2018)OperationalUpdate: Algeria, 1January–31March Broglia for theirinput into thisarticle. thankSaraDiLelloandAlessandroThe authors www.gla.ac.uk PhD candidate, University ofGlasgow Jennifer Carr www.vsf-international.org and Vice-president,VSF International Network www.veterinarisenzafrontiere.it Veterinari SenzaFrontiere Italia Giorgia Angeloni research. further topic abroader merits as camps refugee within animals and of humans roles the and case, exceptional an are camps refugee Sahrawi The themselves. refugees and the NGOs between as as well NGOs, different between collaboration effective stimulate and resources limited order maximise to in health, animal and human both accommodate to need systems health camp the and consideration, into challenges livestock take to needs basket food of the Areview camps. refugee Sahrawi of the those as such circumstances exceptional to response a offer holistic and populations animal and human both benefit cats. and people both in toxoplasmosis, causes that parasite the to specific antibodies of incidences high have shown cats and people Sahrawi with conducted studies Recent animals. domesticated fully than dogs rather and cats free-roaming mainly are animals these although of infection, asource be also can pets livestock; to limited not is animals with associated Disease camps. refugee the of population human the supports centres health six with infrastructure dispensary and ahospital infrastructure, veterinary the Alongside care. health providing NGOs and medical by veterinarians effort acollaborative in addressed be must which zoonoses, major of the some are toxoplasmosis Approaches such as Moringa production production Moringa as such Approaches [email protected] [email protected] Nomadic Peoples

June 2018

FMR 58 FMR 58 affect human displacement. affect and trigger that issues of complexity same the reflect can birds of journeys migratory The had a different character and focus. In Jordan, In Jordan, and focus. character adifferent had Each Calais. in camp ‘the Jungle’ in children for unaccompanied events engagement art held and UK the in events welcoming at refugee- for families activities art organised overleaf], [see image Jordan in schools refugee come. to for generations in live we will societies and what are who we define will displacement and change of climate issues world. intertwined How the we address our to happening be what might indicate to birds the to look ecologists systems, complex these In stress. environmental and social further cause turn in of which – all refugees of movements large and conflict change, climate between draw alink studies complex but academic are issues The concern. of grave be could that environment the in changes to points this change, birds of the or migration populations the If indicators. environmental important are they that is birds have in ecologists that interests of the One birds. the and places people, the saw: the what I Isketched and volunteers to and locals to refugees, to Ispoke my travels On East. Middle the to Mediterranean the through Europe, and UK the through I travelled drawn. had I that birds the as of flight lines same the taking order survive, to in refuge seeking now people were Here birds. migratory sketched and watched Ihad where places same the as islands these Irecognised and ashore, came people desperate as islands Mediterranean on beaches from 2015In reports Iwatched Africa. into down right Arctic the from journeys migratory their of studies scientific in helped and them I have sketched migrations. their behaviour, their song, their shapes, abstract by their by them: fascinated Iam birds. painting places beautiful and wild my days in spend to privileged I am A fieldstudy of migration and adversity Derek Robertson Derek Robertson June 2018 During my travels, I taught art classes in in classes art my Itaught travels, During of ayear, course Subsequently, over the Humans andanimalsinrefugeecamps www.creativepastures.com/migrations Wildlife artist [email protected] Derek Robertson address. to we need that challenges shared of the and humanity of ashared appreciation provoke to people’s an to helping emotions, directly appeal it can And afresh. ordinary at look the people makes away that in ideas together bring can Art minds. their close often people about, think to hard be can that topics move to onwards. try which from and shelter could they where edgelands scrubby in together brought birds and people Ifound roads, between ground marginal or edges park ground, waste on pitched camps unofficial in sitting Iwas when and them room for little offered made landscape man- and atended that found Both points. provisioning established cover or from through travelling edge of mountains, the skirting crossing, shortest the geography: to according travelled often people and birds Both birds. exhausted of smaller, of prey birds by predation the and individuals unfortunate of ensnarement the including comparisons, other were there borders, and of seas crossing their but in counterparts migratory human, their constrained that fences the over flying birds migrating see to It poignant was them. drew –and out for Ilooked birds camps, the around and draw to in down Isat when so always birdwatching are (and artists) bird needed. they help or services what clothes, see to volunteers charity the with conversation in youngsters distrustful very engage helped that events Iheld Calais in and belonging; and of ‘home’ asense indicate could awall on paintings welcome where and of engagement asense help to provide Iwanted UK, the in society; patriarchal avery in girls women and for identity,development and especially for personal possibilities show to the I tried In a world where we are challenged by aworld challenged In we are where birdwatchers which to adegree is There www.fmreview.org/economies

83 Derek Robertson

What Colour Are The Wheatears? Wildlife artist Derek Robertson visited and interviewed Syrian, Palestinian and Iraqi refugee families who had settled in Jordan. He held a series of art classes for Syrian schoolchildren at a refugee school where he talked about his artwork and the links between artwork, environment, animals and the people who live and work in the landscape. “The children called out the names of the colours for me in Arabic – which are scribbled into the sketches. Later that day, we drove through the desert and I sketched migratory and resident species of wheatears.” The population of Jordan has doubled in recent years and over-extraction of water has led to oasis towns reverting to desert. The effect has been measured immediately in a dramatic change in breeding bird populations and the consequences on migrating birds which now have to try to cross larger areas of arid ground.

See Derek Robertson’s article about the links between birds’ migratory journeys and refugee journeys on page 83 of this issue (as part of a mini-feature on humans and animals in refugee camps).

Enhancing dissemination and impact: opportunities to collaborate with FMR In addition to the main feature on Economies, this If your organisation is applying (or is part of a issue of FMR includes two ‘mini-features’. In both consortium applying) for funding on a theme that you cases we have worked with researchers to support think is relevant to FMR’s readership, please consider and enhance the dissemination of research findings including FMR in your proposal narrative and budget. relating to a specific project. We have had fruitful There are various options for doing so – whether similar collaborations with UN, government and through mini-features like the ones in this issue or NGO partners. indeed through a full feature theme of FMR. We would welcome the opportunity to discuss this. Please contact the Editors at [email protected].

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