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COUPLE RELATIONSHIP MATTERS: DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECT OF INTER- PARENTAL RELATIONSHIP ON ADOLESCENT MENTAL HEALTH

FOK HUNG KIT

Ph.D

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

2014

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Department of Applied Social Sciences

Couple Relationship matters: Direct and Indirect effect of Inter-parental relationship on adolescent mental health

Fok Hung Kit

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2014

The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Department of Applied Social Sciences

Couple Relationship matters: Direct and Indirect effect of Inter-parental relationship on adolescent mental health

Fok Hung Kit

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy March 2014

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written, nor material that has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma, except where due acknowledge has been made in the text.

______Fok Hung Kit March, 2014

Abstract

Based on the family ecological perspective, this study investigated the relationships amongst inter-parental relationship (i.e., inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes), parenting processes (i.e., parenting styles and practices) and adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) in a Chinese context. This study consisted of two parts. The first part was scale development and validation. In this part, a scale assessing adolescent perceived non-conflict related attributes was developed and validated. The second part is the main study where a cross-sectional survey design was employed. A total of 2,007 self-administered questionnaires based on convenience sampling were collected from 20 secondary schools in Hong Kong. The participants were Secondary 1 (Grade 7) to Secondary 4 (Grade 10) students, with a mean age of 13.75 (SD=1.16).

In the validation study, a scale of adolescent perceived non-conflict related attributes was developed after thorough literature review and focus group interviews were conducted. The developed measure was found to be reliable and valid in term of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion-related validity and construct validity.

In the main study, results showed that inter-parental conflict intensity was positively correlated with hopelessness but negatively correlated with life satisfaction and positive youth development whereas non-conflict related attributes was negatively correlated with hopelessness but positively with life satisfaction and positive youth development. Regression analyses showed that inter-parental relationship and parenting processes were predictors of adolescent mental health. Analyses based on structural equation modeling showed that perceived conflict intensity influenced adolescent mental health indirectly via parental concern, behavioral control and psychological control whereas non-conflict related attributes had both direct and indirect effects on adolescent mental health. The mediators included parental concern, behavioral control and psychological control as well as maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. ii

Theoretically, the findings of this study suggest that inter-parental relationship and parenting processes are important building block in the model of adolescent mental health. The model underscores the impacts of multiple family processes on various aspects of adolescent mental health. Practically, inter-parental conflict intensity, non-conflict related, parenting styles, and parenting practices with reference to the family ecological framework are important processes for promoting various aspects of adolescent mental health. Implications for policy development and social service delivery are also highlighted. The limitations of the study are discussed and recommendations for future study are suggested.

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Publications arising from the thesis Fok, H. K., & Shek, D. T. L. (submitted for publication). Validation of Scale of Non-Conflict Related Marital Quality from the Perspective of Chinese Adolescent Children. Fok, H. K., & Shek, D. T. L. (2013). Assessment of non-conflict related marital quality from the perspective of Chinese adolescents. International Journal on Disability and Human Development, 12(2), 175-184. Fok, H. K., & Shek, D. T. L. (2011). A methodological critique of parenting Research in Hong Kong. International Journal of Adolescence Medicine and Health, 23(2), 93-99. Fok, H. K., & Shek, D. T. L. (2011). A conceptual critique of the parenting research in Hong Kong. International Journal of Adolescence Medicine and Health, 23(2), 101-107.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express sincere gratitude to my dissertation supervisor, Professor Daniel T. L. Shek. He has sharpened my research focus and stimulated my extensive learning. Also, his patience, perseverance, and clear mentorship helped me for this long journey of study. Most importantly, he set an example of excellent scholar. His creativity and leadership in adolescent research admired (has inspired) me.

I would like to also thank Caritas-Hong Kong for giving me great and generous support in this research. I am the most grateful to the principals, school personnel and school social workers who supported this research. Needless to say, credit goes to adolescents participated in the research.

Moreover, I am indebted to Dr. Hildie Leung, Dr. Janet Leung, Mr. Joe Leung, and Mr. Charles Leung for assisting the proofreading for this thesis. I am also grateful to Mr. John Lam who has assisted me with my statistical analyses. Finally, I want to thank my family members and my fiancée for their support and love in my life. Their warmth and love remind me the importance and influence of family on an individual.

Table of contents Page

Abstract i Publications arising from the thesis iii Acknowledgements iv Table of contents v List of Figures viii List of Tables ix

Chapter One: 1 Introduction

Chapter Two: 6 Perspectives on Adolescent Mental Health 2.1 The content of the criteria for the evaluation of theories 7 2.2 The Biological perspective 9 2.3 The Psychoanalytic perspective 14 2.4 The Behavioral perspective 19 2.5 The Cognitive perspective 22 2.6 The Cognitive-behavioral perspective 27 2.7 The Family Perspective 29 2.8 The Socio-cultural perspective 33 2.9 The Ecological perspective 34 2.10 Evaluation of the perspectives 38 2.11 Further discussion of ecological perspective in the context of 44 adolescent mental health 2.12 Employment of the family ecological perspective as the theoretical 48 perspective of this study 2.13 Summary 54

Chapter Three: 58 Review of the literature on the inter-parental relationship, parenting and adolescent mental health 3.1 Review of the literature on parenting and adolescent mental health 59 3.2 Review of the literature on inter-parental relationship and adolescent 62 mental health 3.3 Review of the literature on association of parenting with inter-parental 66 relationships and adolescent mental health 3.4 The Conceptual limitations of previous studies 68 3.5 The methodological limitations of studies in previous literature 82

Chapter Four: 87 Theoretical framework, research questions, research hypotheses and proposed conceptual model 4.1 Antecedents of adolescent mental health—Inter-parental relational 87 quality 4.2 Outcomes being studied--Adolescent mental health 95 4.3 Parenting in mediating the association between perceived inter- 100 parental relational quality and adolescent mental health 4.4 Research Questions and hypotheses 107

Chapter Five: 115 Research design and methodology 5.1 Research design adopted with philosophical orientation and 115 justification 5.2 Measurement tools 118 5.3 Phases of implementation 127

Chapter Six: 130 Validation Study 6.1 Background 130 6.2 Scale Construction 132 6.3 Content Validation of the scale by experts 138 6.4 Psychometric properties of the Adolescents’ perception of inter- 145 parental non-conflict related attributes scale 6.5 Conclusion 161

Chapter Seven: 162 Main Study 7.1 Method 162 7.2 Profile of the study sample 166 7.3 Data screening and cleaning process 169 7.4 Psychometric properties of the measurement tools 170 7.5 Existing Measurements 173 7.6 Research questions and hypotheses – Results 182

Chapter Eight: 227 Discussion 8.1 Psychometric properties of the measurement tools 227 8.2 Empirical findings for the Research Questions 234 8.3 Relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and 247 parenting 8.4 Relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health 254 8.5 Parenting styles and practices as mediators of the influences of inter- 261 parental relations on adolescent mental health 8.6 The integrated model based on the structural equation modeling 265 8.7 Theoretical implications of the research 267 8.8 Practical Implications 291 8.9 Limitations of the research 310

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Chapter Nine: 319 Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research 9.1 Summary of findings 319 9.2 Message for laymen 324 9.2 Recommendations for future research 325 9.3 Conclusion 329

Appendices 392 Appendix 1 – Content Validation Questionnaire for Experts 392 Appendix 2 – Questionnaire used in main study 403

References 425

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List of Figures Page

Figure 4.1 Hypothetical Model of the relationships among inter-parental 112 relational quality, parenting, and adolescent mental health Figure 4.2 Figures for Hypothesis 1 112 Figure 5.2 Figures for Hypothesis 2 113 Figure 4.3 Figures for Hypothesis 3 113 Figure 4.4 Figures for Hypothesis 4 114 Figure 7.1 Figures explaining mediation 204 Figure 7.2 Path model using paternal variables 389 Figure 7.3 Path model using maternal variables 390 Figure 7.4 Path model using parental variables 391

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List of Tables Page

Table 2.1 A summary of different perspectives on adolescent mental 56 health with reference to Klein's thirteen criteria part one Table 2.2 A summary of different perspectives on adolescent mental 57 health with reference to Klein's thirteen criteria part two Table 5.1 The measurement instrument used in the present study 119 Table 6.1 Original CPIC items 331 Table 6.2 Interview guides of adolescents focus groups 333 Table 6.3 Interview guides of social workers focus groups 334 Table 6.4 Themes of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- 335 conflict related attributes Table 6.5 60 items pool of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental 336 non-conflict related attributes Table 6.6 Table of CVI on the measure on aspects of relevance, 340 clarity and respresentativeness Table 6.7 Table of CVI(representativeness) of 12 domains 342 Table 6.8 Modifications of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental 342 non-conflict related attributes Table 6.9 Modified 60 items pool of adolescents’ perception of inter- 343 parental non-conflict related attributes Table 6.10 Item-total statistics 347 Table 6.11 Result of independent sample t-test of the 60 items 348 Table 6.12 Item-total statistics of the adolescents’ perception of inter- 350 parental non-conflict related attributes Table 6.13 Correlation matrix of the adolescents’ perception of inter- 351 parental non-conflict related attributes, CPIC-CI, HOPEL, LIFE and CMCDS for time 1 and 2 Table 6.14 Partial correlation matrix of adolescents’ perception of 352 inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, HOPEL, and LIFE after controlling CPIC-CI for time 1 and 2 Table 6.15 Partial correlation matrix of adolescents’ perception of 352 inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, HOPEL, and LIFE after controlling CPIC-CI and CMCDS for time 2 Table 7.1 age and form distribution with respect to gender 353 Table 7.2 Item-total statistics of the revised adolescents’ perception 353 of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Table 7.3 Component matrix of revised adolescents’ perception of 354 inter-parental non-conflict related attributes for main study data Table 7.4 Item-total statistics of Conflict intensity subscale of the 355 Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI)

Table 7.5 Item-total statistics of Paternal Treatment Scale (PTS) and 355 Maternal Treatment Scale (MTS) Table 7.6 Correlations Paternal and Maternal Treatment subscales 356 and overall measures

Table 7.7 Item-total statistics of Paternal Parenting Practice Scales 356 and Maternal Parenting Practice Scales Table 7.8 Correlations Paternal and Maternal Parenting Practice 357 Scales Table 7.9 Item-total statistics of Chinese Paternal Control Scale 357 (CPCS) and Chinese Maternal Control Scale (CMCS) Table 7.10 Correlations among Paternal and Maternal Behavioral, 357 Psychological Control, and control based on indigenous Chinese cultural beliefs Table 7.11 Item-total statistics of Chinese version of Hopelessness 358 Scale (C-HOPEL) Table 7.12 Correlations among Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale 358 (C-HOPEL), Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), and revised adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Table 7.13 Item-total statistics of Chinese version Life Satisfaction 358 Scale (LIFE) (C-HOPEL) Table 7.14 Correlations among Chinese version of Life Satisfaction 358 Scale (LIFE), Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), and revised adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Table 7.15 Item-total statistics of Chinese Positive Youth 359 Development Scale Shot Form (CPYDS-SF) Table 7.16 Correlation coefficients among subscales, second-level 360 factor suggested by Shek and Ma (2011) and overall measure of CPYDS Table 7.17 Partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict 361 intensity, non-conflict related attributes, and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) Table 7.18 Summary of results of hypothesis 1 362 Table 7.19 Partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict 364 intensity, non-conflict related attributes, parenting styles Table 7.20 Partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict 364 intensity, non-conflict related attributes, parenting styles Table 7.21 Summary of results of hypothesis 2a and 2c 365 Table 7.22 Summary of results of hypothesis 2b and 2d 368 Table 7.23 Partial correlations among parenting style and three 372 indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) Table 7.24 Partial correlations among parenting practices and three 373 indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) Table 7.25 Summary of results of hypothesis 3a-3c 374 Table 7.26 Summary of results of hypothesis 3d 377 Table 7.27 Summary of results of hypothesis 3e 379 Table 7.28 Summary of results of hypothesis 3f 381 Table 7.29 Results of Sobel tests: paths between Inter-parental 383

relational quality and Hopelessness Table 7.30 Results of Sobel tests: paths between Inter-parental 384 relational quality and Life Satisfaction Table 7.31 Results of Sobel tests: paths between Inter-parental 385 relational quality and Positive Youth Development Table 7.32 Summary of the fit indices of model based on paternal, 386 model based on maternal variables and combined model Table 7.33 Summary of paths in combined model 387 Table 8.1 Theoretical advances of the study 287 Table 8.2 Methodological advances of the study 308

Chapter 1: Introduction On the 27th of April2012, Mr. Park Jung-Su, the team leader of Super Junior, the famous Asian K-pop band, on a live television show on the South Korean MBC Station, disclosed how he was affected by the poor quality of the marriage of his parents during his childhood and adolescence. Fans were shocked, despite his assurances that he is now optimistic and successful (MBC, 2012). Obviously, it is a well-known fact that the health of their parent's marital marriage has an impact on development of adolescents. Therefore, as laymen, many parents would like to know the exact mechanisms by which inter-parental relationship influences adolescents and how to benefit adolescent children through their marriage. It is common to regard adolescence as a special period of life that is full of changes. However, what does adolescence mean? Perhaps insights for answering this question can be gained from the origin of the word “adolescence”. “Adolescence” is originally from the Latin word “adolescere”. It means “growing into adulthood’’ (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). In most of the cultures in the world, adolescence is considered as the period of growing up from immature childhood into mature adulthood. In this sense, adolescence is a period of preparation for the future (Larson & Wilson, 2004). In preparation for the future, an individual undergoes rapid changes both physiologically and psychologically during this period (Coghill, 2010). Physiologically, studies of adolescent brain development have identified that, following the increase in grey matter during childhood, adolescence is typified by a decline in grey matter that is associated with complex changes that result in alterations to the balance between the limbic/sub-cortical and frontal lobe functions (Giedd, 2008). Giedd (2008) suggests that they may throw light on the drive to separate from one's family of origin, and the increased risk taking and sensation seeking behaviors that are associated with adolescence. On a more general level, they highlight several other important issues; the potential for real and meaningful positive changes that still exists in adolescence, which may be able to facilitate continued growth, or remediate for past difficulties; the

1 2 importance of continued support and learning during adolescence; and the potential for harm resulting from a lack of appropriate support (Coghill, 2010). Psychologically, adolescence is a time for rapid cognitive development (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). Cognitive psychologists regard adolescence as the stage of life in which an individual's thoughts start taking on a more abstract form with decreasing egocentric thoughts. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). In adolescence, development of executive functions and cognitive skills enables the control and coordination of thoughts and behavior. Various thoughts, ideas and concepts developed at adolescence greatly influence one's future life and play a major role in character and personality formation (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). Adolescence, as the period of rapid physiological and psychological changes, represents an important stage of development that is associated with unique challenges (Coghill, 2010). For example, adolescence is the period in which an individual learns to be independent and acquire a clear sense of identity (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). During this special period of time, adolescents might have their own unique mental health needs (Coghill, 2010). These needs are huge. For instance, the prevalence rate of Major Depression Disorder (MDD) in Hong Kong is 2.2% (Stewart et al., 2002). With the huge adolescent mental health needs in Hong Kong, one would expect that studies of adolescent mental health in Hong Kong would be numerous and that much would have been learnt in this field. However, relative to adolescent mental health needs in Hong Kong, research on this topic is limited. There is still much to be learned, especially about the influence of family factors on adolescent mental health (Ng & Hurry, 2011). Family variables are one of the factors most consistently associated with adolescent mental health (Aggleton et al., 2000; Evans et al., 2007). Among the research on family variables and adolescent mental health, there are several observations. First, studies on the inter-parental relationship and different aspects of adolescent mental health are scarce, especially studies done in a Chinese context. The paths on how relationships between parents influence adolescent

2 3 mental health are unclear. Second, existing studies on the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health stress on the negative impacts of inter- parental conflicts on adolescents, but the positive influences of the inter-parental relationship on adolescents is nearly unexplored. Third, it is unclear if parenting partially mediates the impact of various aspects of the inter-parental relationship on adolescents. Fourth, only a few studies touch upon Chinese adolescents’ perception of inter-parental relationship and its association with adolescent mental health. Concerning the linkage between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health, past studies made in the context of western culture have suggested that these two constructs are associated (e.g., Ellis & Garber, 2000; El- Sheikh, Harger, & Whitson, 2001; Fergusson & Horwood, 1998; see review in Cummings & Davies, 1994, 2010). Western literature is not alone in showing that the inter-parental relationship has an impact on adolescent mental health (Baucom, Shoham, Mueser, Daiuto, & Stickle, 1998; Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Cummings & Davies, 1994; Cummings, Pelligrini, Notarius, & Cummings, 1989; Emery, 1999). Other related western studies have also shown that inter-parental relational quality might change during children’s adolescence (Richmond & Stocker, 2007; Stocker et al., 2003). Some studies in the West indicated that the inter-parental relational quality was at its poorest during early adolescence and became better during late adolescence (Miller & Perlman, 2009) whereas children perceived inter-parental conflict as being less negative during late adolescence (Richmond & Stocker, 2007; Stocker et al., 2003). Based on the above literature, it seems that adolescence is not only a special period for an individual to grow physically and psychologically (Coghill, 2010), but also a special period for the interactions between the individual’s parents. Although adolescence is so unique for young people and their families, there are many unexplored questions in the link between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health. Some of these questions are listed as follows: Are various aspects of inter-parental relationships associated with different aspects of adolescent mental health? Are various aspects of inter-parental

3 4 relationships associated with different parenting processes? If so, do parenting processes partially mediate the impact of various aspects of inter-parental relationships on different aspects of adolescent mental health? These unexplored questions might be particularly important to Chinese societies, such as Hong Kong, due to the emphasis on family bond by the Chinese culture (Bond, 2010). Local research also showed that family processes do had an impact on adolescent development (Shek, 2008a; 2008b; 2008c). The objective of this research is to investigate the impact of the inter-parental relationship on adolescent mental health. In particular, this research aims to explore the linkage between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health. It studies the influences of inter-parental relationships on various aspects of parenting processes and adolescent mental health in the Hong Kong Chinese context. This research also investigates the mediating role of parenting processes between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health in the young people of Hong Kong. A quantitative cross-sectional research designed with the use of validated instruments was adopted in this study. A sample of 2,007 adolescents was recruited. Their ages ranged from 12 to 16. This age range was used because the physical and psychological changes in adolescents are most pronounced during this period (Hamburg, 1974). The research has theoretical implications for developing indigenous Chinese concepts of the positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality from an adolescent’s perspective, and building Chinese family models to understand the influences of inter-parental relational quality and parenting processes on adolescent mental health in the Chinese population. Practical implications for social work intervention and policy formulation that enhance positive family processes and building adolescent mental health are also expected. This thesis covers ten chapters: Following the introduction, Chapter two introduces views from eight perspectives (the biological perspective, the psychoanalytic perspective, the behavioral perspective, the cognitive perspective, the cognitive-behavioral perspective, the socio-cultural perspective, the ecological perspective and the family perspective) on adolescent mental health. A brief

4 5 critique of each perspective is presented. The family ecological perspective of human development was employed as the theoretical perspective of this research, with justifications. Chapter three covers literature reviews on relationships among inter-parental relationships, parenting and adolescent mental health. The theoretical and methodological limitations of the previous literature are also mentioned. Chapter four lists the theoretical framework used, research questions, research hypotheses and proposed models. Chapter five covers the research design and methodology. Philosophical orientation and justification of research design, data collection methods, measurement tools, and sampling strategies are discussed. Chapter six contains the validation study. Chapter seven presents the key findings of the present research. Chapter eight contains the discussion of the results of the validation study and the main study, highlighting the theoretical, practical and educational implications of the study. Finally, Chapter nine summarizes the findings in response to the research questions and gives recommendations for future studies.

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Chapter 2: Perspectives on Adolescent Mental Health

According to the World Health Organization (2005), mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community. That is the definition used in this research. There are numerous theories and studies of predictors of adolescent mental health (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). In general, theories explaining adolescent mental health tend to be organized around the following categories: the biological perspective, psychodynamic perspective, behavioral perspective, cognitive perspective, cognitive-behavioral perspective, family perspective, socio-cultural perspective, and the ecological perspective (Adelson, 1980; Muuss, 1996). In this chapter, the theoretical explanations of the above eight perspectives on adolescent mental health are briefly discussed. Then, these eight perspectives are critically evaluated according to the criteria developed by Klein and White (2002). The criteria developed by Klein and White (2002) are used because of several reasons. First, the criteria are comprehensive and provide various important dimensions for evaluating different theoretical perspectives. These criteria cover a wide range of areas, including the structure of perspectives, the validity and predictive power of the perspectives, the heuristic value and sensitivity of the perspectives, and the implication of the perspectives. Second, the criteria incorporate the needs of researchers and mental health practitioners in addition to the criteria that are related to pure theoretical implications, such as the structure of the perspectives. The criteria also include practical utility, which is about the practical benefits of the transmission of knowledge from the perspectives that mental health practitioners are concerned about for informing their practices. Third, the criteria take contextualization and interpretive sensitivity into consideration. Most of the perspectives were developed in Western cultures, but this study is about the Chinese context. The criteria help to guide in locating perspectives that are applicable for the Chinese. Finally, the criteria are used by other researchers to

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evaluate different theoretical perspectives (e.g., Leung, 2012), implying that these criteria are accepted in the field.

2.1 The content of the criteria for the evaluation of theories In this section, the criteria for the evaluation of theories developed by Klein and a colleague are outlined (Klein & White, 2002). The thirteen criteria for the evaluation of theories are: 1) Internal consistency: a theory does not contain logically contradictory assertions. 2) Clarity or explicitness: the ideas in a theory are expressed in such a way that they are unambiguous. They are defined and explicated where necessary. 3) Explanatory power: a theory explains well what it is intended to explain 4) Coherence: the key ideas in a theory are integrated or interconnected, and loose ends are avoided. 5) Understanding: a theory provides a comprehensive sense of the whole phenomenon being examined. 6) Empirical fit: a large portion of the tests of a theory have been confirmatory, or at least have not been interpreted as disconfirming. 7) Testability: it is possible for a theory to be empirically supported or refuted. 8) Heuristic value: a theory has generated or can generate considerable research and intellectual curiosity (including a large number of empirical studies, as well as much debate or controversy). 9) Groundedness: a theory has been built up from detailed information about events and processes observable in the world. 10) Contextualization: a theory gives serious consideration to the social and historical contexts affecting or affected by its key ideas. 11) Interpretive sensitivity: a theory reflects the experiences practiced and felt by the social units to which it is applied. 12) Predictive power: a theory can successfully predict phenomena that have occurred since it was formulated. 13) Practical utility: a theory can be readily applied to social problems, policies,

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and programs of actions (i.e., it is useful for teaching, therapy, political action, or some combination of these).

The evaluation criteria can be grouped into four categories. Criteria number 1, 2, 4 and 5 are about the structure of theories, including how the theories are constructed and how organized and clear the theories are. Criteria number 6, 7, and 9 focus on how valid the theories are, or can be, with both qualitative and quantitative study. Criteria number 8, 10 and 11 are about heuristic value and the sensitivity of the theories. Criteria number 3, 12 and 13 evaluate the theoretical and practical implications of the theories. The criteria listed above are based on a survey of a diverse group of over 100 social scientists (Klein & White, 2002). In this particular study, a set of criteria composed of explanatory power, empirical fit, testability, and predictive power, which are commonly endorsed in the literature, are adopted. In the following sections, I will draw on eight perspectives (i.e., the biological perspective, psychodynamic perspective, behavioral perspective, cognitive perspective, cognitive-behavioral perspective, family perspective, socio-cultural perspective, and the ecological perspective) to explain adolescent mental health. At the end of each section, a brief critique of each perspective is presented. Several important perspectives explaining adolescent mental health have emerged in the literature (Liben, 2009; Muuss, 1996). However, I have limited my coverage, and organized the theories to just eight perspectives: the biological perspective, psycho-analytic perspective, behavioral perspective, cognitive perspective, cognitive-behavioral perspective, socio-cultural perspective, ecological perspective and the family perspective (Adelson, 1980; Muuss, 1996). The selection of these eight perspectives was guided by several considerations (Adelson, 1980). First, these conceptualizations have all played leading roles in the research and the interpretation of findings (Adelson, 1980). Second, these perspectives provide clear and concrete bases for formulating hypotheses. Third, these perspectives also provide important theoretical and conceptual guidance on the adolescent developmental processes and mental health across a life span.

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Fourth, these perspectives are regarded as macro theories that explain several aspects of mental health but do not specify certain indicators of mental health (e.g., depression, anxiety or life satisfaction) (Cicchetti & Hinshaw, 2002; Hinshaw, 2005). Finally, these perspectives can be readily compared and contrasted with each other. Accordingly, the following sections address some of the primary assumptions and derivative hypotheses of these perspectives.

2.2 The Biological perspective 2.2.1 Theoretical explanation of the Biological perspective on adolescent mental health The Biological perspective of adolescent mental health, such as the biosocial model (Cairns, Gariepy, & Hood, 1990; Ghaemi, 2009; Gottlieb, 1992) and the catecholamine theory of depression (Lagges & Dunn, 2003), assumes that the mental health of young people is partially or fully influenced by genetic predisposition or the chemical balance in the brain and cortex and/or physiological functioning (Booth, Johnson, Granger, Crouter, & McHale, 2003; France, Lysaker, & Robinson, 2007; Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). Therefore, the biological perspective hypothesizes that biological factors solely or jointly interact with other psycho-social variables to influence adolescent mental health. Genetic factors have also been identified as important factors in adolescent mental health (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). For example, several studies of adolescent and childhood depressive disorders have considered the impact of genetic factors, either via studies of disorders in children of parents with depressive disorders or via studies of family histories of depressed adolescents. Moreover, Birmaher and his colleagues (1996) suggest that looking across twin and adoption studies, about 50% of the variance in mood disorders (e.g., dysthymic disorder, and bipolar disorder) is accounted for by genetic similarity. Children of depressed parents are about three times more likely than children of normal parents to have a lifetime history of affective disorder (Hammen, Burge, Burney, & Adrian, 1990; Weissman et al., 1987), even after controlling for differences across study designs (Strober, 2001). Family history, twin, or adoption

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studies specific to anxiety problems and disorders in childhood or adolescence have also been conducted (Vasey & Ollendick, 2000). Twin studies of adults find that genetic similarity constitutes a risk for general and specific anxiety disorder (Kendler, 2001). A meta-analysis, including 51 twin and adoption studies, estimated that, on average, 41% of the variance in externalizing problems was accounted for by genes (Rhee & Waldman, 2002). Furthermore, stability in externalizing problems from childhood to adolescence (Eley, Lichtenstein, & Moffitt, 2003), and the early adolescent on-set of externalizing problems, have also been found to have a strong genetic component (Taylor, Iacono, & McGue, 2000). The chemical balance of the brain has also been identified as one of the determinants of adolescent mental health (France, Lysaker, & Robinson, 2007; Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). For example, two hormonal systems, the limbic- hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (L-HPA) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG), have been implicated in the development of internalizing problems and disorders in adolescents (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). Moreover, numerous studies link testosterone to antisocial behavior, health-risk behavior, and negative mental and physical health outcomes in adult samples. Individual differences in men’s testosterone levels are associated with dominance (Mazur & Booth, 1998), aggression (Archer, 1991), violent crime and antisocial personality disorder (Booth & Osgood, 1993; Dabbs & Morris, 1990), and negative emotionality and depression (Booth, Johnson, & Granger, 1999; Mazur & Lamb, 1990). Testosterone effects on adolescents are expected to be similar because other studies using normally developing adolescent boys reveal that higher levels of testosterone are related to readiness to respond vigorously to provocation and threats (Olweus, Mattsson, Schalling, & Low, 1980, 1988), a tendency to dominate peer relationships (Tremblay et al., 1999), aggressive-destructive behavior (Susman et al., 1987), and a higher frequency of sexual activity (Halpern, Udry, & Suchindran, 1998). Similarly, girls with high levels of testosterone, when compared to girls with low levels of testosterone, are reported to have higher

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levels of depression (Angold, Costello, Erkanli, & Worthman, 1999; Booth, Johnson, Granger, Crouter, & McHale, 2003). Neurological or physiological functioning has been associated with adolescent mental health (Lagges & Dunn, 2003; Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). For example, symptoms of depression may be a product of chronic stresses acting on central nervous system changes that are predisposing to mood change. Some studies of children and adolescents with epilepsy have shown an increased risk of depression (Lagges & Dunn, 2003). Ettinger et al. (1998) and Dunn et al. (1999) found symptoms of depression in one fourth of their samples of adolescent epilepsy patients. The association of depression with migraine has been demonstrated in late adolescents (Breslau et al., 2000). Depression is frequently seen with degenerative disorders such as Friedreich ataxia (Leroi, O’Hearn, & Marsh, 2002). Adolescents with Down’s syndrome have a higher risk of depression during their latter teenage years and adulthood (Lagges & Dunn, 2003). Recently, the biological perspective has incorporated environmental factors and proposes diathesis-stress theory to explain mental health (Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008; Zubin & Spring, 1977). The diathesis-stress theory assumes mental disorders such as schizophrenia to be the result of interactions between biological factors and life experiences (Connor, Rasmussen, & Hawton, 2010). The theory proposes that each individual has a certain degree of vulnerability that will develop as psychological disorders under certain situations (Zubin & Spring, 1977). This vulnerability includes genetic predisposition, brain abnormalities and neurotransmitter problems and is referred to as “diathesis” (Zubin & Spring, 1977). Stress is the individual’s responses to life events that the individual perceives as exceeding his or her coping abilities. In the diathesis–stress theory, a biological vulnerability (diathesis) interacts with the environment and life events (stressors) to trigger behavioral or psychological disorders. The greater the underlying vulnerability, the less stress is needed to trigger the behaviors or disorders (Zubin & Spring, 1977). There are a significant number of empirical studies applying diathesis-stress theory to adolescent mental health. For example, Benjet, Thompson, and Gitlib (2010) found that female adolescents with two 5-

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HTTLPR short alleles (biological diathesis) develop depressive symptoms if they face relational peer victimization (stressor).

2.2.2 Critique of the biological perspective The biological perspective has three limitations. First, the biological perspective presents the problem of causality. Finding that a genetic predisposition, chemical imbalance or other biological factors accompany a given disorder or distress does not mean that the biological factor is the only or even the principal cause of the disorder(s). Similarly, treating the biological symptoms that accompany a given disorder or distress may suffer from the problem of reductionism (Ghaemi, 2009). As Lerner and Steinberg (2004) pointed out “studies of physiological dysregulation that is concurrent with depression or anxiety in and of itself do not identify predictors of these disorders. Instead, such markers identify factors that need to be explained in the development of a disorder or possible systems that are pathways that link experiences to abnormal functioning of neurological or endocrine systems” (p. 599). Secondly, the biological perspective may underestimate the importance of other factors of adolescent mental health. The early version of the biological perspective often assume early on that biological factor(s) is (are) primary factor(s) for adolescent mental health. Therefore, the biological perspective, with its exclusive emphasis on organic factors in the etiology of psychological problems, draws attention away from important psychosocial changes that may be required to alleviate psychosocial distress and/or to promote mental health (Laing, 1961; Szasz, 1961, 1963; Newnes & MacLachlan, 1996). Recent empirical findings suggest there is interplay between biological factors and other psychosocial factors. For example, people with a genetic vulnerability to a particular condition may develop psychological disorders if they are exposed to particular stresses within their environment. This observation has led people to move away from a purely biological model to a diathesis-stress theory of psychological problems, which studies the combined influences of environmental stress and biochemical factors. This theory acknowledges the importance of psychosocial factors such as family

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environment, gender, social class and culture in the development of abnormal behavior. Recent empirical studies of diathesis-stress theory are starting to recognize family factors or ecological factors as important stressors for development of psychological disorders or maladaptive behaviors (e.g., Hooley & Gotlib, 2000; Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008; Orsmond & Seltzer, 2009). Thirdly, although the biological perspective is the mainstream treatment approach in psychiatry, it has limited explanatory power in certain circumstances (Ghaemi, 2009). Restricting the perspective to only including genetic predisposition, chemical imbalance or other biological factors, the biological perspective fails to explain why some people having similar or identical organic composition do not exhibit mental illness. In other words, genetic predisposition, chemical balance or other biological factors alone cannot completely account for the picture of psychological distress or psychological disorders. Other variables are needed. Hence, both biological and psychosocial factors should be considered in adolescent mental health studies. Besides that, the biological perspective primarily addresses the issue of psychological distress or psychological disorders. It does not explain why most adolescents do not develop psychological distress or psychological disorders. The biological perspective also does not suggest pathways along which adolescents can achieve or promote mental health. To conclude, although the biological perspective receives a significant amount of empirical support and is the mainstream treatment approach in psychiatry (Ghaemi, 2009), it suffers from the problem of causality and reductionism because of its narrow focus on biological variables fails to incorporate other important variables in accounting for adolescent mental health. One of these neglected variables is the environment, which includes family variables. Shifting the focus away from the early biological perceptive, which only considers biological variables, to a focus that considers both biological and psychosocial variables such as the family environment, is the best example highlighting the limitations of the early biological perspective and showing the importance of psychosocial variables.

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2.3 The Psychoanalytic perspective 2.3.1 Theoretical explanation of the Psychoanalytic perspective on adolescent mental health The psychoanalytic perspective is linked to adolescent mental health because the perspective focuses on the psychopathology of personality and human development across a life span (Muuss, 1996). There are many micro-theories underlying the psychoanalytic perspective, such as the Freudian theory, topographic theory, structural theory, modern conflict theory, the Erikson's stages of development, and the attachment notion (Muuss, 1996). Only the Freudian theory, Sullivan’s interpersonal theory, Erikson’s stages of development, and the attachment notion are addressed here because they tend to cover more about human development (including the stage of adolescence) when compared with the other theories. Freudian theory assumes that motives, wishes, feelings and fantasies exist in an individual without conscious awareness of these hidden dynamic forces; furthermore, these hidden forces are known to influence adolescent mental health (Fisher & Greenberg, 1977; Muuss, 1996). These hidden dynamic forces are also assumed to be affected by childhood experiences (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004). There are two major hypotheses in Freudian theory--depth hypothesis and structural hypothesis. In the depth hypothesis, the mind is divided into the conscious and unconscious and almost all mental activities take place unconsciously. Structural hypothesis further suggests that the consciousness and unconsciousness can be further divided into id, ego and superego (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004). The id is part of the mind's biological storehouse of primitive impulses (sexual and aggressive drives). The ego is the part of the mind that includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions. The superego is the part of the mind that includes the individual's ego ideals, spiritual goals, and the psychic agency (commonly called "conscience") that criticizes and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions. Adolescent mental health is determined by conflicts among id, ego and superego and by how ego

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mediates the conflicts (i.e., defense mechanisms, including regression, rationalization, displacement, identification, projection and denial etc). According to Freudian scholars, mental distress appears when one’s unconscious impulses are breaking into consciousness. Generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders are developed if too many unconscious impulses break into consciousness and a person is overwhelmed by them (Todd & Bohart, 1999). Unlike traditional Freudian theory which focuses on unconscious dynamics, Harry Stack Sullivan proposed a social psychiatry theory of human development. This theory highlights the importance of interpersonal relationships and communications (Muuss, 1996). According to Sullivan, “Comfortable, successful interpersonal relationships are what life is all about” (Muuss, 1996, p. 84). Interpersonal relationships are enormously important both in normal and pathological development (Evans, 1996). Sullivan equates “the personality of an individual as the outcome of the interpersonal relationships of that individual, almost to the extent of questioning whether or not a “unique individual self”, independent of interaction with others, actually exists” (Muuss, 1996, p. 87). The effects of interpersonal relationships can be both positive and negative. The positive effects depend upon positive feedback from others. The knowledge that others value us as important and worthwhile provides a feeling of security. The feeling of security constitutes mental health. However, interpersonal interactions can also produce anxiety which causes psychological disorders (Muuss, 1996). In pre-adolescence, one of the most important relationships, according to Sullivan, is the parent-child relationship. Young children can develop a concept of “good me” when parents provide tenderness, love, security, and satisfaction. They can have a concept of “bad me” when parents provide threats, criticism, punishment, and anxiety. The concept of “good me” or “bad me” provides an individual with guidelines for coping with social complexity in later development (Muuss, 1996). In the stage of adolescence, an individual has to develop an effective mechanism, based on the previous development of one's self- concept of “good me” or “bad me”, to cope with anxiety and achieve a sense of

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respect for self and others. If an individual fails to do so, he or she may develop psychological disorders such as depression and eating disorders (Muuss, 1996). Erikson assumed there are eight developmental stages throughout a life span. In his theory, as they age, people experience conflicts, each involving either a positive outcome (successful resolution) or a negative one (unsuccessful resolution). Successful resolution of conflicts confers psychosocial strengths on the people resolving them, such as a sense of autonomy, a sense of initiative, or a sense of identity, that will serve them well later in life in meeting societal expectations and experiencing well-being. If a stage is not resolved successfully, the failure to gain the psychosocial strength that would have come from resolution may impair future development and mental health. In other words, for Erikson, adolescent mental health is hypothesized to be determined by conflict resolution at previous and present stages of development. The stage of adolescence, according to Erikson, is a critical period of time in which young people must establish a sense of personal identity (successful resolution) and avoid the dangers of role confusion (unsuccessful resolution) (Muuss, 1996). Successful resolution of identity crisis provides adolescents with a clear sense of self, their personal beliefs and values, and their place in the community whereas unsuccessful resolution leaves them with a diffuse sense of identity, confusion about social roles, and uncertainty about internal subjective states and feelings (Crawford, Cohen, Johnson, Sneed, & Brook, 2004). Building on the Erikson’s stages of development, Ochse and Plug (1986) showed that the psychosocial development at this stage was related to adolescent mental health. On the other hand, Bowlby (1951) proposed the attachment notion to explain human development and psychopathology. Attachment refers to “a continuous tie to a specific person that the child turns to when feeling vulnerable and in need of protection” (Gullestad, 2001). Bowlby (1951) suggested that children attach themselves to primary caregiver(s) instinctively and it is natural for children to feel separation anxiety when they leave their primary caregiver(s). People who had close, caring bonds with a caregiver while growing up are more apt to develop an adaptive interpersonal style of relating to others, which is called

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a “secure” attachment style. In contrast, people exposed to an unresponsive or unavailable caregiver are more likely to develop a more maladaptive interpersonal style, which is described as an “insecure” attachment style. Insecure attachment is theoretically linked to problems in later interactions with significant others and psychopathology (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). Empirically, relatively less research on adolescent mental health uses Freudian theory, Sullivan’s theory and Erikson’s stages of development. For example, Norton (2010) examined adolescent depression from a psychodynamic perspective, and identified the psychodynamics of adolescent depression as the affective correlates that stem from unresolved developmental conflicts, issues of separation/individuation, the search for identity and the development of the true self. Mikhailova (2005) also studied adolescent suicide through the lens of the psychoanalytic tradition, including classic Freudian views and the more contemporary psychodynamic theories, such as object relations, and self- psychology. Crawford, Cohen, Johnson, Sneed, and Brook (2004), drawing on Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, found that identity diffusion, as operationalized by borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic symptoms, was associated with lower well-being during adolescence. Attachment notions received were found to be associated with various psychological disorders such as depression (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004)

2.3.2 Critique of the psychoanalytic perspective Despite the psychoanalytic perspective influencing a range of theoretically distinct ideas in counseling and psychotherapy, such as psychosocial therapy (Hollis & Wood, 1981), functional social work (Smalley, 1970), and problem- solving casework (Perlman, 1957), the perspective has four limitations. First, the assumption, ideas, and hypotheses of the psychoanalytic perspective are difficult to test scientifically. Many concepts of the psychoanalytic perspective, such as intra-psychic conflicts, id, ego, and wisdom, are unambiguous. There is a lack of operational definitions of these theoretical concepts, making these concepts untestable (Erdelyi & Goldberg, 1979). Furthermore, most of these concepts are

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unconscious and, hence inaccessible to direct testing (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). Therefore, there are no commonly agreed methods and procedures by which the theories can be objectively evaluated. Secondly, the psychoanalytic perspective may suffer from the problem of reductionism. The psychoanalytic perspective explains adolescent mental health in term of intra-psychic factors (e.g., conflicts among hidden dynamic forces or conflict resolution for a stage of development). While clinical observations may have led to the formation of many sound psychoanalytic theories, the relationship between the concepts in the psychoanalytic perspective and adolescent mental health is unclear. Instead of intra-psychic factors influencing adolescent mental health, intra-psychic factors themselves may be the partial symptoms reflecting adolescent mental health that need to be explained. Thirdly, another criticism related to the above issues of the psychoanalytic perspective is that the perspective has failed to incorporate other factors relating to adolescent mental health. The psychoanalytic perspective only considers intra- psychic factors in explaining adolescent mental health. This view is quite restricted and it has precluded consideration of cognitive, behavioral, biological, social and cultural influences on adolescent mental health. Fourthly, the psychoanalytic perspective has also been viewed as more pessimistic than other perspectives, such as the cognitive perspective and the family perspective, in explaining human mental health (Vakoch & Strupp, 2000; Westen, 2000). Freudian theory emphasizes intra-psychic factors, such as id, ego or conflicts, which may be unconscious and beyond the individual’s control, in which an individual is virtually helpless to change themselves. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development suggests that conflict resolution in previous stages of development can keep influencing an individual’s mental health throughout his or her life. This may reduce the motivation to achieve good mental health in people with poor childhoods. However, studies of positive psychology, such as resilience research, have shown that the strengths and potential of adolescence can buffer them from the negative effects of a poor childhood. In other words, the psychoanalytic perspective overlooks the positive sides of human nature, including

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the strengths and potential of adolescents, which are important in the development of mental health and should also be focused on. To conclude, the psychoanalytic perspective, in general, emphasizes intra- psychic factors, making its prediction difficult to investigate with scientific study. With scientific advances, many psychoanalytic perspective scholars have deemphasized the importance of intra-psychic factors and moved social interaction to the center stage (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). Sullivan’s theory and Erikson’s theory are the examples of the psychoanalytic perspective being incorporated into other variables, such as interpersonal relationships and psychosocial development, to make the perspective more scientifically testable.

2.4 The Behavioral perspective 2.4.1 Theoretical explanation of the Behavioral perspective on adolescent mental health Unlike the psychoanalytic perspective, the behavioral perspective assumes that all human feelings, thoughts, and behavior, including mental health, are the products of learning which involves the acquisition of abilities that are not innate. The behavioral perspective is a school of thought in psychology which emphasizes that psychology should concern itself with the observable behavior of people rather than unobservable events that take place in human minds (Skinner, 1984). This perspective suggests that human behavior, as the target of investigation in psychology, should be described scientifically without recourse to internal physiological processes or to hypothetical constructs (Baum, 1994).Concerning adolescent mental health, the behavioral perspective explains the mental health status of young people in term of the observable behavior of people. In the behavioral perspective, in general, there are three major ways of learning: pairing of stimulus as indicated by classical learning theory, patterns of reinforcement and/or punishment as indicated by operant conditioning theory, and modeling and socialization as indicated by social learning theory (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004).

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According to classic conditioning theory, adolescent mental health is affected by learned stimulus-response connections (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). John B. Watson demonstrated how phobias are learned through classical conditioning in a famous experiment in which little Albert was presented with a white rat (conditional stimulus). After a control period in which little Albert reacted normally to the presence of the rat, the experimenters paired the presence of the rat with a loud, jarring noise caused by clanging two pipes together behind the child's head (unconditional stimulus). As the trials progressed, little Albert began showing signs of distress at the sight of the rat, even when unaccompanied by the frightening noise. Furthermore, little Albert demonstrated generalization of stimulus associations, and showed distress when presented with any white, furry object—even such things as a rabbit, dog, a fur coat, and a Santa Claus mask with a white beard. According to operant conditioning theory, adolescent mental health is affected by patterns of reinforcement and/or punishment. For example, depression may be due in part to extinction: if important positive reinforcements are withdrawn, many of a person’s behaviors simply extinguish, and he or she becomes inactive, withdrawn, dejected, and depressed (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). Extending this idea, Lewinsohn (1975) proposed the extinction theory of depression. Lewinsohn (1975) claimed that stressful events can disrupt ordinary behavior patterns, leading to reduced positive reinforcement, self-criticism, feelings of hopelessness, and self-defeating behavior that occasions further stress, thus taking the person through the cycle again (Lewinsohn et al., 1985). According to the social learning theory (cognitive behavioral theory), adolescent mental health is affected by modeling. The basic premise of social learning theory is that individuals learn new patterns of behavior, both adaptive and maladaptive, by observing others’ act and then modeling the behavior (Bandura, 1971; Bandura & Walters, 1963). Observational learning occurs when “models exhibit novel responses which observers have not yet learned to make and which they later reproduce in substantially identical form” (Bandura, 1971, p. 6). Psychologists often describe social learning factors as being significant in the

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development of depression, as well as other psychological problems when people learn maladaptive ways of managing stress and responding to life problems within their family, educational, social and work environments (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). Empirically, there is a certain amount of research on adolescent mental health from the behavioral perspective. Nevertheless, recently less attention has been given to research on this perspective. For example, Krochmalik, Jones, and Menzies (2008) used classical conditioning theory to examine the relevance of associative learning pathways in the aetiology of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). Masterpasqua and Healey (2003) used operant conditioning theory to train children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to control their neurofeedback as a therapeutic modality. Hawkins, Clarke, and Seeley (1993) applied social learning theory to design a school-based primary prevention intervention for depression, and found that the intervention promised behavioral change in terms of the adolescent's adoption of an antidepressant self- control strategy in order to reduce depressive symptoms.

2.4.2 Critique of the behavioral perspective The behavioral perspective suffers from certain shortfalls. First, a primary objection to the behavioral perspective is the constitution of a naïve simplification of human life (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). The behavioral perspective, and especially its early theorists, tended to reduce human existence to small measurable units of behavior (Lacey et al., 1978). Under this naive realism, behavioral perspective theorists ignore all the deeper forces and thinking of the human mind, such as information processing, values and motivations. This made the behavioral perspective fail to distinguish between human actions and the behaviors of experimental animals (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). The second major criticism of the behavioral perspective involves its assumption that behavior is controlled by reinforcement or other learning mechanisms, a review referred to as determinism (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). According to behavioral perspective theorists, it is not “free will” but the stimuli in

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human environments that determine human behavior (Hjelle et al., 1976). Skinner (1953) even argued that the notion of “the free inner man” and the capacity for human freedoms was obsolete (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). The third criticism of the behavioral perspective is that the perspective failed to incorporate other factors in explaining human development. The behavioral perspective only considers pairing of stimulus, reinforcements or other learning mechanisms. This view is quite restricted and it has precluded consideration of complex social environments in which learning mechanisms take place. On the other hand, the behavioral perspective greatly overlooks the age- related changes of behavior in adolescent mental health (Muuss, 1996). The failure to incorporate other factors limited the ability of the behavioral perspective to explain individual differences in mental health when learning mechanisms are similar for two individuals.

2.5 The Cognitive perspective 2.5.1 Theoretical explanation of the Cognitive perspective on adolescent mental health The cognitive perspective is a school of thought in psychology which explains human behavior in terms of mental processes. The cognitive perspective assumes adolescent mental health to be the product of mental processing (Abela, & Sullivan, 2003; Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004; Craighead, Ilardi, Greenberg et al., 1997). Cognition is important to mental health because many psychological disorders involve serious cognitive disturbances (Beck & Rector, 2000; Clark, Beck, & Alford, 1999; Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008; Seligman, 1975) and certain cognitive patterns may also be the notable causes of psychological disorders. Owing to the importance of cognition in mental health, much research and many theories of adolescent mental health are from the cognitive perspective. Martin Seligman's attribution theory (1975), Aaron Beck's cognitive theory (1976), Albert Ellis's rational-emotive theory (1977), and Piaget’s theory (Boyd & Bee, 2012) are focused on in this study because they received relatively more empirical support.

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Martin Seligman (1975) suggested that depression may be understood as analogous to the phenomenon of learned helplessness. Seligman proposed that depression, like learned helplessness, was a reaction to perceived inescapable stressors, which undermined adaptive responses by making an individual perceive that he or she lacks control over the environment (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). Seligman and his associates hypothesize that depression is caused by seeing oneself as the cause of something negative in one’s life and then extending that perception to making a global negative attribution to one’s whole character (Todd & Bohert, 1999). In other words, people who are depressive see themselves as being at fault for their difficulties. They also believe that their difficulties are due to some fundamental flaw in their character (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978; Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008). Extending Martin Seligman’s idea, Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy (1989) adapted the model from a “helplessness” to a "hopelessness" theory. They suggested that depression depends not only on the own belief of lacking control over the environment (helplessness expectancy) but also on the belief that negative events will persist or recur (negative outcome expectancy). If an individual has these two beliefs, he or she becomes hopeless, and it is this hopelessness that contributes to the immediate cause of the depression (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). Aaron Beck and his colleagues (Rush & Beck, 1978) examined the role of cognitive errors and distorted thinking in mental health. Beck holds that “the symptoms of both depression and anxiety are the result of people’s cognition about the world. In particular, a cognitive triad characterizes depressive thinking: a negative view of oneself, a negative view of one’s future, and a negative view of one’s current experiences (Todd & Bohert, 1999, pp. 345-6). To Beck and his colleagues, people with depression have three major distorted thought processes. First, they tend to magnify negative things and minimize positive things. Secondly, they tend to over-generalize negative things. The third distorted thought process is selective abstraction, in which they tend to selectively attend to negative things (Abela, & Sullivan, 2003; Todd & Bohert, 1999).

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Albert Ellis (1977) assumes that irrational beliefs are the basis of mental distress and problem behavior. For Ellis, irrational beliefs are absolute, rigid, intolerant, and demanding (Todd & Bohert, 1999). According to Ellis, it is a person’s cognitions about events that determine feelings and behavior, but not events themselves. The effect of cognition on behavior is represented by Ellis’s A- B-C model in which A (activating event) is an objective event, B (belief) is the person’s interpretation of the event, and C (consequence) is the person’s emotional and behavioral reaction to the event. If a person's belief about the activating event is rigid, absolutistic and dysfunctional, the emotional and behavioral consequence is likely to be self-defeating and destructive. Alternatively, if a person's belief is preferential, flexible and constructive, the emotional and behavioral consequence is likely to be self-helping and constructive. Piaget’s theory is mainly about cognitive development throughout childhood (Boyd & Bee, 2012). According to Piaget, human cognitive development grows and changes with ages and with interactions with the environment (Berk, 2010). To explain the changes in cognitive development, Piaget proposes three important concepts, including schemas (i.e., organized ways of making sense of experiences), adaptation (i.e., building schemas through direct interaction with environment), and accommodation (i.e., adjusting old schemas after realizing the existing old schemas do not capture the environment completely) (Berk, 2010). More importantly, cognitive development can be divided into four stages, including the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and the formal operational stage. There are some essential skills to be acquired in each stage (Boyd & Bee, 2012). When Piaget’s theory is applied to explain adolescent mental health, this theory predicts that adolescents may have mental health problems because adaptation and accommodation fail to adjust the context of the schemas to fit the needs of the environment, or because adolescents fail to learn the essential skills in the previous stages. Empirically, there is a huge amount of research from the cognitive perspective to explain adolescent mental health. For instance, for the theory of hopelessness proposed by Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy (1989), empirical data

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suggested that hopelessness is an important predictor of depression (Glanz, Haas, & Sweeney, 1995; Abramson, Alloy, Hogan et al., 2000). It has been found that depressed people are more likely to explain negative events by attributional style than non-depressed people (Joiner & Wagner, 1995; Sweeney, Anderson, & Bailey, 1986). For Aaron Beck's cognitive theory (1976), studies indicated that people at high risk for depression had negative views of themselves (Nietzel & Harris, 1990). Other studies indicated that depressed people selectively attended more to negative information than positive information (Alloy, Abramson, Murray et al., 1997; Taylor & Ingram, 1999). In sum, the cognitive perspective regards cognition, no matter whether it is irrational beliefs, cognitive errors, or hopelessness, as important factors for adolescent mental health. Based on this idea, theorists from the cognitive perspective suggest that individuals can change their cognitive sets and thus improve their mental health. They even design various therapies and intervention programs to treat people with mental disorders.

2.5.2 Critique of the cognitive perspective The cognitive perspective faces three criticisms. First, a primary objection to the cognitive perspective is that it constitutes a simplification of mental health. Research has shown that the relation between cognition and mental health is more complex than the cognitive perspective has held it to be (Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008; Todd & Bohert, 1999). Hammen (1985) argues that the research on depression has failed to support the idea that depression is associated with either internal or stable attributions, as Seligman has argued. He also concluded that there is little support for the idea that depressive cognitions precede the development of depressive states. Instead, depressive cognitions seem to develop along with depressive states. The second criticism, which might not be applicable to all researchers, especially constructivists, is that the cognitive perspective may suffer from the problem of reductionism (Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008). The cognitive perspective assumes cognition to be the major factor in mental health. However, as

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Hammen (1985) argues, the “maladaptive” cognitions develop along with the mental distress, but do not precede it. The “maladaptive” cognitions may be part of the symptoms of the distress and need to be explained. For behavioral perspective theorists (Skinner, 1990; Follette & Hayes, 2000), the “maladaptive” cognitions are only the product of learned responses. For psychodynamic theorists, the “maladaptive” cognitions are “the product of early troubled family relationships and it is those relationships, not their cognitive consequences, being the true root of the problem” (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004, p. 97). The cognitive perspective focuses mainly on cognition in explaining mental health. However, an individual is complicated. He or she is affected by biological, familial and societal factors which also have direct and indirect impacts on mental health. These variables need to be considered. Recent empirical study takes affective, biological, and cognitive factors into consideration when investigating depression (Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008). The third criticism of the cognitive perspective comes from social- constructivists (Mahoney, 1991; Neimeyer & Stewart, 2000) who argue that people with different cultural backgrounds have different realities, and no particular view can claim to be truer or more rational than any other. Kruglanski & Jaffe (1988), for example, pointed out that a person’s beliefs are ultimately incapable of being proved true or false. They conclude that “no belief is inherently dysfunctional; it is dysfunctional only to extent that it represents an unattainable goal” (p. 281). They also point out that the “cognitive errors” that Beck suggests cannot truly be considered as errors. For instance, they note that whenever people form any abstraction, people are being “selective”. Therefore, there is no such thing as selective abstraction and cognitive error in contrast to other kinds of presumably less erroneous forms of abstraction (Todd & Bohert, 1999). In sum, although it is acknowledged that there are at least three versions of cognitive approaches: a) reductionist information processing models; b) cognitive models (e.g., Beck’s theory); c) constructivist models, the major research findings concerning adolescent mental health belong to cognitive models. The above

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criticisms of the cognitive perspective fit the weakness observed in the empirical research from cognitive models.

2.6 The Cognitive-behavioral perspective 2.6.1 Theoretical explanation of the Cognitive-behavioral perspective on adolescent mental health The cognitive-behavioral perspective might not be regarded as a unique distinctive theoretical perspective by some scholars. Classifications of cognitive- behavioral perspectives are not absolutely clear and vary across different researchers. However, the cognitive-behavioral perspective is important in terms of guiding research and mental health services. Therefore, in addition to the behavioral and cognitive perspectives, the cognitive-behavioral perspective is treated as an independent perspective and discussed as such here. Classification of the cognitive-behavioral perspective is done by the author of this study with references to the work of Beck et al (1979) and Reinecke (2000). The cognitive-behavioral perspective emphasizes both the cognitive and behavioral factors in adolescent mental health. The cognitive-behavioral perspective assumes that cognitive processes have a direct impact on emotions and subsequent behavior (Beck et al., 1979). Adolescent mental health is regarded as being mediated by maladaptive cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal processes that are learned over the course of development (Reinecke, 2000). Several cognitive-behavioral models of psychopathology have been proposed during recent years, each emphasizing a specific facet of psychopathology (Ingram, Miranda, & Segal, 1998). These models have different emphases, such as cognitive error, distortions, and negativistic beliefs (Beck, Rush et al., 1979), impaired problem solving and self-reinforcement (Fuchs & Rehm, 1977), reduced social reinforcement (Lewinsohn, 1975), attribution style (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989; Barnett & Gotlib, 1988), reduced perceptions of control over important outcomes (Seligman, 1975), and behavioral activities (Freeman, Pretzer, Fleming, & Simon, 1990). However, most of the models attend to the important role of maladaptive cognitive and perceptual

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processes in the treatment of psychological disorder patients. Cognitive-behavioral therapies, including social problem-solving training (Salkovskis et al., 1990), and dialectical behavior therapy (Linehan et al., 1987; Linehan et al., 1991), are multidimensional and acknowledge the importance of addressing the full range of behavioral, affective, social and environmental factors associated with vulnerability for mental health. In contrast to purely cognitive therapies based on the cognitive perspective, the therapies under the cognitive-behavioral perspective not only alter dysfunctional or deficient thoughts but also incorporate techniques based on basic behavioral principles (Graham, 2005). For example, cognitive-behavioral interventions for very young children with conduct problems often teach parents how to use the behavioral principle of reinforcement, extinction and shaping to change their child’s behavior (Brestan & Eyberg, 1998). Empirically, there is data supporting the general effectiveness of cognitive- behavioral interventions. Meta-analytic reviews indicate that children and adolescents benefit from cognitive-behavioral interventions in depression and conduct problems (Brestan & Eyberg, 1998; Farmer, Compton, Burns, & Robertson, 2002; Kazdin & Weisz, 1998; Michael & Crowley, 2002; Nock, 2003; Stark, Hargrave, Sander et al., 2006).

2.6.2 Critique of the cognitive-behavioral perspective There are several limitations to the cognitive-behavioral perspective. First, some scholars do not regard the cognitive-behavioral perspective as an independent scientific perspective in explaining adolescent mental health and in guiding scientific investigation of human development. They treat the cognitive- behavioral perspective as an extension of the cognitive perspective or a category of psychological disorder intervention (Todd & Bohart, 1999). The second limitation is ignoring the complexities of human nature. The cognitive behavioral perspective explains psychopathology solely from an individual's perspective, i.e., behavioral and cognitive factors. There have been comments that it is contextual and neglects the influences of other systems (e.g.,

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peer, school, family, community and society) on mental health. This means the improvement in clients tends to erode over time because the clients' social context remains unchanged (e.g., peer, family and neighborhood), contexts that may have contributed to the clients’ initial problems (McMahon & Wells, 1998).

2.7 The Family Perspective 2.7.1 Theoretical explanation of the Family Perspective on adolescent mental health The family perspective assumes that the family is a critical force in the development of young people (Masten & Shaffer, 2006). In the family perspective, instead of assuming that adolescent mental health is the product of a linear causal chain of factors and events (e.g., depression is caused by an imbalance of neurotransmitters), adolescent mental health is seen as a product of the various interactive relationships and organizational characteristics of the family as a whole (Steinglass, 1987). The holistic nature of family is emphasized in the family perspective. In other words, family is conceptualized as a meaningful unit that is far more than sum of individual family members (Steinglass, 1987). It is noteworthy that there are different versions of family theories and terms such as “family systems perspective” and “family ecological models” have been used inter-changeably. The family stress model is proposed to explain adolescent mental health from the family perspective (McCubbin & Patterson, 1982, 1983a, 1983b). The family stress model includes the Pile-up of demands (the aA Factor), Family Adaptive Resources (the bB Factor), Perception and Coherence (the cC Factor), and the Family Adaptation (the xX Factor). The Pile-up of demands (the aA Factor) refers to the cumulative effect of stressors and strains over time. Family Adaptive Resources (the bB Factor) refers to both existing resources and expanded resources that are developed and strengthened in response to the demands posed by the stressful event. These resources can either reduce the impact of demands on the family and/or help the family adapt to the required changes. Family adaptive resources may include (a)

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personal resources (i.e., characteristics of family members such as self-esteem, knowledge and/or skills); (b) family system resources (i.e., internal attributes of the family unit such as cohesion, adaptability, and communication) (Olson & McCubbin, 1982; Olson et al., 1983); and (c) social support (i.e., capabilities of people or institutions outside the family in which the family can draw (Cobb, 1976, 1979; Pilisuk & Parks, 1981, 1983). Perception and Coherence (the cC Factor) refers to the family's general orientation to the overall circumstances. The factor represents a sense of acceptance and understanding of the situation, a framework within which a definition of the situation is made and within which perceptions are judged. This factor serves as an intervening factor between stress and adaptation and is another facilitator of the family's adaptive power. Family adaptation is the outcome of the family's processes in response to the crisis and pile-up of demands. Family adaptation is a continuous variable, ranging from maladaptation to bonadaptation (McCubbin & Patterson, 1983a, 1983b). Maladaptation is defined as a continued imbalance between the pile-up of demands and the family's capabilities for meeting those demands. It is characterized by the deterioration of family integrity and of family members' physical and psychological well-being. Bonadaptation is defined as a minimal discrepancy between the pile-up of demands and the family's capabilities, so as to achieve a balance in family functioning. It is characterized both by the maintenance or strengthening of family integrity and by family members' sense of well-being (Lavee, McCubbin, & Patterson, 1985). The Family stress model predicts that Perception and Coherence mediate the negative effects of a Pile-up of demands on the well-being of adolescents. The family system theory is another theory that explains adolescent mental health. The family system theory assumes that a family consists of various sub- systems (e.g., parent-child sub-systems, sibling sub-systems, and inter-parental sub-systems). There are boundaries among the various sub-systems within a family (Steinglass, 1987). The clarity of the boundaries among various sub- systems is directly proportional to the clarity of the pattern determined by the

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relationships within a family. Therefore, the characteristics of boundaries among various sub-systems are considered as an “important determinant of relative functionality or dys-functionality of the family system” (Steinglass, 1987, p.37). The family system theory predicts that a low clarity of the boundaries among various sub-systems causes interferences among sub-systems, making families dysfunctional. For instance, a poor marital relationship interferes with the parenting processes. In the family system theory, good adolescent mental health is the product of the way how family functions. The family system theory also speculates that communication among sub- systems is an important determinant of adolescent mental health (Steinglass, 1987). “Pathological behavior, including family psychopathology, can be described adequately and sufficiently in communication terms. Pathological behavior is synonymous with pathological communication” (Steinglass, 1987, p.57). In the family system theory, communication in families not only transmits information among various sub-systems but also defines, monitors, and reinforces the nature of relationships within a family (Steinglass, 1987). Communication, then, serves as a building block for stability and growth of the family system in which an adolescents develops. Therefore, good communication among sub-systems causes good adolescent mental health (Steinglass, 1987). In particular, family system theory proposed several important concepts and mechanisms explaining adolescent mental health. For instances, family system theory describes the processes that family functions thereby influences adolescent mental health (Dore, 2008; Sutphin, McDonough, & Schrenkel, 2013). In family system theory, a family is perceived as a system which functions adaptively. This state refers to homeostasis. If a family cannot achieve homeostasis, adolescent mental health problems or negative entropy of a family might be created. In addition, other concepts also help understanding on how similar family contexts produce different adolescent mental health outcomes whereas different family contexts cause the same consequences on young people. Equifinality generally refers to the situation in which different conditions produce similar results or outcomes. In family ecological perspective, children’s mental health problem can

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be a result of different family ecology, such as ineffective parenting or negative inter-parental relationship. In contrast, multifinality means that similar conditions can lead to dissimilar results. For instances, inter-parental conflict can produce a wide range of child psychopathology, such as anxiety and depression (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996). The concepts of risk factors and protective factors can help to understand the influence of different family factors on adolescent development.

2.7.2 Critique of the family perspective Similar to other perspectives, the family perspective also faces criticisms. The most damaging criticism is that the family perspective cannot generate scientific predictions and explanations of reality. For example, Smith (1984) criticized that the family stress theory is “smile, a scale representation of variables, not a metaphor for human behavior. As taxonomy, the model is limited to description of structural relations, not a theory about process, and is not able to explain and predict” (p. 7). Furthermore, the family system theory is criticized as “merely a descriptive language for underscoring relationships that are commonsensical and hence not particularly useful (from a scientific perspective)” (Steinglass, 1987, p. 26). Theories from the family perspective cannot generate testable hypotheses because they define variables without real substantive content, making rejection of hypotheses impossible (Steinglass, 1987; While & Klein, 2002). The family perspective also faces the problem of causality. Trautman and Shaffer (1984) pointed out that it was unclear whether the dysfunctional family variables caused adolescent dysfunctional behaviors or vice versa. Moreover, Wagner (1997) noted that although theories of the family perspective fit the experiences of clinicians, empirical support for these theories was not definitive. Even though there was evidence that poor family communications were correlates of adolescent distress, whether or not the family’s dysfunction actually preceded the development of pathology in adolescents had not been well established by empirical research (Wagner, 1997).

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2.8 The Socio-cultural perspective 2.8.1 Theoretical explanation of the Socio-cultural perspective on adolescent mental health The socio-cultural perspective focuses on environmental context. It views adolescent mental health as the product of broad social forces, including culture, socioeconomic status, ethnicity and social class (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). There are several ways in which broad social forces influence adolescent mental health. Stress associated with societal variables is one way. Poverty, joblessness, physical illness, and being a member of a minority produce stress that can cause psychological disturbances (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004; Belfer, 2008). Moreover, those who are poor, jobless, physically ill, or a minority are less likely to have personal resources and social support to cope with stress (Dohrenwend et al., 1998; Johnsonet al., 1999; Patel, Flisher, Nikapota, & Malhotra, 2008). Empirical studies show that stress associated with societal variables is a significant factor for psychopathology (Belfer, 2008; Eaton & Muntaner, 1999). Empirical studies also show that people of low income groups have a higher risk of developing an episode of psychiatric disorder than people of high income groups (Kessler et al., 1994; Patel, Flisher, Nikapota, & Malhotra, 2008). Labeling can also affect adolescent mental health. Scholars from the socio- cultural perspective suggest that society may label people “mentally ill” not because of anything intrinsically pathological in their behavior but simply because they have violated social norms (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). Thomas Scheff (1966, 1998) is one of these scholars. He claimed that mental illness is manifested solely as a result of societal influences and argued that society views certain actions as deviant and, in order to come to terms with and understand these actions, often places the label of mental illness on those who exhibit them. Once being singled out and labeled in this way, a person exhibiting such deviance is placed in the social role of a “mentally ill” person. The individual being labeled is forced to accept the role of “mentally ill” because society provides strong rewards for

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behavior consistent with the role and strong punishment for behavior inconsistent with the role (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004).

2.8.2 Critique of the socio-cultural perspective The socio-cultural perspective may suffer from the problem of causality (Alloy, Riskind, & Manos, 2004). The socio-cultural perspective assumes psychological abnormality to be a socio-cultural artifact caused by labeling or stress. The phenomenon of a disproportionally high number of lower-class people being diagnosed as mentally ill can be understood as people with mental illness slipping downwards on the socioeconomic ladder (Aneshensel et al., 1999). In other words, low socioeconomic status is the product of mental illness but not the cause. The socio-cultural perspective has limited explanatory power in certain circumstances. The socio-cultural perspective fails to account for the differences among individuals with the same socio-economic status in the same society. Not all individuals having the same experiences in a society or facing a particular stress will develop a psychological disorder (Patel, Flisher, Nikapota, & Malhotra, 2008). Recently, research located various protective factors at both the ecological level and the individual level in poor countries to explain the individual differences in mental health status for people with similar socioeconomic backgrounds (Patel, Flisher, Nikapota, & Malhotra, 2008). Hence, both individual and social factors should be taken into account in explaining human mental health (Patel, Flisher, Nikapota, & Malhotra, 2008).

2.9 The Ecological perspective 2.9.1 Theoretical explanation of the Ecological perspective on adolescent mental health The ecological theory assumes that humans develop in the context of their unique environments or ecologies (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). According to Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979), "the ecology of human development involves the scientific study of the progressive, mutual accommodation, throughout the life

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course, between an active, growing human being and the changing properties of the immediate settings in which the developing person lives, as this process is affected by relations between these settings, and by the larger contexts in which the settings are embedded" (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p.21). The ecological model of adolescent mental health “takes into account issues of persons, process, context, and time, and views the environment as nested systems that range from the microsystem (immediate contexts and relationships) through the mesosystem (interrelationships between microsystems linked by a common person or relationship), exosystem (system that influences a person who is not actually in that system), to the macrosystem (cultural norms, values, and systems of meaning)” (Grotevant, 2004, p. 1106). Bronfenbrenner (1988) has consistently argued that contextual influences on adolescent mental health “must move beyond social address models that examine outcomes as a function of status variables such as social class, racial or ethnic group, gender, or family structure. Much more would be gained by examining the processes behind these summary variables” (Grotevant, 2004, p. 1106). In other words, the ecological perspective suggests that individual, familial, interpersonal, social and cultural factors may be mutually interdependent and may jointly and/or interactively affect adolescent mental health (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Similarly, Belsky (1984) includes the ontogenic system (Tinbergen, 1951) or person-oriented system, and consequently looked at the individual through the interaction of four systems depicted in four concentric circles: the ontogenic system, the microsystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem, respectively. Ontogenic development represents the demographic and psychological characteristics of adolescents that indicate an increased risk of psychological problems. The microsystem characterizes the immediate forces of family, friends, religious group, and neighbors who influence adolescents' risk-taking behaviors. The exosystem refers to the "social structures that impinge upon or encompass the immediate settings in which that person is found, and thereby influence, delimit, or even determine what goes on there" (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, p.515), while the macrosystem, the outer layer, involves the cultural and religious beliefs and values

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that increase the risk of adolescent psychological problems through the influence they exert on ontogenic development, and the micro and exosystems (Belsky, 1984). Using a similar rationale, Hauser (1999) classified protective factors in adolescent psychology disorders from various systems into four categories. For instance, attributional style, temperament, good intellectual skills, self-efficiency, self-esteem, and ability to internalize social support are categorized as individual system variables. Effective parenting, supportive home environment, connections to other competent adults, and positive relationships with extended family members are categorized as relational system variables. The amount of empirical research from the ecological perspective explaining adolescent mental health is limited. For example, Wang (2009) used an ecological framework to examine the relationships among adolescents’ perceptions of school climate, social competence, and behavioral and psychological adjustment in the middle school years. He found that the school’s mastery goal structure, promotion of autonomy and discussion, and the emotional support from teachers were negatively related to the levels of adolescents’ deviant behavior and depression, while the performance goal structure was positively related to deviant behavior and depression. Matos, Dadds, and Barrett (2006) found empirical support for the ecological model of psychological health in which the family and school, as well as the relationship between the two, shows relationships to adolescent health, conduct, and depression/anxiety problems. Although empirical research from the ecological perspective on adolescent mental health includes school and community variables (e.g., Ellonen, Kaariainen, & Autio, 2008; Urban, Lewin-Bizan, & Lerner, 2009; Wang, 2009), research from the ecological perspective is mainly about the microsystem system within the family (e.g., parental psychopathology, parenting and relationship with sibling and inter-parental conflicts). For instance, Belsky (1984) pointed out the importance of parenting in determining child development. Recently, Belsky (2005) suggested the need to investigate a linkage between the inter-parental relationship and parenting. However, relatively little attention has been given to the linkage between two or more microsystem variables using the family ecological

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perspective (e.g., the relationship between various aspects of the inter-parental relationship and parenting practices; and the effects of this linkage on adolescent mental health). Overall, Bronfenbrenner’s model has provided the study of adolescent psychological well-being with a rich network of concepts and processes with which to work. This perspective and its advocates consistently challenge those conducting research or planning interventions to understand adolescent development as it proceeds within embedded contexts (Grotevant, 2004).

2.9.2 Critique of the ecological perspective The ecological perspective could bring about a renewed perspective in the study of adolescent mental health. It is because the ecological perspective takes into account both the interrelationship of adolescence and the ever-changing social and physical environment (Muuss, 1996). This addresses the lack of studies that attempt to examine the multiple influences that the social and physical environment in which adolescents develop has on their mental health within a comprehensive theoretical model. Also, the ecological perspective conceptualizes the relationship between adolescents and their social and physical environment as simultaneous and reciprocal. Furthermore, the ecological perspective allows flexibility in selecting variables for understanding adolescent mental health. Important variables can be justified by empirical studies and the researchers' phenomenological sensitivity. Moreover, the perspective permits the possibility of a crossing-over of variables from various models. For example, variables from the cognitive perspective can be an option for understanding the influence of microsystems on adolescent mental health within the ecological framework. In addition to the possibility of injecting variables from various theories, the perspective can also hold together different non-antagonistic theories. The inclusion of it is for the sake of better explanatory power as it is difficult for one single theory to explain a social phenomenon completely. Although the ecological perspective has many merits, it also faces criticisms. Many scholars claim that the perspective cannot meet the needs to

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answer specific empirical research questions because adolescent mental health is not adequate to be explained in terms of a fit or an adoption of a microsystem, mesosystem system, exosystem and macrosystem. As the ecological perspective is a theoretical perspective rather than a model, it spells out the vision par excellence. Relevant factors must be included for a thorough understanding. A researcher has to delineate and explain his or her selection of variables more clearly. Moreover, the scope of the perspective is too broad to produce specific research questions and associated hypotheses. Therefore, researchers have to incorporate other theories or concepts in order to select relevant variables, to justify the selection of relevant variables, to indentify research questions, and to formulate a testable hypothesis (Muuss, 1996).

2.10 Evaluation of the perspectives In this section, the eight perspectives are compared according to four aspects: a) the structure of the theory (Criteria number 1, 2, 4 and 5), b) the potential and actual validity of the theory (Criteria number 6, 7, and 9), c) the heuristic value and sensitivity (Criteria number 8, 10 and 11), and d) theoretical and practical implications of the theory (Criteria number 3, 12 and 13).

2.10.1 Structure of the theory From an evaluation of the structure of the theories, the biological, behavioral, family, socio-cultural and ecological perspectives can provide the clearest, most coherent, systematic and comprehensive framework for understanding adolescent mental health. The biological perspective attributes adolescent mental health to genetic, hormonal, and/or physiological factors (Booth, Johnson, Granger, Crouter, & McHale, 2003; Lerner & Steinberg, 2004) whereas the behavioral perspective assumes learning experiences, such as the pairing of stimulus, and reinforcement pattern and/or modeling, to be key factors for adolescent mental health (Muuss, 1996). The family perspective attributes adolescent mental health to family functioning. Similarly, the socio-cultural perspective explains adolescent mental health in terms of environmental factors.

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The ecological perspective can also provide a systematic framework for an overall understanding of the micro and macro factors contributing to adolescent mental health (Muuss, 1996). The merit of these five perspectives in terms of the structure of their theory with regards to the key concepts used is that they are so explicit and easily comprehended that even layman can understand them without previous training. In comparison, the cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives are less well-defined or coherent. These perspectives attribute adolescent mental health to cognitive factors (e.g., cognitive errors, hopelessness or negative schemas) (Todd & Bohert, 1999). These cognitive variables cannot be observed in reality even though they can be measured objectively. Unobservable variables make the perspectives less well-defined. Moreover, key variables proposed by each theory of the cognitive and the cognitive-behavioral perspectives may be logically overlapped. For instance, Beck’s negative schemas can be used to explain Albert Ellis’s irrational beliefs, which itself can be used to explain the theory of hopelessness (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004). Therefore, the history of cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives theories has been one in which factors hypothesized to be central were eventually replaced by other factors hypothesized to be central (Skinner, 1990; Follette & Hayes, 2000), making the perspectives less coherent. Among all the perspectives, the psychoanalytic perspective is relatively the least well-defined or coherent. This is because the concepts used in the perspective are highly ambiguous, such as id, ego, conflicts resolution, and identity crisis. These concepts are so complicated that even researchers with training in psychology may not fully comprehend them. Moreover, the psychoanalytic perspective assumes mental processes to be unconscious (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004). It must depend on inference; and inference can be easily mistaken, inconsistent, or subjective. For example, if an 8-year old boy expresses strong love for his mother, it could be interpreted as a sign of Oedipal attachment. However, if the same boy expresses hatred for his mother, it could also be interpreted as a sign of Oedipal attachment. In sum, the psychoanalytic perspective is not well-defined

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and not coherent enough for the understanding of adolescent mental health (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004).

2.10.2 Validation of theory by empirical studies Among all the perspectives, the biological, behavioral, cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives receive relatively more empirical support. With the advances in neuroscience, biochemistry and medical science, there are now huge amounts of empirical data available. These data support the biological perspective in explaining adolescent mental health. Also, there is a significant amount of research suggesting that cognitive factors, such as negative attributional style, hopelessness, and cognitive error, are predictors of adolescent mental health. Regarding the behavioral perspective, there is huge amount of research supporting its ability to predict adolescent mental health (e.g., Cox, Paley & Harter, 2001; Cummings & Davies, 1995; Emery, 1982, Margolin et al., 2001). However, other empirical data do not support the perspective’s prediction (e.g., Crockenberg & Forgays, 1996; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002; Davies & Lindsay, 2001; Katz & Gottman, 1993). The ecological, socio-cultural and family perspectives have a certain amount of empirical research behind them. Most of these empirical studies confirm the predictions of these perspectives (e.g., Aponte & Van Deusen, 1981; Eaton & Muntaner, 1999; Ellonen, Kaariainen, & Autio, 2008; Urban, Lewin- Bizan, & Lerner, 2009; Wang, 2009). There is only a limited amount of empirical research available for the psychoanalytic perspective because it is difficult to operationalize and observe psychoanalytic perspective constructs in a scientific study. Although this limited empirical data does support its prediction for adolescent mental health (e.g., Crawford, Cohen, Johnson, Sneed, & Brook, 2004; Mikhailova, 2005; Norton, 2010), the research findings can be subjected to alternative explanations from other perspectives. In terms of groundedness, the ecological, family, cognitive and cognitive- behavioral perspectives have an advantage. Various clinical and counseling

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experiences of family therapists, counselors, social workers or other health professionals in reality confirm the ecological perspective to a large extent (Pardeck, 1988). There are many approaches to therapy using the family perspective (Haley, 1976; Minuchin, 1974; Madanes, 1981; Selvini-Palazzoli, 1978) Also; numerous instances of treatment and intervention also contribute to the groundedness of the cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives (Beck, 1987; Clark, Beck, & Alford, 1999; Seligman et al., 1999). The behavioral and biological perspectives are also grounded in clinical and real world examples (e.g., Morgan & Crisp, 2000; Wolpe, 1958). In comparison, the psychoanalytic perspective is only based on a very limited sample of humanity. For example, Freud’s theory was mainly based on upper-middle-class Viennese women aged from 20 to 50. The groundedness of the psychoanalytic perspective is narrow.

2.10.3 Heuristic value and sensitivity Among all the perspectives, the biological, cognitive and cognitive- behavioral perspectives have relatively more heuristic value. The biological perspective stimulates the debate about the role of nature and nurture in the human mind and behavior, including adolescent mental health (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004; Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). The majority of scholars propose that it is the interplay between biological and environmental factors that determines adolescent mental health (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004). The emphasis on such interplay has resulted in the biological perspective continuously receiving high heuristic value. The cognitive revolution that started in the 1950s has also equipped the cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives with high heuristic value. Many phenomena concerning adolescent mental health are being subjected to interpretation by the cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives in recent publications in social cognition psychology. The ecological perspective also has high heuristic value. The perspective rejects the traditional laboratory research approach as inadequate. Bronfenbrenner maintains that studying the ecological field must supplement the limited laboratory research approach so that all variables are eventually conceptualized and

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empirically investigated (Muuss, 1996). Moreover, Bronfenbrenner emphasizes process-oriented research and proposes the process-person-context model for research design within the ecological perspective. These two focuses of the ecological perspective are drawing a significant amount of research attention (Muuss, 1996). Similarly, the family perspective also has high heuristic value. The family perspective assumes a holistic orientation in the study of the family (Steinglass, 1987). This orientation differs from the traditional scientific approach to reasoning. This holistic assumption is stimulating many theories such as the family stress theory, the family system theory, and the family process theory (Steinglass, 1987). In comparison, the behavioral and psychoanalytic perspectives have received relatively little research attention recently. The ambiguous nature of the psychoanalytic perspective concepts reduces this perspective’s heuristic value. With the rise of behaviorism in psychology, the psychoanalytic perspective has been losing its research attention. On the other hand, the cognitive revolution strongly challenges the behavioral perspective by responding that experimental investigation of cognition does allow scientists to produce theories that predict outcomes more reliably. The claims of cognitive scientists have caused the behavioral perspective to lose its popularity in recent research. The strength of the ecological and socio-cultural perspectives lay in their contextualization. Both perspectives take the cultural influences or influences of other contextual variables on the human mind and behavior into account. In comparison, the learning, biological, cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives assume the universality of their theories and largely neglect culture or other contextual variables in explaining the human mind and human behavior. The psychoanalytic perspective, similar to the behavioral, biological, cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives, does not take much consideration of culture into account in formulating its theory.

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2.10.4 Theoretical and practical implications Among all perspectives, the biological, cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives are regarded as having important theoretical implications because these perspectives have been or can generate research and intellectual curiosity (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004; Lerner & Steinberg, 2004; Muuss, 1996). The ecological model is well accepted by family therapists, counselors, social workers or other health professionals because of its practical implications (Pardeck, 1988). It has been applied to various areas such as casework, community social work practice (MacNair, 1996), group work (Balgopal & Vassil, 1983), residential treatment facilities (Guterman & Blythe 1986), student counseling (Allen-Meares, 1996) and community work (Joseph & Conrad, 1980). Also, the research designs of the ecological perspective give rise to implications for education and public policies (Muuss, 1996). Therefore, the ecological perspective has strong practical implications. The family perspective brings together many popular family-therapy approaches (Steinglass, 1987). For example, Structural family therapy (Minuchin, 1974; Minuchin & Fishman, 1981) and the various strategic family-therapy models (Haley, 1976; Madanes, 1981; Selvini-Palazzoli, 1978) are under the influence of the family perspective. The cognitive and cognitive-behavioral perspectives also have significant practical implications, especially for the skills and content of therapy, treatment and intervention for psychological disorders. In terms of content, for instance, self-instructional training, rational-emotive therapy, and constructivist cognitive therapy (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004; Meichenbaum, 1977) are all rooted in the cognitive perspective. In terms of techniques, Socratic questioning, disputing, and behavioral experiments also come from the cognitive perspective. Most of these techniques and content have been proven to be effective (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004; Buchanan et al., 1999). In comparison, the behavioral and psychoanalytic perspectives have certain practical implications. For example, systematic desensitization, exposure, extinction, and discrimination of stimulus are adopted to treat various psychological disorders (Alloy, Riskind, & Marnos, 2004). Similarly, the free

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association, dream interpretation, analysis of resistance, and the analysis of transference of the psychoanalytic perspective also have clinical implications. The socio-cultural perspective has only limited practical implications. This is because its emphasis on the effects of environmental factors on adolescent mental health does not explicitly give any guidance for the development of intervention or therapy.

2.11 Further discussion of ecological perspective in the context of adolescent mental health.

Recently, some scholars recommend employing the ecological perspective with assistance from other theories to investigate adolescent development (Almeida, Wethington, & Chandler, 1999). These scholars claim that such a practice can utilize the strengths of the ecological perspective as well as to overcome the limitations of the ecological perspective.

2.11.1 Strengths of the ecological perspective The ecological perspective provides a clear, cohesive and comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding human behavior. With well-defined concepts, the perspective provides a systematic framework for an overall understanding of the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem variables contributing to adolescent mental health and/or distress. Furthermore, the ecological perspective moves away from the focus on a single individualistic explanation of adolescent mental health and explains it in terms of the interaction of the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem variables. This allows flexibility in selecting variables for understanding adolescent mental health. In addition, the perspective receives empirical support in different adolescent mental health studies (e.g., Ellonen, Kaariainen, & Autio, 2008; Urban, Lewin- Bizan, & Lerner, 2009; Wang, 2009). Moreover, it has generated considerable research and intellectual curiosity, as well as much debate and controversy. The ecological perspective has its strength in groundedness. The microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem variables involved in the

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perspective are observable in real life, and were easily understood by the general public. Moreover, the perspective takes social environmental factors into consideration. This further strengthens its sensitivity in explaining adolescent mental health. Multiple influences and multi-level analysis on adolescent mental health provide the perspective with good explanatory power. It explains clearly the influence of many things on mental health. Moreover, the perspective has been well received by mental health professionals. It has been successfully applied in various interventions and therapies, such as school social work and family intervention and therapy, as well as in different social work practices, such as casework, group work and community work. It has clinical relevance for different types of adolescent problems and has been applied in prevention and treatment. For instance, the Adolescent Transition Program (ATP) was developed as a treatment program for adolescents with conduct disorder with the objective of reducing future antisocial behavior and substance misuse. The ATP takes an ecological perspective. It does not merely focus on the individual adolescent but instead places heavy emphasis on the parent-child interaction, peer relationships and the relationship with school. It is a program that aims to address the needs of a social environment providing both preventive measures and interventions for high risk young people (Gothard, 2005). The Identity-focused Cultural Ecological (ICE) intervention model also uses the ecological perspective to maximize the work skills, training, and educational outcomes of disabled adolescents and young adults (Youngblood & Spencer, 2002).

2.11.2 Limitations of the ecological perspective The ecological perspective is seriously criticized as being overly inclusive, giving no guidance about what is important when explaining adolescent mental health. Moreover, the scope of the perspective is too broad and cannot generate specific research questions and associated hypothesis for empirical testing. In addition, the perspective might need to use theories from other perspectives for

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explaining the selection of specific variables to be included, and the relationship among included variables, in order to test and explain a specific hypothesis.

2.11.3 Concluding remarks about further discussion of the ecological perspective In consideration of the above remarks, it was decided that the ecological perspective will be used in the present study of adolescent mental health. By using the ecological perspective, one can analyze how various variables from the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem may contribute to adolescent mental health (Belsky, 1980; Belsky, 1984; Belsky et al., 1984; Vondra & Belsky, 1997). However, to supplement the limitations of the ecological perspective, the present study incorporates research concepts from the family perspective to guide the selection of variables and decide on a specific model to be tested as it is “one good way for researchers to build a more comprehensive picture” (White & Klein, 2002, p.235). The reasons for incorporating research concepts from the family perspective is that the family is an important ecosystem which has a direct or indirect impact on adolescent mental health and the research concepts from the family perspective are widely supported by empirical study. The concepts from the socio-cultural perspective are also incorporated to justify why the Hong Kong Chinese context is focused in the present study. The justification for incorporating ecological perspective and the family perspective to form a family ecological perspective are: 1. The family ecological perspective provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the phenomenon of adolescent mental health. 2. The family ecological perspective attributes adolescent mental health to factors in the family ecosystem (one of the microsystems) which is the most proximate environment of adolescents. 3. The strength of the perspective lies in its empirical fit, groundedness, explanatory power and attention paid to the proximate environment of adolescents. 4. The perspective can be applied to clinical practice. 5. The integrated approach has been used widely in different disciplines.

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In fact, the family ecological perspective is an integrated theoretical framework in which the inter-dependent nature of interactions among family members is empathized to be the basic contextual factors influencing adolescent development. Incorporating the ecological perspective and the family perspective, the family ecological perspective narrows its focus to the immediate context of adolescent development—the family. In this way, the perspective focuses on how sub-systems within a family interact with each other and its impact on children. Incorporating the ecological perspective and the family perspective, the family ecological perspective overcomes the limitations of being overly inclusive because, with the support of family theories, the perspective now mainly considers the influences of the family on the adolescent. With such a focus, the family perspective can generate specific research questions and associated hypothesis for empirical testing. Encored with this, although the family ecological perspective is a relatively new theoretical framework, there are some empirical studies based on this perspective (e.g., Henggeler, 1993; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998). In addition, both intervention and prevention of mental health services are provided by family therapists, counselors, social workers or other health professionals using the family ecological perspective (Henggeler, 1993; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998; Pardeck, 1988). This means that the perspective is applied to practical usages in different contexts. Since the family ecological perspective is a promising theoretical framework and matches the needs of the objectives of this study, the present research employs the family ecological perspective as primary theoretical framework.

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2.12 Employment of the family ecological perspective as the theoretical perspective of this study

2.12.1 Family ecological perspective In this research, the family ecological perspective is employed as the theoretical perspective. The family ecological perspective focuses on the importance of the family as the immediate context for adolescent development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). In the family ecological perspective, a heuristic framework is provided to help organize a systematic attempt to disentangle the various relationships involving adolescent growth and development within a family (Stormshak & Dishion, 2002). This distinctive theoretical orientation distinguishes the family ecological perspective of adolescent mental health from other ontological individual approaches (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Given the fact that adolescence is a special transition period for both the individual (Lerner & Steinberg, 2004) and the family (Miller & Perlman, 2009; Richmond & Stocker, 2007), this research investigates the impacts of the inter- parental relationship on adolescent mental health through the parenting processes. The theoretical orientation of the family ecological perspective matches the objectives of this research because the family ecological perspective regards the family as “an energy transformation system that is interdependent with its natural physical-biological, human built, and social-cultural milieu” (Bubolz & Sontag, 1993, p. 419). In other words, the family ecological perspective focuses on the inter-dependent linkage between inter-parental relational quality and parenting processes, and focuses on how this linkage impacts on adolescent mental health.

2.12.2 Unique features of the family ecological perspective The family ecological perspective is a distinctive theoretical perspective. Firstly, unlike other “individual-focused” perspectives, such as the psychoanalytic perspective, cognitive perspectives, and behavioral perspective, the family ecological perspective does not focus on the variables that are within an individual

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(e.g., an individual’s mind or behavior) but emphasizes the impacts of relationships among family members on an individual. Second, the family ecological perspective is different from the family perspective. Although both the family perspective and the family ecological perspective assume the importance of family for an individual, the family perspective puts more emphasis on just one or two characteristics of a family. For instance, the family stress model (McCubbin, 1982; 1983a; 1983b) mainly covers the impact of the demands or stress of a family rather than on the resources of a family. The family system theory (Steinglass, 1987) mainly discusses the influences of the boundaries among different sub-systems within a family. On the other hand, the family ecological perspective investigates the overall family ecology as the immediate context for an individual. It focuses on the relationship among family members itself but not only on the boundary of the relationship among family members. Finally, the family ecological perspective is different from the ecological perspective. The ecological perspective takes the impact of context on an individual into much wider consideration than the family perspective (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The ecological perspective includes the microsystem (immediate contexts and relationship), mesosystem (the interrelationship between microsystems linked by a common person or relationship), exosystem (another system that influences a person who is not actually in that other system), and the macrosystem (cultural norms, values, and system of meaning) (Grotevant, 2004), whereas the family ecological perspective takes a much narrower view and only focuses on the immediate family ecology of an individual. Since this study aims to investigate the impact of the inter-parental relationship on adolescent mental health through the parenting processes, the present study uses a narrow version of the family ecological perspective as the primary theoretical perspective. The “broad” version of family ecological perspective refers to the theoretical orientation including both dynamic inter-dependency of variables from family ecology and the influences of large system (e.g., economy) outside the

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family on an individual (Bronfenbrenner, 1986; 1988; Sutphin, McDonough, & Schrenkel, 2013). On the other hand, the “narrow” version of the family ecological perspective refers to the theoretical orientation with investigation of the static influences of family ecological variables, regardless of how a large system which families nested impacts on (e.g., Belsky, 1984; 2001; 2005; Kwok & Shek, 2010). There are several similarities between the “narrow” version of the family ecological perspective and other family related perspectives such as family systems theory (Sutphin, McDonough, & Schrenkel, 2013). First, the importance of family as the immediate context of adolescent development is emphasized. Second, inter-dependency among inter-parental relationship and parenting is focused. Third, multiple influences of a family on adolescents are acknowledged (McHale & Sullivan, 2008). However, the “narrow” version of the family ecological perspective has several distinctive features. First, the major focus is on the individuals in question rather than overall family functioning (Richmond & Stocker, 2006; 2008). Second, it emphasizes the impacts of the family on adolescent development instead of boundaries of sub-system within a family (Sutphin, McDonough, & Schrenkel, 2013). Third, it investigates the influences of family ecology but not how and why the family ecology variables are being influenced by larger systems that family resides (Sutphin, McDonough, & Schrenkel, 2013). In fact, the “narrow” version of the family ecological perspective was adopted by many previous studies on parenting and poverty (e.g., Belsky, 1984; 2001; 2005; Conger & Donnellan, 2007; Mistry et al., 2009; Shek, 2003; 2008c). In these studies, the impacts of stress created by family economic hardship or family problems on children’s wellbeing or school performance were found to be mediated by perception of economic hardship or parenting processes. In these studies, researchers only focused on family ecology variables, such as family economic hardship, family problems and parenting processes but did not consider how and why the family ecology variables are being influenced by other variables, such as overall cultural norms or economic development of a society.

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2.12.3 Justifications for using the family ecological perspective The evaluation criteria suggested by White and Klein (2008) can assess the applicability of the family ecological perspective for understanding the influences of inter-parental relational quality and the parenting processes on adolescent mental health within the Chinese context, and thus justify using the perspective as the theoretical perspective of this study. The perspective is evaluated on the following four aspects, as covered in the early part of the chapter 2:

1) Structure and consistency The family ecological perspective is good at structure and consistency as a theoretical perspective. First, it provides the clearest, most coherent, systematic and comprehensive framework for understanding adolescent mental health. Second, the concepts (e.g., inter-dependence among sub-system within a family, comparability of sub-system within a family, and ecosystem) are clearly defined. Third, the family ecological perspective provides a good paradigm for investigating the interactions between the inter-parental relationship and parenting, and how adolescents respond to these interactions. Fourth, the perspective is a mega-theory. It accommodates literature from martial satisfaction and interactions as well as research from parenting processes and family dynamics. Having these concepts richly embedded within it improves the understanding and coherence of the theory.

2) Empirical support Related to the post-positivist paradigm of science, the family ecological perspective allows employment of both qualitative and quantitative research methods in order to exanimate the social reality and to verify concepts and ideas. In addition, family ecological perspectives enlightened empirical studies on adolescent development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Eaton & Muntaner, 1999; Ellonen, Kaariainen, & Autio, 2008; Urban, Lewin-Bizan, & Lerner, 2009; Wang, 2009). Intervention studies based on the family ecological perspective used in the treatment of serious adolescent problem behavior is the evidences (e.g.,

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Henggeler, 1993; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998).

3) Heuristic value and sensitivity The family ecological perspective is high in heuristic value and sensitivity. It assumes a holistic orientation in the study of the family (Steinglass, 1987). This orientation differs from the traditional scientific approach of reasoning. The holistic assumption has stimulated many theories such as family stress theory, family system theory, and family process theory (Steinglass, 1987). Besides, this perspective employs an analytical framework and some concepts of systems theory. This improves the heuristic value of the perspective by incorporating the inter-dependent nature of interactions among family members. Moreover, with a post-positivist orientation, the perspective uses qualitative research methods to understand human behavior in a different context with the support of quantitative data. Such practices improve the interpretive sensitivity of the theory.

4) Usefulness The usefulness of a perspective is about its power of explanation, predictability and practical utility. As a systematic framework, the family ecological perspective enables the understanding of human behavior with the emphasis on the impact of the family as the context in which human development takes place. Besides this, with a post-positivist orientation, the perspective allows the use of the quantitative research method. This permits the use of path diagrams and mathematical formulae to illustrate causal relationships with the support of advanced statistical analyses, such as multiple regressions and structural equation modeling, and multi- level analyses. In other words, the perspective is good with respect to explanatory power. The perspective is well accepted by family therapists, counselors, social workers or other health professionals for practical usage (Pardeck, 1988). It has been applied to various areas such as casework and family social work practice (MacNair, 1996). For example, there are many intervention programs based on the

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family ecological perspectives (e.g., Henggeler, 1993; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998).

2.12.4 Using the family ecological perspective as a theoretical framework The family ecological perspective provides a clear, simple and integrated conceptual framework for understanding the nature of family interactions and how these interactions impact on adolescent mental health. In addition, the perspective has received empirical support from research studies (e.g., Henggeler, 1993; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998) as well as practical support from clinical usage (MacNair, 1996). In addition, the perceptive is high in heuristic value and sensitivity. More importantly, the perspective fits the major objectives of the present study. This study employs the family ecological perspective as its theoretical framework. The family ecological perspective, in fact, can guide the process of model building, data collection and analysis process, and interpretation of results. First, the family ecological perspective helped selection of the related predictors and medicates for building a model to explain adolescent mental health in the Chinese context. In particular, the family ecological perspective helped to specify inter- parental relational quality as the predictors and parenting processes as the partial mediators for adolescent mental health. Furthermore, the concepts of “equifinality” and “multifinality” in systems theory are useful in formulating a model to explain adolescent mental health in the Chinese context, although they were not the major foci of the present study. “Equifinality” generally refers to the situation in which different condition produces similar results or outcomes. In family ecological perspective, children’s mental health problem can be a result of different family ecology, such as ineffective parenting or negative inter-parental relationship. In contrast, “multifinality” means that similar conditions can lead to dissimilar results. For instances, inter-parental conflict can produce a wide range of child psychopathology, such as anxiety and depression (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996), depending on the protective factors involved. When applying these concepts in the

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model building, the proposed model can be used to point out that one particular adolescent mental health variable can be explained by different inter-parental relational quality and parenting processes whereas, at the same time, one particular inter-parental relational quality or parenting processes variable can account for different aspects of adolescent mental health. Second, family ecological perspective also guided data collection and analysis. This study employed a narrow version of the family ecological perspective which only focused on the impacts of family ecology variables, such as inter-parental relationship and parenting, but did not consider how and why these family ecology variables are being influenced by other variables, such as overall cultural norms or economic development of a society. Such theoretical orientation influenced data collection by developing a strict inclusion and exclusion criteria of potential participations. For instances, to avoid possible influences of cross-cultural differences on family interaction, participants with at least one non-Chinese parent were excluded. In addition, to control for the possible impacts of socio-economic status on adolescent mental health, socioeconomic status variables, such as types of housing, family monthly income, and parents’ education level were collected and statically controlled in the partial correlation and regression analyses. Finally, family ecological perspective also guided interpretation of results. Based on the family ecological perspective, relationship among inter-parental relational quality, parenting processes and adolescent mental health would be focused upon. In particular, unique relationship among variables would be pointed out in the interpretation of results. Through ecological analysis, the unique and common influence of different antecedent factors can be understood. It should be noted that through survey methods, we are in fact looking for the relationship between variables in an aggregated fashion.

2.13 Summary In this chapter, eight theoretical perspectives which explain adolescent mental health are selected. They are critically evaluated based on the criteria

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developed by Klein and White (2002). The family ecological perspective, then, is proposed as the theoretical guide for this study. Justifications are given. The summary of the evaluation of these theoretical perspectives is presented in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.

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Table 2.1: A summary of different perspectives on adolescent mental health with reference to Klein's thirteen criteria part one Perspective Internal Clarity or Explanator Coherence Under- Empirical Testability consistency explicitness y power standing fit Biological Good Fair Fair Fair Poor Fair Fair Psycho- Fair Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Analytic Learning Good Fair Fair Fair Fair Fair Good Cognitive Good Fair Good Fair Fair Good Good Cognitive- Good Fair Good Fair Fair Good Good Behavioral Family Good Fair Good Good Good Fair Fair Socio- Fair Fair Poor Fair Fair Fair Fair Cultural Ecological Good Fair Good Good Good Fair Fair Family Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Ecological

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Table 2.2: A summary of different perspectives on adolescent mental health with reference to Klein's thirteen criteria part two

Perspective Heuristic Grounded- Contextuali- Interpretive Predictive Practical value ness zation sensitivity power utility Biological Good Fair Poor Poor Fair Poor Psycho- Fair Poor Poor Poor Poor Fair Analytic Learning Fair Fair Poor Poor Fair Fair Cognitive Good Fair Fair Fair Good Good Cognitive- Good Fair Fair Fair Good Good Behavioral Family Good Good Good Fair Fair Good Socio- Poor Fair Good Fair Poor Poor Cultural Ecological Good Good Good Fair Fair Good Family Good Good Good Fair Good Good Ecological

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Chapter 3: Review of the literature on the inter-parental relationship, parenting and adolescent mental health This literature review covers four areas. First, a review of the relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health is presented. The second part covers the relationship between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health. The third part covers the association of parenting with inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health. The fourth part discusses the conceptual and methodological problems of the literature. The family has a huge impact on adolescent mental health. Inter-parental relationships and parenting systems are the most important family sub-systems influencing adolescent mental health (Steinglass, 1987). In the following section, with reference to research, the impact of inter-parental relationships and parenting systems on adolescent mental health are discussed. Recently, Ryff and colleagues proposed that mental health consists of two distinct aspects—well-being and ill-being (Ryff et al., 2006). This claim was supported by a significant association among the seven biomarkers of measures of well-being and ill-being. Well-being represents positive aspects of mental health (e.g., happiness, life satisfaction and self-esteem), whereas ill-being represents negative aspects of mental health (e.g., depression, anxiety and psychological distress). Ryff and Singer (1998; 2000) further suggested that the positive aspect of mental health includes hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being. Hedonic well-being consists of subjective happiness and concerns all pleasurable versus unpleasant experience whereas eudaimonic well-being consists of human actualization and positive development. In the present study, these two conceptualizations form part of the theoretical framework of this study. Adolescent mental health is defined as the presence of both hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being; and the absence of psychological ill-being.

3.1 Review of the literature on parenting and adolescent mental health 3.1.1 Relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health Parenting is one of the major factors in adolescent mental health (e.g., Foster & Robin, 1988; Hall, 1987). Parenting is related to the negative aspects of adolescent mental health such as depression (Forehand, Long, Brody & Fauber, 1986), injuries (Bijur, Kurzon, Hamelsky, & Power, 1991), unacceptable behavior (Tomlinson, 1991), problem behavior at school (Forehand, Long, Brody, & Fauber, 1986; Galambors, Sears, Almeida, & Kolaric, 1995) and difficulties in adolescent functioning (Forehand et al., 1986); and the positive aspects of adolescent mental health such as self-esteem and self-confidence (Bean, Bush, McKenry, & Wilson, 2003; Leondari & Kiosseoglou, 2002) Here I summarize two major longstanding research directions describing the relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health—parenting style and parenting practice (e.g., Cowan & Cowan, 2002). Parenting style is defined as a constellation of parental attitudes towards the child which creates an emotional climate or shapes the emotional relationships between parent and child (Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Most researchers focus on at least some of the dimensions identified by Baumrind (1971, 1989, 1991) as components of parenting style: warmth or responsiveness, control (structure, limit setting), and developmentally appropriate autonomy encouragement. Most researchers use these components to identify different types of parenting styles, including authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and disengaged parenting styles (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). According to Baumrind (1971, 1989, 1991), authoritative parents are warm and set limits; authoritarian parents are cold, hostile, and grant little autonomy; and permissive parents are warm and exert little control. In addition to these three styles, Maccoby and Martin (1983) suggested a fourth logical outcome by combining high and low warmth and control: disengaged parents, who are low in affective expression (neither warm nor cold) and low in control. Steinberg (2001, p. 8) argued that the evidence is conclusive and said “adolescents raised in authoritative homes achieve more in school, report less

60 depression and anxiety, score higher on measures of self-reliance and self-esteem and are less likely to engage in antisocial behavior including delinquency and drug use.” This generalization, Steinberg asserts, holds for families representing many cultural or ethnic groups. Steinberg (2001, p. 10) explained why parenting was linked to adolescent mental health and said “Authoritative parenting works because it does three things: The nurturance and parental involvement make the child more receptive to parental influence, enabling more effective and efficient socialization; the combination of support and structure facilitates the development of self-regulatory skills, which enable the child to function as a responsible, competent individual; and, the verbal give and take characteristic of parent–child exchanges in authoritative families engages the child in a process that fosters cognitive and social competence, thereby enhancing functioning outside the family. Adolescents whose parents encourage their psychological autonomy, for example, are relatively more competent than other youngsters in their interactions with peers”. Besides parenting style, parenting practice, which is defined as the specific parental behavior associated with positive and negative outcomes, is related to both positive and negative aspects of adolescent mental health (e.g., Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). For example, harsh physical punishment is associated with oppositional defiant behavior (Bates, Pettit, & Dodge, 1995). Coercive parenting is also related to anti-social behavior. Researchers have identified the pattern in which anti-social behavior develops: The child begins with an aggressive or disobedient act; the parent fails to respond or respond ineffectively; the child’s undesirable behavior escalates; the parent escalates the hostility but not the effectiveness of the discipline; and the child’s undesirable behavior escalates until the parent gives in. Researchers argue that this pattern reinforces the child’s anti-social behavior, which then develops (Dishion, Patterson, & Kavanagh, 1992; Patterson, Reid & Dishion, 1992). Leondari and Kiosseoglou (2002) demonstrated that psychological control is related to attachment which predicts self-esteem in adolescents; Bean, Bush, McKenry, and Wilson (2003) reported that parental psychological control predicts adolescent

61 self-esteem in African American and European American adolescents. Other studies have also documented that responsive and warm parenting predicts cooperative behavior, emotional adjustment, and social and school competence in children (Booth, Rose-Krasnor, McKinnon, & Rubin, 1994; Chen, Liu, & Li, 2000; Qian & Xiao, 1998). Best, Hauser, and Allen (1997) also found that parent behavior predicts adolescent competence and ego resilience. Recently, two less extreme forms of parenting practices have been linked to adolescent mental health (Shek, 2006; 2007a; 2007b; 2007c): behavior control which is seen in the consistent enforcement of rules and monitoring and supervision of a child’s whereabouts; and psychological control which is seen in controlling the child by manipulating the attachment bond with threats of withdrawal of love, guilt induction, shaming, or over-protectiveness. Barber and Harmon (2002) found that parents who use high levels of behavior and psychological control that arouse guilt and shame are more likely to have children who are anxious and depressed. Leondari and Kiosseoglou (2002) found that parental psychological control predicted adolescent self-esteem. A series of studies has also shown that parental psychological control was both concurrently and longitudinally related to adolescent mental health as indexed by self-esteem, mastery and life satisfaction (Shek, 2007a; 2007b; 2007c). However, the impacts of these two forms of parenting practices are heavily under-researched.

3.1.2 Relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health in a Chinese context Research on the relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health in Chinese samples is limited. Among the few existing studies, parenting style was found to be significantly related to adolescent psychological distress (indexed by general psychiatric morbidity and hopelessness) and problem behavior (indexed by smoking and psychotropic drug abuse) (Shek, 1997). Shek (2005a) found that parenthood qualities (indexed by perceived parenting styles, support and help from parents, and conflict and relationship with the parents) were related to adolescent psychological well-being (indexed by the Existential Well-Being

Scale, Life Satisfaction Scale, Mastery Scale, Chinese Self-Esteem Scale, and General Health Questionnaire) in economically disadvantaged families. A series of studies by Shek (2007a; 2007b; 2007c) showed that parental psychological control in a Chinese sample was concurrently and longitudinally related to adolescent psychological well-being as indexed by self-esteem, mastery and life satisfaction. Also, Shek (2007d) identified an indigenous Chinese parental control concept and found that indigenous Chinese parental control was positively related to adolescent psychological well-being when adolescents’ perceived parental psychological control to be low.

3.2 Review of the literature on inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health 3.2.1 Relationship between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health Effects of the inter-parental relationship on child development are well documented (Cummings & Davis, 1995; 2002). However, most investigators emphasized the effect of inter-parental conflicts on the negative aspects of adolescent mental health. Emery and O’Leary (1984) were the first of many investigators (for reviews see Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Cummings & Davies, 1994; Emery, 1999) to show that a high level of inter-parental conflict or overt inter- parental violence, especially when the disruption occurs in front of the child and is not resolved, are risk factors for both depression and aggression in adolescents (Conger, Conger, Elder, & Lorenz, 1992; Cowan & Cowan, 2002). Besides depression and aggression, associations between inter-parental conflict and adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing disorders have been demonstrated repeatedly (e.g., Rutter, 1970; see reviews in Emery, 1982; Grych & Fincham, 1990). Poor inter-parental relationships have also been associated with various adolescent problems and psychopathology, including conduct problems, poor peer interaction, poor health, depression, anxiety, attachment insecurity, and low self-esteem (Cummings & Davies, 1994; Emery, 1982; 1999; Emery &

O’Leary, 1984; Gottman & Katz, 1989; Grych & Fincham, 1990; Howes & Markman, 1989; Jouriles et al., 1991; Katz & Gottoman, 1993). With regard to the positive aspects of adolescent mental health, empirical data is limited. Amato and Sobolewski (2001), in a nationally representative longitudinal study, investigated the effects of inter-parental conflict among married couples on the mental health of their adult children. Inter-parental conflict was associated with lower levels of psychological well-being in adulthood, and the long-term implications of conflict were comparable with those of marital dissolution. Compared with inter-parental conflict, only a handful of studies have examined the association between the positive aspect of inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health in married-couple families, and even fewer studies have examined nationally representative samples. However, studies conducted among married-couple families consistently found that adolescents are affected by their parents’ positive inter-parental relationships (e.g., Feldman, Fisher, & Seitel, 1997). Several studies examining the relationship between the positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health consistently found significant results (Hair, Moore, Keyes, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009). Although empirical investigations have documented relationships between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health (e.g., Feldman, Fisher, & Seitel, 1997) in non-clinical samples of adolescents from intact and recently divorced families (e.g., Feldman, Fisher, & Seitel, 1997; Forehand et al., 1991; Wierson, Forehand, & McCombs, 1988), and clinic-referred adolescents (either in combination with clinic-referred children or with non-clinic-referred adolescents) (Porter & O'Leary, 1980; Snyder, Klein, Gdowski, Faulstich, & LaCombe, 1988), relatively little is known about the mechanism under which the inter-parental relationship affects adolescent mental health (Rutter, 1986). In other words, early research efforts focused on the effects of marital functioning on adolescent mental health in various samples. Recently, researchers identified different mediators which link the inter-parental relationship with child outcomes, such as parenting

(Harrist & Ainslie, 1998), the parent-child relationship (Harold et al., 1997; Osborne & Fincham, 1996), and family cohesion (Feldman et al., 1997). However, in conjunction with the comment of Shek (2000), the mechanisms that mediate between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health “are not well understood” (Harrist & Ainslie, 1998, p. 14). Cowan and Cowan (2002) suggested two links between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health—direct and indirect effects. With regard to the direct effects, Cowan and Cowan (2002) suggested that negative inter- parental relationships produce powerful emotional responses and impulses to act in adolescents (also see Cummings & Davies, 1994). Adolescents’ perceptions of the frequency and intensity of poor inter-parental interactions and their tendency to assume that they are to blame for it also appear to mediate the links between observed poor inter-parental relationships and both aggression and depression in adolescents (Dadds, Atkinson, Turner, Blums, & Lendich, 1999; Grych, Fincham, Jouriles, & McDonald, 2000; Rogers & Holmbeck, 1997). On the other hand, social learning theory suggests that parents' marital functioning may be extremely important in the understanding of problems experienced by clinic-referred adolescents. In their interactions with each other, parents serve as "role models" for problem solving, coping, and communicating strong feelings (Linehan, 1993). Harold and Conger (1997) argued that adolescents can directly benefit through the observation of effective parental coping strategies during instances of marital discord. Children, then, learn effective coping strategies and skills which they may then employ during instances of conflict within their own lives to enhance their mental health. There is strong correlational evidence for the indirect effect of marital dysfunction on adolescents, suggesting that a couple’s inability to regulate their negative effect in productive ways spills over into the parent–child relationship. Erel and Burnuman (1995) conducted a meta-analysis and found a consistent correlation between inter-parental conflict and measures including ineffective or disrupted parent–child relationships. Researchers have reported connections between inter-parental conflict and each of the aspects of parent–child

65 relationships: parent–child attachment (Davies & Cumming, 1994); parenting styles (Cowan et al., 1994); parenting practices (Holden & Miller, 1999); and meta-emotion coaching (Gottman et al., 1997). Recently, questionnaire data have been used to tap general marital functioning or satisfaction and an indirect effect has often been observed through the mediating channel of parenting (Gonzales, Pitts, Hill, & Roosa, 2000; Jouriles et al., 1989; Mann & MacKenzie, 1996). Compared with inter-parental conflicts, there are relatively few studies available that address the mediating mechanism between other aspects of inter- parental relationships (e.g., martial quality) and adolescent outcomes. More empirical research is needed to investigate the linkage between various aspects of inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health as well as their mediating mechanism.

3.2.2 Relationship between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health in a Chinese context In Chinese society, inter-parental relationships are considered secondary to parent–child relationships (Hsu, 1985). Chinese couples regard the family unit as a whole, including relationships involving all members, especially children, as more important than the dyadic spousal relationship (Lu & Lin, 1998; Rothbaum, Morelli, Pott, & Liu-Constant, 2000). As a result of this inclusive and child- centred family socialization, Chinese children also seem to be somewhat unaffected by or resilient to their parents’ dyadic relationship quality (Shek, 2000). Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, and Farver (2004) even hypothesized that the inter- parental relationship was not related to adolescent mental health in Chinese people. However, this speculation is not supported by any empirical data. However, limited studies were done on the relationship between the inter- parental relationship and adolescent mental health in Chinese adolescents (Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004; Shek, 2000). For instance, the effect of inter- parental conflict on children’s outcome was found in mainland Chinese. It was found that inter-parental conflict could predict Chinese children’s externalizing and internalizing problem behaviour (Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004).

Shek (2000) found a direct link between paternal marital quality and adolescent self-esteem. In the same study, he also found that paternal marital quality could predict life satisfaction in adolescents; maternal marital quality was found to predict life satisfaction and general psychological health in adolescents across time.

3.3 Review of the literature on association of parenting with inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health 3.3.1 The association of parenting with inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health Some scholars have hypothesized that co-occurring disruptions in parenting and the parent-child relationship account, at least in part, for why inter- parental interaction affects adolescent mental health (Davies, Harold, Goeke- Morey, & Cummings, 2002). For example, in his seminal literature review, Emergy (1982) described the role of the parent-child relationship processes (i.e., attachment and parenting) as central to understanding the effects of inter-parental interaction in two of his three primary explanations. Parenting practices and parent-child attachment are the two classes of parenting processes that have received the most conceptual attention (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). Scholars suggest that negative inter- parental interaction is associated with child maladjustments in one or more domains of parenting practices, including (a) poor control of the child’s behaviour reflected in lax monitoring and inconsistent or harsh discipline; (b) greater psychological control characterized by efforts to control the child through the manipulation and exploitation of the parent-child bond (e.g., love withdrawal, guilt induction, intrusiveness and criticism); and (c) lack of warmth, acceptance, and emotional availability (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). These parenting difficulties, in turn, are theorized to increase the child’s risk of adjustment problems, including internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Crockenberg & Covey, 1991; Erel & Burman, 1995; Fauber & Long, 1991; Holden & Miller, 1999).

There is empirical support for the mediating roles of parenting practices. Experimental studies and sequential analyses of natural interactions have shown that disruptions in parenting practices increase following inter-parental disputes (Christensen & Margolin, 1988; Jouriles & Farries, 1992; Mahoney, Boggio, & Jouriles, 1996). In addition, parental emotional unavailability, poor behavioral control, and psychological control have been shown to account for at least part of the association between inter-parental conflict and adolescent mental health (Erel, Margolin, & John, 1998; Fauber, Forhand, Thomas, & Wierson, 1990; Gonzales et al., 2000; Harold et al., 1997; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1999). Attachment theorists have hypothesized that the inter-parental relationship is also linked to parent-child attachment in at least two ways. First, absence or presence of parenting difficulties characterized by a high/low level of warmth, sensitivity, and acceptance may accompany positive/negative inter-parental interaction and account for its association with parent-child attachment security/insecurity (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). Consistent with this hypothesis, parental emotional unavailability (e.g., hostility, lack of support, sensitivity, or warmth) was identified as a partial mediator in the link between marital conflict and parent-child attachment insecurity (Frosch, Mangelsdorf, & McHale, 2000; Owen & Cox, 1997). Second, the frightening and frightened behaviour exhibited by parents undermines the sense of confidence in parents as sources of support and protection (Own & Cox, 1997; Main & Hesse, 1990). Supporting this hypothesis, studies have shown that the association between inter-parental conflict and parent-child attachment insecurity remains robust even after statistically controlling for parent sensitivity and warmth (Frosch et al., 2000; Owen & Cox, 1997). As an evolving product of the effects of inter- parental interaction and parenting, the quality of the child’s sense of security in parent-child attachment relationships has been associated with a wide range of developmental outcomes and problems (Colin, 1996).

3.3.2 The association of parenting with inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health in the Chinese context Although there was supporting evidence for parenting processes serving as mediators between inter-parental relationships and adolescent development in the western literature (Erath, Bierman, & The Conduct problems Prevention research group, 2006; Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Campbell, Frabutt, & Lamb, 2002; Low & Stocker, 2005), there are only limited studies investigating the association of parenting with inter-parental relationships and adolescent development in the Chinese context (e.g., Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004; Lee, Becker, Wu, & Kuan, 2011; Shek, 2007b). For instance, Chang et al. (2004) found that harsh parenting mediated the impact of marital quality on children’s externalizing their problems in Hong Kong. In addition, Lee et al. (2011) found that marital discord influenced children’s academic performance through parenting processes. Given the fact that a computer search using PSYCINFO in December 2013 located only nine research studies about the association of parenting with inter- parental relationships and adolescent development using “martial”, “inter- parental”, “parenting” and “Chinese” as keywords, more research is needed to investigate the relationship among parenting processes, inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health in Chinese societies.

3.4 The Conceptual limitations of previous studies In the previous section, I summarized the literature on the effects of parenting on adolescent mental health, the effects of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health, and the role of parenting on the link between the inter- parental relationship and adolescent mental health. However, these three parts of the literature face conceptual and methodological limitations. In the following sections, these conceptual and methodological limitations are discussed separately. Previous studies face seven conceptual limitations. They are (1) inadequate indigenous conceptualization of parenting and the inter-parental relationship; (2) inadequate conceptualization of the linkage between parenting and inter-parental relationships; (3) problems with the conceptualization of mental health; (4)

69 inadequate alternative explanations for results; (5) inadequate conceptualization of inter-parental relationships; (6) an inadequate conceptual model of inter-parental relationships from an adolescent’s perspective; (7) inadequate simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice; (8) an inadequate conceptual model of positive youth development as a developmental outcome. Each of these limitations will be discussed in detail. Based on the literature reviews on the conceptual limitations, a paper was generated and published (Fok & Shek, 2011a).

3.4.1 Inadequate indigenous conceptualization of parenting and the inter-parental relationship The first conceptual limitation is that studies have not investigated culture specific indigenous concepts of parenting and inter-parental relationships from non-Western cultures (Fok & Shek, 2011a). Fok and Shek (2011a) pointed out that the majority of parenting theories, including theories explaining the effect of parenting on adolescent mental health (such as Baumrind’s conceptualization of parenting style) have been developed in Western cultures (Baumrind, 1967). However, the parenting process might vary across cultures (Stewart et al, 1998). For example, Stewart et al. (1998) pointed out that parental warmth is a salient characteristic of functional parenting that correlated well with positive outcomes in Western cultures but poorly with outcomes outside Western cultures. It is important to develop theories and concepts to explain the specifics of the parenting processes in non-Western cultures. Unfortunately, few studies have investigated the relationship between indigenous parenting concepts in non-Western cultures and children’s mental health (e.g., Stewart et al, 1998). For example, Stewart et al. (2002) investigated the concept of “guan”, a Chinese parenting concept which means the willingness of parents to be directive, and found that mothers’ “Guan” predicted self-esteem in their children, whereas fathers’ “guan” predicted life satisfaction. Shek (2007d) identified an indigenous Chinese parental control concept and found that indigenous Chinese parental control was positively related to adolescents’

70 psychological well-being when adolescents’ perceived parental psychological control was low. The investigation of indigenous parenting concepts is important for two reasons. First, although some researchers “believe in the generalizability of parenting concepts across cultures (i.e., universalism of parenting concepts)” (Shek, 2007d, p. 124) and argue that Western concepts of parenting (e.g., psychological control) can be used to understand the effect of parenting on children in different cultures, cross-cultural psychologists argue that parenting processes are different across cultures (Stewart et al, 1998) and suggest that parenting theories developed in the West might not be totally applicable to non- Western cultures. For example, Baumrind (1967) separated the authoritative parenting style from the non-authoritative style. In Western cultures, authoritative parenting tends to be more common and is generally associated with the most beneficial child and adolescent outcomes when compared with non-authoritative parenting styles (Coplan, Hastings, Lagace-Seguin, & Moulton, 2002). Children and adolescents reared by authoritative parents report better developmental outcomes than those reared by non-authoritative parents, including greater self- esteem, self-control, moral development, social maturity, and school performance (Radziszewska, Richardson, Dent, & Flay, 1996) , and greater psychological well- being, as well as less depression and substance abuse (Shah & Waller, 2000). However, categorizing parenting style as authoritative and non-authoritative parenting styles might not be applicable in non-Western cultures (McBride-Chang C & Chang, 1998). For instance, in addition to authoritative and non-authoritative parenting styles, most Hong Kong parents also adopt psychologically controlling parenting styles (Shah & Waller, 2000). The associations between parenting style and adolescent mental health and/or distress, in general, are equivalent to the results obtained in the West, but this is far from conclusive (McBride-Chang & Chang, 1998). The second reason is that more research into indigenous parenting concepts is needed to evaluate culture specific parenting beliefs commonly used in parenting research in non-Western cultures. For instance, a significant number of

Hong Kong parenting studies cite traditional Chinese cultural beliefs such as “strict fathers, kind mothers” (a) in their introductions to elaborate why it is important to investigate certain research questions in the Hong Kong context and/or (b) in their discussions to provide explanations for the results obtained. However, these studies usually did not provide empirical data or evidence to support the validity and the relevance of traditional Chinese cultural beliefs in Hong Kong. One of these studies was Tam (2009) in which “strict fathers, kind mothers” was mentioned without providing any data or references to recent literature to support the claim. However, the claim of “strict fathers, kind mothers” was partly challenged by Shek (2008a). He found that paternal demandingness was higher towards daughters than towards sons, maternal discipline was perceived to be higher towards boys than towards girls, and maternal psychological control was higher over sons than over daughters. Shek (2008a) proposed “the existence of strict mothers, kind fathers rather than strict fathers, kind mothers in contemporary Chinese culture” (p. 678). Obviously, there is a need to examine the validity and the relevance of culture specific parenting beliefs in the contemporary context. To do so, an investigation of indigenous parenting concepts such as “guan” is necessary because these concepts are highly related to traditional culture specific parenting beliefs. Similar to parenting, most constructs of inter-parental relationships have been developed in Western culture (Chen & Li, 2007). However, Chen and Li (2007) suggested examining inter-parental relationships in cultural contexts. Cross-cultural psychologists suggested that there might be cross-cultural differences in inter-parental relationships. For example, in marital studies, researchers pointed out that intimacy, which mainly involves self-disclosure and the sharing of intimate experiences (Clark & Reis, 1988; Rosenbluth & Steil, 1995), might be important in inter-parental relationships in Western culture (Chen & Li, 2007). However, traditional Chinese society has never emphasized intimacy as a component of marriage (e.g., K.K. Dion & K.L. Dion, 1988; K.L. Dion & K.K. Dion, 1993; Hsu, 1981, 1985).

Although there are limited empirical studies of cross-cultural differences in inter-parental relationships, several Chinese indigenous inter-parental relationship constructs have been proposed. For example, Goodwin and Findlay (1997) proposed a construct of “yuan”. Yuan is derived from a Buddhist belief in the role of pre-destiny and fate in relationship development and refers to “relational fatalism”-the belief that personal relationships are predestined to succeed or fail, and that the interactants themselves have only limited control over this process (Goodwin & Tang, 1996). The belief of yuan might help marital stability. Chen and Li (2007) also proposed the construct of “enqing”--the expression of feelings of gratitude and admiration (see also Li, 1997; S.-M. Tang, 1999). “Enqing” goes beyond the emotional and cognitive dimensions of love and liking (Florian, 1992), and encompasses a moral dimension suggesting couples’ responsibilities and obligations in marriage (Chen & Li, 2007). Recently, Tang and Oatley (2009) also proposed ‘Belief in common fate’ which refers to an unfailing devotion to a Confucian ideal of the marital union as hierarchical without regard for external contingencies or individual needs. Despite the fact that several culture specific indigenous inter-parental relationship constructs have been proposed, little is known about the relationship between culture specific indigenous inter-parental relationship constructs and the development of adolescents. Such a relationship is theoretically important, especially in Chinese communities. This is because inter-parental relationships are expected to have a significant impact on adolescent development in Chinese society. This claim is indirectly supported by the fact that compared to Western people; Chinese people have an “undifferentiated” view about family due to their unique socialization attributes (Shek, 1998). Previous studies do not focus on culture specific indigenous concepts of parenting and inter-parental relationships. However, they are expected to be theoretically important to adolescent mental health. More empirical studies are needed to examine the relationship between culture specific indigenous concepts of parenting and inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health.

3.4.2 Inadequate conceptualization of the linkage between parenting and inter- parental relationships The second conceptual limitation is inadequate conceptualization of the linkage between parenting and inter-parental relationships (Fok & Shek, 2011a). Based on the ecological perspective, in Western literature suggested that various micro-systems, meso-systems, exo-systems, and macro-systems variables have direct effects on adolescent mental health, and have indirect effects through parenting-concept variables, such as parenting style and parenting practice (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Inter-parental relationships, as a meso-systems variable, exercise influences on adolescent mental health directly and indirectly through parenting practices (Davis, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). For example, inter-parental conflict is correlated with a number of negative developmental outcomes; including child maladjustment, internalizing and externalizing problems, decreased social functioning, reduced cognitive competence, and physiological reactivity, less secure attachment relationships, behavioral problems, poor self-esteem, negative effects such as anxiety, depression and lack of happiness, and academic difficulties throughout childhood (Davies & Cummings, 1994). The effects of inter-parental conflict on children’s outcomes was also found in mainland Chinese, predicting Chinese children’s externalizing and internalizing problem behavior (Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004). There are two major reasons for linking the effect of parenting and the effect of the inter-parental relationship on adolescent mental health (Fok & Shek, 2011a). First, theoretically, the parenting process cannot exist in a social vacuum. Inter-parental relationships might shape the parenting process (Buehler, Lange, & Franck, 2007). Therefore, linking the effect of parenting and the effect of the inter- parental relationship is a necessary step in providing a comprehensive understanding of the effect of parenting on adolescents. Second, practically speaking, linking these two effects helps develop parenting programs or social practices in family counselling. As Leung and Lam (2009) suggest, parenting is “more than a technical exercise of instrumental reasoning” (p. 354). Parenting

74 problems are often a reflection of the inner struggles of parents, rather than a lack of knowledge and skills (Lam, 2005; Tam, Lam, Cheng, Ho, & Ma, 2001). From the ecological perspective, the inter-parental relationship, as a meso-system variable, might represent a struggle for parents. Investigation of these two effects together serves as a theoretical guideline for developing parenting programs or conducting family counselling when parenting problems reflect weaknesses in areas other than parenting skills and knowledge (Fok & Shek, 2011a).

3.4.3 Problems regarding the conceptualization of mental health The third conceptual limitation is the lack of investigation of positive aspects of mental health including hedonic well-being such as positive mental health attributes (e.g., life satisfaction) and eudaimonic well-being such as positive youth developmental outcomes (Fok & Shek, 2011a). As pointed out by Shek (2007c), children’s outcomes are often defined in terms of an absence of manifested psychological symptoms and problems, such as internalizing problems (e.g., depression and hopelessness) and externalizing problems (e.g., aggression and delinquency). In contrast, fewer studies have examined the impact of parenting and inter-parental relationships on children’s outcomes in terms of positive mental health attributes (Diener, 1984) or coping resources (Folkman, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1979). In the past decade, scholars from psychology, social work and other mental health disciplines have suggested that both psychological symptoms and positive mental health attributes such as life satisfaction and mastery of life should be focused upon in order to explore the effects of parenting and inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health from a holistic perspective (Shek, 2005a). For example, Shek (2005b) used the Existential Well-Being Scale, Life Satisfaction Scale, Mastery Scale, Chinese Self-Esteem Scale, and the General Health Questionnaire to investigate both psychological symptoms and positive mental health attributes. Recently, researchers have started to expand the definition of the mental health of youth to incorporate eudaimonic well-being such as the positive youth

75 developmental outcomes (Catalano, Hawkins, Berglund, Pollard, & Arthur, 2002). In the studies of adolescent mental health, this view of mental health comes from the “positive youth development approach”. This approach focuses on the assets, abilities, and potential of adolescents (Benson, Mannes, Pittman, & Ferber, 2004; Lerner & Benson, 2003). Adolescents, then, are conceptualized as people with potential that needs to be nurtured (Shek, Siu, & Lee, 2007). Positive youth development can be defined as the growth, cultivation, and the nurturance of developmental assets, abilities, and potential in adolescents (Damon, 2004). Catalano et al. (2002) summarized the following 15 positive youth development constructs: (a) promotion of bonding (enhanced relationship with healthy adults and positive peers), (b) cultivation of resilience (enhanced capacity for adapting to change and stressful events in healthy and adaptive ways), (c) promotion of social competence (promotion of interpersonal skills and providing opportunities to practice such skills), (d) promotion of emotional competence (emotional maturity and management), (e) promotion of cognitive competence (development of cognitive skills and thinking), (f) promotion of behavioral competence (cultivation of verbal and nonverbal communication and taking action skills), (g) promotion of moral competence (development of a sense of right and wrong), (h) cultivation of self-determination (promoting a sense of autonomy), (i) development of self- efficacy (promoting coping and mastery skills), (j) promotion of spirituality (development of purpose and meaning in life, hope, or beliefs in a higher power), (k) promotion of beliefs in the future (development of future potential goals, choices, or options), (l) development of a clear and positive identity (promotion of healthy identity), (m) recognition for positive behavior (developing systems for rewarding), (n) providing opportunities for pro-social involvement (designing activities and events that promote opportunities for adolescents to make positive contributions to groups), and (o) fostering pro-social norms (encouraging adolescents to develop clear and explicit standards for pro-social engagement). To examine the impact of parenting and inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health, it is important to incorporate a comprehensive

76 conceptualization of mental health which includes psychological symptoms and problems, positive mental health attributes and positive youth development.

3.4.4 Inadequate alternative explanations for results The fourth conceptual limitation is the inadequate alternative explanations for the results in the studies of parenting and/or inter-parental relationships (Fok & Shek, 2011a). The researchers investigating the relationship between parenting and/or inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health often assume that parenting influences adolescent mental health and neglect other possibilities. Few studies provide alternative explanations for the results they obtain from investigating the relationship between parenting and/or inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health. For example, Shek (2007c) used a longitudinal design and investigated the relationships between paternal and maternal psychological control and adolescent mental health. Instead of assuming that paternal and maternal psychological control influenced adolescent mental health, Shek (2007c) tested the possibility of bidirectional association between two sets of variables and found that the two sets of variables predicted each other over time. Shek (2007c) also gave two explanations for the low effect sizes observed for the longitudinal relationships between psychological control and adolescent mental health. One explanation concerned methodological problems (e.g., poor operationalization of the concepts). The second explanation was that the effect of the psychological control on adolescent mental health was weak in Hong Kong Chinese, as parenting defined in terms of Chinese indigenous concepts had a very weak relationship with measures of adolescent mental health. Giving possible alternative explanations for the results is important. This is because having only one explanation for the results obtained not only limits conceptual development but, sometimes, might be misleading. For example, in Hong Kong parenting research, most researchers assume parenting styles and behaviour are independent variables and adolescent mental health is a dependent variable. However, as Shek (2007c) indicated, adolescent mental health could predict parental psychological control. Shek (2007c) even argued that poor

77 adolescent mental health is stressful, which would limit an adolescent’s sensitivity and response to parents’ demands and expectations, thereby contributing to perceived psychological control. Shek’s finding is consistent with the ecological perspective (2007c). His findings showed that parenting style as a meso-system variable and adolescent mental health as a micro-system variable are interdependent and influence each other. Providing only one explanation for the results might mislead readers into thinking that there is no possibility of adolescent mental health shaping parenting. Giving alternative explanations for the results might be salient for investigating the relationship between parenting and/or inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health because most of the studies were cross-sectional in nature, and the relationship between parenting and/or inter-parental relationships and children’s outcomes is hard to study through experimental design (Fok & Shek, 2011a). Results obtained from a cross-sectional design have five possibilities: (a) A influences B; (b) B influences A; (c) A and B do not influence each other; (d) A and B influence each other; and (e) the relationship between A and B is spurious (i.e., the relationship is influenced by a third variable). A cross- sectional design can only determine if two variables are correlated [i.e., (c)], but it cannot rule out other possibilities (Sanson et al., 2002; Shek, 2001a). Providing alternative explanations can, at least, supplement the methodological limitations of research investigating the relationship between parenting and/or inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health partly by ruling out other possibilities theoretically. If this is not feasible, alternative explanations can serve as reminders for the reader that parenting and inter-parental relationships are a long-term, complicated phenomenon, and research findings of parenting and/or inter-parental relationships can be understood in various ways.

3.4.5 Inadequate conceptualization of inter-parental relationships The fifth conceptual limitation is the inadequate conceptualization of inter- parental relationships. This greatly affects the investigation of the impact of various aspects of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health. Like

78 parenting, martial interaction is multi-dimensional. However, most studies of the effect of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health focus on negative aspects of inter-parental relationships, especially inter-parental conflicts (Cummings & Davies, 2002; Grych & Fincham, 2001). Although past studies documented the impact of negative inter-parental relationship on adolescents’ cognitive, social, academic, and psychobiological functioning (e.g., Ellis & Garber, 2000; El-Sheikh, Harger, & Whitson, 2001; Fergusson & Horwood, 1998; see review in Cummings & Davies, 1994), little is known about the impact of positive inter-parental relationship on adolescents. There are two problems related to the limited scope of studies of inter-parental relationships. First, focusing only on inter-parental conflict assumes a conflict- orientation in inter-parental relationships. This orientation views the inter-parental relationship as a source of problems rather than a source of support within the family system. Second, the limited scope of inter-parental relationships neglects the fact that inter-parental relationships are multi-dimensional. This might mask the possible contribution of different aspects of inter-parental relationships on adolescent development. Researchers have recently emphasized the importance of segregating positive and negative relationship features of marriage, suggesting that positive and negative characteristics are separable (but related) dimensions of the construct of inter-parental relationships (Fincham & Linfield, 1997; Kiecolt-Glaster & Newton, 2001; Whisman, 2001). These positive and negative characteristics are most often described through the behavior couples engaged in during inter-parental interactions (Matthews, Wickrama, & Conger, 1996; Snyder, Heyman, & Haynes, 2005). Negative behavior, such as complaints, criticism, hostility, withdrawal, and defensiveness, displayed during discussions of relationship conflicts, have distinguished distressed from non-distressed couples (Christensen & Heavey, 1990; Fincham, 2003; Matthews et al., 1996; Snyder et al., 2005); predict divorce in newly married couples (Gottman, 1994); and are associated with deterioration in marital satisfaction over time (Karney & Bradbury, 1997). Positive aspects of interpersonal relationships, such as expressed warmth and support, have also been

79 recognized as an important gauge of relationship satisfaction (Fincham, 2003; Pasch & Bradbury, 1998; Sarason, Pierce, & Sarason, 1994), with lower rates of positive behavior characterizing distressed marriages (Snyder et al., 2005). Theoretically, positive inter-parental relationships may have a positive impact on adolescents (Frosch, Mangelsdorf, & McHale, 2000). Empirically, a few studies have supported this prediction. For example, Goldberg and Easterbrooks (1984) found that inter-parental relationship harmony was related to the security of the infant-parent attachment. In addition, greater positive affects resulting from the inter-parental relationship have been indirectly associated with fewer externalizing behaviour problems in pre-schoolers via parenting behaviour (Miller, Cowan, Cowan, Hetherington, & Clingempeel, 1993). However, little is known about whether or not positive inter-parental relationships can predict unique adolescent mental health after controlling for negative inter-parental relationships. In sum, although researchers are now paying attention to various dimensions of inter- parental relationships, the effects of various dimensions of inter-parental relationships on parenting and on adolescent mental health remain unknown.

3.4.6 Inadequate conceptual model of inter-parental relationships from an adolescent’s perspective The sixth conceptual limitation is the limited conceptual modelling of inter-parental relationships from an adolescent’s perspective. Although numerous studies have documented that negative inter-parental relationships are correlated with child maladjustment, internalizing and externalizing problems, decreased social functioning, reduced cognitive competence, and physiological reactivity (Buehler et al., 1997), the measurement of the inter-parental relationship has typically involved assessing parents’ own perceptions of their behaviour during these disputes (Reese-Weber & Hesson-McInnis, 2008). Adolescents’ perceptions and understanding of the inter-parental relationship are critical for understanding its impact on them for two reasons. First, adolescents’ perceptions and understanding of the inter-parental relationship might reflect how inter-parental relationships influence adolescent development (Grych,

Seid, & Fincham, 1992). This position is consistent with stress and coping theorists who emphasize the mediating role of individuals' interpretations of stressful events (e.g., Compas, 1987; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Rutter, 1983) and with findings suggesting that openly expressed inter-parental conflict is more closely associated with child problems than covert conflict or marital dissatisfaction (Emery & O'Leary, 1984; Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1982; Rutter et al., 1974). Second, adolescents’ perceptions and understanding of inter-parental relationships might be different from that of their parents (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992). Parent reports can underestimate the situation because children may be aware of negative inter-parental interaction to which they are not directly exposed. For example, parents may not realize that their children overhear disagreements that take place in another room or after they have gone to bed. Parent reports also may overestimate their children's awareness of negative inter-parental interaction because parents may define some interactions that are not salient to children as conflicts, such as disagreements that are resolved quickly and calmly. Therefore, measures that directly assess adolescents’ perceptions of conflict are likely to provide more accurate estimates of their exposure to inter-parental relationships. Empirically, Joshi (2001) has shown that children’s perceptions of inter-parental relationships are different from those of parents, and the differences in perceptions are moderated by the gender of the children. Related to the lack of investigation of various aspects of inter-parental relationships, the assessment of children’s perceptions of the inter-parental relationship mainly focus on children’s perceptions of inter-parental conflicts. The Children’s Perception of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC; Grych et al., 1992) has been developed, and has become the most widely used and recognized measure in the elementary school and adolescent age ranges to assess children’s perceptions of inter-parental relationships. However, there are few empirical studies of adolescents’ perceptions of inter-parental relationships other than conflicts. Researchers need to explore adolescents’ perceptions of aspects of inter- parental relationships other than conflicts.

3.4.7 Inadequate simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice The seventh conceptual limitation is inadequate simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice. The small number of empirical studies of the effects of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health have identified parenting as a mediator (e.g., Buchanan & Waizenhofer, 2001; Frosch, Mangelsdorf, & McHale, 2000; Kitzmann, 2000; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1999). However, most of these studies focus on parenting style or parenting practice only. For instance, Webster-Stratton and Hammond (1999) focus on parenting style. They examined whether the link between marital conflict management style and child conduct problems with peers and parents is direct or mediated by mothers' and fathers' parenting style (critical parenting and low emotional responsivity). They found that a negative marital conflict management style had direct links with children's conduct problems and the linkage between negative marital conflict management and children's interactions with parents and peers was mediated by both mothers' and fathers' critical parenting and low emotional responsivity. Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, and Wierson (1990) focused on parenting practice. They found that three parenting practices: lax control, psychological control, and parental rejection/withdrawal mediated the impact of marital conflict on adolescents’ adjustment in both intact and divorced families. Steinberg (2001) suggested that parenting style and parenting practice are different constructs. Parenting style consists of a constellation of parental attitudes towards the child which creates an emotional climate or shapes the emotional relationships between parent and child while parenting practice refers to specific parental behavior (Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Steinberg (2001) further suggested that parenting style and parenting practice can interact to influence children’s outcomes. For example, parents’ academic encouragement and involvement in adolescents’ schooling is beneficial to their school achievement at an aggregated level (Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992). But the linkage between parents’ academic encouragement and involvement and adolescents’ school achievement is stronger when the parenting

82 style is authoritative rather than non- authoritative (Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992). The recent studies of the role of parenting on the linkage between the inter- parental relationship and adolescent mental health focus either on parenting style or parenting practice. This misses the possibility of investigating the role parenting plays in the effect of the inter-parental relationship on adolescent mental health completely because these studies neglect half the role of parenting by either focusing on parenting style or parenting practice and neglecting the interaction between them.

3.4.8 Inadequate conceptual model of positive youth development as a developmental outcome The eighth limitation is an inadequate conceptual model of positive youth development as a developmental outcome. Positive youth development is defined as growth, cultivation, and nurturance of developmental assets, abilities, and potential in adolescents (Shek, Siu & Lee, 2007). It is related to various aspects of adolescent behavior, including substance abuse (Shek & Ma, 2011) However, research on positive youth development is very limited, especially in a Chinese context (e.g., Shek, Siu & Lee, 2007; Shek & Ma, 2011).

3.5 The methodological limitations of studies in previous literature Besides the conceptual problems that these studies have encountered, it is found that there are methodological problems in the studies of the effect of parenting on adolescent mental health, the effect of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health, and the mediating role parenting plays in the relationship between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health. These problems are (1) over-reliance on cross sectional studies; (2) problems with measurement tools; (3) infrequent use of multiple indicators; (4) underuse of more advanced statistical methods for data analysis; (5) lack of studies in Chinese populations. Each will be discussed in detail. Based on the literature reviews on the

83 methodological limitations, a paper was generated and published (Fok & Shek, 2011b).

3.5.1 Over-reliance on cross sectional studies The first methodological limitation is an over-reliance on cross-sectional studies. Most previous studies used a cross-sectional design. As Fok and Shek (2011 b) noted, although cross-sectional studies can show possible links between variable A and variable B at a single point in time (Sanson et al., 2002), they cannot yield data on the causal link between variable A and variable B over a period of time, thus limiting the conceptual development of the research (Gravetter, & Forzano, 2006). Conceptually speaking, there are several possibilities regarding the relationship between parenting concept variables and other variables of interest to the researcher: (a) variable A influences variable B; (b) variable B influences variable A; (c) variable A and variable B do not influence each other; (d) variable A and variable B influence each other; (e) the relationship between variable A and variable B is spurious (i.e., it is influenced by a third variable). Cross-sectional designs can only show correlations between variable A and variable B but cannot rule out other possibilities. There are several ways to improve the confidence level of explanations in cross-sectional studies. These include providing alternative explanations for the results (Fok & Shek, 2011a), and employing partial correlations to control third variables statistically, as well as employing structural equation modelling to facilitate the causal interpretation of cross-sectional studies.

3.5.2 Problems with measurement tools The second methodological limitation is related to problems with related to measurement tools. Similar to other social science and behavioral science studies, previous studies of adolescent mental health in non-Western cultures rely heavily on translated measures (Fok & Shek, 2011b). Validity and reliability are essential for measurement tools, especially when they are applied to a context different from that in which they were

84 originally developed (Fok & Shek, 2011b). As suggested by cross-cultural psychologists “when an instrument has been applied in different cultural groups, it cannot be assumed that the meaning of the score obtained is identical” (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997, p. 144). Therefore, measures developed in Western cultures might not be applicable to non-Western cultures because their functional and construct equivalence cannot be assumed to be the same (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997). In other words, variables measured by translated measures without local validation might not be measured as they were intended to be, and the validity of the findings might be questionable when using translated measures without local validation (Fok & Shek, 2011b). It is especially critical when applying western-designed measures to Chinese culture because Western and Chinese cultures are clearly different (Bond, 2010). To ensure the validity of the findings, Fok and Shek (2011b) suggested adopting locally developed or translated measures with prior local validation. If these two options are not feasible, at least the psychometric properties of the measurements of the non-validated translated measures in the context applied should be provided (Fok & Shek, 2011b).

3.5.3 Uncommon use of multiple indicators The third methodological limitation is the lack of the use of multiple indicators of inter-parental relationships and parenting. Inter-parental relationships and parenting are very complex and involve many variables. Even a single variable can be reflected in various ways and can be measured in different ways (Fok & Shek, 2011b). For instance, parenting behavior can be assessed by global parenting style (i.e., parenting characteristics that transcend context and that constitute an emotional climate as perceived by the child) and by specific parenting practices (i.e., specific behavior such as concrete parenting demand) (Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Shek, 2001a). In addition to using multiple measures for a single variable (e.g., parenting behavior), including multiple variables to represent inter-parental relationships or parenting, such as using parent-child communication, parent-child conflict, and parent-child relationships qualities to

85 represent parenting (Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Shek, 2001a), can give the researcher a more vivid picture of the linkage between inter-parental relationships and parenting (Fok & Shel, 2011b). Methodologically, the use of multiple indicators for inter-parental relationships or parenting in a single study (whether using multiple measures of a single variable or using multiple variables, or both), enables researchers to strengthen the assessment of parenting concepts (Shek, 2001a). As a type of within-method triangulation (Denzin, 1970), the use of multiple indicators can enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of parenting research because researchers can cross-check data from different measurements to support the validity of their findings. However, only a limited number of studies have used multiple indicators. For example, Shek (2008) used the Parental Knowledge Scale, Parental Expectation Scale, Parental Monitoring Scale, and Parental Discipline Scale as measures of parental behavioral control. In addition to using multiple measurements for a single parenting concept (i.e., parental control), Shek (2008) also included Parent-Child Relational Qualities, which was measured by the Satisfaction with Parental Control Scale, Readiness to Communicate with the Parent Scale, Parental Trust of Children Scale, and Children’s Trust of Parent Scale. With multiple assessments for parental control, Shek (2008a) found that paternal control was stronger for sons than for daughters in all measurements, except paternal demanding. This gave a clearer picture of the relationship between children’s gender and parental control. Researchers should thus use multiple measurements for parenting or inter-parental relationship variables and include multiple concepts in a study.

3.5.4 Underuse of more advanced statistical methods for data analysis The fourth methodological limitation is the underuse of more advanced statistical methods for data analysis, such as structural equation modeling (SEM) or hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). In the study of the effect of parenting on adolescent mental health, the effect of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health, and the role of parenting in the linkage between inter-parental

86 relationships and adolescent mental health, the majority used regression, analysis of variance (ANOVA), analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA), and/or multiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), whereas very few used more advanced statistical methods such as SEM or HLM. For instance, instead of using regression, Chan et al. (32) used SEM, which can take measurement error and correlations among predictors into consideration, to test if parental goals mediate the influence of parenting styles on parenting practices, enabling a more accurate estimate of the strength of the effect of parenting styles and parental goals on parenting practices. Obviously, advanced statistical methods have two major advantages. The first one is that they can estimate parameters more accurately. The second advantage is that they can test hypotheses that simple statistical analyses such as regressions and ANOVA cannot, such as those in latent variable analysis.

3.5.5 Inadequate Chinese studies The fifth methodological limitation is lack of studies using Chinese samples. Most of the studies of were conducted in Western contexts (Shek, 2005a). In view of the cross-cultural differences in parenting and inter-parental relationships, studies in non-Western contexts are important (Shek, 2005a). However, a PsycINFO search using the keywords “parenting”, “parent” and “adolescent” in December 2013 revealed that there were 3,815 relevant citations whereas there were only 139 relevant citations when “Chinese” was added as keyword. Similarly, a PsycINFO search using the keywords “marital” and “adolescent” in December 2013 revealed that there were 1,256 relevant citations whereas there were only 19 relevant citations when “Chinese” was added as keyword. Given that Chinese account for around one-sixth of the world’s population, more studies using Chinese samples are needed.

Chapter 4: Theoretical framework, research questions, research hypotheses and proposed conceptual model This chapter presents the theoretical framework of this study. Based on the family ecological perspective and studies on the effects of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health, the effects of parenting on adolescent mental health, and the role of parenting on the linkage between inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health, this chapter proposes two aspects of perceived inter-parental relational quality, namely perceived inter-parental conflict and perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, as antecedents of adolescent mental health. The concepts of adolescent mental health are represented by two sets of constructs (psychological ill-being which is indexed to psychological symptoms, and well-being which is indexed to positive mental health attributes and positive youth development). This chapter, then, proposes parenting style (concern and harshness) and parenting practice (parental behavioral, parental psychological control and Chinese indigenous parental control) as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health. Figure 4.1 illustrates the model proposed in the study.

4.1 Antecedents of adolescent mental health—Inter-parental relational quality Inter-parental relational quality is defined as evaluative judgments of the relationship between parents, regardless of their marital status (Fincham & Linfield, 1997). Such simple conceptualization of inter-parental relational quality has several advantages. First, it provides an accurate and useful assessment of relationship quality between parents from the perspective of clinical practice because, based on the clinical observation of Jacobson (1985), overall evaluative judgments of the inter-parental relationship represent the common final pathway through which problems between parents are expressed (Fincham & Linfield, 1997). The second advantage of this conceptualization is its conceptual simplicity. Finally, the conceptualization allows for the use of brief measures to assess inter- parental relational quality (Fincham & Linfield, 1997).

Although conceptualizing inter-parental relational quality as a one- dimensional construct enjoys several advantages, the reality suggests the content of inter-parental relational quality is complex and multi-dimensional (Fincham & Beach, 1999; Grych et al., 1992). Fincham and Beach (1999) found that positive inter-parental relational quality is not necessarily the opposite of inter-parental distress (see also Weiss & Heyman, 1997) but both positive and negative dimensions of inter-parental relational quality co-exist (Bertoni & Bodenmann, 2000; Fincham, 1998; Fincham & Linfield, 1997; Gottman, 1994). In other words, non-distressed inter-parental relationships are characterized by mostly positive dimensions (and low levels of negative dimensions) while distressed ones show mostly negative dimensions. Later research indicated that inter-parental relational quality is multi- dimensional and involves various components such as inter-parental happiness, inter-parental satisfaction, and inter-parental conflict (Bertoni & Bodenmann, 2000; Reed, 1999). However, there is no consensus of components and assessments of inter-parental relational quality among scholars, even though the conceptualization of inter-parental relational quality has been studied for decades. However, theoretically, the components of inter-parental relational quality can be classified into positive and negative aspects (Fincham & Linfield, 1997; Johnson, White, Edwards, & Booth, 1986). Positive aspects consist of adjustment, satisfaction, happiness and strength (Halford, Kelly, & Markman, 1997; Lewis, & Spanier, 1982; Reed, 1999) whereas negative aspects consist of distress, unhappiness, dissatisfaction, maladjustment, and conflicts (McNamara & Bahr, 1980). In this thesis, only perceived inter-parental conflict and perceived inter- parental non-conflict related attributes (the concepts may be indigenously derived and based on the literature) are focused on for the following four reasons. First, a reliance on conflict alone is not comprehensive. Second, it is of theoretical interest to include both aspects in a single study. Third, perceived inter-parental non- conflict related attributes are neglected in the literature. Fourth, inter-parental conflict may not be the good indicator of poor marital quality in the Chinese

society because frequency of inter-parental conflict is low in in the Chinese society (Shek, 2000) Moreover, instead of inter-parental conflict and inter-parental non-conflict related attributes assessed by parents, adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict and perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes are employed. There are two reasons for this. First, parent perception of their relational quality is theoretically and empirically different from adolescent perception of inter-parental relational quality (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992; Joshi, 2001). Assessing adolescents’ perceptions of inter-parental relational quality is likely to provide more accurate estimates of their exposure to inter-parental relationships (Grych et al., 1992). Second, it is practically important to know whether or not inter-parental relational quality as perceived by adolescents serves as a risk or a protective factor that signals their mental health status. If so, assessments of children’s perceptions of inter-parental relational quality can be an important way of identifying problems early.

4.1.1 Perceived inter-parental conflict The study focuses on inter-parental conflict for two reasons. First, it represents “an important clinical concern” (Shek, 2000, p.148). Second, most existing studies of the linkage between inter-parental relationships and child outcomes used inter-parental conflict as the major index of inter-parental relationship (Shek, 2000). Inter-parental conflict was defined as the conflict between the parents, regardless of their actual marital status (Esfandyari, Baharudin, & Nowzari, 2009; Cummings, & Davies, 2010). Previous studies documented the empirical association between inter- parental conflict and adolescent mental health (Emery, 1982; Grych & Fincham, 1990). Meta-analyses (Buehler et al., 1997; Depner et al., 1992) have provided support for a modest but robust and statistically significant association between inter-parental conflict and psychological symptoms such as anxiety and depression. The extent to which inter-parental conflict accounts for differences in psychological functioning in children has been estimated at four percent to 20

percent (Cummings & Davies, 1994; 2010). When the family environment includes additional stressors such as poverty or violence, inter-parental conflict can be expected to have even more significant effects (Cummings, & Davies, 2010; Cummings, Davies, & Campbell 2000). Recently, inter-parental conflict has been conceptualized as multi- dimensional, including frequency (Grych & Fincham, 1990), the content of the conflict (e.g., Hanson, Saunders, & Kistner, 1992) and how it is resolved (e.g., Kempton, Thomas, & Forehand, 1989). Researchers found that these aspects of inter-parental conflicts were associated with children’s outcomes. For instance, Hanson, Saunders & Kistner (1992) found that the frequency of inter-parental conflict as perceived by adolescents was the most important predictor of adolescent depression. Child-related inter-parental conflict was associated with more intense negative emotion in children than non- child-related inter-parental conflict (Grych & Fincham, 1993). Grych and Fincham (1990) proposed that an adolescents’ perception of inter-parental conflict is a closer immediate variable, compared to inter-parental conflict reported by parents, when investigating the impact of inter-parental conflict on adolescent development. In fact, the idea proposed by Grych and Fincham was consistent with the cognitive appraisal theory of stressful events (e.g., Compas, 1987; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Rutter, 1983) and was supported by later empirical studies (e.g., Grych, Fincham, Jouriles, & McDonald, 2000; Grych, Harold, & Miles, 2003; Harold, Fincham, Osborne, & Conger, 1997; McDonald & Grych, 2006) Based on the idea that children’s cognitive appraisals of inter-parental conflict are important, Grych et al. (1992) classified children’s perceptions of inter-parental conflict into nine dimensions: frequency, intensity, resolution, content, blame, perceived threat, coping, triangulation, and stability. Frequency means the number of times the conflict appears within a period of time. Intensity means how seriously the conflict operates. Resolution relates to the perception of whether or not parents can constructively deal with the conflict. Content means what the conflict is about. Blame means the extent to which children blame

themselves for inter-parental conflict, whereas perceived threat refers to the possible negative consequences of inter-parental conflict, such as divorce. Coping is defined as whether or not children think that they can manage with the negative effects of inter-parental conflict. Triangulation is the degree to which children feel caught between their parents. Finally, stability is about the enduring aspects of conflict (Grych et al., 1992; McDonald & Grych, 2006; Moura, Santos, Rocha, &Matos, 2010; Nikolas, Klump, & Burt, 2013) Moura, Santos, Rocha, and Matos (2010) refined the conceptualization of inter-parental conflict with the assistance of confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) using two samples of adolescents at different ages. They regrouped the nine dimensions into three broad factors of adolescents’ perceptions of inter-parental conflict that are valid across developmental ages. The first factor included the more observable aspects of inter-parental conflict (frequency, intensity, and resolution) and was labeled Conflict Properties. It reflects conflict that occurs regularly, involves higher levels of hostility, and is poorly resolved. The second factor included the perceived threat and coping efficacy and was labeled Threat. It measures the degree to which children feel threatened by and are able to cope with inter-parental conflict when it occurs. The final factor, labeled Self-Blame, included the content of conflicts and self-blame. It assesses the frequency of child- related conflict and the degree to which children blame themselves for inter- parental conflict. Triangulation and Stability are excluded because of unstable factor loading. Moura et al. (2010) further suggested that all items loads on a general factor. The general factor measures adolescents’ perception of inter- parental conflict after Triangulation and Stability are removed. In the present study, the perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was employed because this factor was found to be reliable and valid in Chinese culture (Zhao & Mo, 2006). In addition, the perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was highly correlated with other aspects of inter-parental conflict such as frequency, resolution, content, blame, perceived threat, coping, triangulation, and stability (Grych et al., 1992; McDonald & Grych, 2006; Moura, Santos, Rocha, &Matos, 2010; Nikolas, Klump, & Burt, 2013). The perceived inter-parental conflict

intensity can be used as an important indicator of negative inter-parental relational quality as assessed from an adolescent’s perspective. From previous studies, the perceived inter-parental conflict intensity is expected to be negatively correlated with adolescent psychological well-being (positive mental health attributes and positive youth development) and positively correlated with psychological ill-being (adolescent psychological symptoms).

4.1.2 Perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Besides inter-parental conflict, other aspects of inter-parental relational quality should also be focused on. This is because inter-parental conflict may not be a sensitive indicator of inter-parental relational quality as conflict is relatively low in most inter-parental relationships, especially in Chinese societies (Shek, 2000). Moreover, the absence of inter-parental conflict does not necessarily imply positive inter-parental relationships (Shek, 2000). The idea that an absence of negative inter-parental relational quality does not mean having a good inter- parental relationship is repeatedly supported by empirical studies (Bertoni & Bodenmann, 2000; Fincham, 1998; Fincham & Linfield, 1997; Gottman, 1994). In addition, Chinese culture emphasizes relationship harmony. Conflict creation is not appropriate in the Chinese family (Bond, 2010; Shek, 2000). Furthermore, the association between other aspects of inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health are under-researched (Fok & Shek, 2013). This is still a neglected area in the literature. Previous studies documented the empirical association between non- conflict aspects of inter-parental relational quality (e.g., inter-parental relationship satisfaction) and adolescent mental health (Feldman, Fisher, & Seitel, 1997; Hair, Moore, Hadley, Keyes, Day, & Orthner, 2009; King, Radpour, Naylor, Segal, & Jouriles, 1995). Most of these non-conflict aspects of inter-parental relational quality were positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality, such as inter- parental relationship satisfaction and adjustment. This thesis focused on Chinese adolescent perceived inter-parental non- conflict related attributes. This was based on two considerations. First, the concept

represents positive aspects of perceived inter-parental relational quality. Including this concept serves as a breakthrough in terms of the literature by paying attention to both positive and negative aspects of perceived inter-parental relational quality (Fok & Shek, 2013). Second, inter-parental non-conflict related attributes are indigenously derived with literature support. This indirectly takes Chinese cultural influences on perceived inter-parental relational quality into account and addresses the conceptual limitation of a lack of culturally specific indigenous concepts (Fok & Shek, 2013). Chinese adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, theoretically, contain at least some positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality because positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality are observed in various samples that include Chinese people (Shek, 2000). When focusing on the association between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health, the term “inter-parental relational quality” usually represents positive aspects of relational quality between parents. For instance, Shek (2000) used the Chinese version of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (CDAS) (Shek, 1995a; Spanier, 1976) and the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale (KMS) (Schumm et al., 1986; Shek & Tsang, 1993) to operationalize relationship satisfaction between parents, and used the scores to predict adolescents’ mental health as indexed to self-esteem, life satisfaction, purpose in life, and hopefulness in Hong Kong Chinese. Chang et al. (2004) also used the CDAS to assess inter-parental relational quality. They used the scale to predict children’s level of externalizing problems. The limitation of the above studies is that the inter-parental relational quality was assessed by the parents themselves. Thus, the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental relational quality is neglected (Fok & Shek, 2013). When further narrowed down to inter-parental relational quality perceived by children, positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality are also observed in Chinese samples. Liu, Wu, and Lin (2009) used a self-devised scale which assesses inter-parental relationship intimacy and inter-parental relationship harmony in a Taiwan Chinese sample. Since positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality are observed in the Chinese sample, it is believed that at least

some positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality can be perceived by Chinese adolescents. Moreover, Chinese culture emphasizes relationship harmony in the family (Bond, 2010). Under Confucianism, harmony in family was encouraged (Freeman, 1961; Strom, Strom, & Xie, 1996; Shek, 2001b). Taoist and Buddhist beliefs also reinforce the importance of family harmony (Shek, 2001b). Under the cultural socialization principle of “harmony is golden” (yi he wai gui), parents are expected to express behavior that constitutes a harmonious family. Such behavioral expression can be easily perceived by children. Besides, politeness (li) governs all relationships, including inter-parental relationships in traditional Chinese culture. Parents are socialized to respect each other as if the other were a guest (xiang jing ru bin). These cultural emphases also ensure there are at least some positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality in the perception of Chinese adolescents. Apart from positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality, Chinese adolescent perception of inter-parental relational quality might include perceived parental relationship commitment. In Chinese culture, the inter-parental relationship is considered secondary to parent-child relationships (Hsu, 1985). Lu and Lin (1998) suggested the spousal role is only salient primarily for newly-weds in China. After children are born, the parental role is considered more important and rewarding. Chinese parents tend to regard the family unit as a whole, including relationships involving all members, especially children, as more important than the dyadic spousal relationship (Chang et al 2004). Under this inclusive and child-centered family socialization, parents are willing to sacrifice their personal will to stay in the family despite facing difficulties or negative experiences in the family. This is because parents want to provide a “complete family” for the sake of their children. On the other hand, as mentioned in Chapter 3, Chinese couples tend to endorse fatalism in the inter-parental relationship. Several constructs are proposed to capture this phenomenon. For instance, the construct of “yuan” is proposed. It refers to “relational fatalism”-the belief that personal relationships are predestined

to succeed or fail, and that the interactants themselves have only limited control over this process (Goodwin & Tang, 1996). Tang and Oatley (2009) also proposed ‘Belief in common fate’ which refers to an unfailing devotion to a Confucian ideal of the marital union as hierarchical without regard for external contingencies or individual needs. The fatalism in the inter-parental relationship might increase the commitment to the family and help inter-parental relationship stability, which, in turn, is beneficial to adolescents. Both positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality and perceived parental relationship commitment are hypothesized to be positively associated with adolescent psychological well-being (positive mental health attributes and positive youth development) and negatively with adolescent psychological ill- being (adolescent psychological symptoms).

4.2 Outcomes being studied--Adolescent mental health This research concerns the associations among perceived inter-parental relational quality, parenting and adolescent mental health. Traditionally, scholars and mental health professionals used the pathological approach to define mental health. In the pathological approach, mental health refers to the absence of mental and psychological distress, problems and disorders, including depression, anxiety, and internalizing and externalizing problems (Shek, 2000). In other words, no psychological ill-being is identical to good mental health. Later researchers started to realize that the absence of mental and psychological distress, problems and disorders does not necessarily mean having good mental health. Part of the evidences comes from the classic study of Bradburn's (1969) in which positive affect and negative affect are two distinct components of mental health. The importance of positive mental health attributes, such as life satisfaction, thus becomes another focus of mental health. Significant scholars in the field of the conceptualization of mental health use the term “positive mental health attributes”, “subjective well-being” or “hedonic well- being”, which include the balance of positive and negative affect as well as life satisfaction, to describe the components of the positive aspect of mental health

(Diener, 1984; Diener & Emmons, 1985; Diener, Larsen, & Emmons, 1984; Ryff, 1989). More recently, consistent with Maslow's (1968) conception of self- actualization and Rogers's (1961) view of the fully functioning person, researchers proposed that components of mental health should also include “eudaimonic well- being” (Ahrens & Ryff, 2006; Costanzo, Ryff, & Singer, 2009; Ryff, 1989). In the context of adolescent development, eudaimonic well-being largely corresponds to positive youth development (Catalano, Hawkins, Berglund, Pollard, & Arthur, 2002). In this study, the definition of mental health used by the World Health Organization is employed. This is because this definition implies and incorporates psychological ill-being, positive mental health attributes and eudaimonic well- being. According to the World Health Organization (2005), mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community. Two domains of adolescent mental health, psychological well-being which includes positive mental health attributes and positive youth development, and psychological ill-being which includes psychological symptoms, are explored. These two domains are chosen for three reasons. First, the combination of these domains provides a comprehensive conceptualization of adolescent mental health. Second, the inclusion of positive mental health attributes, positive youth development and psychological symptoms addresses the conceptual limitations in the previous literature (Fok & Shek, 2011a). Third, the conceptualization of mental health has both theoretical and practical implications, as it concerns various aspects of adolescents.

4.2.1 Psychological ill-being Psychological ill-being is defined as a psychological state generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and which is not part of the normal development of a culture (Ridner, 2004). Psychological ill-being as part of mental health is rooted in a bio-medical model of

health (Ryff & Singer, 1998). In the bio-medical model of health, mental health requires at least the absence of psychological ill-being. Although the concept of mental health has been expanded by positive psychology and related fields, absence or lack of psychological ill-being still plays a significant role in signaling adolescent mental health status. Therefore, it should be incorporated in the conceptualization of mental health. In the bio-medical model of health, psychological ill-being may imply the presence of risks of psychological disorders (Ryff & Singer, 1998). The presence of risks of psychological disorders may intervene in the normal functioning of an individual (Ridner, 2004). For instance, a prolonged period of depressive mood may lower an individual’s interest in and ability to realize his or her own abilities, to cope with stressors, to work productively, and to make a contribution to his or her community. Therefore, the presence of risks of psychological disorders certainly signals poor mental health. In the Ryff and colleagues’ model of mental health (2006), the presence of risks of psychological disorders, such as depressive symptoms, are also included for assessing psychological ill-being. In particular, echoing the past studies revealing that some individuals show high levels of both psychological ill-being and well-being whereas others are free from major psychological disorders but lack psychological well-being (Davidson, 1998; Urry et al., 2004), Ryff and colleagues (2006) provided biological data to support that psychological ill-being and psychological well-being are independent constructs, but not opposite ends of a bipolar continuum. Ryff et. al. (2006)’s study implied that indexes of psychological well-being cannot replace measures of psychological ill-being. In other words, although the indexes of psychological ill-being alone cannot capture the comprehensive picture of adolescent mental health, indexes of psychological ill-being is still a very important component of adolescent mental health which should not be neglected. Ridner (2004) suggested that psychological ill-being implies a perceived inability to behave effectively. This feature of psychological ill-being means hopelessness. Hopelessness is defined as a lowered expectation of accomplishing certain goals and a diminished belief in the likelihood of finding success (Melges

& Bowlby, 1969). Hopelessness is accompanied by feelings of personal futility, loss of motivation, and the expectation that the future will hold either continued failure, suffering or negative personal consequences (Beck et al., 1974) and is intrinsic to many forms of psychological disorders and symptoms (such as depression and suicide) (Shek, 2008c). It has been used as a measure of psychological symptoms and ill-being in many studies (e.g., Shek, 2008c; 2007a; 2007b; 2007c). Since hopelessness is common in many forms of psychological disorders and symptoms (Shek, 2008c), it is regarded as a common form of the manifestation of psychological distress (Ridner, 2004), and is highly correlated with other indexes of psychological ill-being, such as depression and anxiety (Ryff & Singer, 1998). It is therefore used to represent the presence of psychological ill- being in this study.

4.2.2 Psychological well-being Ryan and Deci (2001) defined psychological well-being as “optimal psychological functioning and experience” (p. 142). As noted in Chapter 3, psychological well-being consists of hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well- being. Hedonic well-being consists of subjective happiness and concerns all experiences of pleasure versus displeasure, whereas eudaimonic well-being consists of human actualization and positive development. The distinction between hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being has received empirical support across a range of studies (e.g., Keyes & Ryff, 1999; Keyes, Shmofkin, & Ryff, 2002). Hedonic well-being concerns all pleasurable versus unpleasurable experience and involves more global evaluations of affect and life quality (Keyes, Shmofkin, & Ryff, 2002). Based on this conceptualization, most research has used life satisfaction, the presence of positive mood, and the absence of negative mood together to assess hedonic well-being (Lucas, Diener, & Suh, 1996; Ryan & Deci, 2001). The threefold structure of life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect capture both the affective and cognitive evaluations of one’s life and has

been repeatedly confirmed in numerous studies (Lucas, Diener, & Suh, 1996; Keyes, Shmofkin, & Ryff, 2002). On the other hand, Ryff and colleagues (2006) argued there is a need to expand the concepts of well-being to incorporate eudaimonic well-being, which concerns the positive functioning and development of individuals. They propose six dimensions of eudaimonic well-being. These dimensions encompass a breadth of wellness that includes positive evaluations of oneself and one's past life (Self- Acceptance), a sense of continued growth and development as a person (Personal Growth), the belief that one's life is purposeful and meaningful (Purpose in Life), the possession of quality relations with others (Positive Relations With Others), the capacity to manage effectively one's life and surrounding world (Environmental Mastery), and a sense of self-determination (Autonomy) (Keyes, Shmofkin, & Ryff, 2002; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Consistent with the view of eudaimonic well-being, Catalano and colleagues (2002) proposed the use of positive youth development, which can be defined as the growth, cultivation, and nurturance of developmental assets, abilities, and potential in adolescents (Damon, 2004). There are 15 positive youth development constructs: (a) promotion of bonding (enhanced relationships with healthy adults and positive peers), (b) cultivation of resilience (enhanced capacity for adapting to change and stressful events in healthy and adaptive ways), (c) promotion of social competence (promotion of interpersonal skills and providing opportunities to practice such skills), (d) promotion of emotional competence (emotional maturity and management), (e) promotion of cognitive competence (development of cognitive skills and thinking), (f) promotion of behavioral competence (cultivation of verbal and nonverbal communication and taking action skills), (g) promotion of moral competence (development of a sense of right and wrong), (h) cultivation of self-determination (promoting a sense of autonomy), (i) development of self-efficacy (promoting coping and mastery skills), (j) promotion of spirituality (development of purpose and meaning in life, hope, or beliefs in a higher power), (k) promotion of beliefs in the future (development of future potential goals, choices, or options), (l) development of a clear and positive

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identity (promotion of healthy identity), (m) recognition for positive behavior (developing systems for rewarding), (n) providing opportunities for pro-social involvement (designing activities and events that promote opportunities for adolescents to make positive contributions to groups), and (o) fostering pro-social norms (encouraging adolescents to develop clear and explicit standards for prosocial engagement). The present study adopted Catalano and colleagues’ (2002) 15 positive youth development constructs as assessments of eudaimonic well-being. This is because Catalano and colleagues’ (2002) 15 positive youth development constructs correspond and completely capture the six dimensions of eudaimonic well-being and because the 15 positive youth development constructs are more suitable for understanding adolescents. They provide a more comprehensive conceptualization of the positive functioning and development of individuals and they have been used in the Chinese cultural context.

4.3 Parenting in mediating the association between perceived inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health Based on the family ecological perspective (e.g., Henggeler, 1993; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998), inter-parental relational quality and parenting are inter-dependent. Logically, inter-parental relational quality can influence adolescent mental health via parenting processes. Similar to this idea, the spillover hypothesis was proposed (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 2010; Bradford, Burns Vaughn, & Barber, 2008; Gerard, Krishnakumar, & Buehler, 2006). According to the spillover hypothesis, positive or negative interactions between parents, including moods, emotions, or behavior, can be transferred to the parent-child system, affecting parents’ parenting styles and practice (Ere1 & Burman, 1995; Katz & Gottman, 1993; Katz & Gottman, 1996; Repetti, 1987). The spillover hypothesis is consistent with stress theory (Conger et al., 1992; 1993; 1994) and family systems framework (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992).

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There are empirical studies supporting the spillover hypothesis (e.g., Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Cummings et al., 2002; Krishnakumar, Buehler, & Barber, 2003; Nicolotti, El-Sheikh, & Whitson, 2003). However, these studies have several limitations and cannot provide extensive conclusions about the mediating role of parenting processes between perceived inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health. First, the supporting evidences for the spillover hypothesis mainly concerns with inter-parental conflicts or negative aspects of inter-parental relational quality (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Bradford, Burns Vaughn, & Barber, 2007; Gerard, Krishnakumar, & Buehler, 2006). The picture regarding positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality is largely unknown, although there are limited data supporting the mediating role of parenting processes (Erath, Bierman, & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2006; Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Campbell, Frabutt, & Lamb, 2002; Low & Stocker, 2005). Second, parenting processes failed to mediate the effects of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health in some studies (Cummings & Davies, 2010). Both positive and null findings on the mediating role of parenting processes imply inconsistent findings in the past studies. The inconsistent findings might be due to the fact that different parenting variables were studied in different studies. In fact, only a few studies investigate different aspects of parenting processes at the same time (Shek, 1998a). These limitations, in fact, can be partly addressed if a comprehensive conceptualization of parenting processes is used. Conceptually, parenting is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood (Colman, 2001; Fok & Shek, 2011a; 2011b). Parenting can be divided into parenting style and parenting practice (Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). The present study focuses on both parenting style and parenting practice because including both of them can provide a comprehensive understanding of the role of parenting processes in the association between inter- parental relationships and adolescent mental health, and because they address different aspects of parenting. By investigating both parenting style and parenting

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practice, it is expected that this study will be able to address the inconsistent results in the past studies about positive and null findings on the mediating role of parenting processes, and be able to explore the linkage among positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality, parenting and adolescent mental health (Fok & Shek, 2011a; 2011b).

4.3.1 Parenting style According to Darling & Steinberg (1993), parenting style is “a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are communicated to the child, and that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parent's behaviors are expressed. These behaviors include both the specific, goal-directed behaviors through which parents perform their parental duties (to be referred to as parenting practices) and non-goal-directed parental behaviors, such as gestures, changes in tone of voice, or the spontaneous expression of emotion” (p. 488). They argue that “parenting style is most usefully conceptualized as a characteristic of the parent that alters the efficacy of the parent’s socialization efforts by moderating the effectiveness of particular practices and by changing the child’s openness to socialization” (Darling and Steinberg, 1993, p.488). Most known theories of parenting style were developed by Diana Baumrind (1971; 1989; 1991). She classified parenting style into three styles: authoritative, authoritarian and permissive. According to Baumrind (1971, 1989, 1991), authoritative parents are warm and set limits; authoritarian parents are cold, hostile, and grant little autonomy; and permissive parents are warm and exert little control. In addition to these three styles, Maccoby and Martin (1983) suggested a fourth logical outcome by combining high and low warmth and control: disengaged parents, who are low in affective expression (neither warm nor cold) and low in control. Steinberg (2001) argued adolescents raised by authoritative parents enjoy better mental health than those raised by non- authoritative parents. Although parenting style is often measured using Baumrind’s (1971) conceptualizations, Baumrind’s conceptualizations may not be applicable to Chinese contexts (McBride-Chang & Chang, 1998). Chao and colleagues argued

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that the concepts of authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles do not capture important elements of Chinese parenting style (Chao 1994; Chao & Sue 1996). They also commented that ‘“authoritarian” is an incomplete concept in the characterization of Chinese parenting’ (Chao & Sue 1996, p.95). Moreover, in addition to authoritative and non-authoritative parenting styles, most Hong Kong parents also adopt psychologically controlling parenting styles (Shah & Waller, 2000). To investigate parenting style among the Chinese, an orthogonal approach to the conceptualization of parenting style, sometimes, is used (Lim & Lim, 2004). The orthogonal approach focuses on two central dimensions commonly known as responsiveness and control (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) or otherwise known as concern and restrictiveness (e.g., Chan, 1976; Shek, 1995b). Shek (1995b) suggested concern entails parental qualities such as sensitivity, warmth, encouragement, closeness, consistency and being just, whereas restrictiveness is defined by other qualities including sternness, hardness, tenseness, and severity. For instance, Shek (1999a) assessed parental demandingness and responsiveness and found the association of these two dimensions of parenting styles and adolescent mental health was stronger for girls than for boys. Cheung and McBride-Chang (2008) adopted Shek’s (1995b) concern and restrictiveness/hardness concept to investigate the impact of parenting styles on academic competence in Chinese children. In the present study, parental concern and harshness were used. According to Shek (1995b) and Cheung and McBride-Chang (2008), parental concern is defined as a parental style that is about sensitivity, warm, encouragement, consistency, closeness, and being just. Parental restrictiveness/ harshness is defined as a parental style that is related to sternness, tenseness, and severity. The orthogonal approach to the conceptualization of parenting style suggests that parental concern and restrictiveness/ harshness are the core and central dimensions of parenting style (Cheung & McBride-Chang, 2008; Lim & Lim, 2004). In this study, parental concern and harshness were used to represent parenting style. This is because inclusion of them provides a more comprehensive

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picture of parenting styles and its association with inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health. Based on previous studies, in the present study parenting style is hypothesized to mediate the influence of adolescent perceived inter- parental relational quality on adolescent mental health (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002).

4.3.2 Parenting practice Parenting practice is defined as the specific parental behavior associated with positive and negative outcomes (e.g., Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Previous studies have suggested parenting practice plays a significant role in inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health (e.g., Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002; El-Sheikh & Elmore- Staton, 2004; Skopp, McDonald, Jouriles, & Rosenfield, 2007). Parenting practice includes various constructs such as harsh parenting, lax parenting, psychological control and behavioral control. Previous studies of the role of parenting practice in inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health often focus on harsh parenting. For instance, DeBoard-Lucas, Fosco, Raynor, and Grych (2010) investigated the role of two kinds of harsh parenting (i.e., rejection and coercive control) between inter-parental conflict and adolescents’ internalizing problem behaviors. Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, and Farver (2004) also found that the effect of marital quality on child externalizing problem behaviors was mediated through harsh parenting. Instead of harsh parenting, and psychological control, behavioral control and Chinese indigenous parental control are focused on. Psychological control refers to “parents’ attempting to control a child’s activities in ways that negatively affect the child’s psychological world and thereby undermine the child’s psychological development” (Smetana & Daddis, 2002, p. 563). Examples of psychological control include constraining verbal expression, invalidating feelings, personal attack, guilt induction, love withdrawal, and erratic emotional behavior (Shek, 2005c). Behavioral control refers to “rules, regulations, and restrictions that parents have for their children” (Smetana & Daddis, 2002, p. 563). Shek (2005a;

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2005b; 2005c; 2006) proposes five dimensions of parental behavioral control: (1) parental knowledge, (2) parental expectations, (3) parental monitoring, (4) parental discipline and (5) parental demandingness. Theoretically, psychological control is regarded as a negative force in adolescent development because it operates through an excessive use of inappropriate control which threatens the self-worth and self-esteem of adolescents, whereas behavioral control helps adolescent development by giving necessary and clear supervision and guidance (Smetana & Daddis, 2002). Psychological control and behavioral control are conceptualized as different constructs rather than as opposite ends of the same single continuum ranging from excessive control to insufficient control (Smetana & Daddis, 2002). In addition to psychological control and behavioral control based on the features of Chinese cultural parenting practices, Chinese indigenous parental control is proposed (Shek 2007d). The features of Chinese indigenous parental control include (1) high expectations of their children, especially sons, (2) strict and firm discipline as a means to ensure that the parental expectations are met, (3) the absolute obedience of the child, and (4), unconditional respect for the parents. Chinese indigenous parental control measures the children’s perception of parental practice reflected in these four features. Chinese indigenous parental control should be studied. This is because cross-cultural studies have shown that parenting processes are not completely universal (Stewart et al. 1998; 2002). Studying Chinese indigenous parental control can supplement psychological control and behavioral control by providing a Chinese indigenous perspective in the conceptualization of parenting practices. In fact, the construct and measure of Chinese indigenous parental control were developed on the bases of traditional Chinese cultural expectations and perceptions of parental control (Shek, 2008c). Empirically, Shek (2008c) found that Chinese indigenous parental control is a distinct and independent construct of parenting practice, although it is correlated with psychological control and behavioral control in Chinese adolescent samples. The reasons for choosing psychological control, behavioral control and Chinese indigenous parental control are that (1) previous studies documented the empirical association between these three parenting practices (psychological

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control, behavioral control and Chinese indigenous parental control) and adolescent mental health in Chinese samples (e.g., Shek, 2007b,c, d; 2008c), (2) these three parenting practices have been used frequently in the existing models of parenting and related research (Shek, 2005a), (3) these three parenting practices cover both “emic” and etic” concepts of parenting, and (4) simultaneous investigation of these three parenting practices can isolate their unique association with parenting style, inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health (Barber & Olsen,1997; Bean, Barber, & Crane, 2006; Bean, Bush, McKenry, & Wilson, 2003; Herman, Dornbusch, Herron, & Herting, 1997). Based on previous studies, parenting practices are hypothesized to mediate the effects of inter- parental relationships on adolescent mental health (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002).

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4.4 Research Questions and hypotheses

In the present study, the relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality, parenting (parenting style and practice) and adolescent mental health is investigated. Perceived inter-parental relational quality is indexed to perceived inter-parental conflict and perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. Parenting style was indexed to parental concern and harshness. Parenting practice was indexed to parental behavioral control, parental psychological control and Chinese indigenous parental control. Adolescent mental health was indexed to psychological ill-being and psychological well-being. Four research questions were addressed:

1. Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence adolescent mental health? 2. Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence parenting style and parenting practice? 3. Do parenting style and parenting practice influence adolescent mental health? 4. Do parenting style and parenting practice partially mediate the influence of perceived inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health?

Research question 1 Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence adolescent mental health? Based on previous studies of the effects of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002; Feldman, Fisher, & Seitel, 1997; Rutter, 1970; see reviews in Emery, 1982; Grych & Fincham, 1990), both adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict and perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would influence adolescents’ hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development. Hypotheses 1a, 1b, and 1c concern the relationships between adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict and adolescent mental health. They are illustrated in figure 4.2.

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Hypothesis 1a It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a higher level of hopelessness.

Hypothesis 1b It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of life satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1c It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of positive youth development.

Hypotheses 1d, 1e, and 1f concern the relationships between perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and adolescent mental health. They are illustrated in figure 4.2.

Hypothesis 1d It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a lower level of hopelessness.

Hypothesis 1e It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a higher level of life satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1f It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a higher level of positive youth development.

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Research question 2 Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence parenting style and parenting practice? Based on previous studies of inter-parental relational quality and parenting (e.g., Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002), both adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict and perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would influence parenting style and practice. Hypotheses 2a and 2b concern the relationships between adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict and parenting style and practice. They are illustrated in figure 4.3.

Hypothesis 2a It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a higher level of harshness but a lower level of concern.

Hypothesis 2b It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of parental behavioral control and parental control as defined by indigenous Chinese concepts, but a higher level of parental psychological control.

Hypotheses 2c and 2d concern the relationships between perceived inter- parental non-conflict related attributes and parenting style and practice. They are illustrated in figure 4.3.

Hypothesis 2c It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a lower level of harshness but a higher level of concern.

Hypothesis 2d

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It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a higher level of parental behavioral control and parental control as defined by indigenous Chinese concepts but a lower level of parental psychological control.

Research question 3 Do parenting style and parenting practice influence adolescent mental health? According to previous studies of the relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health (Bean, Bush, McKenry, & Wilson, 2003; Bijur, Kurzon, Hamelsky, & Power, 1991; Forehand, Long, Brody & Fauber, 1986; Galambors, Sears, Almeida, & Kolaric, 1995; Leondari & Kiosseoglou, 2002), parenting style and parenting practice would influence adolescents’ hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development.

Hypotheses 3a, 3b, and 3c concern the relationships between parenting style and adolescent mental health. They are illustrated in figure 4.4.

Hypothesis 3a It was expected that a more positive parenting style indexed by concern and harshness would be associated with lower level of hopelessness.

Hypothesis 3b It was expected that a more positive parenting style indexed to more concern and less harshness would be associated with a higher level of life satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3c It was expected that more positive parenting style indexed by more concern and less harshness would be associated with a higher level of positive youth development.

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Hypotheses 3d, 3e, and 3f concern the relationships between parenting practice and adolescent mental health. They are illustrated in figure 4.4.

Hypothesis 3d It was expected that higher parental behavioral, lower parental psychological control and higher Chinese indigenous parental control would be associated with a lower level of hopelessness.

Hypothesis 3e It was expected that higher parental behavioral control, lower parental psychological control and higher Chinese indigenous parental control would be associated with a lower level of life satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3f It was expected that higher parental behavioral control, lower parental psychological control and higher Chinese indigenous parental control would be associated with a lower level of positive youth development.

Research question 4 Does parenting style and practice mediate the influence of perceived inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health? Based on the studies of parenting as a mediator of the effect of inter- parental relational quality on adolescent mental health (e.g., Christensen & Margolin, 1988; Jouriles & Farries, 1992; Mahoney, Boggio, & Jouriles, 1996), it is expected that parenting style and practice would partially mediate the effect of the inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health.

Hypothesis 4 Parenting style and parenting practice would partially mediate the influence of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health. Hypothesis 4 is illustrated in figure 4.5.

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Figure 4.1: Hypothetical Model of the relationships among inter-parental relational quality, parenting, and adolescent mental health

Parenting style Psychol – Inter- – ogical parental + + sympto conflict – – + + ms – Positive – – mental health + Perceived attribute inter- s parental + non-conflict Positive + – + related + youth attributes Parenting practice develop ment

Figure 4.2: Figures for Hypothesis 1

1a Perceived inter- Psychological

parental conflict symptoms 1b 1c

Positive mental health attributes 1e

Perceived inter- 1d parental non-conflict Positive youth related attributes 1f development attributes

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Figure 4.3: Figures for Hypothesis 2

2a Perceived inter- Parenting style parental conflict 2b

Perceived inter- parental non-conflict related attributes 2c 2b Parenting practice

Figure 4.4: Figures for Hypothesis 3 3a Parenting style Psychological symptoms 3c 3b

Positive mental health attributes

3d 3e

Positive youth Parenting practice 3f development

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Figure 4.5: Figures for Hypothesis 4

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Chapter 5: Research design and methodology

In this section, research design and methodology are discussed. This section consists of three parts. The first part is about the design of the research, including the philosophical orientation and justification for it. The second part covers the measurement tools used in the present study. The third part covers the phases in which present study was implemented. There are two phases in the present study. The first phase concerned the development and validation of an instrument to measure the perceived inter-parental relationship, whereas the second phase was the survey study itself based on the responses of secondary school students in Hong Kong.

5.1 Research design adopted with philosophical orientation and justification

The present study used a quantitative research design with the philosophical orientation of post-positivism as the research methodology. Post- positivism shares seven features with positivism. They are (1) objectivism: it adheres to a notion of object reality and absolute truths; (2) empiricism: claims that knowledge comes through sense experience; (3) quantitativism: stresses the value of accuracy, precision and measurement; (4) value-neutrality: maintains that facts should be kept apart from values; (5) objectivity: discourages subjectivity in the process of social research; (6) deduction/induction: employs a design based on deduction and produces inductive generalizations; (7) determinism: the world (including human cognition, feeling and behavior) is deterministic, follows strict causal laws, and if these laws are discovered, social life can be predicted and controlled; and (8) design: employs a strict design planned and constructed prior to the commencement of the research (Sarantakos, 2005). However, post-positivism has been modified from positivism in response to challenges and criticisms from other philosophical orientations. For instance, post-positivism modifies objectivism into a critical realism in which reality is assumed to exist but to be only imperfectly apprehendable because of basically flawed human intellectual mechanisms and the fundamentally intractable nature of 115

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phenomena. Thus, post-positivism claims that reality must be subjected to the widest possible critical examination to facilitate the apprehension of reality as closely as possible (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 2000). Instead of pure objectivity, post-positivism claims that objectivity is a “regulatory ideal” because it is impossible to remove entirely the influence of the subject from the object of analysis. Thus, post-positivism emphasizes external guardians of objectivity such as critical traditions (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 2000). In addition, to apprehend reality as closely as possible, post-positivism employs “critical multiplism” (Lincoln & Guba, 2000, p.168) which suggests the use of multiple methods of inquiry and different sources of information. Quantitative methodology addresses concerns posed by the philosophical orientation of post-positivism (Sarantakos, 2005). First, strict research design is emphasized in quantitative methodology. Strict research design determines what is relevant and how it will be studied. This addresses the feature of design in post- positivism. Second, quantitative measurements and assessments are given excessive importance. This addresses the issue of quantitativism. Third, accuracy and precision of measurements and assessments are required to ensure their reliability and validity. This addresses the issue of critical realism. Fourth, deductive methods such as hypothesis testing are often employed in quantitative methodology. This addresses the issue of deduction/induction. Fifth, a distance is often maintained between researchers and participants in quantitative methodology. This addresses the issue of objectivity (Sarantakos, 2005). Besides addressing the concerns of the philosophical orientation of post- positivism (Sarantakos, 2005), quantitative methodology enjoys several merits. First, quantitative methodology requires a research project to be started with very specific variables (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1992). This prevents loss of direction during the research process. Second, using quantitative methodology achieves high levels of reliability in gathering data due to controlled observations, laboratory experiments, mass surveys, or other forms of research manipulation (Balsley, 1970). Third, quantitative methodology clearly and precisely specifies

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both the independent and the dependent variables under investigation and firmly follows the original set of research goals, arriving at conclusions that are more objective, and testing hypothesis and determining issues of causality. This strengthens the power of quantitative methodology to explain social phenomenon and predict outcomes. Finally, quantitative methodology eliminates or minimizes any subjectivity of judgment in the researchers (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996). Inevitably, the assumptions and features of quantitative methodology have been brought into criticism. First, the assumption of critical realism is criticized by constructivists. They reject the assumption of the existence of objective reality. To constructivists, reality is not objective but interpreted social action (Sarantakos, 2005). Second, quantitative methodology is criticized in terms of its inability to distinguish between the appearance and essence of social events. Quantitative methodology neglects the essence of life, studies “appearance” and assumes that appearance is reality (Sarantakos, 2005). Third, quantitative methodology relies on accurate, precise, reliable and validated measurements, mathematical models and statistical procedures. Patton (1990) criticizes this as “(1) oversimplifying the complexities of real-world experiences; (2) missing major factors of importance that are not easily quantified, and (3) failing to portray a sense of the program and its impacts as a ‘whole’ ” (pp. 50-51). This restricts researchers’ understanding of the social world which is complex and ever-changing. Fourth, quantitative methodology takes physical sciences as a model and applies their methods in social sciences, treating human behavior as mere natural elements. Therefore, human feeling, cognition and behavior are reduced to variables. The subjective experiences and interpreted meanings of the ‘actors’ are neglected (Sarantakos, 2005). Despite its limitations, quantitative methodology was adopted as the research methodology in the present study for four reasons. First, quantitative methodology enables the investigation of the relationships among inter-parental relational quality, parenting, and adolescent mental health in a systemic way by allowing the prediction of outcome variables, by estimating the strength of

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association among variables, and by measuring variables with accurate, precise, reliable and validated tools. Second, quantitative methodology can test and verify the hypothetical model on the relationships among inter-parental relational quality, parenting and adolescent mental health suggested by previous literature. Third, the availability of accurate, precise, reliable and validated measurements makes implementation of quantitative methodology possible. Fourth, it is also the dominant research approach in the field. Among quantitative methodologies, the correlational approach to cross- sectional design was selected for use in this research. Gravetter and Forzano (2006) define correlational research strategy as “two variables [are] measured and recorded for each individual. The measurements are then reviewed to identify any patterns of relationship that exist between the two variables and to measure the strength of the relationship” (p.308). As the purpose of this research was to understand the relationship between inter-parental relational quality, parenting, and adolescent mental health, the correlational approach was considered to be a suitable research strategy. Due to resource constraints, a cross-sectional approach which examines a phenomenon by taking a cross section at only one point in time was employed in this research. Acknowledging the limitations of a cross-sectional design such as the problem of causality (Fok & Shek, 2011b), alternative explanations for the results have been given and advanced statistical analysis (e.g., structural equation modeling) have been used to partially address these limitations (Fok & Shek, 2011b).

5.2 Measurement tools In quantitative methodology, measurements play a significant and important role (Sarantakos, 2005). Psychosocial assessment scales were used in the present study. Table 5.1 presents the measurements used with the variables concerned.

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Table 5.1: The measurement instrument used in the present study Variables Measurements No. of Sources items Perceived inter- Conflict Intensity subscale of the 12 Zhao & Mo parental Chinese version of the Children's (2006) Conflicts Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI) Perceived inter- Development of a new scale parental non- conflict related attributes Parenting Style Paternal Treatment Scale (PTS) 15 Shek (1999a) Maternal Treatment Scale (MTS) 15 Shek (1999a) Parenting Practice Paternal Knowledge Scale Short Form 2 Shek (2006) (PKS-SF) Maternal Knowledge Scale Short Form 2 Shek (2006) (MKS-SF) Paternal Expectation Scale Short Form 2 Shek (2006) (PEXP-SF) Maternal Expectation Scale Short Form 2 Shek (2006) (MEXP-SF) Paternal Monitoring Scale Short Form 3 Shek (2006) (PMON-SF) Maternal Monitoring Scale Short Form 3 Shek (2006) (MMON-SF) Paternal Psychological Control Scale 4 Shek (2006) Short Form (PPSY- SF) Maternal Psychological Control Scale 4 Shek (2006) Short Form (MPSY-SF) Chinese Paternal Control Scale (CPCS) 12 Shek (2007d) Chinese Maternal Control Scale 12 Shek (2007d) (CMCS) Psychological ill- Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale 4 Yip & being Short-Form (C-HOPEL-SF) Cheung (2006) Psychological Chinese version of Life Satisfaction 5 Shek (1992) well-being Scale (C-LIFE) Chinese Positive Youth 44 Shek, Siu, & Development Scale-Short Form Lee (2007) (CPYDS-SF): (3+ Bonding subscale (BO) 3+ Resilience subscale (RE) 3+ Social Competence subscale (SC) 3+ Emotional Competence subscale (EC) 3+ 119

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Cognitive Competence subscale (CC) 3+ Behavioral Competence subscale (BC) 3+ Moral Competence subscale (MC) 3+ Self-Determination subscale (SD 2+ Self-Efficacy subscale (SE) 3+ Spirituality subscale (SP) 3+ Beliefs in the Future subscale (BF) 3+ Clear and Positive Identity subscale (CPI) 3+ Prosocial Involvement subscale (PI) 3+ Prosocial Norms subscale (PN) 3) Recognition for Positive Behavior subscale (PB) Demographic data Self-devised questions (sex, age, 12 duration of stay in Hong Kong, education standard of parents, employment status of parents, family income, marital status of parents, number of family members, nationality of parents, composition of family members, types of accommodation)

Conflict Intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI). Grych et al. (1992) developed a 49-item child-completed questionnaire, which assesses ten dimensions of inter-parental conflict: frequency, intensity, content, resolution, threat, coping efficacy, content (child related vs. non-child related), triangulation, stability and self-blame. It uses a multiple-choice format with three possible responses: true, sort of true, and false. Items are scored from one to three, with three reflecting more negative forms of conflict and its appraisal. The CPIC has demonstrated adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability, as well as concurrent and criterion validity. In fact, CPIC scores have been shown to be more predictive of child adjustment than the scores of three other commonly used measures of marital conflict and satisfaction (Grych et al., 1992). Zhao and Mo (2006) translated the scale. They found that the Conflict Intensity subscale is reliable and valid in Chinese samples across developmental ages.

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Paternal Treatment Scale (PTS) and Maternal Treatment Scale (MTS). The items regarding treatment by the father and by the mother from the Parent Image Differential (Chan, 1978; Ginsburg et al., 1970; Shek, 1995b) were used to examine the adolescents' global perceptions of treatment by their parents. There are 15 items for each parent, similarly worded, and they form the Paternal Treatment Scale and Maternal Treatment Scale. Respondents were asked to rate their perceptions of each parent's global treatment styles on 7-point scales (for details of these items, see Shek, 1995b). There is evidence that the PTS and MTS have good internal consistency (Shek, 1995b), test-retest reliability (Shek, Lee, Ngai, Law, & Chan, 1995), and stable factor structures (Shek, 1995b) in Chinese samples. In this study, a higher PTS scale score or MTS scale score indicated a more positive perception of the global parental treatment style.

Paternal Knowledge Scale Short Form (PKNO-SF) and Maternal Knowledge Scale Short Form (MKNO-SF). Based on a literature review, Shek (2006) developed the Paternal Knowledge Scale (PKNO) and the Maternal Knowledge Scale (MKNO). Seven items were created to form the Paternal Knowledge Scale. Recently, Shek & Ma (2011) proposed an abridged version of the PKNO which contains two items. They are: (1) My father clearly knows my situation in my school. (2) My father clearly understands who my friends are. The mean score of the items is used as an indicator of the level of paternal knowledge of the child's behavior, with a higher score indicating a higher level of knowledge. The same applies to the MKNO-SF. The scales were found to be valid and reliable in Chinese culture, having adequate supporting internal consistency and concurrent validity (Shek, 2006).

Paternal Expectation Scale Short Form (PEXP-SF) and Maternal Expectation Scale Short Form (MEXP-SF): Based on the literature, Shek (2006) developed the Paternal Expectation Scale (PEXP) and the Maternal Expectation Scale (MEXP). Seven items were created to form the Paternal Expectation Scale (PEXP). Identical

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items were used on the Maternal Expectation Scale to assess maternal expectations. Recently, Shek & Ma (2011) proposed abridged versions of the PEXP and the MEXP in which only two items were selected for each scale. These items are: (1) My father (mother) requires me to have good behavior in school and (2) My father (mother) has explicit requirements about how I make friends with others. The mean score for the items in each scale was used as an indicator of the level of the parental expectation of the child's behavior, with a higher score indicating a higher level of expectation and requirement. The scales were found to be valid and reliable in Chinese culture, and supported by internal consistency and concurrent validity (Shek, 2006).

Paternal Monitoring Scale Short Form (PMON-SF) and Maternal Monitoring Scale Short Form (MMON-SF): Based on the literature, Shek (2006) developed the Paternal Monitoring Scale (PMON) and the Maternal Monitoring Scale (MMON). Each scale contains seven items. Recently, Shek & Ma (2011) proposed an abridged version of the PMON in which three items were selected. They are: (1) My father actively understands my situation in school. (2) My father takes the initiative to understand who my friends are. (3) My father actively understands what I do after school. Identical items were used to assess maternal monitoring in the abridged version of the MMON. The mean score of the items in each scale was used as an indicator of the level of the parental monitoring of the child's behavior, with a higher score indicating a higher level of monitoring. The scales were found to be valid and reliable in Chinese culture and supported by internal consistency and concurrent validity (Shek, 2006).

Paternal Psychological Control Scale Short Form (PPSY-SF) and Maternal Psychological Control Scale Short Form (MPSY-SF): Based on the literature (Barber, 1996, 2002), ten items were developed to form the Paternal Psychological Control Scale. Recently, Shek & Ma (2011) proposed an abridged version of the PPSY which contains four items. They are: (1) My father always wants to change

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my thoughts. (2) My father thinks that his thoughts are more important than my thoughts. (3) My father wants to control everything in my life. (4) My father always wants to change me to fit his standards. Identical items were used on the Maternal Psychological Control Scale-Short-Form to assess maternal psychological control. The mean score for the items in each scale was used as an indicator of the level of parental psychological control, with a higher score indicating a higher level of control. Shek (2006) found that the scales are reliable and valid in Chinese samples.

Chinese Paternal Control Scale (CPCS) and Chinese Maternal Control Scale (CMCS): Based on a review of the literature, twelve items were developed to assess paternal control based on indigenous Chinese cultural beliefs: (1) “My father expects me to be mature (sheng xing).” (2) “My father expects me to be obedient (“guai” and “ting hua”).” (3) “My father expects me to have good virtues and behavior.” (4) “My father expects me to have good behavior so that I will not bring dishonor to the family (“you ru jia sheng”).” (5) “My father expects me to have good behavior so that he will not be criticized by others for not teaching his family the proper way to behave (“wu jiao jiao”).” (6) “My father expects me to respect him.” (7) “My father is very harsh with his discipline.” (8) “My father always teaches me about the ways of dealing with one’s self and others.” (9) “When I do something wrong, my father requires me to engage in self-reflection.” (10) “When I do something wrong, my father teaches me (“jiao xun”).” (11) “When I don’t meet my father’s expectations, he urges me (“du cu”) to work hard.” (12) “My father expects me to interact with older people (“chang bei”) with respect and courtesy.” Identical items were used to assess maternal control based on the indigenous Chinese concepts that formed the Chinese Maternal Control Scale. The total score for the items in each scale was used as an indicator of the degree of parental control based on Chinese concepts, with a higher score indicating a higher level of Chinese parental control. Shek (2007d) found the scales are reliable and valid in Chinese samples.

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Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (C-HOPEL) The C-HOPEL was adapted from the Hopelessness Scale devised by Beck, Weissman, Lester, and Trexler (1974) used to measure the sense of hope in a person. The Chinese HOPEL scale was developed by Shek (1993). Evidence supporting its reliability and validity has been reported (Shek, 1993). A higher HOPEL scale score indicates a lower sense of hope. Yip and Cheung (2006) suggested a four-item Chinese version of the scale. They found that the four-item Chinese version predicted depression and suicide in Hong Kong Chinese samples.

Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE). The Satisfaction with Life Scale was designed by Diener et al. (1985) to assess an individual’s own global judgment of his or her quality of life. There are five items in the scale. Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement with each statement on a six-point scale. The scale was found to be internally consistent and valid in a Chinese context (Shek, 2007b). A higher LIFE scale score indicates a higher level of life satisfaction.

Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale Shot Form (CPYDS-SF). Shek, Siu and Lee (2007) developed a 90-item Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale (CPYDS) that contains 15 aspects of positive youth development. Each aspect is assessed using a subscale of the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale. The subscales are: Bonding subscale (BO); Resilience subscale (RE); Social Competence subscale (SC); Emotional Competence subscale (EC); Cognitive Competence subscale (CC); Behavioral Competence subscale (BC); Moral Competence subscale (MC); Self-Determination subscale (SD); Self-Efficacy subscale (SE); Spirituality subscale (SP); Beliefs in the Future subscale (BF); Clear and Positive Identity subscale (CPI); Prosocial Involvement subscale (PI); Prosocial Norms subscale (PN); and Recognition for Positive Behavior subscale (PB). Shek & Ma (2011) proposed an abridged version of the CPYDS which

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contains 44 items. The bonding subscale (BO) contains three items in this domain. It measures the development of positive relationships with healthy adults and positive peers. Some of the items were modeled after items in the Paternal Support Scale and Maternal Support Scale reported by Shek (2002), where these two measures were found to be valid and reliable. The resilience subscale (RE) contains three items and measures a person’s capacity for adapting to change and stressful events in healthy and adaptive ways. Some of the items were modeled after items in the Chinese Beliefs about Adversity Scale (Shek, 2004). The Social Competence subscale (SC) is a three-item subscale and measures interpersonal skills such as communication and conflict resolution skills. Some of the items were modeled after items in the Chinese version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Siu & Shek, 2005b). The emotional Competence subscale (EC) is a three- item subscale. It measures skills for recognizing feelings in oneself and others and emotional self-management strategies. The items were developed after reviewing the literature (e.g., Hong Kong Youth Development Council, 2001). The Cognitive Competence subscale (CC) has three items and measures cognitive skills such as problem solving and goal setting. Some of the items were modeled after items in the Chinese version of the Social Problem-Solving Inventory scale (Siu & Shek, 2005a). The behavioral Competence subscale (BC) has three items which were developed after reviewing the literature (e.g., Hong Kong Youth Development Council, 2001). The subscale measures behavioral skills such as skills for taking action and providing reinforcement for effective behavior choices and action patterns. The moral Competence subscale (MC) has three items which were developed after reviewing the literature (e.g., Hong Kong Youth Development Council, 2001; Ma, Shek, Cheung, & Lee, 1996). It measures the ability to differentiate between right and wrong and respect for rules and standards as well as social justice. The Self-Determination subscale (SD) contains three items which were developed after reviewing the literature (e.g., Hong Kong Youth Development Council, 2001). The subscale measures the sense of autonomy, independent thinking, and self-advocacy. The Self-Efficacy subscale (SE) has two

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items taken from the Mastery Scale (Shek, 2004). Previous research findings showed that the Mastery Scale was valid and reliable (e.g., Shek, 2004). The subscale measures skills for coping and mastery. The Spirituality subscale (SP) has three items which were modeled after items in the Purpose in Life Questionnaire (Shek, 1992). Previous research findings showed that the Purpose in Life Questionnaire was valid and reliable (Shek, 1992). The subscale measures the sense of purpose and meaning in life, hope or beliefs in a higher power. The Belief in the Future subscale (BF) has three items. The subscale measures the ability to develop future potential goals, choices, or options. The Clear and Positive Identity subscale (CPI) has three items. The items were developed after reviewing the relevant literature (e.g., Education and Manpower Bureau, 2003). It measures the development of healthy identity formation and achievement. The Prosocial Involvement subscale has three items which were developed after reviewing the literature (e.g., Hong Kong Youth Development Council, 2001). It measures activities and events that make positive contributions to groups. The Prosocial Norms subscale (PN) has three items which were developed after reviewing the literature (e.g., Hong Kong Youth Development Council, 2001). The subscale measures the development of clear and explicit standards for prosocial engagement. The Recognition for Positive Behavior subscale (PB) has three items which were developed after reviewing the literature (e.g., Education and Manpower Bureau, 2003). It measures systems for rewarding, recognizing or reinforcing positive behavior. The CPYDS showed acceptable internal consistency. The scale also showed evidence that it is supported by criterion-related validity, construct validity, and convergent validity with respect to scores from the Thriving Scale (TH), Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) and Perceived Academic Performance Scale (PAP) as well as discriminant validity as shown by scores from the Substance Abuse Scale (SA), Delinquency Scale (DE) and Behavioral Intention Scale (BI) (Shek, Siu, & Lee, 2007).

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5.3 Phases of implementation

This research was implemented in two different phases. The first one was concerned with the formulation and validation of an instrument for measuring adolescent perceived non-conflict inter-parental relationship attributes, whereas the second phase concerned the main study which focuses on the relationships between perceived inter-parental relational quality, parenting, and adolescent mental health. This section provides an outline of the validation study and the main study only. Further details of the validation study are provided in Chapter Six. Similarly, the details of the methodology of the main study are provided in Chapter Severn.

5.3.1 Validation study

An instrument for measuring adolescent perceived inter-parental non- conflict related attributes needed to be designed and validated. The process of developing the instrument covered two stages: (1) formulation of the instrument, and (2) validation of the instrument.

To formulate a measurement capable of assessing adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, a review of Western literature on inter-parental relational quality and marital interaction was done. In addition, four focus groups consisting of social workers with family services experience and adolescents were conducted separately. The aim of the focus groups was to include local insiders’ perspectives on the phenomena. The researcher conducted both interviews, which were also audio recorded.

While focus groups can provide rich information for the construction of the scale of adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, content validation of the measure is important to see whether or not the measure is valid. In this research, content validity was determined by the judgments of experts and researchers to assess whether the elements or items were relevant to and covered the relevant facets of the construct (Rubin & Babbie, 2008). In this study, experts 127

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with more than five years of experience in providing social work or counseling services for adolescents and families, or who had substantial knowledge of inter- parental relationships, were invited to participate in the content validation process. 21 experts were invited. The experts were requested to examine (1) the relevance of the test items to the construct or subscales measured in the instruments; (2) the representativeness of the items to a particular content domain (i.e., how far the domains cover all the facets of the targeted constructs), and (3) clarity (i.e., whether the wording and phasing were clear and concise). A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect the opinions of the experts. The experts were informed of the definitions, related literature, and the domains of the construct, as well as the assessment instrument. They were requested to fill in the questionnaire, and give their judgment of the content validity of the instruments in terms of relevance, clarity and representativeness. The experts were also asked to give qualitative feedback such as recommendations for modifying the items.

To validate the newly developed instrument, two aspects of the psychometric properties of the scale were examined. They are reliability and validity. Regarding reliability, both internal consistency and test-retest reliability were assessed. For validity, discriminant validity, construct validity, and factorial validity were tested. The validation study not only provided the psychometric properties of the newly developed instrument but also provided evidence that the instrument was suitable for further use in the main study.

To assess the psychometric properties of the instrument, two studies were conducted. 23 male and 24 female adolescents were recruited from school social work service for the first study, whereas a total of 253 participants were recruited in two local secondary schools for the second study.

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5.3.2 Main study

The main study aimed to study the relationships amongst inter-parental relational quality, parenting processes, and the mental health index of adolescents in a Chinese context. In the main study, 2,380 adolescents aged 12 to 16 were recruited via convenience sampling. Participating adolescents were recruited from local secondary schools through the Caritas social service. They were required to complete a survey consisting of a set of validated scales. Their data were analyzed using SPSS and M-plus.

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Chapter 6: Validation Study

The validation study was aimed at developing and validating a scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes.

This chapter consists of four sections. The first section describes the background to the development and scale validation of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. The second section introduces the scale construction process. The third section deals with the validation of the content by experts. Finally, psychometric properties (i.e., reliability and validity) are mentioned. The methods, profile of participants, and the results of developing and validating the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes are presented and discussed.

6.1 Background As mentioned in chapter 3, the inter-parental relationship is a multi- dimensional construct. However, studies of the effect of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health mainly focused on negative aspects of inter-parental relationships, especially inter-parental conflicts (Cummings & Davies, 2002; Grych & Fincham, 2001). Although researchers suggested that the positive and negative aspects of the inter-parental relationship are separable (but related) constructs (Fincham & Linfield, 1997; Kiecolt-Glaster & Newton, 2001; Whisman, 2001), the positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship have been overlooked.

The neglect of the positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship is particularly serious when it comes to adolescents’ perception of the inter-parental relationship. It is necessary to understand adolescents’ views on inter-parental relationships for two reasons. First, based on stress and coping theories (e.g., Compas, 1987; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Rutter, 1983), adolescents’ own perceptions and interpretations of inter-parental relationships mediate the impact

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of the actual inter-parental relationship on them. In other words, adolescents’ perception of the inter-parental relationship might reflect how inter-parental relationships influence adolescent development (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992). Second, adolescents’ perceptions and understanding of inter-parental relationships might be different from those of parents (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992). Parent reports may be biased because children may be aware of negative inter-parental interaction to which they are not directly exposed. For example, parents may not realize that their children overhear disagreements that take place in another room or after they have gone to bed. Parent reports may also overestimate their children's awareness of negative inter-parental interaction because parents may define as conflicts, some interactions that are not salient to children, such as disagreements that are resolved quickly and calmly. Therefore, measures that directly assess adolescents’ perceptions of conflict are likely to provide more accurate estimates of their exposure to inter-parental relationships. Empirically, Joshi (2001) has shown that children’s perceptions of inter-parental relationships are different from those of parents, and the differences in perceptions are moderated by the gender of the children.

One of the most widely used and recognized measure of children’s perceptions of inter-parental relationship is the Children’s Perception of Inter- parental Conflict Scale (CPIC; Grych et al., 1992). It was developed to assess children’s views on their parents’ conflict. Previous studies showed that the CPIC was applicable to children in the elementary school and adolescent age ranges. However, there is no measure or assessment of the positive aspects of inter- parental relationships taken from the children’s perspective. To fill this research gap, a scale has been constructed to assess adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. Table 6.1 shows all items of the original CPIC. In addition to the above, in Chinese culture, which is more collectivistic, indigenous items are needed for the scale.

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6.2 Scale Construction 6.2.1 Literature Review The construction of the new scale involved two steps. The first step in the scale construction was developing items based on the literature and measurement tools regarding inter-parental relationships and interactions. The second step was to conduct a focus group. Four focus group interviews with Chinese adolescents and social workers with family service experience were carried out for generating items for the scale.

The first step involved generating items based on the previous literature and on measurement tools already used for marital relationships and interactions. Recently, Graham, Diebels and Barnow (2011) pointed out that several measurement tools for the inter-parental relationship from the parents perceptive were widely used. They were the Locke–Wallace Marital Adjustment Test, the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale, the Quality of Marriage Index, the Relationship Assessment Scale, the Marital Opinion Questionnaire, Karney and Bradbury’s (1997) semantic differential scale (SMD), and the Couples Satisfaction Index. The scales mentioned above were reviewed. In addition, in March 2014, a PsycINFO search that spanned the past decade and included various combinations of the following keywords was carried out: relationship, relationship satisfaction, loves, measure, assessment, measurement, and tool. The articles which were not related to assessment tools for the inter-parental relationship were removed. Finally, eight articles were selected (e.g., Graham & Christiansen, 2009; Graham, Liu, & Jeziorski, 2006). The Triangular Love Scale, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale and the Dyadic Trust Scale, suggested by these articles, were also reviewed. The items describing non-conflict related behavior that might be observable to children were selected. Then, repeated items were removed. The rest were re-written into items suitable for adolescent children. As a result, the first part of an item pool was developed.

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6.2.2 Focus Group Study 6.2.2.1 Methods The items generated by the literature review might not be extensive enough to cover adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. With the very limited literature available on the area, it is essential to understand the phenomenon directly from the viewpoint of the stakeholders. The process is of special importance for an indigenous study where cultural specificity is emphasized. Qualitative study allows researchers to grasp the native meanings and characteristics of the phenomenon, so as to make an indigenous conceptualization of the phenomenon possible (Yang, 1999). Therefore, the methodology of the focus group was used to explore adolescents’ perception of their parents’ relationship and interaction. The focus group is a qualitative research methodology that aims to explore or elicit participants’ feelings, attitudes and perception of a selected topic or phenomenon. The participants of focus groups are usually shareholders in the phenomenon in question (Edmunds, 1999; Puchta & Potter, 2004). Since focus group can be used to generate ideas, concepts or constructs, and to develop a questionnaire (Edmunds, 1999; Puchta & Potter, 2004), the methodology must suit the need for generating scale items that can measure adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, a phenomenon with no existing measures and one that is not comprehensively covered in the literature.

6.2.2.2 Participants and Procedure of Focus Group Studies In this study, two focus groups of adolescents and two focus groups of social workers with family services experience were arranged and interviewed separately. The adolescents were recruited from a local secondary school whereas social workers with family services experience were recruited from two family services units in Hong Kong. Written consent from their parents was obtained to get permission to allow the adolescents to join in the focus groups. The adolescents were requested to voice their perception of their parents’ relationship and interaction.

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Written consent from the social workers participating in the focus groups was also obtained. The social workers were requested to voice their experiences with, and their ideas on, children’s perception of the inter-parental relationship. The interview guides were prepared by the researchers. They were developed based on the literature review mentioned in 6.2.1 and the results of a pilot focus group of three PhD students of applied social sciences with bachelor degrees in social work. The interview guides are listed in table 6.2 and 6.3. The researcher conducted all the interviews and the processes were audio recorded. Each focus group interview of adolescents and social workers lasted about an hour.

The first adolescent group consisted of four boys and four girls, with ages ranging from 12 to 16 years (M=12.93, SD=0.91). They all come from intact families. The second adolescent group consisted of three boys and five girls, with ages ranging from 12 to 16 (M=12.13, SD=0.84). Three of them came from single parent families and the others were from intact families.

The first social workers group consisted of five social workers with at least three years working experience in family services. One was male and the rest were female. The second social workers group consisted of seven social workers with at least two of them having working experience in family services. One was male and the rest were female. The interview guides for both groups are listed in Tables 6.2 and 6.3.

6.2.2.3 Results and Discussion The content of the focus groups was fully transcribed. Pattern coding was carried out on the transcripts of the social worker and adolescent focus group. Miles and Huberman (1994) suggested that pattern coding is a way of grouping similar content from focus groups into a small number of sets, themes, or constructs. The four focus groups were coded by two coders. One coder was a PhD student of applied social sciences. The second was a registered social worker with a master degree in social work. The coding scheme was developed by the first

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coder after he had read all the transcripts twice. The second coder coded the transcripts by using the coding scheme developed by the first coder. All four focus groups were coded by the two coders. The inter-rater reliability for the first social workers’ focus group was .93. The inter-rater reliability for the second social workers’ focus group was .91. The inter-rater reliabilities for the adolescents’ focus groups were .89, and .88 respectively.

Shek et al (2005) indicated the possibility of researchers introducing biases into qualitative research. Therefore, it is important to discuss potential biases and ways to deal with these biases (Shek et al., 2005). As the interviewer of all the focus groups and the researcher of this study, the author might have had a bias to treat ambivalent responses from participants as evidence supporting the importance of inter-parental relationships. To minimize the potential for bias, several measures were carried out. First, the author was conscious of the existence of the potential biases. Second, transcriptions of all focus groups were done by student helpers who did not know the purpose of the study. Third, inter-rater reliability checks were done. With these measures, the impact of potential bias on the results was minimized.

Analyses of the content of the four focus groups showed fourteen categories of responses (respect, appreciation, responsibility, trust, body contact, togetherness, intimacy, communication, acceptance, concern, criticism, consistency, helping, and response) emerged from the data. Table 6.4 lists the themes of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes obtained from the focus groups.

The data from the focus groups provided some insight into adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. Apart from the dimensions that were mentioned in the marital relationship literature (trust, intimacy, communication, criticism, and respect), other domains such as togetherness, responsibility, appreciation, response, body contact, consistency and

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helping were experienced and expressed by the adolescents.

Trust and intimacy were major indices of the marital relationship in the literature. However, the focus groups data suggested that communication and appreciation were more important indicators when asking adolescents about their perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. This might imply that parents express trust and intimacy in front of adolescents less frequently than they do when adolescents aren’t around.

Data from adolescents and social workers produced a similar pattern of results in the domain of togetherness and communication. Both groups mentioned togetherness and communication as important and observable indicators of inter- parental relationship quality. Adolescents as well as social workers shared in details of how togetherness and communication serve as a sign of building a positive inter-parental relationship.

However, in the domain of acceptance and responsibility, the data collected from adolescents were not consistent with that from the social workers. Social workers emphasized acceptance. In contrast, adolescents did not report their parents showing acceptance of each other’s weaknesses. Also, adolescents did not regard acceptance as a behavioral expression of positive inter-parental relationship. Regarding responsibility, although adolescents also reported they observe their parents being responsible for their families and regarded responsibility as a behavioral expression of positive inter-parental relationship, their tendency to report this domain was relatively lower than that of the social workers. These two differences might be due to the fact that adolescents have less experience in long- term romantic relationships. They do not picture the importance of acceptance and responsibility in such a relationship.

In addition, while adolescents felt that their parents’ relationship was positive and secure when they observed intimacy and body contact between their

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parents, they felt uneasy and embarrassed when coming across expressions of these kinds of behavior from their parents

The adolescent focus groups data suggested that inter-parental non-conflict related attributes have an impact on adolescents’ mental health. Adolescents reported high levels of stress when their parents did not communicate with each other for a long time. They felt sad or fearful when observing their parents not respecting each other. They felt anxious and worried about the stability of their parents’ marriage if their parents did not have dinner together without a legitimate reason, such as job duties. Data from the social workers’ focus groups also showed similar findings.

In general, adolescents tended to restrain themselves when reporting. Perhaps they felt it was unnatural to talk about their perception of their parent’s inter-parental relationship and interaction publicly. The adolescents’ hesitation in reporting might explain why they produced less data than the social workers did. Their anxiety when mentioning their parents’ behavior might also explain why the data from the adolescents’ focus group were a little bit less consistent than that of the social workers as indexed by inter-rater reliabilities.

On the other hand, literature review generated 32 items whereas focus group data generated 42 items. There were 14 items overlapped. The overlapped items were mainly from the domains of Communication, Understanding & Acceptance, Satisfaction, Trust, and Criticism (Fok & Shek, 2013). These results indicated that these domains were important in inter-parental relationship in both Western and Eastern cultures. In contrast, Togetherness, Appreciation, and Indigenous Chinese concepts were only identified in the focus group data, signing the Chinese-specific focus of inter-parental relationship.

Based on the focus group findings, items for measuring adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes were generated. An item

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pool was developed from both the literature review and the results of the focus groups. Repeated items were removed from the item pool. At the end of the process, 60 items remained. Based on item content similarity, they were re- organized into 12 domains, namely Togetherness, Communication, Appreciation, Criticism, Concern, Helping, Understanding and Acceptance, Trust, Satisfaction, Indigenous Chinese concepts, Passion, and Commitment. The 60 items are presented in Table 6.5.

6.3 Content Validation of the scale by experts While the literature review and the focus groups generated the pool of items listed in Table 6.5, it is essential to examine the validity of the items content before testing the psychometric properties of the proposed scale. This is because content validity can affect latent factor structure, interpretation of criterion-related validity, the meaning of aggregated scores, and estimates of the parameters obtained from a proposed scale as well as estimates of the causal and functional relationships between the proposed scale and other measurements (Haynes, Richard, & Kubany, 1995). The importance of content validity is particularly salient for a concept that is newly developed as a new concept might have fuzzy definitional boundaries or inconsistent definitions (Haynes et al., 1995). Since adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes is a construct that has been newly developed from a literature review and focus group data, and since its content validity can affect other psychometric properties of the proposed scale, its content validity was tested before its use as described in this section.

Content validity refers to the extent to which a measurement reflects the specifically intended domain of the content (Reber, 1995). It is based on a detailed examination of the content of the test items. It includes reviewing the relevance of each item to the construct, the overall representativeness of the test items, and the clarity of each test item. Haynes et al (1995) suggested that relevance is the appropriateness of a scale for the targeted concept and function of the scale

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whereas representativeness is the degree to which a scale’s elements are proportional to the facets of the targeted concept, and is about the degree to which the entire domain of the targeted concept can be reproduced. In addition, clarity refers to the degree to which a scale or a test item is presented clearly, and it is concerned with the possibility of the scale or a test item being misunderstood. In sum, content validity is generally a subjective judgment and relies on the decisions of "experts" and related informants (Rubin & Babbie, 2007). In this study, the validity of the content was determined by a group of experts who are social workers with at least one year of experience in family services.

6.3.1 Method In this content validation study, experts with at least one year of experience in providing social work or counseling services for families of adolescents, or with substantial knowledge of inter-parental relationships, were invited to judge the proposed items. They were required to examine: (1) relevance of the test items to the construct or subscales measured by the instruments; (2) representativeness of the items regarding a particular content domain (i.e., how far the domains cover all the facets of the targeted constructs), and (3) clarity (i.e., whether or not the wording and phasing were clear and concise).

6.3.1.1 Participants and Procedures 21 participants were recruited by two family services units to form an expert panel. An expert panel was then set up (N = 21). Experts with at least one year of experience in providing social work or counseling services for families of adolescents, or with substantial knowledge of inter-parental relationships, were invited to participate in the content validation process. Experts were invited if they met any of the following criteria: (1) Had extensive working experience in family services; (2) Had substantial cultural knowledge; and (3) Had expertise in understanding the literacy level of secondary school students.

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The panel finally consisted of 21 social workers. They all met all of the three criteria above. Regarding their experience in family services, the mean of their working experience was 12.33 (SD = 8.40; Min = 1; Max = 28). Regarding their educational levels, 5 experts had obtained a master degree, 15 experts had obtained a bachelor degree and 1 expert had a diploma in social work discipline.

Experts were asked to fill in a short questionnaire about the (1) relevance, (2) representativeness, and (3) clarity of the items in a self-administered format. In general, the experts used about 45 minutes to finish the short questionnaire.

6.3.1.2 Measurement A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect the opinions of the experts. The experts were informed of the definitions, related literature and domains of the construct, as well as the assessment instrument. They were requested to fill in the questionnaire according to their judgment of the content validity of the instruments. Regarding the “relevance” of the test items to the construct, a 4-point rating scale (1 = irrelevant, 2 = unable to assess the relevance of the item without revising it, or the item needs to be revised or else it would no longer be relevant, 3 = relevant but needs minor amendment, 4 = relevant) was used to measure how far each item is relevant to the content domain. Justifications were requested for items that were considered irrelevant, and recommendations for modifications of items that needed revision were also requested. Regarding the “clarity” of the items, a 4-point Likert scale (1 = very unclear, 2 = unclear, 3 = clear, 4 = very clear) was used to see whether or not the wording and phasing were concise and clearly presented. Again, recommendations for modifications of the wording and phasing were requested in case an item was perceived to be unclearly presented. For the “representativeness” of items with respect to the domains, a 4- point Likert scale (1 = very inadequate, 2= inadequate, 3 = adequate, 4 = very adequate) was used to evaluate how far the items cover the facets of the domains. Recommendations were asked for if the aspects were under-presented. Overall, how well the domains represented the targeted construct and the

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representativeness of the scale as a whole were also evaluated by a 4-point Likert scale. An open-ended question was used to examine the overall representativeness of the domains in covering the facets of the targeted construct. The self- administered questionnaire is presented in Appendix 6.1

6.3.1.3 Analysis Plan The content validity of the measure was evaluated by using two analytical strategies: (1) calculation of the Content Validity Index (CVI) for the aspects of relevance, clarity and representativeness, and (2) analysis of the feedback and recommendations from the experts for the improvement of the items and the scale.

Regarding the calculation of the CVI, the method suggested by Rubio et al. (2003) was used. The method involves computing the CVI of each item by counting the number of experts who gave a positive rating (3 or 4) when evaluating an aspect of the item, and then dividing that number by the total number of experts. This provided the proportion of experts that considered the item’s content to be valid. The CVI for the measure was estimated by calculating the average CVI across all the items. A CVI of .80 was recommended as an indicator of good content validity for new measures (Davi, 1992). In addition to the CVI, experts were asked to give feedback on the justification for their assessment of some items as being “poorly designed”, as well as recommendations for improvement of the items and the scales. An analysis of the content was made to understand the feedback given on the scales.

6.3.2 Results The results showed good content validity for the Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes for the aspects of relevance, clarity and representativeness.

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6.3.2.1 Relevance of the Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale Regarding relevance, the items and the scale showed good content validity. All items had a CVI (relevance) of over .80, and the CVI (relevance) of each item ranged from .86 to 1.0. There were 14 items with a CVI of 1.0, suggesting that all the experts agreed that the items were relevant (i.e., rated 3 or 4) and appropriately described the measured concept. The averaged CVI (relevance) for togetherness, communication, appreciation, criticism, concern, helping, understanding and acceptance, trust, satisfaction, indigenous Chinese concepts, passion, and commitment were .93, .97, .89, .90, .98, .90, .93, .90, .91, .86, .92 and .90 respectively. The overall CVI (relevance) was .92. These results suggested good content validity in terms of relevance as judged by the experts. Table 6.6 lists the ratings of the experts and the CVI (relevance) of each item.

6.3.2.2 Clarity of the Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale The items and the scale showed good content validity regarding clarity. All items had a CVI (clarity) of over .80. The CVI (clarity) of each item ranged from .81 to 1.0. Seven items had a CVI (clarity) of 1.0, indicating that all the experts agreed that the items were clearly presented. The averaged CVI(clarity) for togetherness, communication, appreciation, criticism, concern, helping, understanding and acceptance, trust, satisfaction, indigenous Chinese concepts, passion, and commitment were .86, .95, .87, .85, .88, .93, .87, .85, .89, .93, .93 and .86 respectively. The overall CVI (clarity) was .89. These results suggested good content validity in terms of relevance as judged by the experts. Table 6.6 lists the ratings of the experts and the CVI (clarity) of each item.

Apart from rating the clarity, the experts gave feedback and recommendations for the items, and that provided qualitative data for improving the items. The experts thought three items were not clear enough for early adolescents.

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Two experts thought that item 19, “appreciate each other” (欣賞對方), might not be a publicly observable behavioral expression. They suggested that “express their appreciation of each other” (表示欣賞對方) would be a more appropriate description of a publicly observable behavioral expression.

Two experts thought that item 24, “complain about each other” (抱怨對方), might not be a publicly observable behavioral expression. They suggested that “express their complaints about each other” (表示抱怨對方) would be a more appropriate description of a publicly observable behavioral expression.

Regarding item 33, three experts thought that parents might be forced to help each other. This kind of help might be unwilling and cannot reflect a positive inter-parental relationship. They suggested using “actively help” (主動幫忙) to emphasize the willingness and initial motivation of the inter-parental helping behavior.

6.3.2.3 Representativeness of the Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes scale The experts were requested to assess representativeness; the degree to which the domains were proportional to the facets of the construct. They were asked to rate the representativeness of the items, the domains, and the proposed scale as a whole. The CVI (representativeness) of each item and each domain was calculated, and the overall CVI (representativeness) was obtained by averaging the CVI of all items. In addition, how well the domains represented the targeted concept and the representativeness of the scale as a whole were also evaluated by a 4-point Likert scale.

The items and the scale showed good content validity. All items had a CVI (representativeness) over .80. The CVI (representativeness) of each item ranged

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from .81 to 1.0. 8 items had a CVI (representativeness) of 1.0, indicating that all the experts agreed that the items were clearly presented. The averaged CVI (representativeness) for togetherness, communication, appreciation, criticism, concern, helping, understanding and acceptance, trust, satisfaction, indigenous Chinese concepts, passion, and commitment were .90, .96, .89, .90, .88, .92, .90, .89, .89, .84, .89 and .88 respectively. The overall CVI (representativeness) was .90.

Regarding how well the domains represent the targeted concept, although seven experts failed to comment on this matter, the ratings from the remaining 14 experts showed that all 12 domains (Togetherness, Communication, Appreciation, Criticism, Concern, Helping, Understanding and Acceptance, Trust, Satisfaction, Indigenous Chinese concepts, Passion, and Commitment.) had a CVI (representativeness) greater than .86, showing good content validity with respect to the items correctly representing the domains. Furthermore, for the representativeness of the scale as a whole, the calculated overall CVI (representativeness) from 13 experts (i.e., eight experts failed to provide information on this part) was 1.0. These results suggested good content validity in terms of representativeness as judged by the experts. Table 6.6 and 6.7 lists the ratings of the experts and the CVI (representativeness) of each item and of each domain.

6.3.3 Conclusion of the Content Validation of the scale by experts The quantitative and qualitative data from the experts suggested the proposed scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes had good content validity in terms of relevance, clarity and representativeness. Some modifications were made based on the suggestions of the experts. The modifications of the scale are illustrated in Table 6.8. Since the major concern for the scale is that it should be clearly understood by early adolescents, the modified scale was reviewed by a teacher. The teacher was majored in Chinese and obtained a master of education. He has had five years of teaching experience

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in educating early adolescent Chinese in a local secondary school. This procedure ensured that early adolescents would be able to understand and comprehend the modified scale fully. The modified scale is presented in Table 6.9.

6.4 Psychometric properties of the Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes scale In this section, the psychometric properties of the Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale are presented. The psychometric properties of a proposed scale are important because a scale without evidence of satisfactory psychometric properties cannot be used in research and practice. Two aspects of the psychometric properties of the scale were examined: reliability and validity. The results are presented in this section.

6.4.1 Concepts of reliability and validity 6.4.1.1 Reliability In general, reliability, in psychometrics, refers to the attribute of consistency in a measurement (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002). Nunnally (1967) defined reliability as "the extent to which [measurements] are repeatable and that any random influence which tends to make measurements different from occasion to occasion is a source of measurement error" (p. 206). It is the degree to which scores of measurements are free from non-systematic error (American Psychological Association, 1985). In other words, if a scale is reliable, the scores of the scale are expected to be consistent when the scale measures the same concepts repeatedly. The adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale was evaluated with respect to two forms of reliability (i.e., internal consistency and test-retest reliability). The results are reported in this section. .

The internal consistency of a scale, in general, refers to the degree of interrelatedness among the items of a scale or a subscale (Cortina, 1993). From among the different estimates of the internal consistency of a scale, Cronbach’s

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alpha (α) was chosen as Cohen & Swerdlik (2002) suggested it is a preferred estimate of internal consistency. Cronbach’s alpha (α) indicates the average inter- correlation among the items. In evaluating individual items, the item-total correlation, which defines the correlation between individual response scores for the item and the total score for the instrument, was also assessed (Black, 1999).

Test-retest reliability was also tested. It refers to an estimate of reliability obtained by correlating pairs of scores from the same group of people on two different administrations of the same scale (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2001). In general, the correlation coefficient, that is, the Pearson product-moment correlation (r) between the two equivalent tests, was taken as an estimate of reliability. In this research, the proposed scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes was administered to a group of adolescents aged 12 to 16 twice, with a two week interval in between administrations. A two-week interval was chosen because the period is too short for the adolescents’ perceptions of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes to actually change and the period is long enough for the participants not to remember their responses during the first administration of the scale. To provide further evidence of test-retest reliability, another index is used. This is called test–retest score agreement; that is, whether or not individuals generally produce the same scale scores over repeated assessments (Dawis, 2000). In this research, a paired-t-test was conducted to examine if the scores of the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes changed within the two week interval.

6.4.1.2 Validity In general, validity, in psychometrics, refers to a judgment based on evidence concerning how well a test does in fact measure what it purports to measure (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002). Specifically, it is the extent to which an empirical measure or a scale adequately reflects the real meaning of the concept of interest (Rubin & Babbie, 2008). To evaluate the validity of the proposed scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, its

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criterion-related validity, and construct validity were assessed. The results are discussed in this section.

Criterion-related validity is a judgment regarding how adequately a test score can be used to infer an individual’s most probable standing on some measure of interest (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2002). In other words, it is the extent to which test scores are related to some criterion measures used for making decisions or judgments, or how accurately the test scores could predict some criterion measures (Weiten, 2007). In this part of the research, the method of contrasted groups was used. It is a way of providing evidence for the validity of a scale by demonstrating that the scores of the scale vary in a predictable way as a function of membership in some groups. Membership in intact and non-intact families was used as a criterion. An intact family means a family in which the parents remain married whereas a non-intact family means a family in which the parents are divorced or separated. The score for adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes for adolescents from intact families and for adolescents from non-intact families should be at best different. Hypothetically, on the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale, the scores of adolescents with intact families should be higher than those without intact families.

Construct validity is “based on the principle that a measure is related to other variables within a system of theoretical relationships” (Rubin & Babbie, 2011, p.201). Thus, a measure is tested for its fitness in theoretical expectations (Rubin & Babbie, 2011). Singleton and colleagues (2010) suggested four common approaches for assessing construct validity. (i) Correlations with related variables-- -if a measure is valid, it should be correlated with the measures of other theoretically related valuables. (ii) Consistency across indicators and different measurements---different measures of the same concept should be correlated because each methodological approach is subject to different sources of systematic error so that measures of concepts should not be tied to a particular method. Thus, one of the most convincing signs of construct validity is the correspondence of

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results when a concept is measured in different ways. This is called convergent validity. (iii) Correlation with unrelated variables---a valid operational definition should separate the concept being measured from other concepts from which it is intended to differ. In other words, there are some variables with which a measure should not be highly correlated. This is discriminant validity. (iv) Differences among known groups---when certain groups are expected to differ on the measure of a concept, one source of validating evidence would be a comparison of the groups’ responses (Singleton et al. 2010, pp.142-143).

In this research, correlations done with the related variables approach, and correlations done with the unrelated variables approach, were used because there is no available measure assessing adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, making consistency across indicators and different measurement approaches not feasible. In order to assess correlations using the correlations with related variables approach, the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was correlated with the Chinese version of the Intensity of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), the Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (HOPEL), and the Chinese version of the Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE). Theoretically, the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes is negatively correlated with CPIC-CI and HOPEL but positively with the LIFE scale. In order to assess correlations using the correlations with unrelated variables approach, the scale was linked to the Chinese language short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Theoretically, both scales are not correlated.

6.4.2 Steps for providing evidence of psychometric properties Two studies were conducted to provide evidence of the psychometric properties of the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale. The first study was to test internal consistency and criterion- related validity whereas the second one was to evaluate test-test reliability, and construct validity.

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6.4.3 Study 1: testing internal consistency and criterion-related validity 6.4.3.1 Method 6.4.3.1.1 Sampling method and Sample size As the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was to be used in the main study, adolescents aged 12 to 16 were recruited. Convenience sampling was used. Adolescents with intact and non-intact families were recruited in a school by a social work service unit of a non- government organization.

To determine the minimum sample size for testing internal consistency and criterion-related validity, adequate power is essential. Power is a direct function of sample size, alpha value and effect size (Allison et al., 1993). A power level of .80 is regarded by most researchers to be acceptable (Cohen, 1988). Cohen (1977) defined a large effect size, when comparing two independent samples, as being .60. When entering a power level of .80, an alpha value of .05, and an effect size of .8 into Friedman’s power tables (1982), the required sample size for reliability and validity tests is 88 (Allison et al., 1993).

6.4.3.1.2 Participants 23 male and 24 female adolescents were recruited through a school social work service unit. Their average age was 14.45 (SD = 1.30; Min =12; Max =16). Twenty-eight of them were from intact families whereas 19 of them were from non-intact families. “Intact family” means a family in which the parents remain married whereas “non-intact family” means a family in which the parents are divorced or separated.

6.4.3.1.3 Data Collection Process After obtaining written parental consent and the adolescents’ own consent, each participant was asked to fill in a questionnaire consisting of the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes , to be answered on a 6-point Likert-scale with choices ranging from never (1) to always

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(6). Then, they were asked to report basic demographic information including their gender and age. A series of independent sample t-tests with family type (i.e., intact or non-intact family) as the independent variable, and the scores for the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, were computed for each of the 60 items.

6.4.3.2 Results 6.4.3.2.1 Internal consistency The overall Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was .984, showing good internal consistency. The mean of the inter-item correlations was .514, which had a moderate effect size. The range of the corrected item-total correlation was from .113 to .907, with the mean of the corrected item-total correlation being .712. Items 22 and 34 had corrected item-total correlations below .30 (.249 and .113 respectively). After deleting those items, the Cronbach’s alpha was improved (.984 and .984respectively). Table 6.10 lists the item-total statistics for the scale.

6.4.3.2.2 criterion-related validity The result is shown in Table 6.11. Forty three out of 60 items as well as the total score across the 60 items showed statistically significant criterion-related validity because the scores of intact-family adolescents were significantly higher or lower than those of non-intact family adolescents. The effect size of the 43 items (i.e., Cohen's d) ranged from 0.61 to 1.39, which was large.

6.4.4 Study 2: testing test-retest reliability and construct validity Based on the results in 6.4.3. above, eight items with the largest effect size were selected to examine further the test-retest reliability and construct validity. To do so, an independent sample of adolescents was recruited in a local secondary school. They were requested to fill in a short questionnaire consisting of eight items selected from the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes, the Chinese version of Intensity of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC) and the Chinese language

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short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS). A subset of the participants was asked to fill in the same questionnaire two weeks later.

6.4.4.1 Method 6.4.4.1.1 Sampling method and Sample size Similar to Study 1, to examine further the test-retest reliability and construct validity of the eight items, adolescents aged 12 to 16 were recruited in a local secondary school. Convenience sampling was used. An invitation letter was sent to a local secondary school through a school social work service unit of a non- government organization. After obtaining the agreement and support of the school principal, invitation letters explaining the objectives of this study were sent to the adolescents’ parents through the school. As most of the parents agreed to allow their children to participate, Study 2 was administered.

To determine the required sample size for testing the reliability and validity of the scale, adequate power is necessary. Friedman (1982) identified the indicator of effect size, “rm”, which is conceptually equivalent to a product-moment correlation coefficient. Cohen (1988) defined a moderate effect as equivalent to an rm of .30. Similar to Study 1, the power level was assumed to be .80, the alpha was assumed to be .05, and the effect size was assumed to be .30. After entering this information into Friedman’s power tables (1982), the required sample size for reliability and validity tests for Study 2 is 82 (Allison et al., 1993).

6.4.4.1.2 Participants A total of 253 participants were recruited in two local secondary schools. The first school was a boy’s school whereas the second one was a girl’s school. The participants were asked to fill in two sets of questionnaires with a two week interval in between. 53 participants failed to give a response to the first set of questionnaires whereas 63 participants failed to response to the second set. Therefore, both sets of questionnaires might not totally overlap. The demographic information of the participants at both the time of the first (Time 1) and the second

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(Time 2) administration of the questionnaire were reported separately. At Time 1, the first administration, the average age of the participants was 14.70 (SD = 1.55; Min =12; Max =16). 138 participants were male and 66 were female. 179 of them were from intact families whereas 21 of them were from non-intact families. 36 were Secondary One students. 30 were Secondary Two students. 37 were Secondary Three students and 101 were in Secondary Four. At Time 2, the second administration of the questionnaire, the average age of the participants was 14.58 (SD = 1.68; Min =12; Max =16). 132 participants were male and 62 were female. 168 of them were from intact families whereas 22 of them were from non-intact families. 35 were Secondary One students. 30 were Secondary Two students. 36 were Secondary Three students and 93 were in Secondary Four.

6.4.4.1.3 Data Collection Process A total of 253 adolescents were recruited in two local secondary schools. Before Study 2 was administered, invitation letters for this study were sent to the adolescents’ parents through the schools. The purpose of the study was described and confidentiality of the data was emphasized in the letter. Most of the parents agreed to allow their children to participate. Then, the objective of the study, the participant’s right to voluntarily join or not join the study, and the confidentiality of the data were explained to the adolescents. The adolescents’ own consent was also obtained.

All participants were requested to fill in a set of questionnaires twice, with a two week interval in between. The first set consisted of eight items selected from the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, the Chinese version of the Intensity of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), the Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (HOPEL), and the Chinese version of the life satisfaction scale (LIFE). The second set consisted of eight items selected from the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, CPIC, HOPEL, LIFE and the Chinese language short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability

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Scale (CMCDS). Participants were also requested to report their demographic information. Participants filled in the short questionnaire which was in a self- administered format. Adequate time was provided. Participants, in general, took around 20 minutes to complete the questionnaires. Internal consistency, construct validity and factor analysis were carried out to examine the psychometric properties of this scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes.

6.4.4.1.4 Measurement The questionnaire contained eight items selected from the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. The items were selected based on two criteria. The first one was criterion-related validity in Study 1. Twenty three items with best criterion-related validity findings in Study 1 were selected. These twenty three items had the largest t-value in the results of the independent t-test in Study 1(i.e., these 23 items had the largest means differences between participants from intact families and those from non-intact families).

The second criterion was results of factor analysis. Two factor analyses were conducted using Time 1 and 2 data from Validation Study 2.

In identifying the factor structure of the adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes, principal component analysis with varimax rotation was performed for both Time 1 and Time 2 data. All 23 items were used in both Time 1 and Time 2 data. For Time 1 data, from the initial factors extraction on the scale, the change of eigenvalue and the scree plot suggested a two-factor solution. All factors had eigenvalue greater than unity, and the solution explained 74.66% of the total variance. The loadings of all items exceeded .30. The first factor accounted for 41.78% of the total variance and had seven items (Items 7, 9, 10, 16, 18, 20, and 21). This factor corresponded to the domain of appreciation, satisfaction, and trust in content validation. The second factor accounted for 32.88% of the total variance and had 4 items (Items 1, 2, 4, and 8). This factor

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corresponded to the togetherness and communication in content validation. In addition, 12 items (item 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22 and 23) loaded on both factor.

For Time 2 data, from the initial factors extraction on the scale, the change of eigenvalue and the scree plot suggested a two-factor solution. All factors had eigenvalue greater than unity, and the solution explained 73.70% of the total variance. The loadings of all items exceeded .30. The first factor accounted for 53.97% of the total variance and had 12 items (Items 1, 2, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, and 23). This factor corresponded to the domain of communication, appreciation, concern, helping, trust and indigenous Chinese concept in content validation. The second factor accounted for 19.73% of the total variance and had 1 item (Items 7). This factor corresponded to the satisfaction concept in content validation. The results showed that the factor structure was different in Time 1 and Time 2 data. In addition, ten items (item 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11. 17, 18, 19 and 22) loaded on both factor.

There was a difference between factor structure at Time 1 and Time 2 data. In addition, 15 items (item 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 22 and 23) heavily loaded on two factors simultaneously either at Time 1 or Time 2. Both problems made the factor structure obtained here unclear and difficult to interpret.

After removing the problematic 15 items (item 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 22 and 23). The remaining eight items (i.e., items 1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 16, 20 and 21) were tested again with principal component analysis with varimax rotation. For Time 1 data, from the initial factors extraction on the revised scale, the change of eigenvalue and the scree plot suggested one-factor solution. The factor had eigenvalue greater than unity, and the solution explained 67.33% of the total variance. The loadings of all items exceeded .40. The factor had eight items (Items1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 16, 20 and 21). This factor corresponded to the domain of communication, appreciation, satisfaction and trust in content validation. For Time

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2 data, the change of eigenvalue and the scree plot also showed one-factor solution. The factor had eigenvalue greater than unity, and the solution explained 65.91% of the total variance. The loadings of all items exceeded .30. The factor had eight items (Items1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 16, 20 and 21). This factor corresponded to the domain of communication, appreciation, satisfaction and trust in content validation.

Based on the above results, in Validation Study 2, only eight items of scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes were used. It was acknowledged the eight items could not completely represent the conceptualization of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes as suggested by the focus group data (Fok & Shek, 2013). The previous study suggested that adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes is a multi- dimensional construct with possible 12 domains (Fok & Shek, 2013). In the future studies, more focus groups of adolescents and social workers should be conducted to generate more potential items in the 12 domains identified (Fok & Shek, 2013). With more items, it was expected that a scale with multi-dimensional and stable factor structure could be found. It should better represent the comprehensiveness of the construct of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. In addition, the new assessment tool should be checked in term of reliability and validity, such as internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion-related validity and construct validity. The new assessment tool should also be tested by exploring factor analysis and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis to ensure its applicability to adolescents across age and gender as well as adolescents from intact and non- intact family. However, the eight items could be used as an indicator of overall positive aspect of inter-parental relationship. This matched the major objective of this research. Therefore, these eight items were used here.

In addition to the eight items of scale of adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes, the questionnaire also included the Chinese version of the Intensity of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), the Chinese version of Life Satisfaction Scale and the Chinese

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language short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS). The CPIC-CI, LIFE and CMCDS scales were used for the assessment of the construct validity.

The psychometric properties of the measurements used for correlation with the assessed instruments were:

Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI). Grych et al (1992) developed a 49-item child-completed questionnaire, which assesses ten dimensions of inter-parental conflict: frequency, intensity, content, resolution, threat, coping efficacy, content (child related vs. non-child related), triangulation, stability and self-blame. It uses a multiple-choice format with three possible responses: true, sort of true, and false. Items are scored from 1 to 3, with 3 reflecting more negative forms of conflict and its appraisal. The CPIC has demonstrated adequate internal consistency and test- retest reliability, as well as concurrent and criterion validity. In fact, CPIC-CI scores have been shown to be more predictive of child adjustment than scores on three other commonly used measures of marital conflict and satisfaction (Grych et al., 1992). Zhao and Mo (2006) translated the scale. They found that the Conflict intensity subscale is reliable and valid in Chinese samples across developmental ages. The Cronbach’s alphas of the CPIC-CI at Time 1 and Time 2 were .82 and .82 respectively.

Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (C-HOPEL). The HOPEL scale was devised by Beck, Weissman, Lester, and Trexler (1974) to measure the sense of hope in a person. The Chinese HOPEL scale was developed by Shek (1993). Evidence supporting its reliability and validity has been reported (Shek, 1993). A higher HOPEL scale score indicates a lower sense of hope. Yip and Cheung (2006) suggested a four-item Chinese version of the scale. They found that the four-item Chinese version predicted depression and suicide in a Hong Kong Chinese sample. The Cronbach’s alpha of the C-HOPEL at Time 1 was .79 whereas that at Time 2 it

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was .72.

Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE). The Satisfaction with Life Scale was designed by Diener et al. (1985) to assess an individual’s own global judgment of his or her quality of life. There are five items in the scale. Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement to each statement on a six-point scale. The scale was found to be internally consistent and valid in a Chinese context (Shek, 2007b). A higher LIFE scale score indicates a higher level of life satisfaction. The Cronbach’s alpha of the LIFE scale was .92 for Time 1 and .91 for Time 2.

Chinese version of the short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS). This scale has 14 items and assesses the tendency to present oneself in an excessively, and perhaps improbably, positive light (Tao, Guoying, & Brody, 2009). The Chinese version short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale has been found to be reliable and valid in a Chinese context (Tao, Guoying, & Brody, 2009). The Cronbach’s alpha was .695 at Time 2.

6.4.4.2 Hypotheses When assessing the construct validity of the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, it was expected that the total score for adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be correlated with the CPIC-CI score, the HOPEL score and the LIFE score but not correlated with the CMCDS score. If the scale was found to be significantly related to the CPIC-CI score, the HOPEL score and the LIFE but not the CMCDS score, construct validity would be obtained. Four hypotheses were proposed:

Hypothesis 1a: The total score for adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes would show a negative relationship with the total score for the Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's

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Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI).

Hypothesis 1b: The total score for adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes would show a negative relationship with the total score for the Chinese version of the Hopelessness (HOPEL) scale.

Hypothesis 1c: The total score for adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes would show a positive relationship with the total score for the Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE).

Hypothesis 1d: The total score for adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes would show no relationship with total score for the Chinese version of the short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS).

6.4.4.3 Results of test-retest reliability, and construct validity The data showed that the scores for adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes were not significantly related to participants’ gender, age, their parents’ educational level, and family income.

6.4.4.3.1 Internal consistency For Time 1 data, the overall Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was .92, showing good internal consistency. The mean inter-item correlation was .636, which had a large effect size. The range of the corrected item-total correlation was from .351 to .877, with the mean corrected item-total correlation being .751. For Time 2 data, the overall Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was .92, showing good internal consistency. The mean inter-item correlation was .579, which had a moderate effect size. The range of the corrected item-total correlation was from .253 to .852, with the mean corrected item-total correlation being .733. Table 6.12 lists the item-total statistics for the scale.

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6.4.4.3.2 Test-retest reliability The test-retest reliability coefficient of the scale between two equivalent tests, in terms of Pearson’s r, was .815 (p < .01). The paired t-test analysis found that the Time 1 (3.97) and Time 2 (3.97) mean scale scores were not significantly different, t(132) = -.088, ns. Thus the scale also showed good test-retest reliability.

6.4.4.3.3 Construct validity The total scores from Time 1 data for the adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes correlated negatively with the scores for the Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI) (r=-.54, p<.01) and the Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (HOPEL) (r=-.41, p<.01) but positively with the score for the Chinese version of the Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) (r=.61, p<.01). The effect sizes of these correlations were considered to be moderate (Cohen, 1988).

The total scores from Time 2 data for the scale showed a significantly negative relationship with the CPIC-CI and HOPEL but a positive one with the LIFE. The values for the Pearson r were -.50(p < .01), -.36(p < .01), and .57(p < .01) respectively, which were considered to be of moderate effect size (Cohen, 1988). The score for the scale was positively correlated with that of the Chinese version of the short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS) (r=.32, p < .01).

A series of partial correlations was conducted to further examine the construct validity. The partial correlation for Time 1 data was to test whether or not the correlations between the total scores for the scale and the scores for the LIFE and HOPEL would remain significant after statistically controlling for the score of the CPIC-CI. The result was that the positive correlation with the LIFE (r=.54, p < .01) and the negative correlation with the HOPEL (r=-.35, p < .01) remained. The partial correlations for Time 2 data were to test whether or not the negative correlation between the total scores for the adolescents’ perception of

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inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and the CPIC-CI would remain significant after statistically controlling for the CMCDS. The results showed that a negative correlation remained after controlling for the CMCDS (r=-.46, p < .01). Also, the positive correlation between the score for the scale and LIFE and the negative correlation between the score for the scale and the HOPEL would be tested again after statistically controlling for the CPIC-CI and the CMCDS. The result showed that the positive correlation with the LIFE (r=.45, p < .01) and the negative correlation with the HOPEL (r=-.24, p<.01) remained after controlling for the CMCDS and the CPIC-CI. The correlations and partial correlations for Time 1 and 2 data are listed in Tables 6.13, 14 and 15.

To conclude, the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes had a good construct validity based on the correlations and partial correlations for time 1 and 2 data. The total score of the scale had a positive relationship with life satisfaction and a negative relationship with hopelessness across two points in time. The result remained even after statistically controlling for social desirability and perceived conflict intensity. In addition, the negative correlation between the total score for the scale and perceived conflict intensity was significant at both Time 1 and 2. On the other hand, in contrast to hypothesis 1d, the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was positively related to social desirability as measured by the CMCDS; although the correlation is low in effect size (Cohen, 1988). The positive correlation between the scale and the CMCDS might be due to common measure variance (CMV) (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). More research is needed to explore the relationship between perceived non-conflict related attributes and social desirability in adolescent samples.

6.4.5 Summary From the data collected from the 252 adolescents, the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale showed good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion-related validity and construct

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validity.

6.5 Conclusion. Based on the scale construction and validation studies, a scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflicted related attributes has been successfully developed and validated. The scale was developed based on a review of previous literature and measurement tools for marital relationships and interactions as well as data from four focus groups of social workers and adolescents. The scale was proved to be reliable and valid in terms of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion-related validity and construct validity across the samples. However, one limitation of the validation study was that only a condensed version of the scale on inter-parental non-conflicted related attributes was used.

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Chapter 7: Main Study

The main study was aimed to study the relationships amongst the inter- parental relationship, parenting style and practice, and the mental health index of adolescents. This chapter covers four sections. It starts with a description of the research methodology, including the sampling strategy and data collection methods. The second part highlights the profile of the study sample. The third part reports the psychometric properties of the instruments used in the main study. The final section presents the major findings, addressing the research questions and hypotheses from Chapter Four.

7.1 Method 7.1.1 Sampling strategies for the main study Convenience sampling strategy was used to recruit adolescents for the present study. Participants were recruited from schools in seven districts of Hong Kong through the school social worker service unit of a non-government organization. Each participating school selected a whole form, or four to five classes (about 120- 150 adolescents), to join the study. The criteria for inclusion in the present study were: (1) a Hong Kong resident residing for at least eight years; (2) aged from 12 to 16; (3) able to read and write Chinese; and (4) both parents are Chinese. Adolescents with non-Chinese parents were excluded. This is because cultural influences on the perceived inter-parental relationship, parenting process and adolescent development were not the main focus of the present study. It was feared that including adolescents with non- Chinese parents might complicate the findings of the study. Sample size is important in quantitative research using statistical analysis (Kim, 2005; MacCallum, Browne, & Cai, 2006). In this study, multiple regression and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to test the hypotheses listed in Chapter Four. According to MacCallum, Browne, and Sugerwara (1996), α, degree of freedom, power, a null value for the root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) and an alternative value for the RMSEA are needed to determine the sample size in SEM. They further suggested assuming the value to be 0.05, the

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power to be 0.8, the null value of the RMSEA to be 0.05, and the alternative value of the RMSEA to be 0.08 for determining the correct sample size. Based on Raykov and Marcouldes (2000), the degree of freedom is equal to the difference between the number of non-redundant elements and the number of parameters. The number of non-redundant elements is equal to p(p+1)/2 where p means the number of observed variables. In the main study, there were seven observed variables (perceived inter-parental conflict, perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, parenting style, parenting practice, psychological ill-being, mental health attributes, and positive youth development.) Therefore, the number of non-redundant elements was 7(7+1)/2 = 28 in the main study. There are six rules for determining the number of model parameters need for SEM. They are (1) all variances of independent variables are model parameters; (2) all co-variances between independent variables are model parameters; (3) all factor loadings connecting the latent variables with their indicators are model parameters; (4) all regression coefficients between observed or latent variables are model parameters; (5) the variances and co-variances between dependent variables and co-variances between dependent and independent variables are never model parameters; (6), The metric of its latent scale needs to be set for each latent variable included in a model. In the main study, there were 21 parameters. Therefore, the degree of freedom, in the main study, was seven. Using the table listed in MacCallum, Browne, and Sugerwara (1996), the minimum sample size needed is around 1,238. Due to the possibility of missing some data during data collection, the expected sample size for the main study was 1,500.

7.1.2 Data collection method used in the main study Adolescent participants were recruited through local secondary schools. Schools were contacted through school social work units of Caritas Hong Kong in different districts. Invitation letters were sent to the agency directors, the service coordinators and units-in-charge to invite them to participate in the study. Follow- up calls were made to introduce the purpose of the research and clarify any queries. The author would like to thank Caritas Hong Kong for their kind and generous

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support for this study. After obtaining support and co-operation from social workers of school social work units of a non-government organization operating in different districts, invitation letters were sent to school principals through the social workers of the school social work units. The letters explained the purpose of the research, the role of the person in charge of the schools, the procedure for data collection, the rights of respondents to voluntarily participate in or withdraw from the study, and the protection of the privacy of participants, as well as the use of the data in the study. Responsible school social workers and the researcher then answered questions and queries from persons in charge of local schools where needed. After obtaining support and co-operation from the local secondary schools, invitation letters were sent to the parents of the potential adolescent participants through the local secondary schools. The letters explained the purpose of the research, procedure for data collection, right of respondents to voluntarily participate in and withdraw from the study, and privacy of the participants, as well as use of the data in the study. Responsible school social workers and the researcher answered questions and queries from parents where needed. Trained social workers from the participating service units were responsible for data collection. Training was given to social workers by the researcher before data collection and guidelines on the implementation of data collection were distributed to the involved social workers. Trained social workers administrated the actual data collection process. Trained social workers and the researcher prepared written parental consent forms and written consent forms for the adolescents. Parental consent forms were sent to the parents of the adolescents through local schools. After obtaining written consent from their parents, a self-administered questionnaire and a written consent form for adolescents were given to participating adolescents in the class rooms of their local secondary schools. Sessions for filling in the self-administrated questionnaire were arranged in the classrooms of the selected local schools. Validated psychometric scales were used in the design. The questionnaire contained the following scales: the Conflict

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intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter- parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), a scale of adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes, the Paternal Treatment Scale (PTS) and the Maternal Treatment Scale (MTS), the Paternal Knowledge Scale Short Form (PKNO-SF) and Maternal Knowledge Scale Short Form (MKNO-SF), the Paternal Expectation Scale Short Form (PEXP-SF) and Maternal Expectation Scale Short Form (MEXP-SF), the Paternal Monitoring Scale Short Form (PMON-SF) and Maternal Monitoring Scale Short Form (MMON-SF), the Paternal Psychological Control Scale Short Form (PPSY-SF) and Maternal Psychological Control Scale Short Form (MPSY-SF), the Chinese Paternal Control Scale (CPCS) and Chinese Maternal Control Scale (CMCS), the Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE), and the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale Shot Form (CPYDS-SF). The questionnaire is presented in appendix 7.1. The questionnaire was administered in a self-administered format. The background and psychometric properties of the measurement tools are outlined in Section 5.2. To ensure confidentiality, the questionnaire was completed by each participant separately. Adequate time was provided for each participant to complete his/her questionnaire. The questionnaires were then collected by the researcher for analysis. Four service units were involved in the study. The recruitment process was more difficult than expected. Service units reported that school principals or the people in charge of the schools were concerned about the privacy of the adolescents and the administrative work involved. Moreover, school principals or the people in charge of the schools had difficulty in understanding the rationale and procedure for the random selection of classes in the schools. Last but not least, normal school schedules, such as examination periods and school holidays, affected and delayed the data collection process. With the above-mentioned difficulties, the data collection process lasted five months (Early October 2011 to late April 2012). A total of 2,380 adolescents responded to the questionnaires. A pre-test was performed to detect problems with the implementation of the study. Twenty-six adolescents were recruited from child and youth service

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units of a non-government organization. After obtaining written consent from their parents, the adolescents were given the self-administered questionnaire. An assessment of the feasibility of the data collection process was made. In general, the adolescents took 30 to 45 minutes to complete the questionnaires. The process was smooth. The adolescents found the questions were not difficult to complete.

7.2 Profile of the study sample A total of 2,380 adolescents participated in the study. However, two participants aged below 12, 59 participants aged above 16 and 89 other participants did not fill in their age. These participants did not or might not meet the inclusion criteria of the study. Their data, therefore, were excluded from the analysis. In addition, 74 and 94 participants reported, respectively, that their fathers or mothers are not Chinese; 114 participants did not report whether their parents are Chinese. These participants also did not or might not meet the inclusion criteria of the study. Their data, therefore, were excluded from the analysis. After excluding these participants, the data from 2,007 adolescents aged 12 to 16 with both parents being Chinese were analysed. Participating adolescents were required to report their basic demographic information, such as age, gender, religious background and whether or not they were born in Hong Kong. The age of included adolescents ranged from 12 to 16 with an overall mean age of 13.75 (SD=1.16). There were 1530 females and 474 males. 3 adolescents did not report their gender. 501 adolescents were F.1 students and 389 adolescents were F.2 students. 738 of the adolescents were from F.3 whereas 379 adolescents were from F.4. Table 7.1 lists the age and form distribution with respect to gender. 219 adolescents were Roman Catholic, 63 adolescents believed in Buddhism, 212 adolescents were Protestant and 5 adolescents believed in Taoism. 24 adolescents did not report their religious background, whereas 1,484 adolescents were non-believers. 1,566 adolescents were born in Hong Kong whereas 409 adolescents were not. 32 adolescents did not indicate whether or not they were born in Hong Kong. Among those who were not born in Hong Kong, 398 adolescents reported the number of years they had

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lived in Hong Kong (i.e., 11 adolescents did not respond to this question). Among those who reported, the mean for the number of years lived in Hong Kong was 8.84(SD=3.57). The range for years in Hong Kong for those who were not born in Hong Kong was from 0.25 to 16. In addition, adolescents also reported basic information about their families, such as the number of siblings and number of people they were living with, 564 (28.1%) adolescents did not have siblings whereas 1,434 (71.4%) adolescents have. 9 adolescents failed to indicate whether or not they had any sibling. For those who had siblings, the majority of the participants (53.2%) had one sibling whereas 14% of the participants had two siblings. 402 adolescents had one elder brother, 41 adolescents had two elder brothers, and 5 adolescents had three or more elder brothers. 390 adolescents had one younger brother, 20 adolescents had two younger brothers and only 1 adolescent had three younger brothers. 407 adolescents had one elder sister, 82 adolescents had two elder sisters, 12 adolescents had three elder sisters, and 4 adolescents had four or above elder sisters. 287 adolescents had one younger sister, 21 adolescents had two younger sisters, and 5 adolescents had three younger sisters. On average, participants had one sibling. The mean number of siblings was 0.96 (SD =.83). When including other family members, such as parents, grandparents and other relatives, the average number of people the adolescents were living with was 4.04(SD=1.05). Concerning the socio-economic status of participants’ families, their monthly household income, type of housing and whether or not the families were receiving Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA) and the textbook allowance were asked. More than half of the adolescents did not know the monthly income of their families (n=1095, 54.6%) whereas 46 (2.3%) failed to report it. For those who knew, 110 adolescents (5.5%) came from families with less than HK$10,000 monthly income (US$1,282.1). The majority of the participants (n=287, 14.3%) had family incomes of HK$10,001 to HK$20,000. 148(7.4%) had an income of HK$20,001 to HK$30,000, 90 (4.5%) had HK$30,001 to HK$40,000, 73(3.6%) had HK$40,001 to HK$50,000, and 42 (2.1%) had HK$50,001 to HK$60,000. The rest (n =116, 5.7%) had a monthly income of

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HK$60,001 or above. Regarding types of housing, nearly half of the adolescents (n=923, 46%) lived in private housing. 293 (14.6%) adolescents lived in Home Ownership Scheme Housing whereas 626 (31.2%) lived in public housing. 106(5.3%) adolescents lived in some other type of housing, such as a village house, government hostel or university hostel. 59 adolescents (2.9%) did not report their type of housing. Regarding the CSSA, 1,761 (87.7%) of the adolescents’ families did not receive the CSSA whereas 117 did. 129 (6.4%) adolescents did not answer this question. In Hong Kong, the Student Financial Assistance Agency of the Hong Kong Government offers a Textbook Allowance (TBA) to low-income working families. It was categorized into a full TBA and a half TBA according to family income levels. In this sample, 235 (11.71%) received the full TBA and 337 (16.79%) received the half TBA. 1,360 (67.8%) adolescents’ families did not apply for the TBA whereas 20 of the adolescents’ families (1%) did apply but could not get any allowance. 55 (2.74%) adolescents did not report this information. To have a clearer picture of the economic situation of the families, their monthly household income with respect to their Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA) status and number of family members was investigated. Of the families with less than HK$10,000 monthly income (US$1,282.1), 25 (22.7%) were CSSA recipients; 13 (11.8%) had two family members, 30 (27.3%) had three family members, 42 (38.2%) had four family members, 14 (12.7%) had five family members, 7 (6.3%) had six or more family members, and 4(3.6%) did not report this information. Of the families with HK$10,001 to HK$20,000, 17 (5.9%) received the CSSA; 7 (2.4%) had two family members, 78 (27.2%) had three family members, 112 (39%) had four family members, 49 (17.1%) had five family members, 18 (6.3%) had six family members, 4 (1.3%) had seven or more family members, and 19 (6.6%) did not report this information. Of the families with HK$20,001 to HK$30,000, only 2% (n=3) were CSSA recipients; 3 (2%) had two family members, 38 (25.7%) had three family members, 71 (48%) had four family members, 22 (14.9%) had five family members, 4 (2.8%) had six or more family

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members, and 10 (6.8%) did not respond to this question. Of the families with more than HK$30,001, only three families were CSSA recipients; the majority of these families had three to five family members. Basic information about their parents was asked for, such as their parents’ education level, marital status, and whether or not the adolescents were living with their parents. Regarding the fathers’ education levels, 10 (0.5%) did not receive formal education and could not read. 14 (0.7%) did not receive formal education but were able to read. 185 (9.2%) received primary education or lower. 227 (11.3%) had received junior secondary school education whereas 551 (27.5%) had received senior secondary education. 465 (23.1%) had achieved tertiary education or above including a diploma or degree. 534 (26.6%) adolescents did not know their father’s education level whereas 21(1%) adolescents did not respond to this question. On the other hand, 11 (0.5%) adolescents’ mothers did not receive formal education and could not read whereas 24 (1.2%) did not receive formal education but were able to read. 193 (9.6%) adolescents’ mothers had primary school education or lower. 246 (12.3%) had a junior secondary level and 651 (32.5%) had a senior secondary level. 371 (18.5%) had achieved territory education or above. 491 (24.5%) adolescents did not know their mother’s education level whereas 20 (1%) did not respond to this question. Concerning the parents’ marital status, 104 (5.2%) of the adolescents’ parents were divorced and 39 (1.9%) were separated. The majority (n=1,729, 86.1%) remained married. 76 (3.8%) adolescents came from remarried families. 4 adolescents’ fathers had passed away. 182 (9.1%) adolescents reported that their father did not live with them and 66 (3.3%) adolescents reported that their mother did not live with them.

7.3 Data screening and cleaning process

Response set was removed by deleting data with the whole scales having the same answer. It is acknowledged that such practice would cause loss of data as the response set would be treated as missing value. Missing values were treated by listwise deletion in SPSS program. However, such practice can ensure that the pattern of results would not be affected by response set.

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Data were checked twice to ensure all the data were entered correctly. Frequency distributions and histograms were plotted to check for potential outliers as well as data entry errors. Scatter plots were produced to check for linearity and homoscedasticity. A series of Durbin-Watson test were conducted to check the multi-collinearity issues. All the results of Durbin-Watson test were ranged from 1.89 to 2.03, indicating there was no multi-collinearity (Montgomery, Peck, & Vining, 2001). In addition, the Durbin-Watson test were also used to test if the residual valances of regression are distributed normally (Montgomery, Peck, & Vining, 2001). Results showed no abnormal observations.

7.4 Psychometric properties of the measurement tools Before analyzing the data for addressing the research questions mentioned, the reliability and validity of the measurement tools used in the study were assessed using the samples in the main study.

7.4.1 New measurement tools developed in the study The adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale is a new measurement tool for assessing adolescents’ views on the relationship between their parents. Based on a review of the pertinent literature and focus group studies, a scale containing 60 items was developed. According to content similarity, the 60 items were next classified into 12 domains, namely Togetherness, Communication, Appreciation, Criticism, Concern, Helping, Understanding and Acceptance, Trust, Satisfaction, Indigenous Chinese concepts, Passion, and Commitment. All 60 items were judged to have good content validity by a panel of social workers. Based on a sample of adolescents from intact and non-intact families, 43 out of 60 items showed statistically significant criterion- related validity and good internal consistency. Based on the data from 252 adolescent, eight items of the condensed version had good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, construct validity and factorial validity. A higher score on the scale indicated better adolescent perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. The background, developmental procedure and validation findings of the scale were presented earlier in the Chapter six.

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7.4.1 Reliability The Cronbach’s alpha for the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes scale with eight items was .917, which indicated the scale had good internal consistency. The mean of the inter-item correlations was .562, ranging from .223 to .815. The mean of the inter-item correlations had a medium effect size. The mean item-total correlation was .721, which was high with respect to effect sizes. To assess the properties of unique items, the corrected item-total correlation, and the improvement in the Cronbach’s alpha if an item was deleted were studied, and the results are listed in Table 7.2. The corrected item-total correlation for item 7 was .328. The Cronbach’s alpha improved to .932 if item 7 (“I hear my parents say they regret getting married”) was deleted. Since the corrected item-total correlation was low and Cronbach’s alpha, even if the item was deleted, was only slightly improved, item 7 was retained.

7.4.2 Criterion-related validity As mention earlier in Chapter six, criterion-related validity is about how good the test scores are in relation to some criterion measures used for making decisions or judgment, or how accurately the test scores could predict some criterion measures (Weiten, 2007). Among various ways to test criteria-related validity, the method of contrasted groups was used here. The method of contrasted groups is a way of providing evidence for the validity of a scale by demonstrating that the scores of the scale vary in a predictable way as a function of the participant’s membership in some groups. Similar to the validation study in Chapter six, membership in an intact or non-intact family was used as criteria. “Intact family” means a family in which parents remain married whereas “non- intact family” means a family in which parents are divorced or separated. Theoretically, the scores of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes of adolescents from intact families is expected to be higher than those from non-intact families. An independent sample t-test was conducted to test

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the criteria-related validity. The result showed that the scores of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes of adolescents from intact families (Mean=4.3, SD=1.14) was significantly higher than those from non-intact families (Mean=2.82, SD=1.04) (t=-13.49, p<.001). The effect size is large (Cohen, 1988). The scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes had a good criterion-related validity based on data from the main study.

7.4.3 Construct validity Construct validity is “based on the principle that a measure is related to other variables within a system of theoretical relationships” (Rubin & Babbie, 2011, p.201). To assess construct validity, a correlation was performed to test whether or not the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was negatively correlated with the Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI) (the psychometric properties of the CPIC-CI are presented in a later section). The result showed that the negative correlation was significant (r=-.527, p<.001). The effect size was moderate (Cohen, 1988). The negative correlation between the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and the CPIC-CI provided some evidence for construct validity.

7.4.4 Exploratory Factor Analysis In addition to criterion-related validity and construct validity, factorial validity was also tested. Factorial validity refers to how many different constructs a scale measures and whether or not the number of constructs and items that make up those constructs are what the researcher intends (Rubin & Babbie, 2011). To assess factorial validity, a factor analysis is needed. The results of a factor analysis would indicate the subsets of items that strongly correlate with each other and with other subsets. Each subset would constitute a factor. Factorial validity is achieved when the items making up the factor are the part that the researcher intends to measure and correlate (Rubin & Babbie, 2011).

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Regarding factor analysis, the minimum sample size requirement varies with different perspectives of different psychometricans. However, in general, a large sample is needed to ensure the stability of the factor structure and the loadings obtained. Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) suggested a minimum of 300 cases for factor analysis whereas Hair et al. (2010) suggested that the minimum sample size is at least five times as many observations as the number of items. An even more acceptable sample size would have a 10:1 ratio. Stevens (2002) suggested that a ratio of five participants per item would be required for stable factor analysis. If the subject to variable ratio is set at 5:1, for this study with eight items, the minimum sample size for factor analysis is 80. The size of the sample used in the main study is large enough to perform a factor analysis. A factor analysis of the principal component analysis with varimax rotation was performed on the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes (Items1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 16, 20 and 21). From the initial factor-extraction on the scale, the change in the eigenvalue and the scree plot suggested a one-factor solution. The factor had an eigenvalue greater than unity, and the solution explained 63.85% of the total variance. The loadings of all items exceeded .35. The factor contained all eight items. As with the findings in the validation studies, this factor corresponded to the domains of communication, appreciation, satisfaction and trust in terms of content validation. The component matrix of the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale is listed in Table 7.3.

7.5 Existing Measurements Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI). The CPIC was developed and then validated in terms of internal consistency and test-retest reliability, as well as concurrent, criterion and predictive validity (Grych et al., 1992). Zhao and Mo (2006) translated and validated the scale using Chinese samples across the developmental ages. In the main study, only the conflict intensity subscale was used.

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Based on the data set of the main study, the Cronbach’s alpha of the Conflict intensity subscale was .837. The value was considered acceptable. The mean inter-item correlation was .419, ranging from .222 to .630. The mean inter- item correlations had a medium effect size. The mean item-total correlation was .590. To assess the properties of unique items, the corrected item-total correlation and the improvements in the Cronbach’s alpha if items were deleted were studied, and the results are listed in Table 7.4.

In summary, the CPIC-CI scale had a high level of internal consistency as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha, the inter-item correlation, and the corrected item-total correlation.

Paternal Treatment Scale (PTS) and Maternal Treatment Scale (MTS). The PTS and MTS have good internal consistency (Shek, 1995b), test-retest reliability (Shek, Lee, Ngai, Law, & Chan, 1995), and stable factor structures (Shek, 1995b) when used with Chinese samples

In the main study data set, the Cronbach’s alphas for paternal concern and paternal harshness were .893 and .777 respectively. The mean inter-item correlation was .483 (it ranged from .248 to .750) and .367 (it ranged from .06 to .539). The effect sizes of the mean inter-item correlation were medium. The average item-total correlations were .654 (ranging from .473 to .766) and .527 (ranging from .296 to 650). The effect size of the average item-total correlations was large for paternal concern but medium for paternal harshness. For paternal harshness, the Cronbach’s alpha improved to .795 if item 8 was deleted. Item 8 was removed in later analysis because it had a low inter-item correlation.

Concerning maternal concern and harshness, the Cronbach’s alphas were .886 and .831 respectively. The mean inter-item correlation was .475 (it

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ranged from .267 to .703) and .450 (it ranged from .14 to .597). The effect sizes of the means of the inter-item correlations were medium. The average item-total correlations were .645 (ranging from .499 to .749) and .606 (ranging from .349 to 713). The effect sizes of the average item-total correlations were large for maternal concern and harshness. To assess the properties of unique items, the corrected item-total correlation and any improvement in the Cronbach’s alpha if an item was deleted were studied, and the results are listed in Table 7.5. Item 8 was removed in later analysis because it had a low inter-item correlation.

To examine the correlations among the subscales and overall measures of the PTS, correlational analyses were conducted with an adjustment for Type I error based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha=.05/3, i.e. .02). Correlation coefficients obtained for the inter-relationships among the subscales and the measure of the PTS are shown in Table 7.6. The findings suggested that there were significant correlations among the Paternal Concern Subscale, Paternal Harshness Subscale, and the measure of the PTS, suggesting the PTS showed good construct validity in the main study. Identical procedures were performed with the MTS. Table 7.6 showed that correlations among the Maternal Concern Subscale, Maternal Harshness Subscale, and the measure of the MTS were significant. This suggested that the MTS showed good construct validity in the main study.

In summary, the PTS and MTS had a high level of internal consistency as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha, the inter-item correlation, and the corrected item- total correlation. Also, the Correlational analyses showed that the PTS and MTS had good construct validity. In the main analysis, the means of the paternal and maternal concern and the maternal harshness scales were used by averaging all the respective items except for item 8.

Paternal Parenting Practice and Maternal Parenting Practice. In this study, items from the Paternal Knowledge Scale Short Form (PKNO-SF), Paternal Expectation Scale Short Form (PEXP-SF), and the Paternal Monitoring Scale

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Short Form (PMON-SF) were used to assess paternal behavioral control (Shek & Ma, 2011). The Paternal Psychological Control Scale Short Form (PPSY-SF) was used to assess paternal psychological control (Shek, 2006). Consistently, there were corresponding maternal items. Past studies found these items had good psychometric properties (Shek, 2006; Shek & Ma, 2011).

In main study data set, the overall Cronbach’s alpha across all items from the PKNO-SF, PEXP-SF, and the PMON-SF was .848. The mean inter-item correlation was .443 (ranging from 285 to .767). The effect size of the mean inter- item correlation was medium. The average of the item-total correlations was .608 (ranging from .620 to .747). The effect size of average item-total correlations was large.

Concerning maternal behavioral control, the overall Cronbach’s alpha across all items from the MKNO-SF, MEXP-SF, and the MMON-SF was .837. The mean inter-item correlation was .428 (ranging from .199 to .724). The effect size of the mean inter-item correlation was medium. The average of the item-total correlations was .593 (ranging from .391 to .728). The effect size of average item- total correlations was medium.

With regard to paternal psychological control, the overall Cronbach’s alpha of the PPSY-SF was .819. The mean inter-item correlation was .531 (ranging from .385 to .690). The effect size of the mean inter-item correlation was medium. The average of the item-total correlations was .644 (ranging from .472 to .717). The effect size of the average item-total correlations was large.

For maternal psychological control, the overall Cronbach’s alpha of the PPSY-SF was .867. The mean inter-item correlation was .619 (ranging from .515 to .733). The effect size of the mean inter-item correlation was large. The average of the item-total correlations were .719 (ranging from .598 to .774). The effect size of the average item-total correlations was large. Table 7.7 lists the corrected item-

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total correlation and the improvement in the Cronbach’s alpha if an item was deleted.

To examine the correlations among the Behavioral Control and Psychological Control from both parents, correlational analyses were conducted with adjustment for Type I error based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha=.05/4, i.e. .01). Correlation coefficients for the inter-relationships among the measures are shown in Table 7.8. The findings suggested that there were significant correlations among Behavioral Control and Psychological Control in both parents. This suggested that Paternal and Maternal Parenting Practice measures (Behavioral and Psychological Control) had good construct validity in the main study.

In summary, the Paternal Parenting Practice Scales and the Maternal Parenting Practice Scales had high levels of internal consistency as indicated by their Cronbach’s alpha, inter-item correlation, and corrected item-total correlation. The two measures also had good construct validity as shown in correlational analyses. In the main analysis, the means for paternal and maternal behavioral and psychological control were used by averaging the respective items.

Chinese Paternal Control Scale (CPCS) and the Chinese Maternal Control Scale (CMCS) Based on a review of the literature, Shek (2005a; 2005b; 2007d) developed the CPCS and the CMCS. Shek (2007d) found that the scales are reliable and valid for use in Chinese samples.

In the data of the main study, the overall Cronbach’s alphas of the CPCS and the CMCS were .850 and .852 respectively. The mean inter-item correlation was .331 (ranging from .128 to .795) for the CPCS and was .341(ranging from .088 to .802) for the CMCS. The effect sizes of the mean inter-item

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correlations were small. The average item-total correlation was .527 (ranging from .441 to .618) for the CPCS and was 535 (ranging from .363 to .632) for the CMCS. The effect sizes of average item-total correlations were medium. The details are listed in Table 7.9.

To assess the construct validity of the CPCS, correlational analyses were performed with adjustment for Type I error based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha=.05/3, i.e. .01). The mean score of the CPCS was linked to the mean score of the paternal behavioral and psychological control scales. The result is shown in Table 7.9. The findings suggested that there were significant correlations among paternal control items based on indigenous Chinese cultural beliefs, paternal behavioral and paternal psychological Control. An identical procedure was done on the CMCS. Similar results were found and are listed in Table 7.10.

In summary, the average scores of the CPCS and the CMCS were used in the main analysis as both scales had good internal consistency as indicated by their Cronbach’s alpha, inter-item correlation, and corrected item-total correlation.

Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (C-HOPEL). Beck, Weissman, Lester, and Trexler (1974) developed HOPEL to measure the sense of hopelessness. The Chinese HOPEL scale was validated by Shek (1993). A four- item Chinese version of the scale was used in this study as this version predicted depression and suicide in a Hong Kong Chinese sample (Yip & Cheung, 2006).

Based on the data set of the main study, the Cronbach’s alpha of the C- HOPEL was .728. The mean inter-item correlation was .388, ranging from .223 to .674. The mean inter-item correlation had a medium effect size. The mean item- total correlation was .522 (ranging from .308 to .635). To assess the properties of unique items, the corrected item-total correlation and the improvement in the Cronbach’s alpha if an item was deleted, were studied and listed in Table 7.11.

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To assess the construct validity of the C-HOPEL, correlation analyses were performed with adjustment for Type I error based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha=.05/3, i.e. .01). The mean of the C-HOPEL was correlated with the mean of the Conflict Intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI) and the mean of the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. The result showed that the C-HOPEL was positively correlated with the CPIC-CI and negatively correlated with non-conflict related attributes. The result is listed in Table 7.12.

In summary, the C-HOPEL had a high level of internal consistency as indicated by its Cronbach’s alpha, inter-item correlation, and corrected item-total correlation. It also had good construct validity as shown by the correlation analyses.

Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE). The Satisfaction with Life Scale was aimed at assessing an individual’s own global judgment of his or her quality of life (Diener et al., 1985). Shek (2007b) found the Chinese version of the scale to be internally consistent and valid in a Chinese context.

Based on the data of main study, it was found that the Cronbach’s alpha of the LIFE was .905. The value was high. The mean inter-item correlation was .674 (ranging from .556 to .858), which had a high effect size. The mean of the corrected item-total correlation was .772 (ranging from .661 to .837), which had a high effect size. To assess the properties of unique items, the corrected item-total correlation and the improvement in the Cronbach’s alpha if an item was deleted were studied, and the results are listed in Table 7.13.

To assess the construct validity of the LIFE scale, correlation analyses were performed with adjustment for Type I error based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha=.05/3, i.e. .01). The mean of the LIFE was correlated with that

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of the CPIC-CI and that of the scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. The result showed that the LIFE was positively correlated with the CPIC-CI and negatively correlated with non-conflict related attributes. The result is listed in Table 7.14.

In summary, the LIFE scale had a good internal consistency, factorial validity, and construct validity as indicated by its Cronbach’s alpha, inter-item correlation, corrected item-total correlation, and correlation.

Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale Shot Form (CPYDS-SF). Shek, Siu and Lee (2007) developed a 90-item Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale (CPYDS). The CPYDS measures 15 aspects of positive youth development. Recently, Shek and Ma (2011) proposed an abridged version of the CPYDS which contains 44 items. Shek and Lu (2011; 2013) revealed that the abridged version of the CPYDS showed acceptable internal consistency and predictive validity.

Based on the main study data, the overall Cronbach’s alpha across all 44- items was .957. The mean inter-item correlation was .339 (ranging from .117 to .832). The effect size of the mean inter-item correlation was medium. The average item-total correlations were .569 (ranging from .422 to .712). The effect size of the average item-total correlations was medium. To assess the properties of unique items, the corrected item-total correlation and the improvement in the Cronbach’s alpha if an item was deleted were studied, and the results are listed in Table 7.15.

To examine the correlations among the subscales of the abridged version of the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale (CPYDS), a second-level factor suggested by Shek and Ma (2011) and the overall measure of the CPYDS, correlation analyses were performed with adjustment for Type I error based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha=.05/30, i.e. .001). Correlation coefficients for the inter-relationships among the subscales of the CPYDS, the second-level factor,

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and the overall measure are shown in Table 7.16. The findings showed significant correlations among the different subscales and the overall measure of the CPYDS, suggesting the CPYDS had good construct validity.

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7.6 Research questions and hypotheses – Results

7.6.1 Relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health In this section, Research question 1 (i.e., Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence adolescent mental health?) is addressed. The hypothetical model is presented in Chapter Four (Figure 4.2) with the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1a: It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a higher level of hopelessness. Hypothesis 1b: It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of life satisfaction. Hypothesis 1c: It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of positive youth development. Hypothesis 1d: It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a lower level of hopelessness. Hypothesis 1e: It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a higher level of life satisfaction. Hypothesis 1f: It was expected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a higher level of positive youth development.

Results Correlations with demographic variables To understand the relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health, bi-variate relationships among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity (CPIC-CI), perceived non-conflict related attributes, and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life 182

183 satisfaction, and positive youth development) were separately analyzed using partial Spearman’s correlation analyses. To reduce the chance of committing Type I error, a conservative alpha level based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha = .05/6, i.e. .008) was adopted. Concerning the effect size, the suggestion made by Cohen (1988) was employed: that is, a Pearson’s r of .50 represents a large effect, .30 represents a medium effect and .10 represents a small effect (Cohen, 1988). Based on the main study data, it was found that three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) were significantly correlated with demographic variables of the participants such as age and gender. For instance, positive youth development was negatively correlated with age (r = -.133, p<.001). Life satisfaction was also negatively correlated with age (r = -.116, p<.001) but was positively with gender (r =.083, p<.001). Hopelessness was positively correlated with age (r =.104, p<.001) and negatively with gender (r=-.052, p<.05). The three indexes were also significantly correlated with family demographic variables such as family monthly income, marital status of the parents, number of people the participant was living with, and types of accommodation. For instance, parents’ marital statuses were positively correlated with positive youth development (r=.059, p<.009) and life satisfaction (r=.103, p<.001) (i.e., participants from intact families had a higher level of positive youth development and life satisfaction than those from non-intact families). On average, the amount of overlap of the correlation of the three indexes of adolescent mental health and demographic variables was less than 5%. Concerning inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes, it was found that the participants’ age was positively correlated with inter-parental conflict intensity (r =.102, p<.001) and negatively with non-conflict related attributes (r = -.077, p<.01), indicating that older participants perceived higher levels of inter-parental conflict intensity but lower levels of non-conflict related attributes when compared with younger counterparts. Parents’ marital status was also negatively correlated with conflict intensity (r = -.120, p<.001) and negatively with non-conflict related attributes (r =.246, p<.001). This indicated that participants from intact 183

184 families perceived a lower level of conflict intensity but a higher level of non-conflict related attributes. On average, the amount of overlap of the correlation of perceived inter-parental relational quality and demographic variables was less than 5%.

Partial correlations among variables To examine the relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health, partial correlations were performed. Demographic variables of the participants and family demographic variables were statistically controlled. Table 7.17 lists the partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, non-conflict related attributes, and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). It was found that perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was positively correlated with hopelessness (r=.155, p<.001), with a small effect size. The positive correlation coefficient indicated the positive relationship between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and hopelessness. In other words, a higher level of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was associated with a higher level of hopelessness. Perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was negatively correlated with life satisfaction (r = -.295, p<.001) and positive youth development (r = -.175, p<.001). The effect sizes were small. The results showed that perceived non-conflict related attributes was negatively correlated with hopelessness (r = -.288, p<.001), with a small effect size. Perceived non-conflict related attributes was positively correlated with life satisfaction (r =.434, p<.001) and positive youth development (r =.347, p<.001), with medium effect sizes.

Regression analyses Although the partial correlation analyses presented above showed there were significant correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, non-conflict related attributes, and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development), partial correlation analyses did not show any unique predictive power of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes over the 184

185 three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). To address research question 1 further, three sets of multiple regression analyses were conducted for the three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). Each set included two hierarchical regression analyses. First, demographic variables of the participants such as age and gender and family demographic variables such as family monthly income, marital status of parents, number of people the participant was living with, and types of accommodation were entered in the first block. The perceived non-conflict related attributes was entered in the second block whereas the perceived conflict intensity was entered in the final block. Second, the demographic variables of the participants and their families were entered in the first block. The perceived conflict intensity was entered in the second block whereas the perceived non-conflict related attributes was entered in the final block. The first regression showed that the overall hierarchical regression model

2 was significant, R adjusted =.11, F(35, 1448) = 6.44, p <.001. However, the perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect on hopelessness, after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes ( ∆R 2 =.001, ∆ F(1, 1448) = .945, ns; standardized β =.029, t =.972, ns). This result suggested that hypothesis 1a was not supported. In the second regression,

2 the overall hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.11, F(35, 1448) = 6.44, p <.001. The perceived non-conflict related attributes predicted hopelessness when controlling for the demographic variables of the participants and their families as well as perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.059, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 98.142, p<.001; standardized β =-.298, t=-9.907, p<.001). This result suggested that hypothesis 1d was supported. Regarding hypothesis 1b and 1e, the first regression showed that for life satisfaction, the overall hierarchical regression model was significant,

2 R adjusted =.231, F(35, 1448) = 13.745, p <.001. After statistically controlling for demographic variables and perceived non-conflict related attributes, perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on life satisfaction 185

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( ∆R 2 =.01, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 18.519, p<.001; standardized β =-.118, t=-4.303, p<.001), supporting hypothesis 1b. In the second regression, the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.231, F(35, 1448) = 13.745, p <.001. Perceived non-conflict related attributes had a significant effect on life satisfaction after controlling for the demographic variables and perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.103, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 198.499, p<.001; standardized β =.395, t=14.089, p<.001), supporting hypothesis 1e. Regarding hypothesis 1c and 1f, the first regression showed that for positive youth development, the overall hierarchical regression model was

2 significant, R adjusted =.144, F(35, 1448) = 8.239, p <.001. However, when controlling for the demographic variables and perceived non-conflict related attributes, perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect on positive youth development ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1448) = .575, ns; standardized β = -.022, t = -.758, ns). This implied that hypothesis 1c was not supported. The second regression showed that the overall hierarchical regression model was

2 significant, R adjusted =.144, F(35, 1448) = 8.239, p <.001. The perceived non-conflict related attributes had a significant effect on positive youth development after controlling for the demographic variables and perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.084, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 147.662, p<.001; standardized β =.356, t =12.162, p<.001). This implied that hypothesis 1f was supported. In summary, adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity did not predict hopelessness and positive youth development but it did predict life satisfaction. Adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes predicted all three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). In other words, hypothesis 1a and 1c were not supported whereas hypothesis 1b, 1d, 1e, and 1f were supported. The findings addressing Research Question 1 are summarized in Table 7.18.

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7.6.2 Relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and parenting This section addressed research question 2: Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence parenting style and parenting practice? To address this research question, four hypotheses were proposed. A hypothetical model is listed in Chapter Four (Figure 4.3) to illustrate the related hypotheses.

Hypothesis 2ai: It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a higher level of harshness. Hypothesis 2aii: It was expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of concern. Hypothesis 2bi: It is expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of parental behavioral control. Hypothesis 2bii: It is expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. Hypothesis 2biii: It is expected that a higher level of adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict would be associated with a higher level of parental psychological control. Hypothesis 2ci: It is expected that a lower level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a higher level of harshness. Hypothesis 2cii: It is expected that a lower level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a lower level of concern. Hypothesis 2di: It is expected that a lower level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a lower level of parental behavioral control. Hypothesis 2dii: It is expected that a lower level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a lower level of parental control defined by indigenous Chinese 187

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concepts. Hypothesis 2diii: It is expected that a lower level of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes would be associated with a higher level of parental psychological control.

Results Partial correlations among variables Similar to the methods used for research question 1, partial correlations were conducted to exanimate the relationships between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity (CPIC-CI), perceived non-conflict related attributes and parenting style (harshness and concern) and practice (behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts). To reduce the chance of committing Type I error, a conservative alpha level based on the Bonferroni correction (alpha = .05/20, i.e. .002) was adopted. The effect size of the correlation coefficients was judged based on Cohen’s (1988) suggestion: A Pearson’s r of .50 represents a large effect, .30 represents a medium effect and .10 represents a small effect (Cohen, 1988). Based on the data used in the main study, Age was positively correlated with paternal concern (r =.093, p<.001) and maternal concern (r =.098, p<.001), indicating that older participants perceived a lower level of parental concern than younger participants. Gender was negatively correlated with paternal concern (r = -.063, p=.006) and harshness (r = -.126, p<.001). This indicated that females perceived a higher level of paternal concern and a lower level of paternal harshness. It was found that parenting styles were correlated with family demographic variables. For instance, types of accommodation was negatively correlated with paternal concern (r = -.137, p<.001) and harshness (r = -.076, p<.01) as well as maternal concern (r = -.052, p<.05) and harshness (r = -.051, p<.05), indicating that participants living in private housing experienced a higher level of parental concern and a lower level of parental harshness. Monthly family income was negatively correlated with paternal concern (r = -.86, p<.01) (i.e., participants from higher income families enjoyed a higher level of paternal concern). Parents’ marital status were negatively correlated with paternal concern (r = -.120, p<.001) and paternal 188

189 harshness (r = -.048, p<.05), (i.e., participants from intact families had a higher level of parental concern but a lower level of paternal harshness than those from non-intact families). On average, the amount of overlap of the correlation of parenting styles with demographic variables was less than 4%. Concerning parenting practices, the results showed that age was negatively associated with paternal (r = -.185, p<.001) and maternal behavioral control (r = -.179, p<.001). Age was positively correlated with paternal (r = .116, p<.001) and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts (r = .087, p<.001). This indicated that older participants received lower levels of both parental behavioral control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. Gender was negatively correlated with paternal (r = -.104, p<.001) and maternal psychological control (r = -.071, p<.01). Gender was positively correlated with paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts (r =.056, p<.05). This indicated that female participants received higher levels of parental psychological control and paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. It was found that family demographic variables correlated with parenting practices. For in some instances, types of accommodation was positively correlated with paternal (r=.094, p<.001) and maternal (r=.074, p<.001) behavioral control, indicating that that participants living in private housing experienced a higher level of behavioral control. Parents’ marital status was positively correlated with paternal (r =.122, p<.001) and maternal behavioral control (r =.073, p<.001). Parents’ marital status was also negatively correlated with maternal psychological control (r = -.067, p<.01). This indicated that participants from intact families received a higher level of parental behavioral control but a lower maternal psychological control. On average, the amount of overlap of the correlation of parenting practices and demographic variables was less than 5%. To examine the relationships between perceived inter-parental relational quality and parenting styles and practices, partial correlations were performed. The demographic variables of the participants and the family demographic variables were statistically controlled. It was found that perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was negatively correlated with paternal (r=-.403, p<.001) and material concern (r = -.322, p<.001). These effect sizes 189

190 were small to moderate. This indicated that a higher level of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was associated with a lower level of parental concern. Also, perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was positively correlated with paternal (r =.362, p<.001) and maternal harshness (r =.292, p<.001), indicating that a higher level of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was associated with a higher level of parental harshness. In addition, the results showed that perceived non-conflict related attributes was positively correlated with paternal (r =.559, p<.001) and material concern (r=.421, p<.001). This indicated that a higher level of perceived non-conflict related attributes was associated with a higher level of parental concern. Perceived non-conflict related attributes was negatively correlated with paternal (r = -.350, p<.001) and maternal harshness (r = -.270, p<.001). This indicated that a higher level of perceived non-conflict related attributes was associated with a lower level of parental harshness. The effect sizes were small to medium. Table 7.19 lists the partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, perceived non-conflict related attributes, and parenting styles. Concerning parenting practices, it was found that perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was negatively correlated with paternal (r = -.227, p<.001) and maternal behavioral control (r = -.116, p<.001), but positively correlated with paternal (r=.304, p<.001) and maternal psychological control (r=.272, p<.001). This reflected that a higher level of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was associated with a lower level of parental behavioral control but a higher level of psychological control. Perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was negatively correlated with paternal (r = -.079, p<.005) and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts (r = -.120, p<.001). This showed that a higher level of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was associated with a lower level of parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. In addition, perceived non-conflict related attributes was positively correlated with paternal (r =.439, p<.001) and maternal behavioral control (r =.336, p<.001) but negatively with paternal (r = -.271, p<.001) and maternal psychological control (r = -.256, p<.001). This reflected that a higher level of perceived non-conflict related attributes was associated with a higher level of parental behavioral control but a lower level of parental psychological control. Perceived non-conflict related attributes was positively correlated with paternal 190

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(r =.162, p<.001) and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts (r =.083, p<.005). This showed that a higher level of perceived non-conflict related attributes was associated with a higher level of parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. The effect sizes were small to medium. Table 7.20 lists the partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, perceived non-conflict related attributes, and parenting practices.

Regression analyses The partial correlations listed above were significant, indicating that there were associations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, perceived non-conflict related attributes, and parenting styles and parenting practices. However, the partial correlation analyses did not show that perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes have a unique predictive power over parenting styles and practices. To address research question 2 further, four sets of multiple regression analyses were conducted for parenting styles (i.e., paternal concern, maternal concern, paternal harshness and maternal harshness). Another six sets of multiple regression analyses were conducted for parenting practices (i.e., paternal and maternal behavioral control, psychological control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. Each set included two hierarchical regression analyses. First, the demographic variables of the participants such as age and gender, and family demographic variables such as family monthly income, marital status of parents, number of people the participant was living with, and types of accommodation were entered in the first block. The perceived non-conflict related attributes was entered in the second block whereas the perceived conflict intensity was entered in the final block. Second, the demographic variables of the participants and their families were entered in the first block. The perceived conflict intensity was entered in the second block whereas the perceived non-conflict related attributes was entered in the final block. Concerning parenting styles, the first regression showed that the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.371, F(35, 1461) =

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26.24, p <.001. The perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on paternal concern, after statistically controlling for demographic variables of the participants, family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes ( ∆R 2 =.022, ∆ F(1, 1461) = 51.347, p<.001; standardized β =.177, t =7.166, p<.001). In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression

2 model was significant, R adjusted =.371, F(35, 1461) = 26.24, p <.001. The perceived non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal concern when controlling for the participants’ demographic variables and family demographic variables as well as perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.152, ∆ F(1, 1461) = 362.081, p<.001; standardized β = -.479, t = -19.028, p<.001). Maternal concern showed a similar pattern. The first regression showed that the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.221, F(35, 1450) = 13.019, p <.001. When statistically accounting for the demographic variables of the participants and perceived non-conflict related attributes, the perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on maternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.019, ∆ F(1, 1450) = 36.305, p<.001; standardized β =.166, t=6.025, p<.001). In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression model

2 was significant, R adjusted =.221, F(35, 1450) = 13.019, p <.001. The perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.087, ∆ F(1, 1450) = 164.855, p<.001; standardized β = -.360, t= -12.84, p<.001). For parenting harshness, the first regression showed that the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.181, F(35, 1462) = 10.443, p <.001. The perceived conflict intensity, after controlling for the demographic variables and non-conflict related attributes, had a significant effect on paternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.045, ∆ F(1, 1462) = 81.899, p<.001; standardized β =.254, t = 9.05, p<.001). The second regression showed that the

2 overall hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.181, F(35, 1462) = 10.443, p <.001. The perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted paternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.036, ∆ F(1, 1462) = 66.611, p<.001; standardized β = -.234, t = -8.162, p<.001). Maternal harshness showed a similar pattern. The first regression showed that the overall hierarchical

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2 model was significant, R adjusted =.113, F(35, 1449) = 6.412, p <.001. Perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.021, ∆ F(1, 1449) = 35.065, p<.001; standardized β = -.177, t = -5.922, p<.001). In summary, adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity uniquely predicted parental concern and harshness. Perceived non-conflict related attributes also uniquely predicted parental concern and harshness. In other words, hypothesis 2a and 2c were supported. The findings are summarized in table 7.21. In terms of parenting practices, the first regression showed that the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.258, F(35, 1457) = 4.233, p <.001. However, perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect on paternal behavioral control, after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1457) = .285, ns; standardized β =-.014, t=-.534, ns). In the second regression, the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.258, F(35, 1457) = 4.233, p <.001. The perceived non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal behavioral control when controlling for the demographic variables of the participants and their families as well as perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.13, ∆ F(1, 1457) = 261.242, p<.001; standardized β =.443, t=16.163, p<.001). In addition, when maternal behavioral control was analyzed, the first regression showed that the overall hierarchical regression model was

2 significant, R adjusted =.174, F(35, 1456) = 9.967, p <.001.The perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect when demographic variables and perceived non-conflict related attributes were accounted for ( ∆R 2 =.002, ∆ F(1,

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1456) = 4.035, p=.045; standardized β =-.057, t=-2.009, p=.045). The second

2 regression was significant, R adjusted =.174, F(35, 1456) = 9.967, p <.001. The perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.091, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 164.83, p<.001; standardized β =.373, t=12.839, p<.001). Concerning psychological control, the first regression showed that the

2 overall hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.121, F(35, 1456) = 6.87, p <.001. When other variables were controlled for, the perceived conflict intensity predicted paternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.040, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 67.906, p<.001; standardized β =.241, t = 8.241, p<.001). In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression model was significant,

2 R adjusted = .121, F(35, 1456) = 6.87, p <.001. Non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted paternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.017, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 29.038, p<.001; standardized β = -.162, t = -5.414, p<.001). When maternal psychological control was analyzed, the first regression showed that the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.100, F(35, 1456) = 5.723, p <.001. The perceived conflict intensity had a unique effect on maternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.030, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 49.011, p<.001; standardized β =.207, t=7.001, p<.001). In the second regression, the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.100, F(35, 1456) = 5.723, p <.001. The Non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.018, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 30.544, p<.001; standardized β = -.167, t=-5.527, p<.001). Concerning control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts, the first regression showed that the overall hierarchical regression model was

2 significant, R adjusted = .084, F(35, 1431) = 4.860, p <.001. After the demographic variables of the participants and their families as well as non-conflict related attributes were controlled, the perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.033, ∆ F(1, 1431) = 52.274, p<.001; standardized β =.217, t =7.23, p<.001). In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression

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2 model was significant, R adjusted = .084, F(35, 1431) = 4.860, p <.001. Non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.054, ∆ F(1, 1431) = 86.53, p<.001; standardized β =-.285, t=-9.302, p<.001). Finally, for maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts, the first regression showed that the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.045, F(35, 1429) = 2.955, p <.001. The perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.032, ∆ F(1, 1429) = 49.333, p<.001; standardized β =.216, t =7.024, p<.001). In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression model was significant,

2 R adjusted = .045, F(35, 1429) = 2.955, p <.001. The non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.027, ∆ F(1, 1429) = 40.947, p<.001; standardized β =-.201, t=-6.399, p<.001). In summary, perceived conflict intensity predicted parental psychological control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts whereas non-conflict related attributes predicted parental behavioral control, psychological control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. In other words, hypothesis 2b was partially supported and hypothesis 2d was fully supported. The findings addressed here are summarized in Table 7.22. In conclusion, perceived conflict intensity predicted parenting styles and parenting practices except behavioral control, whereas non-conflict related attributes predicted all the parenting styles and parenting practices analyzed.

7.6.3 Relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health In this section, Research question 3 (i.e., Do parenting style and parenting practice influence adolescent mental health?) was addressed. The hypothetical model is listed in Chapter Four (Figure 4.4) and has the following general hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3a: It was expected that a more positive parenting style indexed by higher levels of concern and harshness would be associated with

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lower levels of psychological symptoms. Hypothesis 3b: It was expected that a more positive parenting style indexed by higher levels of concern and less harshness would be associated with higher levels of positive mental health attributes. Hypothesis 3c: It was expected that a more positive parenting style indexed by higher levels of concern and less harshness would be associated with higher levels of positive youth development. Hypothesis 3d: It was expected that a higher level of parental behavioral control, a lower level of parental psychological control and a higher level of Chinese indigenous parental control would be associated with a lower level of psychological symptoms. Hypothesis 3e: It was expected that a higher level of parental behavioral control, a lower level parental psychological control and a higher level of Chinese indigenous parental control would be associated with a higher level of positive mental health attributes. Hypothesis 3f: It was expected that a higher level of parental behavioral control, a lower level of parental psychological control and a higher level of Chinese indigenous parental control would be associated with a higher level of positive youth development.

Results Partial correlations among variables The previous section showed that the demographic variables were correlated with parenting styles, parenting behavior, and three indexes of adolescents’ mental health. To examine the relationship between perceived parenting and adolescent mental health, partial correlations were performed in which the demographic variables of the participants and the family demographic variables were statistically controlled. Paternal Harshness was correlated positively with hopelessness (r =.249, p<.001) but negatively with life satisfaction (r = -.344, p<.001) and positive youth development (r = -.236, p<.001). Similarly, maternal harshness was positively correlated with hopelessness (r =.238, p<.001) but negatively with life satisfaction (r = -.307, p<.001) and positive 196

197 youth development (r = -.233, p<.001). Also, paternal concern was positively correlated with hopelessness (r =.321, p<.001) but negatively with life satisfaction (r = -.458, p<.001) and positive youth development (r = -.361, p<.001). Maternal concern was positively correlated with hopelessness (r =.316, p<.001) but negatively with life satisfaction (r = -.458, p<.001) and positive youth development (r = -.367, p<.001). It was found that paternal behavioral control was negatively correlated with hopelessness (r = -.232, p<.001) but positively correlated with life satisfaction (r =.349, p<.001) and positive youth development (r =.349, p<.001). Maternal behavioral control showed a similar pattern. It was negatively correlated with hopelessness (r = -.243, p<.001) but positively correlated with life satisfaction (r =.275, p<.001) and positive youth development (r =.329, p<.001). The effect sizes were from small to medium. In contrast, paternal psychological control was positively correlated with hopelessness (r =.248, p<.001) but negatively correlated with life satisfaction (r = -.299, p<.001) and positive youth development (r = -.143, p<.001). Maternal psychological control was positively correlated with hopelessness (r =.265, p<.001) but negatively correlated with life satisfaction (r = -.323, p<.001) and positive youth development (r = -.203, p<.001). The effect sizes ranged from small to medium. In addition, paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts were negatively correlated with positive youth development (r = -.189, p<.001 for paternal; r = -.173, p<.001 for maternal). Paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts were not correlated with hopelessness (r =.062, p =.018 for paternal; r =.045; p = 090) and life satisfaction (r = -.050; p =.058 for paternal; r = -.002, p=.927 for maternal). The effect sizes were small. The partial correlations among parenting style, parenting practice and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) are listed in Tables 7.23 and 7.24. To show the unique predictive power of parenting styles and parenting practices over three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development), multiple regression analyses were performed.

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Regression analyses To address research question 3 further, three sets of multiple regression analyses were conducted for three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). Each set included two hierarchical regression analyses. First, the demographic variables of the participants such as age and gender, and family demographic variables such as family monthly income, marital status of parents, number of people the participant was living with, and types of accommodation was entered in the first block. The parenting practices were entered in the second block whereas the parenting styles were entered in the final block. Second, the demographic variables of the participants and their families were entered in the first block. The parenting styles were entered in the second block whereas the parenting practices were entered in the final block. The first regression showed that the overall hierarchical regression model

2 was significant, R adjusted = .214, F(43, 1404) = 10.162, p <.001. The parenting styles had a significant effect on hopelessness, after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and parenting practices ( ∆R 2 =.026, ∆ F(4, 1404) =11.989, p<.001). In particular, paternal concern was significant (standardized β =.100, t = 2.424, p<.05). Maternal concern was significant (standardized β =.099, t = 2.510, p<.05). Paternal harshness was not significant (standardized β =.036, t = 1.00, p =.317). Also, maternal harshness was not significant (standardized β =.063, t = 1.754, p =.080). A further analysis showed that paternal concern uniquely explained 0.3% of the variance in hopelessness ( ∆R 2 =.003, ∆ F(1, 1404) =5.877, p<.05) whereas maternal concern uniquely explained 0.3% of the variance ( ∆R 2 =.003, ∆ F(1, 1404) =6.298, p<.05). However, paternal harshness did not uniquely explain the variance in hopelessness ( ∆R 2 =.001, ∆ F(1, 1404) =1.001, p=.317). Maternal harshness also did not uniquely explain the variance in hopelessness ( ∆R 2 =.002, F(1, 1404) =3.076, p=.080). In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression model was

2 significant, R adjusted = .214, F(43, 1404) = 10.162, p <.001. The parenting

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199 practices predicted hopelessness when controlling for the demographic variables of participants and their families as well as parenting styles ( ∆R 2 =.042, ∆ F(6, 1404) = 12.977, p<.001). In particular, paternal behavioral control was not significant (standardized β =-.044, t=-1.269, p=.205) but paternal psychological control was significant (standardized β =.123, t = 3.646, p<.001). In addition, paternal control defined by indigenous concepts was not significant (standardized β =.049, t = 1.386, p =.166). On the other hand, maternal behavioral control was significant (standardized β =-.140, t=-4.448, p<.001). Maternal psychological control was also significant (standardized β =.106, t=3.119, p<.01). Maternal control defined by indigenous concepts was not significant (standardized β =.038, t = 1.084, p =.279). Further analyses showed that paternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.007, ∆ F(1, 1404) =13.296, p<.001), maternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.011, ∆ F(1, 1404) = 19.781, p<.001), and maternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.005, ∆ F(1, 1404) = 9.731, p<.01) uniquely explained 0.7%, 1.1%, and 0.5% of the variance in hopelessness respectively. Paternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.001, F(1, 1404) = 1.610, p =.205), paternal control defined by indigenous concepts ( ∆R 2 = .001, F(1, 1404) = 1.922, p =.166), and maternal control defined by indigenous concepts ( ∆R 2 =.001, F(1, 1404) =1.175, p =.279) did not uniquely explain hopelessness. Concerning life satisfaction, the first regression showed that the overall

2 hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted = .363, F(43, 1404) = 20.193, p <.001. The parenting styles, after statistically controlling for demographic variables and parenting practices, had a significant effect on life satisfaction, ( ∆R 2 = .061, ∆ F(4, 1404) = 34.834, p<.001). Specifically, paternal concern (standardized β = -.149, t = -4.029, p<.001) and maternal concern (standardized β = -.227, t = -6.408, p<.001) were significant. However, paternal harshness (standardized β = -.055, t = -1.712, p =.087) and maternal harshness (standardized β =.004, t =.112, p =.910) were not significant. In the further analyses, paternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.007, ∆ F(1, 1404) =16.230, p<.001) and maternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.018, ∆ F(1, 1404) = 41.064, p<.001) uniquely

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200 explained 0.7% and 1.8% of the variance in life satisfaction respectively. Paternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.001, ∆ F(1, 1404) =2.932, p =.087) and maternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1404) =.013, p =.910) did not uniquely explain the variance in life satisfaction. In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression model was

2 significant, R adjusted = .363, F(43, 1404) = 20.193, p <.001. The parenting practices predicted life satisfaction when demographic variables and parenting styles were controlled ( ∆R 2 =.040, ∆ F(6, 1404) = 15.056, p<.001). Specifically, paternal behavioral control (standardized β =.147, t = 4.681, p<.001), paternal psychological control (standardized β =-.101, t=-3.334, p=.001), maternal behavioral control (standardized β =.106, t=3.749, p<.001), and maternal psychological control (standardized β =-.093, t=-3.051, p<.01) were significant whereas paternal control defined by indigenous concepts (standardized β =-.005, t=-.155, ns) and the maternal counterpart (standardized β =-.011, t=-.359, ns) were not significant. Further analyses showed that paternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.010, ∆ F(1, 1404) =21.908, p<.001), paternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.005, ∆ F(1, 1404) =11.117, p =.001), maternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.006, ∆ F(1, 1404) =14.057, p<.001), and maternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.004, ∆ F(1, 1404) =9.308, p<.01) explained 1%, 0.5%, 0.6% and 0.4% of the variance in life satisfaction respectively. In contrast, paternal control defined by indigenous concepts ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1404) =.024, ns) and maternal control defined by indigenous concepts ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1404) =.129, ns) did not uniquely explained the variance in life satisfaction. For positive youth development, the first regression showed that the

2 overall hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted = .275, F(43, 1404) = 13.884, p <.001. After statistically controlling for demographic variables and parenting practices, parenting styles had a significant effect, ( ∆R 2 =.040, ∆ F(4, 1404) =20.135, p<.001). In particular, paternal concern (standardized β =-.124, t=-3.136, p<.001) and maternal concern (standardized β =-.159, t = -4.246, p<.01) were significant but paternal

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201 harshness (standardized β = -.036, t = -1.065, ns) and maternal harshness (standardized β = -.037, t = -1.063, ns) were not. In further analyses, paternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.005, ∆ F(1, 1404) =9.833, p<.01) and maternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.009, ∆ F(1, 1404) =18.025, p<.001) uniquely explained 0.5% and 0.9% variance in positive youth development respectively. Paternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.001, ∆ F(1, 1404) =1.134, ns) and maternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.001, ∆ F(1, 1404) =1.130, ns) did not uniquely explain the variance in positive youth development. In the second regression, the overall hierarchical regression model was

2 significant, R adjusted =.275, F(43, 1404) = 13.884, p <.001. The parenting practices predicted positive youth development after statistically controlling for demographic variables and parenting styles ( ∆R 2 =.077, ∆ F(6, 1404) = 26.038, p<.001). Specifically, paternal behavioral control (standardized β =.128, t=3.839, p<.001), maternal behavioral control (standardized β =.133, t=4.451, p<.001), maternal psychological control (standardized β =-.099, t=-3.067, p<.01), and maternal control defined by indigenous concepts (standardized β =-.133, t=-3.978, p<.001) were significant but paternal psychological control (standardized β = -.015, t = -.454, ns) and paternal control defined by indigenous concepts (standardized β = -.052, t= -1.535, ns) were not. Further analyses showed that paternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.007, ∆ F(1, 1404) = 14.734, p<.001), maternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.010, ∆ F(1, 1404) = 19.814, p<.001), maternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.005, ∆ F(1, 1404) = 9.405, p<.01), and maternal control defined by indigenous concepts ( ∆R 2 =.008, ∆ F(1, 1404) =15.827, p<.001) explained 0.7%, 1%, 0.5% and 0.8% of the variance respectively. However, paternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1404) =.206, ns) and paternal control defined by indigenous concepts ( ∆R 2 =.001, ∆ F(1, 1404) =2.355, ns) did not explain the variance in positive youth development. In summary, parental concern predicted all three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) whereas parental harshness did not. Concerning parenting practices, paternal behavioral control predicted hopelessness, life satisfaction, 201

202 and positive youth development whereas paternal psychological control predicted hopelessness and life satisfaction. Paternal control defined by indigenous concepts did not predict all three indexes of adolescent mental health. Maternal parenting practice predicted most of the indicators of mental health except that maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not predict hopelessness and life satisfaction. The findings addressing Research Question 3 are summarized in Tables 7.25, 7.26, 7.27, and 7.28. One thing needed to be noted was that the percentage of variances explained reported above referred to the unique variances explained by a particular predictor. In other words, common variances explained between two or more predictors were not included. For instances, non-conflict related attributes uniquely accounted 5.9% variances of hopelessness after controlling the effect of conflict intensity. If the common variance was included, the variances explained increased to 8.9%. The same cases applied to life satisfaction and positive youth development. Non-conflict related attributes and conflict intensity together predicted 11.3% of life satisfaction if common variances were not counted. But the variances explained increased to 18.5% if common variances were included. Variances explained increased from 11.5% to 11.6% for positive youth development if common variances were included. Parenting styles (i.e., paternal concern paternal harshness, maternal concern, and maternal harshness) explained 13.8% for hopelessness (when compared to 2.6%), 27.2% for life satisfaction (when compared to 6.1%), and 16.8% for positive youth development (when compared to 4%) if the common variances with parenting practices were included. 12 predictors together (non-conflict related attributes, conflict intensity, paternal concern paternal harshness, maternal concern, and maternal harshness, paternal and maternal behavioral and psychological control, paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) explained 19.2% of hopelessness, 32.6% of life satisfaction, and 24.7% of positive youth development. In other words, around one-third to one-fifth variances was explained by the predictors together.

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7.6.4 Parenting styles and practices as mediators of the influences of inter-parental relations on adolescent mental health In this section, research question 4 (i.e., Does parenting style and practice mediate the influence of perceived inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health?) is addressed. To address this question, one hypothesis was tested:

Hypothesis 4: Parenting style and parenting practice would partially mediate the influence of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health. Hypothesis 4 is illustrated in figure 4.5.

To address research question 4, the potential mediating effects of parenting styles and practices on adolescent mental health were tested. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), a mediator is a variable that accounts for the relation between an independent variable and a dependent variable. In other words, a mediator “represents the general mechanism through which the focal independent variable is able to influence the dependent variable of interest” (p.1173). Baron and Kenny (1986) further suggested a variable functions as a mediator when: a) variations in levels of the independent variable significantly account for variations in the presumed mediator (i.e., Path a), (b) variations in the mediator significantly account for variations in the dependent variable (i.e., Path b), and (c) if Paths a and b are controlled, a previously significant relation between the independent and dependent variables is no longer significant, with the strongest demonstration of mediation occurring when Path c is zero or when there is a significant reduction of the coefficient of Path c (p. 1176). Figure 7.1 illustrates the paths of the independent variable, mediator variable and the dependent variable.

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Figure 7.1: Figures explaining mediation

Me-Mediator

a b (Parenting style and practice)

X-Independent variable Y-Dependent

(Inter-parental relational variable quality) (Adolescent mental c health)

Wu and Zumbo (2008) summarized the work by Kenny and his colleagues (Baron & Kenny 1986; Judd & Kenny, 1981; Judd & Kenny, 2010; Kenny et al., 1998). They suggested a 4-step data analysis method to establish a mediation effect. The steps are listed as follows:

Step 1. Y = i + cX + e (1) Equation 1 shows that the independent variable is related to the dependent variable. This equation establishes that there is an overall direct effect of X on Y that may be mediated. In Figure 7.1., Y is predicted by X to estimate effect c. ‘‘i’’ denotes the regression intercept and ‘‘e’’ denotes the regression error.

Step 2 Me = i + aX + e (2) Equation 2 shows that the independent variable is correlated with the mediator. In this equation, the mediator is treated as a dependent variable and is predicted by X to test effect “a” in Figure. 7.1.

Step 3 Y = i + c’X + bMe + e (3) Equation 3 shows that the mediator affects the dependent variable. Y is predicted by both X and Me in order to test the effect of “b”. This step was

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205 done to establish the unique effect of the mediator on the dependent variable

Step 4 Compare c in Step 1 with c’ in Step 3. If the mediator completely accounts for the effect of X on Y, the effect of c’ in equation 3, which represents the direct effect of X on Y after controlling for the mediator, should equal to zero. (Wu & Zumbo, 2008, pp. 373-374). In this section of the research, the steps suggested by Wu and Zumbo (2008) were used to test hypothesis 4. Perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and Perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes were independent variables (X). Three indexes of adolescent mental health (hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development) were dependent variables (Y). Parenting styles (warm and harshness) and practices (behavioral control, psychological control and control defined by Chinese indigenous concepts) were mediators (Me). The data were assessed with the four-step analytical method and the effect of c and c’ was compared to assess the mediation effect. In addition, the Sobel test was used to test whether or not parenting style and practice serve as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health. The Sobel test is a method of testing a mediation effect based on a t test. It is used when the criteria suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986) have been met. In the Sobel test, the mediating effect is represented by the product ab, where a is the effect of the independent variables on the mediators (i.e., the effect of inter-parental relational quality on parenting style and practice in this research) and b is the effect of the mediators on the dependent variables after controlling for the effect of the independent variable (i.e., in this research, the effect of parenting style and practice on adolescent mental health after controlling for the effect of inter-parental relational quality). In other words, the product ab represents the amount of variance in the dependent variable that is accounted for by the independent variable through the mechanism of the mediator (MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002). The product ab, divided by its standard error sab, produces a critical ratio (z-value) for testing the significance. The Sobel test equation is: z-value = a*b/SQRT(b2*sa 2 + a2*sb2). The mediation hypothesis is not rejected when the product ab is statistically significant 205

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(Preacher & Hayes, 2004). The magnitude of the indirect effects was computed by using the interactive calculation tool provided by Preacher and Leonardelli (2012, October).

Results

7.6.4.1 Direct effect of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health (path c) To examine the model listed in Figure 7.1, the direct path of the effect of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health (path c in figure 7.1) has to be tested. The results showed that inter-parental relational quality

2 significantly predicted hopelessness ( R adjusted =.11, F(35, 1448) = 6.44, p <.001). In particular, the perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect on hopelessness, after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes ( ∆R 2 =.001, ∆ F(1, 1448) = .945, ns; standardized β =.029, t=.972, ns). The perceived non-conflict related attributes predicted hopelessness when controlling for the demographic variables of the participants and their families as well as perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.059, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 98.142, p<.001; standardized β =-.298, t=-9.907, p<.001). The results showed that inter-parental relational quality significantly

2 predicted life satisfaction ( R adjusted =.231, F(35, 1448) = 13.745, p <.001). After statistically controlling for the demographic variables and perceived non-conflict related attributes, perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on life satisfaction ( ∆R 2 =.01, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 18.519, p<.001; standardized β = -.118, t = -4.303, p<.001). The perceived non-conflict related attributes had a significant effect on life satisfaction after controlling for demographic variables and perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.103, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 198.499, p<.001; standardized β =.395, t = 14.089, p<.001). The results showed that inter-parental relational quality significantly

2 predicted positive youth development ( R adjusted =.144, F(35, 1448) = 8.239, p

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<.001). In particular, when controlling for the demographic variables and the perceived non-conflict related attributes, perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect on positive youth development ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1448) = .575, ns; standardized β =-.022, t=-.758, ns). The perceived non-conflict related attributes had a significant effect on positive youth development after controlling for demographic variables and perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.084, ∆ F(1, 1448) = 147.662, p<.001; standardized β =.356, t =12.162, p<.001). In summary, similar to the result reported in 7.5.1, the overall direct effects of inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health are significant. In particular, perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes predicted all three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) whereas perceived inter-parental conflict intensity only predicted life satisfaction.

7.6.4.2 The path between inter-parental relational quality and parenting style and practice (path a) Concerning parenting styles, the analysis indicated that inter-parental

2 relational quality had a significant effect ( R adjusted =.371, F(35, 1461) = 26.24, p <.001). The perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on paternal concern, after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes ( ∆R 2 =.022, ∆ F(1, 1461) = 51.347, p<.001; standardized β =.177, t=7.166, p<.001). Specifically, the perceived non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal concern when controlling for the participants’ demographic variables and family demographic variables as well as perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.152, ∆ F(1, 1461) = 362.081, p<.001; standardized β = -.479, t = -19.028, p<.001). Maternal concern showed a similar pattern. Inter-parental relational quality has a significant

2 effect ( R adjusted =.221, F(35, 1450) = 13.019, p <.001). When the demographic variables of the participants and perceived non-conflict related attributes were statistically accounted for, the perceived conflict intensity had a significant

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208 effect on maternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.019, ∆ F(1, 1450) = 36.305, p<.001; standardized β =.166, t = 6.025, p<.001). The perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal concern ( ∆R 2 =.087, ∆ F(1, 1450) = 164.855, p<.001; standardized β =-.360, t=-12.84, p<.001). Inter-parental relational quality significantly predicted parenting

2 harshness. It significantly predicted paternal harshness ( R adjusted =.181, F(35, 1462) = 10.443, p <.001). In particular, the perceived conflict intensity, after controlling for the demographic variables and non-conflict related attributes, had a significant effect on paternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.045, ∆ F(1, 1462) = 81.899, p<.001; standardized β =.254, t=9.05, p<.001). The perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted paternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.036, ∆ F(1, 1462) = 66.611, p<.001; standardized β =-.234, t=-8.162, p<.001). Maternal harshness had a similar pattern. The overall hierarchical

2 regression model was significant, R adjusted =.113, F(35, 1449) = 6.412, p <.001. After statistically controlling for demographic variables and non-conflict related attributes, the perceived conflict intensity predicted maternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.034, ∆ F(1, 1449) = 56.592, p<.001; standardized β =.221, t=7.523, p<.001). The perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal harshness ( ∆R 2 =.021, ∆ F(1, 1449) = 35.065, p<.001; standardized β = -.177, t = -5.922, p<.001). In terms of parenting practices, the overall hierarchical regression model

2 was significant for paternal behavioral control, R adjusted =.258, F(35, 1457) = 4.233, p <.001. However, the perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect on paternal behavioral control, after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes ( ∆R 2 =.000, ∆ F(1, 1457) = .285, ns; standardized β =-.014, t=-.534, ns). The perceived non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal behavioral control when controlling for the demographic variables of participants and their families as well as perceived conflict intensity ( ∆R 2 =.13, ∆ F(1, 1457) = 261.242, p<.001; standardized β =.443, t=16.163, p<.001). For maternal behavioral control, the

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2 overall hierarchical regression model was significant, R adjusted =.174, F(35, 1456) = 9.967, p <.001. The perceived conflict intensity had no significant effect when demographic variables and perceived non-conflict related attributes were accounted for. ( ∆R 2 =.002, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 4.035, p=.045; standardized β =-.057, t=-2.009, p=.045). The perceived non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal behavioral control ( ∆R 2 =.091, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 164.83, p<.001; standardized β =.373, t=12.839, p<.001). Concerning psychological control, the overall hierarchical regression

2 model was significant for paternal psychological control, R adjusted =.121, F(35, 1456) = 6.87, p <.001. When the other variables were controlled, the perceived conflict intensity predicted paternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.040, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 67.906, p<.001; standardized β =.241, t=8.241, p<.001). Non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted paternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.017, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 29.038, p<.001; standardized β =-.162, t=-5.414, p<.001). When maternal psychological control was analyzed, the overall hierarchical

2 regression model was significant, R adjusted =.100, F(35, 1456) = 5.723, p <.001. The perceived conflict intensity had a unique effect on maternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.030, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 49.011, p<.001; standardized β =.207, t =7.001, p<.001). The Non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal psychological control ( ∆R 2 =.018, ∆ F(1, 1456) = 30.544, p<.001; standardized β = -.167, t = -5.527, p<.001). Concerning control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts, the overall hierarchical regression model was significant for paternal control defined by

2 indigenous Chinese concepts, R adjusted =.084, F(35, 1431) = 4.860, p <.001. After the demographic variables of participants and their families as well as non-conflict related attributes were controlled, the perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.033, ∆ F(1, 1431) = 52.274, p<.001; standardized β =.217, t=7.23, p<.001). Non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.054, ∆ F(1, 1431) = 86.53, p<.001; standardized β =-.285, t=-9.302, p<.001). Finally, for maternal control

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210 defined by indigenous Chinese concepts, the overall hierarchical regression

2 model was significant, R adjusted =.045, F(35, 1429) = 2.955, p <.001. The perceived conflict intensity had a significant effect on maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.032, ∆ F(1, 1429) = 49.333, p<.001; standardized β =.216, t=7.024, p<.001). The non-conflict related attributes uniquely predicted maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts ( ∆R 2 =.027, ∆ F(1, 1429) = 40.947, p<.001; standardized β =-.201, t=-6.399, p<.001). In summary, in terms of parenting styles, both perceived conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes predicted parental concern and harshness. In terms of parenting practices, perceived conflict intensity failed to predict parental behavioral control whereas non-conflict related attributes did predict it. In addition, both perceived conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes predicted parental psychological control and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts.

7.6.4.3 The path between parenting and adolescent mental health (path b) Concerning the effect of parenting style on hopelessness, the parenting styles had a significant effect on hopelessness, after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and parenting practices ( ∆R 2 =.026, ∆ F(4, 1404) =11.989, p<.001). In particular, paternal concern was significant (standardized β =.100, t=2.424, p<.05). Maternal concern was significant (standardized β =.099, t=2.510, p<.05). Paternal harshness was not significant (standardized β =.036, t=1.00, p=.317), and maternal harshness was also not significant (standardized β =.063, t=1.754, p=.080). Regarding the effect of parenting practice on hopelessness, the parenting practices predicted hopelessness when controlling for the demographic variables of the participants and their families as well as parenting styles ( ∆R 2 =.042, ∆ F(6, 1404) = 12.977, p<.001). In particular, paternal behavioral control was not significant (standardized β = -.044, t = -1.269, p =.205), but paternal psychological control was significant (standardized β =.123, t =3.646,

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211 p<.001). In addition, paternal control defined by indigenous concepts was not significant (standardized β =.049, t =1.386, p=.166). On the other hand, maternal behavioral control was significant (standardized β = -.140, t = -4.448, p<.001). Maternal psychological control was significant (standardized β =.106, t =3.119, p<.01). Maternal control defined by indigenous concepts was not significant (standardized β =.038, t =1.084, p =.279). Concerning life satisfaction, the parenting styles, after statistically controlling for demographic variables and parenting practices, had a significant effect ( ∆R 2 =.061, ∆ F(4, 1404) =34.834, p<.001). Specifically, paternal concern (standardized β = -.149, t = -4.029, p<.001) and maternal concern (standardized β = -.227, t = -6.408, p<.001) were significant. However, paternal harshness (standardized β = -.055, t = -1.712, p =.087) and maternal harshness (standardized β =.004, t =.112, p =.910) were not significant. Also, the parenting practices predicted life satisfaction when demographic variables and parenting styles were controlled ( ∆R 2 =.040, ∆ F(6, 1404) = 15.056, p<.001). Paternal behavioral control (standardized β =.147, t = 4.681, p<.001), paternal psychological control (standardized β = -.101, t = -3.334, p =.001), maternal behavioral control (standardized β =.106, t = 3.749, p<.001), and maternal psychological control (standardized β = -.093, t = -3.051, p<.01) were significant whereas paternal control defined by indigenous concepts (standardized β =-.005, t=-.155, ns) and maternal counterpart (standardized β = -.011, t = -.359, ns) were not significant. In terms of positive youth development, parenting styles had a significant effect, ( ∆R 2 =.040, ∆ F(4, 1404) =20.135, p<.001). In particular, paternal concern (standardized β = -.124, t = -3.136, p<.001) and maternal concern (standardized β = -.159, t = -4.246, p<.01) were significant but paternal harshness (standardized β =-.036, t = -1.065, ns) and maternal harshness (standardized β = -.037, t = -1.063, ns) were not. The parenting practices predicted positive youth development after statistically controlling for the demographic variables and parenting styles ( ∆R 2 =.077, ∆ F(6, 1404) = 26.038, p<.001). Specifically, paternal behavioral

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212 control (standardized β =.128, t =3.839, p<.001), maternal behavioral control (standardized β =.133, t = 4.451, p<.001), maternal psychological control (standardized β = -.099, t = -3.067, p<.01), and maternal control defined by indigenous concepts (standardized β = -.133, t = -3.978, p<.001) were significant but paternal psychological control (standardized β = -.015, t = -.454, ns) and paternal control defined by indigenous concepts (standardized β =-.052, t=-1.535, ns) were not. In summary, for parenting style, parental concern predicted all three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) but parental harshness did not. In terms of parenting practices, paternal behavioral control predicted hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development whereas paternal psychological control predicted hopelessness and life satisfaction. Paternal control defined by indigenous concepts did not predict indexes of adolescent mental health. Maternal parenting practice predicted most of the indicators of mental health, except that maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not predict hopelessness and life satisfaction.

7.6.4.4 Parenting style and practice as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health

7.6.4.4.1 Parenting style and practice as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and hopelessness Concerning parenting styles, paternal and maternal concern significantly predicted hopelessness, after statistically controlling for inter-parental relational quality, parental harshness, and parenting practices (standardized β = -.114, t = 2.06, p<.01 for paternal concern; standardized β = -.09, t =2.03, p<.05 for maternal concern). However, paternal and maternal harshness failed to predict hopelessness after statistically controlling for inter-parental relational quality, parental concern, and parenting practices (standardized β =.04, t =1.09, ns for paternal harshness; standardized β =.05, t=1.44, ns for maternal harshness).

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Concerning parenting practices, paternal behavioral control did not predict hopelessness when inter-parental relational quality, parenting styles and other parenting practices were controlled (standardized β = -.028, t = -0.78, ns). In contrast, maternal behavioral control predicted hopelessness (standardized β = -.14, t = -4.15, p<.001). Paternal psychological control predicted hopelessness when inter-parental relational quality, parenting styles and other parenting practices were controlled (standardized β =.136, t =3.94, p<.001), and maternal psychological control also predicted hopelessness (standardized β =.098, t =2.83, p=.005). In addition, paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to predict hopelessness (standardized β =.07, t =1.83, ns for paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts; standardized β =.02, t =.48, ns for maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts). Sobel tests were also performed to determine whether or not parenting styles and practices serve as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and hopelessness. Based on the result of the Sobel test, paternal and maternal concern did not mediate the relationship between inter-parental conflict and hopelessness (t = 0.90, ns; t = 0.89, ns). Paternal and maternal harshness also did not mediate the relationship between inter-parental conflict and hopelessness (t = 0.72, ns; t =.080, ns). Similarly, paternal and maternal behavioral control did not mediate the relationship between inter-parental conflict and hopelessness (t = 0.61, ns; t = 0.94, ns). Paternal and maternal psychological control also did not mediate inter-parental conflict and hopelessness (t = 0.93, ns; t = 0.91, ns). Paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate the link (t = 0.85, ns; t = 0.43, ns). On the other hand, paternal and maternal concern mediated the relationship between inter-paternal non-conflict related attributes and hopelessness (t = -2.52, p<.05; t = -2.26; p<.05). Paternal and maternal harshness did not serve as mediators (t = -1.07, ns; t = -1.42; ns). Paternal behavioral control did not serve as a mediator (t =.078, ns) whereas maternal behavioral control did serve as a mediator (t = -3.81, p<.001). Paternal and maternal psychological control served as mediators (t = -3.68, p<.001; t = -2.73, p<.001). Paternal and

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214 maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate (t =1.78, ns; t = -0.48, ns). In summary, parenting styles (i.e., paternal and maternal concern and harshness) and practices (i.e., paternal and maternal behavioral control, psychological control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) did not mediate the links between perceived conflict intensity and hopelessness. On the other hand, parental concern, maternal behavioral control, parental psychological control did mediate the link between non-conflict related attributes whereas parental harshness, paternal behavioral control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not. The results of the mediational analyses are summarized in Table 7.29.

7.6.4.4.2 Parenting style and practice as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and life satisfaction

Concerning parenting styles, paternal and maternal concern significantly predicted life satisfaction, after statistically controlling for inter-parental relational quality, parental harshness, and parenting practices (standardized β =.127, t =3.27, p<.005 for paternal concern; standardized β =.193, t = 5.33, p<.001 for maternal concern). However, paternal and maternal harshness failed to predict life satisfaction, after statistically controlling for inter-parental relational quality, parental concern, and parenting practices (standardized β = -.04, t = - 1.21, ns for paternal harshness; standardized β = -.003, t = -.09, ns for maternal harshness). Concerning parenting practices, paternal behavioral control predicted life satisfaction when inter-parental relational quality, parenting styles and other parenting practices were controlled (standardized β =.125, t = 3.918, p<.001). Maternal behavioral control also predicted life satisfaction (standardized β =.092, t =3.178, p<.005). Paternal psychological control predicted life satisfaction when inter-parental relational quality, parenting styles and other parenting practices were controlled (standardized β = -.094, t = -3.05, p<.005) and maternal psychological control also predicted life satisfaction (standardized β = -.082, t = -2.66, p<.005). In addition, paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to predict life 214

215 satisfaction (standardized β =.012, t =.364, ns) for paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts; standardized β = -.006, t = -.179, ns for maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts). Sobel tests were also performed to determine whether or not parenting styles and practices serve as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and life satisfaction. Based on the result of the Sobel test, paternal and maternal concern mediated the relationship between inter-parental conflict and life satisfaction (t = 2.94, p<.005; t = 4.01, p<.005). Paternal and maternal harshness also did not mediate the relationship between inter-parental conflict and life satisfaction (t = -1.74, ns [it is significant if I adopt a one-tailed test]; t = -.086, ns). Similarly, paternal and maternal behavioral control did not mediate the relationship between inter-parental conflict and life satisfaction (t = 0.51, ns; t = -1.69, ns). Paternal and maternal psychological control also mediated inter-parental conflict and life satisfaction (t = 2.85, p<.005; t = 2.51; p<.05). Paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate (t = 0.36, ns; t = 0.17, ns). On the other hand, paternal and maternal concern mediated the relationship between inter-paternal non-conflict related attributes and life satisfaction (t =3.193, p<.005; t = 4.95; p<.005). Paternal and maternal harshness did not serve as mediators (t = -1.17, ns; t = -.085; ns). Paternal and maternal behavioral control served as a mediator (t =3.787, p<.001; t =3.08, p<.001). Similarly, paternal and maternal psychological control served as mediators (t = -2.66, p<.001; t = -2.41, p<.005). Paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate (t = -.36, ns; t =-.17, ns). In summary, only parental concern and psychological control mediated the link between perceived conflict intensity and life satisfaction, whereas parental harshness, behavioral control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate. Parental concern, behavioral control and psychological control mediated the link between non-conflict related attributes and life satisfaction, whereas parental harshness and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate. These results are summarized in Table 7.30.

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7.6.4.3.3 Parenting style and practice as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and positive youth development

Concerning parenting styles, paternal and maternal concern significantly predicted positive youth development, after statistically controlling for inter-parental relational quality, parental harshness, and parenting practices (standardized β =.123, t =2.93, p<.005 for paternal concern; standardized β =.140, t=3.621, p<.001 for maternal concern). However, paternal and maternal harshness failed to predict positive youth development, after statistically controlling for inter-parental relational quality, parental concern, and parenting practices (standardized β = -.025, t = -.70, ns for paternal harshness; (standardized β = -.034, t = -.958, ns for maternal harshness). Concerning parenting practices, paternal behavioral control predicted positive youth development when inter-parental relational quality, parenting styles and other parenting practices were controlled (standardized β =.108, t = 3.159, p<.005). Maternal behavioral control also predicted positive youth development (standardized β =.124, t = 4.006, p<.001). Paternal psychological control did not predict positive youth development when inter-parental relational quality, parenting styles and other parenting practices were controlled (standardized β = -.016, t = -.470, ns) whereas maternal psychological control predicted positive youth development (standardized β = -.099, t = -2.97, p<.005). In addition, paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to predict positive youth development (standardized β =.057, t=1.604, ns). In contrast, maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts predicted positive youth development (standardized β =.115, t =.3.307, p<.005). Consistent with the analyses discussed in previous sections, Sobel tests were also performed to determine whether or not parenting styles and practices serve as mediators between inter-parental relational quality and positive youth development. Based on the result of the Sobel test, paternal and maternal concern mediated the relationship between inter-parental conflict and positive youth development (t = 2.67, p<.005; t = 3.11, p<.005). Paternal and maternal

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217 harshness did not mediate the relationship between inter-parental conflict and positive youth development (t = -0.70, ns; t = -.099, ns). Similarly, paternal and maternal behavioral control did not mediate the relationship between inter-parental conflict and positive youth development (t = 0.51, ns; t =1.18, ns). Paternal psychological control did not mediate inter-parental conflict and positive youth development (t = -.482, ns). However, maternal psychological control mediated inter-parental conflict and positive youth development (t = -2.79; p<.01). Paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate (t =1.56, ns) but maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did mediate (t =2.97, p<.005). On the other hand, paternal and maternal concern mediated the relationship between inter-paternal non-conflict related attributes and positive youth development (t = 2.85, p<.005; t = 3.49; p<.001). Paternal and maternal harshness did not serve as mediators (t =.68, ns; t =.99; ns). Paternal and maternal behavioral control served as mediators (t =3.05, p<.005; t =3.78, p<.001). Paternal psychological control did not serve as a mediator (t = -.048, ns). Maternal psychological control served as a mediator (t = -2.65, p<.01). Paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate (t =1.57, ns) whereas maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did mediate (t =2.91, p<.01). In summary, only parental concern, maternal psychological control, and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts mediated the link between perceived conflict intensity and positive youth development. However, parental harshness, parental behavioral control, paternal psychological control, and paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not. On the other hand, parental concern, parental behavioral control, maternal psychological control, and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did mediate the link between non-conflict related attributes and positive youth development, but parental harshness, paternal psychological control and paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not. These results are summarized in Table 7.31.

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7.6.5 Model testing and refinement using structural equation modeling Based on the results of the regression analyses in previous sections, several models were built using a structural equation modeling technique. Mplus 5.0, a flexible statistical modeling program, was used for building the models (Muthén & Muthén, 2007). A finalized model was built in several steps. First, models were built using paternal and maternal variables separately. Second, a combined model using both paternal and maternal variables was built. Finally, the finalized model was created based on a refinement of the combined model.

To evaluate the model fit, based on Kenny and McCoach (2003) and Hu and Bentler (1999), several fit indices were used. They included a chi-square statistical analysis (which ideally shows any non-significant fit between the model and data, although this criteria might not apply to large data-se like the present one), a comparative fit index (CFI; good if .95 or more), the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI; good if .90 or more), a root mean square error approximation (RMSEA; good if .06 or less), and a standardized root mean square residual (SRMR; good if .08 or less).

7.6.5.1 Model based on paternal variables

Based on the results of the regression analyses reported in previous sections, a proposed model with only paternal variables was tested (Figure 7.2). In this proposed model, both perceived inter-parental conflict and non-conflict related attributes were hypothesized to predict paternal concern and harshness (paths a to d). Perceived inter-parental conflict was hypothesized to predict paternal psychological control and paternal control based on Chinese concepts (path e and f) whereas non-conflict related attributes were hypothesized to predict all three paternal parenting practice variables (i.e., paternal behavioral control, psychological control and control based on Chinese concepts) (path g, h and i). Paternal concern was hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path j, k and l). In terms of paternal parenting practice variables, paternal behavioral control was hypothesized to predict life satisfaction and positive youth development (path 218

219 m and n) whereas paternal psychological control was hypothesized to predict hopelessness and life satisfaction (path o and p). Finally, perceived inter-parental conflict was hypothesized to predict life satisfaction (path q). Perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path r, s and t). In the proposed model, the covariance between perceived inter-parental conflict and non-conflict related attributes, the covariance among paternal parenting styles and practices variables, and the covariance among hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development were hypothesized to be significant.

The results showed that the proposed model, in general, achieved satisfactory indices of model fit. The Chi-square value was 157.087 (df = 20; p<.001). It was significant, indicating the proposed model did not “match” the data. However, as mentioned above, the Chi-square test should not be applied to a large data-set. Barrett (2007) suggested that the sensitivity of the test increases with the number of cases in the data-set. With a large sample size, “tiny discrepancies between the observed test statistic and its expected value under a null hypothesis are likely to be adjudged as evidence of ‘misﬁt’ ” (Barrett, 2007, p. 816). Barrett recommended that a Chi-square test should not be considered significant when applied to data-sets with 200 or more cases. However, Kenny (2013) even suggested that a Chi-square test would very often be statistically significant with cases of 400 or more data points. Since the present data-set contained around 2,000 cases, A Chi-square test alone is not a good criterion for evaluating the model fit. The CFI was 0.971, the TLI was 0.903, the RMSEA was 0.058, and the SRMR was 0.024.

Concerning the significance of tests of particular paths in the proposed model, perceived inter-parental conflict predicted paternal concern (path a) (β = -0.171, SE = 0.038, p<.001) but did not predict harshness (path b) (β = 0.017, SE = 0.042, ns). Perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal concern (path c) (β = 0.268, SE = 0.024, p<.001) and harshness (path d) (β = -0.058, SE = 0.026, p<.05). In terms of paternal parenting practices, inter-parental conflict did not predict paternal 219

220 psychological control (path e) (β = -0.004, SE = 0.025, ns) but did predict paternal control based on Chinese concepts (path f) (β = -0.190, SE = 0.022, p<.001). Non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal behavioral control (path g) (β = 0.247, SE = 0.010, p<.001) and control based on Chinese concepts (path i) (β = 0.073, SE = 0.014, p<.001) but not psychological control (path h) (β = 0.009, SE = 0.016, ns). Regarding the mental health variables, paternal concern predicted hopelessness (path j) (β = -0.217, SE = 0.024, p<.001), life satisfaction (path k) (β = 0.080, SE = 0.031, p =.011), and positive youth development (path l) (β=0.046, SE = 0.015, p =.002). Paternal behavioral control predicted life satisfaction (path m) (β = 0.502, SE = 0.051, p<.001) and positive youth development (path n) (β = 0.152, SE = 0.024, p<.001). Paternal psychological control predicted hopelessness (path o) (β = 0.152, SE = 0.034, p<.001) and life satisfaction (path p) (β = -0.335, SE = 0.046, p<.001). Regarding the direct effect, perceived inter-parental conflict failed to predict life satisfaction (path q) (β = -0.031, SE = 0.044, ns) whereas non-conflict related attributes predicted hopelessness (path r) (β = -0.098, SE = 0.018, p<.001), life satisfaction (path s) (β = 0.183, SE = 0.031, p<.001) and positive youth development (path t) (β = 0.079, SE = 0.014, p<.001). In summary, only 4 paths out of 20 were not significant (i.e., path b, e, h and q). After removing the non-significant paths, the model fit indices changed slightly: The Chi-square value was 132.183 (df =18; p<.001), CFI was 0.976, TLI was 0.916, RMSEA was 0.056 and SRMR was 0.024.

7.6.5.2 Model based on maternal variables Similar to the discussion above, based on the results of the regression analyses in previous sections, a proposed model having only maternal variables was tested (Figure 7.3). In this proposed model, both perceived inter-parental conflict and non-conflict related attributes were hypothesized to predict maternal concern and harshness (path a, b, c and d). Perceived inter-parental conflict was hypothesized to predict maternal psychological control and maternal control based on Chinese concepts (path e and f) whereas non-conflict related attributes were hypothesized to predict all three maternal parenting practice variables (i.e., maternal behavioral control, psychological control and control based on Chinese concepts) (path g, h and i). Maternal concern was 220

221 hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path j, k and l). In terms of paternal parenting practice variables, maternal behavioral control was also hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path m, n and o). Consistently, maternal psychological control was hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path p, q and r). Unlike the case in the paternal model, maternal control based on Chinese concepts was hypothesized to predict positive youth development (path s). Finally, perceived inter-parental conflict was hypothesized to predict life satisfaction (path t) whereas inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path u, v and w). Consistent with the proposed paternal model, the covariance between perceived inter-parental conflict and non-conflict related attributes, the covariance among maternal parenting styles and practices variables, and the covariance among hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development were hypothesized to be significant.

The fit indices of the proposed maternal model, in general, were satisfactory. The Chi-square value was 190.337 (df = 20; p<.001). It is significant. As mentioned in the paternal model, this criterion should not be applied to the main study data-set as that data-set contained more than 2,000 cases (Barrett, 2007; Kenny, 2012). The CFI was 0.962, the TLI was 0.871, the RMSEA was 0.065 and the SRMR was 0.029. To review whether or not a particular path was significant, the β value of each path was examined. Perceived inter-parental conflict did not predict maternal concern (path a) (β = -0.041, SE = 0.036, ns) but predicted harshness (path b) (β = 0.112, SE = 0.043, p =.01). Non-conflict related attributes predicted maternal concern (path c) (β = 0.172, SE = 0.022, p<.001) but not harshness (path d) (β = -0.047, SE = 0.027, ns). For the parenting practices variables, inter-parental conflict did not predict maternal psychological control (path e) (β = -.04, SE = 0.025, ns). Inter-parental conflict predicted maternal control based on Chinese concepts (path f) (β = -0.138, SE = 0.020, p<.001). Non-conflict related attributes predicted maternal behavioral control (path g) (β = 0.142, SE = 0.011, p<.001), psychological control (path h) (β=-0.054, 221

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SE=0.016, p=.001), and control based on Chinese concepts (path i) (β=0.059, SE=0.013, p<.001). Regarding the mental health variables, maternal concern predicted hopelessness (path j) (β = -0.169, SE = 0.026, p<.001), and life satisfaction (path k) (β = 0.105, SE = 0.033, p =.001) but not positive youth development (path l) (β = 0.011, SE = 0.018, ns). Maternal behavioral control predicted hopelessness (path m) (β = -0.179, SE =.04, p<.001), life satisfaction (path n) (β=0.546, SE=0.050, p<.001), and positive youth development (path o) (β=0.286, SE=0.027, p<.001). Similarly, maternal psychological control predicted hopelessness (path p) (β = 0.237, SE = 0.038, p<.001), life satisfaction (path q) (β = -0.359, SE = 0.047, p<.001) and positive youth development (path r) (β = -0.148, SE = 0.026, p<.001). Maternal control based on Chinese concepts failed to predict positive youth development (path s) (β = 0.045, SE = 0.025, ns). Regarding the direct effects, perceived inter-parental conflict failed to predict life satisfaction (path t) (β = -0.028, SE = 0.043, ns). Non-conflict related attributes predicted hopelessness (path u) (β = -0.075, SE = 0.019, p<.001), life satisfaction (path v) (β=0.204, SE=0.029, p<.001) and positive youth development (path w) (β = 0.074, SE = 0.013, p<.001). In summary, only 6 out of 23 paths were not significant (i.e., path b, d, e, l, s and t). After removing the non-significant paths, the model fit indices changed slightly: The Chi-square value was 221.983 (df = 25; p<.001), the CFI was 0.956, the TLI was 0.88, the RMSEA was 0.063 and the SRMR was 0.030.

7.6.5.3 Combined model In this section, the results of the proposed model that included both paternal and maternal variables are discussed. It is based on the results of the previous regression analyses. In this model (Figure 7.4), perceived inter-parental conflict and non-conflict related attributes were hypothesized to predict paternal concern and harshness (paths Fa to Fd), and similarly for maternal concern and harshness (paths Ma to Md). Perceived inter-parental conflict was hypothesized to predict paternal (maternal) psychological control and paternal (maternal) control based on Chinese concepts (path Fe and Ff) (Path Me and Mf). Non-conflict related attributes was hypothesized to predict all three 222

223 paternal parenting practice variables (i.e., paternal behavioral control, psychological control and control based on Chinese concepts) (path Fg, Fh and Fi). Corresponding predictions were made for the maternal variables (i.e., maternal behavioral control, psychological control and control based on Chinese concepts) (path Mg, Mh and Mi). As mentioned previously, paternal concern was hypothesized to predict all three mental health variables (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development) (path Fj, Fk and Fl). The same hypothesis was applied to maternal concern and it was also hypothesized to predict all three mental health variables (paths Mi, Mk and Mi). The prediction between the paternal and maternal variables was different for the paths between the parenting practice variables and the mental health variables. Paternal behavioral control was hypothesized to predict life satisfaction and positive youth development (path Fm and Fn) whereas paternal psychological control was hypothesized to predict hopelessness and life satisfaction (path Fo and Fp). Unlike paternal variables, maternal behavioral control was hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path Mm, Mn and Mo). Consistently, maternal psychological control was hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path Mp, Mq and Mr). Maternal control based on Chinese concepts was also hypothesized to predict positive youth development (path Ms). Predictions of direct effects were made. Inter-parental conflict was hypothesized to predict life satisfaction (path Ct) whereas inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was hypothesized to predict hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development (path Cu, Cv and Cw). The covariance between perceived inter-parental conflict and non-conflict related attributes, the covariance among parenting styles and practices variables, and the covariance among hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development were hypothesized to be significant. The fit indices of the proposed combined model were good. The Chi-square value was significant (264.832, df=35; p<.001). As mentioned regarding the paternal model, this criterion should not be applied to the main study data-set as it contained more than 2,000 cases (Barrett, 2007; Kenny, 2012), The CFI was 0.978, the TLI was 0.914, the RMSEA was 0.057 and the 223

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SRMR was 0.028. The significance tests of individual paths were also reviewed. Perceived inter-parental conflict predicted paternal concern (path Fa) (β = -0.164, SE = 0.025, p<.001) but not maternal concern (path Ma) (β = -0.041, SE = 0.036, ns). Inter-parental conflict did not predict paternal harshness (path Fb) (β = 0.017, SE = 0.042, ns). However, it predicted maternal harshness (path Mb) (β = 0.107, SE = 0.043, p =.014). Non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal concern (path Fc) (β = 0.258, SE = 0.020, p<.001) and maternal concern (path Mc) (β = 0.172, SE = 0.023, p<.001). It also predicted paternal harshness (path Fd) (β = -0.059, SE = 0.026, p<.001) but not maternal harshness (Md) (β=-0.049, SE=0.027, ns). In terms of parenting practices, inter-parental conflict did not predict paternal psychological control (path Fe) (β = 0.001, SE = 0.025, ns) and maternal psychological control (path Me) (β = -0.041, SE = 0.025, ns). However, it did predict paternal and maternal control based on Chinese concepts (path Ff) (β = -0.193, SE = 0.022, p<.001) (path Mf) (β = -0.138, SE = 0.021, p<.001). Non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal behavioral control (path Fg) (β = 0.247, SE = 0.010, p<.001) and control based on Chinese concepts (path Fi) (β = 0.075, SE = 0.014, p<.001) but not psychological control (path Fh) (β = 0.006, SE = 0.016, ns). Similarly, Non-conflict related attributes predicted maternal behavioral control (path Mg) (β = 0.142, SE = 0.011, p<.001), psychological control (path Mh) (β = -0.054, SE = 0.016, p =.001), and control based on Chinese concepts (path Mi) (β = 0.059, SE = 0.013, p<.001). Regarding the paths between parenting variables and mental health variables, paternal concern predicted hopelessness (path Fj) (β = -0.167, SE = 0.026, p<.001) but not life satisfaction (path Fk) (β = 0.051, SE = 0.033, ns) and positive youth development (path Fl) (β=0.030, SE=0.016, ns). Maternal concern predicted hopelessness (path Mj) (β = -0.097, SE = 0.028, p<.001) and life satisfaction (path Mk) (β = 0.078, SE = 0.035, p =.026) but not positive youth development (path Ml) (β=0.002, SE=0.019, ns). Paternal behavioral control predicted life satisfaction (path Fm) (β = 0.313, SE = 0.055, p<.001) and positive youth development (path Fn) (β = 0.078, SE = 0.027, p =.004). Paternal psychological control predicted hopelessness (path Fo) (β = 0.123, SE 224

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= 0.038, p =.001) and life satisfaction (path Fp) (β = -0.265, SE = 0.051, p<.001). On the other hand, maternal behavioral control predicted hopelessness (path Mm) (β = -0.203, SE =.039, p<.001), life satisfaction (path Mn) (β = 0.432, SE = 0.055, p<.001), and positive youth development (path Mo) (β = 0.252, SE = 0.030, p<.001). Maternal psychological control predicted hopelessness (path Mp) (β = 0.177, SE = 0.041, p<.001), life satisfaction (path Mq) (β = -0.245, SE = 0.051, p<.001) and positive youth development (path Mr) (β = -0.149, SE = 0.026, p<.001). Maternal Control based on Chinese Concepts predicted positive youth development (path Ms) (β = 0.050, SE = 0.025, p<.05). Finally, concerning the direct effects, perceived inter-parental conflict failed to predict life satisfaction (path Ct) (β = -0.026, SE = 0.043, ns). Non-conflict related attributes predicted hopelessness (path Cu) (β = -0.053, SE = 0.019, p =.005), life satisfaction (path Cv) (β = 0.147, SE = 0.030, p<.001) and positive youth development (path Cw) (β = 0.056, SE = 0.014, p<.001). In summary, only 10 out of the 39 paths were not significant (i.e., path Ma, Fb, Md, Fe, Me, Fh, Fk, Fl, Ml and Ct). After removing the non-significant paths, the model fit indices improved slightly: The Chi-square value was 273.901 (df = 43; p<.001), the CFI was 0.978, the TLI was 0.31, the RMSEA was 0.052 and the SRMR was 0.029. The summary of the fit indices of the models based on the paternal, maternal, and combined variables are listed in Table 7.32. The results of the significance tests of the individual paths from the combined model are listed in Table 7.33.

7.6.5.4 Differences between results of the regression analyses and the SEM analyses The model testing and refinement was based on the results of the regression analyses. Thirty-nine paths were tested in the SEM analyses. Thirty of them were significant. These results were consistent with those of the regression analyses. However, 10 out of 39 were not significant (i.e., path Ma, Fb, Md, Fe, Me, Fh, Fk, Fl, Ml and Ct). These 10 paths were significant in the regression analyses but not in the SEM analyses. In particular, perceived inter-parental conflict failed to predict paternal harshness, paternal 225

226 psychological control, maternal concern, maternal psychological control, and life satisfaction. Perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes failed to predict paternal psychological control, maternal harshness. In addition, paternal concern did not predict life satisfaction and positive youth development. Maternal concern did not predict positive youth development. These 10 paths were not significant in the SEM analyses because SEM analysis takes correlations among variables into account whereas regression does not. In other words, in terms of statistical estimation, the SEM analyses gave more precise estimations of these paths. However, more research is needed to investigate the existence of the above paths.

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Chapter 8: Discussion

There are six sections in this chapter. The first section is a discussion of the psychometric properties of the newly developed and existing measurements used in this research. In the second section, the key findings for each research question with reference to the literature are discussed. The theoretical implications of the research are presented in the third section, and practical implications regarding social work practice, policy formulation and social work education are outlined in the fourth section. In the fifth section, the methodological advancements of the research are presented. The sixth section discusses the limitations of this study.

8.1 Psychometric properties of the measurement tools

The scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes was a measurement newly developed in this study. Besides that one, seven existing scales were also used. A summary of the psychometric properties of these scales was presented in Section 7.4. The findings for the psychometric properties of the scales used in the validation study and the main study are presented in this section.

8.1.1 Newly developed measurement: A scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes

8.1.1.1 Development and validation of a scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes

Previous research has mainly focused on inter-parental conflict. Also, there were nearly no studies done on adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes. Therefore, there was a need to develop a scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes. The research findings of the validation study and the main study serve as pioneer

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228 evidence for the validity and use of the construct of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and for the psychometric properties of this newly developed measurement.

8.1.1.1.1 Construction of a scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes

Based on a review of the literature on marital quality and the measurement tools of marital relationships, and interactions and qualitative data from four focus groups of adolescents and social workers (Fok & Shek, 2013), there were 12 domains to be considered. They are Togetherness, Communication, Appreciation, Criticism, Concern, Helping, Understanding and Acceptance, Trust, Satisfaction, Indigenous Chinese concepts, Passion, and Commitment. These 12 domains were consistent with the literature regarding the marital relationship and interactions (e.g., Graham & Christiansen, 2009; Graham, Liu, & Jeziorski, 2006). Both the literature and the focus groups emphasized concern, satisfaction, trust, communication and acceptance between parents. However, there was one distinctive feature of this construction study. This study suggested that the physical togetherness of parents, responsibility for the family shared by parents, appreciation expressed in front of children, active response to partners’ needs, body contact, consistency in terms of views and behavior of parents, and active helping are important dimensions of the construct. These findings extended the theoretical conceptualization of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental relationships, especially in the Hong Kong Chinese context. Previous studies on children’s perception of the inter-parental relationship focused mainly on perceived inter-parental conflict (e.g., Peris, Goeke-Morey, Cummings, & Emery, 2008; Davies, Strurge-Apple, Cicchetti, & Cummings, 2007, 2008; El-sheikh et al., 2009) whereas past literature on marital satisfaction and stability mainly emphasized trust, communication, and adjustment (e.g., Miller et al., 2013).

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The present study was one of the few studies documenting the importance of the physical togetherness of parents, responsibility for the family shared by parents, appreciation expressed in front of children, active response to partners’ needs, body contact, consistency in terms of views and behavior of parents, and active helping as indexes of the inter-parental relationship. Future research was suggested to investigate whether the above domains were only important in the Hong Kong Chinese context (or in a Chinese context in general) or the above domains were also present and important in Western samples. The construction study also pointed out the discrepancies between the perceptions of adolescents and those of social workers. For instance, in the domain of acceptance and responsibility, social workers emphasized acceptance whereas adolescents did not regard acceptance as an important attribute. Neither did adolescents regard acceptance as a behavioral expression of positive inter-parental relationships. Concerning the theme of responsibility, although adolescents also reported they had observed their parents being responsible for their families and regarded responsibility as a behavioral expression of a positive inter-parental relationship, their tendency to report this domain was relatively lower than that of the social workers. These two differences might be due to the fact that adolescents had less experience with a long-term romantic relationship and they did not picture the importance of acceptance and responsibility in such a relationship. Alternatively, this can be explained by the influence of popular youth culture (emphases on lust and feelings in intimate relationships) on contemporary young people.

Based on the focus group data and a review of the literature on marital quality and related measurement tools, 60 items were developed. 21 experts who had at least one year of experience in providing social work or counseling services for families of adolescents, or had substantial knowledge of inter-parental relationships, were invited to judge the relevance, clarity and representativeness of the proposed items. The findings showed that the items achieved high relevance, clarity and representativeness for the construct of non-conflict related attributes in inter-parental relationships. Modification of the items based on the views of the

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230 judges further improved the validity of the measure. Providing content validity was important as it ensured that the items were valid from an outsider’s perspective.

In addition, there are only limited psycho-social measures of family functioning available in a Chinese context (Shek, 2002; 2010). The construction of a scale of adolescent perceived non-conflict related attributes was a positive response to this research gap. With scientifically based Chinese indigenous measures, family functioning and dynamic interactions among family members can be explored further in the future studies.

8.1.1.1.2 Validation of a scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes

To examine the psychometric properties of the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, two studies were conducted. The first study was to test internal consistency and criteria-related validity. The second study was to test test-retest reliability, construct validity and factorial validity.

8.1.1.1.3 Psychometric properties of the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes in the validation studies

In the first validation study, 23 male and 24 female adolescents were recruited from schools through a social work service unit. The participants’ average age was 14.45 (SD = 1.30; Min =12; Max =16). 28 of the participants were from intact families. 19 of them were from non-intact families. Based on the data from these participants, the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes showed excellent internal consistency because the scale had a Cronbach’s alpha of .984 and the mean inter-item correlations of .514. 43 out of 60 items also showed good criterion-related validity because the item scores of participants from intact-families were significantly higher or lower than

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231 those of participants from non-intact families. The effect size of the 43 items (i.e., Cohen's d) ranged from .61 to 1.39, which was large.

In the second validation study, eight of the items having the largest effect sizes for the criterion-related validity were selected to exanimate further the test-retest reliability and construct validity. To achieve this research objective, 253 participants were recruited in two local secondary schools. The average age of the participants was 14.70 (SD = 1.55; Min =12; Max =16). 138 participants were male and 66 were female. 179 of them were from intact families whereas 21 of them were from non-intact families. The participants were asked to fill in the eight items of the Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale, the Chinese version of Intensity of Children's Perceptions of Inter- parental Conflict Scale (CPIC) and the Chinese language short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS). A subset of the participants was asked to fill in the same questionnaire two weeks later. The data from the second validation study indicated that the 8-item version of the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes had excellent test-retest reliability. This is because the Pearson’s r of the same scale between two time points was .815 (p < .001) and the paired t-test of the mean scale scores from the two time points were not significantly different, t(132) =- .088, ns. The scale also had good construct validity. The scores of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes showed a significantly negative relationship with the scores of the Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI) (r = -.54, p<.01) and the Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (HOPEL) (r = -.41, p < .01) but a positive relationship with the scores of the Chinese version of the Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) (r =.61, p < .01) in the time 1 data-set. The same results were replicated in the time 2 data-set. The scores of the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes scale correlated negatively with the CPIC-CI (r = -.50, p < .01) and the HOPEL (r = -.36, p < .01) but positively with the LIFE (r =.57, p < .01).

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To conclude, the two validation studies showed that the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes had good reliability and validity because the data from these studies indicated good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criteria-related validity and construct validity.

8.1.1.1.3 Psychometric properties of the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes in the main study The 8-item scale of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes were selected to be used in the main study. The selection of these eight items was based on their high and consistent reliability and validity as shown by the results for the psychometric properties tested in the validation studies. Based on the main study data, the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes with eight items had excellent internal consistency. The Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was .917. The mean of the inter- item correlations was .562 which had a medium effect size (it ranged from .223 to .8.15). The mean item-total correlation was .721, which was high in effect size.

Regarding construct validity, the main study data showed that it was good. The scores for the scale were negatively correlated with those of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI) as theory predicted (r = -.527, p<.001). The negative correlation served as an evidence of the construct validity of the scale.

The main study data also indicated that the scale had good criterion-related validity. The scores of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes of adolescents from intact families (Mean=4.3, SD=1.14) were significantly higher than those of adolescents from non-intact families (Mean =2.82, SD =1.04) (t = -13.49, p<.001). This result suggested the scores of the scale can differentiate between adolescents from intact-families and those from non- intact-families, serving as an evidence for the criteria-related validity of the scale.

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Regarding factorial validity, a factor analysis of the principal component analysis with varimax rotation produced a one-factor solution. The factor had an eigenvalue greater than unity, and the solution explained 63.85% of the total variance. The loadings of all items exceeded .35. The factors corresponded to the domain of communication, appreciation, satisfaction and trust.

To conclude, the data used in the main study showed that the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes had good internal consistency, construct validity, criteria-related validity, and factorial validity. These results were consistent with those obtained in the two validation studies.

8.1.1.1.4 Psychometric properties of previously existing scales used in the study

In addition to the scale of Adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes, seven other scales were used in the main study. They were the Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of the Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), the Paternal Treatment Scale (PTS) and Maternal Treatment Scale (MTS), the scale for paternal parenting practice and maternal parenting practice, the Chinese Paternal Control Scale (CPCS) and the Chinese Maternal Control Scale (CMCS), the Chinese version of the Hopelessness Scale (C-HOPEL), the Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE), and the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale Short Form (CPYDS-SF). Based on the data from the main study, all scales used in the main study had good psychometric properties. The majority of the findings about the psychometric properties of these scales were consistent with previous studies. In other words, this study provided a huge amount of data that supported the psychometric properties of existing measures, as well as the newly constructed scale, in a Chinese context. Given that there are limited psychosocial measures in the Chinese population (Shek, 2002; 2010), the data in the present study are regarded as a constructive response to the research gap. With the data in the present study,

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234 the scales employed can be used in future studies for the investigation of mental health and family patterns in Chinese society.

8.2 Empirical findings for the Research Questions This section discusses the key empirical findings of this study with reference to the research questions stated in Chapter Five.

8.2.1 Relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health

In this section, Research question 1 (i.e., Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence adolescent mental health?) was addressed. Consistent with family ecological perspectives (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and previous literature on the effects of interpersonal relationships on child development (e.g., Ellis & Garber, 2000; El-Sheikh, Harger, & Whitson, 2001; Fergusson & Horwood, 1998; see review in Cummings & Davies, 1994, 2010), the present findings provided support for the idea that inter-parental relational quality (i.e., inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes) was associated with adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development). The discussion of the relationship between perceived inter- parental relational quality and adolescent mental health is divided into two parts in the following sections. The first part is about the relationship between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and adolescent mental health. The second part is about the relationship between perceived non-conflict related attributes and adolescent mental health.

8.2.1.1 Relationship between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and adolescent mental health In the main study, it was documented that adolescent perceived inter- parental conflict intensity was associated with three adolescent mental health indexes (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development) in the

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235 correlation analyses. The association was consistent with previous literature on the effects of inter-parental conflict on various aspects of children’s performance, including children’s academic results and sleep problems (Baucom, Shoham, Mueser, Daiuto, & Stickle, 1998; Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Cummings & Davies, 1994; Cummings, Pelligrini, Notarius, & Cummings, 1989; Emery, 1999). The present findings also matched with those of past studies in which inter-personal conflict was linked to various adolescents’ problems and psychopathology, including conduct problems, poor peer interaction, poor health, depression, anxiety, attachment insecurity, and low self-esteem (Cummings & Davies, 1994; Emery, 1982; 1999; Emery & O’Leary, 1984; Gottman & Katz, 1989; Grych & Fincham, 1990; Howes & Markman, 1989; Jouriles et al., 1991; Katz & Gottoman, 1993). In other words, the present results replicated the linkage between inter-parental conflict and negative aspects of adolescent mental health indexes (Buehler et al., 1998; Cui, Conger, & Lorenz, 2005; Cummings & Davies, 1994; Harold, Fincham, Osborne, & Conger, 1997; Jekielek, 1998; Kaczynski, Lindahl, Malik, & Laurenceau, 2006; Keller, Cummings, Peterson, & Davies, 2009; Krishnakumar, Buehler, & Barber, 2003; Oh, Lee, & Park, 2011; Vendlinski, Silk, Shaw, & Lane, 2006). To explain the association between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and the three adolescent mental health indexes, three possible mechanisms were listed. They were cognitive-contextual framework, emotional security perspective and parenting. According to Cummings and Davies (2010) and Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings (2002), the cognitive-contextual framework, and the emotional security perspective belonged to the “direct effects” of inter-parental conflicts on adolescent development whereas parenting was classified as “indirect effects”.

First, according to the cognitive-contextual framework, children’s cognitive appraisals of inter-parental conflict play a central role in mediating the association between inter-parental conflict and child developmental outcomes (Fosco & Grych, 2007; 2008). Cognitive appraisals refer to children’s subjective

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236 evaluations of their parents’ interaction and focus the meaning of the inter-parental conflict in terms of its perceived cause, course, and consequences (Fosco & Grych, 2007; 2008). Cognitive appraisals were found to mediate the impact of inter- parental conflict on children’s adjustment problems (e.g., Dadds, Atkinson, Turner, Blums, & Lendich, 1999; Grych, Harold, & Miles, 2003; Jouriles, Spiller, Stephens, McDonald, & Swank, 2000).

The second explanation was emotional security perspective. Based on the emotional security perspective (Davies & Cummings, 1994, 1998; Cummings & Davies, 1996, 2010), children’s emotional security is related to their personal sense of protection and safety in different family settings and is conceptualized as a connection between the child and the world. Past research findings indicated that a child’s emotional security predicted his or her later adjustment (Cummings, George, McCoy, & Davies, 2012). Short-term longitudinal studies also supported emotional security as a mediator between inter-parental conflicts and child adjustment outcomes (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002; Harold, Shelton, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2004). For instance, Cummings, Schermerhorn, Davies, Goeke-Morey, and Cummings (2006) conducted two short-term longitudinal studies based on independent samples. Their findings supported the emotional security perspectives.

The third explanation was parenting. Consistent with the family ecological perspective (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and family system theory (e.g., Bowen, 1978; Minuchin, 1974; Cummings & Davies, 2010), inter-parental conflict is theorized to negatively impact the parenting processes, which, in turn, impairs adolescent mental health (Cummings & Davies, 2010). Theoretically, inter- parental conflicts do not happen in a social vacuum. In fact, inter-parental conflicts are an inextricable part of a broader familial system (Cummings & Davies, 2010). Conflicts in the inter-parental system, conceptually, may impact on the parenting system in multiple ways, including stress, a negative perception of children, emotional unavailability for children, constriction of resources for parenting tasks,

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237 disruption of parental problem-solving, unavailability of a partner for parenting processes, and inconsistency in child management (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Dix, 1991; Floyd, Gilliom, & Costilgan, 1998). The impact of the above on the parenting system may, in turn, undermine adolescent mental health.

In terms of empirical data, although there have been null findings about parenting as a mediator between inter-parental conflict and child developmental outcomes in some studies (e.g., Frosch & Maneglsdorf, 2001; Katz & Windecker- Nelson, 2006; Skopp, McDonald, Jourriles, & Rosenfiled, 2007; Stocker & Rickmond, 2007), past empirical data has generally supported parenting as a robust mediator of inter-parental conflicts (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 2010; Erath, Bierman, & The Conduct problems Prevention research group, 2006; Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Campbell, Frabutt, & Lamb, 2002; Low & Stocker, 2005; Sturge-Apple et al., 2006a; 2006b). For instance, parent-child interaction mediated the link between inter-parental conflict and adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Davies et al., 2002). Sturge-Apple and colleagues (2008) conducted a multi-method longitudinal study. They found that parent-child interactions served as explanatory mechanisms in multiple pathways linking inter- parental conflict and parent emotional unavailability to both children and teachers’ reports on the emotional and classroom engagement difficulties in children’s adjustment to school.

In addition to observational studies and questionnaire studies, intervention studies also supported the notion that parenting acts as a mediator between inter- parental conflicts and child developmental outcomes. For instance, interventions which were designed to improve a parent’s relationship with his or her partner also had positive impacts on that parent’s parenting processes and subsequent child adjustment. In contrast, programs that were designed to help parenting processes only benefited subsequent child adjustment but not the inter-parental relationship (Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Cowan, Cowan, & Heming, 2005; Cowan et al., 2007).

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Although researchers are not certain why and how parenting serves as a mediator between inter-parental conflict and child developmental outcomes (Cummings & Davies, 2010), empirical data from various studies did support parenting as an explanatory processes for linking between inter-parental conflict and child developmental outcomes (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Cowan et al., 2007; Sturge-Apple et al., 2008).

The present findings contain three distinctive features that are worthy of discussion. They are the unique predictive power of inter-parental conflict, the investigation of inter-parental conflict in Chinese samples, and the linkage between inter-parental conflict and positive youth development. Concerning the unique predictive power of inter-parental conflict, in the regression analyses, perceived inter-parental conflict intensity could only predict adolescent life satisfaction but not hopelessness and positive youth development, after the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes were statistically controlled. This was not consistent with previous literature in which inter-parental conflict predicted children internalizing and externalizing their problems as well as other psychopathology and health problems (Cummings & Davies, 1994, 2010; Davies, Manning & Cicchetti, 2013; Emery, 1982; 1999; Emery & O’Leary, 1984; Gottman & Katz, 1989; Grych & Fincham, 1990; Howes & Markman, 1989; Jouriles et al., 1991; Katz & Gottoman, 1993; Sturge-Apple et al., 2008). The discrepancy between the data from this study and previous findings may be due to that fact that other aspects of the inter-parental relationship were not measured and taken into account in the past studies. This may remind the field that the previously found high predictive power of inter-parental conflict on child developmental outcomes might represent the associations between overall inter- parental relationships and child developmental outcomes rather than inter-parental conflict per se. More research is needed to explore the unique predictive power of inter-parental conflict on various child outcomes. Another explanation of these results is that Chinese people’s interpretation of inter-parental conflict is different

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239 from that of other cultures. In Chinese culture, family harmony is greatly valued (Bond, 2010), which prevents the inter-parental conflict from serving as sensitive index of overall inter-parental relational quality (Fok & Shek, 2013). These factors might reduce the predictive power of inter-parental conflict on adolescent development.

Comparatively, few empirical studies have been done on inter-parental conflict in Chinese samples. Only thirty-five citations were found, based on a survey of PsycINFO through Auguest 2013 when “inter-parental conflict”, “parental conflict”, “marital conflict”, and “Chinese” were used as keywords (e.g., Zhao & Mo, 2006). The citations were limited to eleven when focusing only on the effects of inter-parental conflict on children’s outcomes (e.g., Lee, Beckert, Wu & Kwan, 2011). Being one of the first few investigations of the effects of inter-parental conflict on adolescent mental health in a Chinese setting, this study can be regarded as a positive response to the need for a deeper understanding of psychological, familial and social processes and patterns in Chinese societies (Yang, 1999).

In addition, psychometric data for the validity and reliability of psychosocial measures in different Chinese societies were limited (Davi, 1992; Shek, 2011). For instance, Zhao and Mo (2006) reported data for factorial validity for the Chinese version of the Children’s perception of Inter-parental Conflict scale (C-CPIC) but failed to provide data for construct validity and reliability. The present study filled this gap by providing evidence of internal consistency and construct validity for the intensity subscale of the C-CPIC. The data from this study, then, is an important addition to the field. More research is needed to explore the picture of inter-parental conflict as well as the psychometric properties of measures of inter-parental conflict in Chinese samples.

The third distinctive feature concerns the linkage between inter-parental conflict and positive youth development. Although there has been an increase in

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240 the studies on positive youth development (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 2004; Shek, 2013; Law & Shek, 2013; Lee & Shek, 2013; Shek & Lu, 2011; 2013; Sun & Shek, 2012), previous studies mainly focused on positive youth development programs and their evaluation (e.g., Catalano et al., 2004; Moore, Lippman, & Brown, 2004; Shek, & Chak, 2011; Shek, Ma, & Tang, 2011; Shek, Ma, & Kan, 2011; Law & Shek, 2011; Shek & Chan, 2011a; 2011b; Weissberg & Greenberg, 1998; Weitzman, Mijanovich, Silver, & Brazill, 2008), the basic conceptualization of positive youth development constructs and related measures (e.g., Catalano et al., 2004; Lau & Wu, 2012; Lee, Cheung & Kwong, 2012; Moore, Lippman, & Brown, 2004; Shek, 2012; Shek & Ma, 2010), and positive youth development constructs as predictors and/or correlates of adolescent problem behavior (e.g., Law & Shek, 2013; Lee & Shek, 2013; Shek & Lu, 2011; 2013). Relatively few studies on the linkage between family processes and positive youth development constructs were conducted (e.g., Hillaker, Brophy- Herb, Villarruel, & Haas, 2008). There were even fewer studies when only the inter-parental relationship was empathized. Given that family is an important ecological context for adolescent development and the growing interest in asset based rather than deficit-based studies (Moore, Lippman, & Brown, 2004), there is a need to investigate the reasons and processes by which the family provides and creates opportunities for cultivating asserts in youths (Hillaker et al., 2008). This study has documented that there is an association between inter-parental conflict and positive youth development. Since inter-parental conflict represented an important aspect of the inter-parental relationship within a family system, this study serves as a primary attempt to fill this gap. As there was no previously existing study on the link between family processes and positive youth development using a large sample in a Chinese society, this study was considered to be a pioneer one in the field.

In conclusion, the present findings are consistent with previous literature on the link between inter-parental conflict and child outcomes (Cummings & Davies, 1994; Cummings, Pelligrini, Notarius, & Cummings, 1989; Emery, 1999).

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Cognitive evaluation of conflict (Cummings, Schermerhorn, Davies, Goeke- Morey, & Cummings 2006; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002; Grych, Harold, & Miles, 2003; Grych, Raynor, & Fosco, 2004), conflict related emotional insecurity (Crockenberg & Langrock, 2001; Davies et al., 2002; Davies & Cummings, 2006, 2010; Davies, Manning & Cicchetti, 2013; Rhoades, 2008), and parenting (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Erath, Bierman, & The Conduct problems Prevention research group, 2006; Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Campbell, Frabutt, & Lamb, 2002; Low & Stocker, 2005; Sturge-Apple et al., 2006a; 2006b) were suggested as explanatory mechanisms to account for the link between inter- parental conflict and adolescent mental health found in this study. This concludes the discussion of the three distinct features of this study, namely the unique predictive power of inter-parental conflict, investigating inter-parental conflict in Chinese samples, and the linkage between inter-parental conflict and positive youth development

8.2.1.2 Relationship between perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and adolescent mental health

In the present study, it was found that adolescent perceived non-conflict related attributes was associated with three adolescent mental health indexes (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development) in the correlation analyses. This was consistent with previous studies on inter-parental relationship satisfaction and child development outcomes (Feldman, Fisher, & Seitel, 1997; Gonzales, Pitts, Hill, & Roosa, 2000; Hair, Moore, Hadley, Keyes, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jouriles et al., 1989; King, Radpour, Naylor, Segal, & Jouriles, 1995; Mann & MacKenzie, 1996). In addition, the present findings also matched with those of previous studies on the positive effects of the parent marital relationship on child outcomes (Amato & Sobolewski, 2001; Harold, Fincham, & Osborne, 1997; Kapinus, 2005; Kerig, 1996; Kozuch & Cooney, 1995; Du Rocher Schudlich & Cummings, 2003). In other words, the results of this present study replicated the linkage between the positive aspects of the inter-parental

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242 relationship and youth adjustment outcomes, including educational outcomes, health and sexual activity (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jeong & Chun, 2010; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009; Kaye, Moore, Hair, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Vandervalk, Spruijt, De Goede, Maas, &Meeus, 2005).

There have been comparatively limited studies on the mechanisms which explain the link between positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship and child developmental outcomes. Many of the explanations were borrowed from the literature on the effects of inter-parental conflict on children (Davies, Cicchetti, & Martin, 2012; Fosco & Grych, 2007; 2008; Cummings & Davies, 2010; Sturge- Apple et al., 2006a; 2006b). For instance, Jeong and Chun (2010) employed a cognitive-contextual framework and parenting to explain the pathways from parents’ marital quality to adolescents’ adjustment to school in South Korea.

Mirroring the explanations stated for the association between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and the three adolescent mental health indexes, three possible mechanisms are listed to explain the link between perceived non- conflict related attributes and adolescent mental health. They are cognitive- contextual framework, emotional security perspective and parenting.

According to the cognitive-contextual framework, children’s cognitive appraisals of non-conflict related attributes may mediate the association between perceived non-conflict related attributes and adolescent mental health (Fosco & Grych, 2007; 2008). Cognitive appraisals can be conceptualized as children’s subjective evaluations of their parents’ interaction and this can determine the meaning of the non-conflict related attributes in terms of its perceived cause, course, and consequences (Fosco & Grych, 2007; 2008). Although there was no existing data for the mediating role of cognitive appraisals in the positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship context, such claims are consistent with social symbolic interactionism which argues that adolescents respond to non-conflict

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243 related attributes based on the meanings that they assign to them (O’Brien & Kollock, 2001). Positive cognitive evaluations of non-conflict related attributes are hypothesized to be mediators just as negative cognitive evaluations of conflict on children’s outcomes are (e.g., Dadds, Atkinson, Turner, Blums, & Lendich, 1999; Grych, Harold, & Miles, 2003; Jouriles, Spiller, Stephens, McDonald, & Swank, 2000).

The second explanation was from the emotional security perspective (Davies & Cummings, 1994, 1998; Cummings & Davies, 1996, 2010). Since a child’s emotional security is about his or her personal sense of protection and safety within a family and is conceptualized as a connection between the child and the world (Cummings, Cheung, & Davies, 2013), a child’s emotional security brought about by non-conflict related attributes may signal the stability and well- being of a family. This may serve as a base for flexible emotional reactivity (Goeke-Morey, Papp, & Cummings, 2013), emotional regulation during tasks engagement, autonomy, and problem-solving performance (Davies, Manning & Cicchetti, 2012). In other words, a child’s emotional security may increase frustration tolerance in the face of stress (Blandon, Calkins, Grimm, Keane, & O’Brien, 2010; Cole et al., 1996), foster efforts at self-direction in the child (i.e., autonomy) and help ﬂexibly coordinate multiple resources to address challenges (i.e., problem solving). These may be necessary for successful developmental tasks, impacting later mental health outcomes (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000; Kochanska & Knaack, 2003; Riggs, Blair, & Greenberg, 2003). The third explanation was parenting. The family ecological perspective (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979; 2005) and family system theory (e.g., Bowen, 1978; Minuchin, 1974; Coleman, 1988) theorize that non-conflict related attributes, as a representative of the positive sides of the inter-parental relationship, may impact the parenting processes, which, in turn, fosters adolescent mental health (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jeong & Chun, 2010; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009; Kaye, Moore, Hair, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009). Theoretically, non-conflict related attributes may impact on the

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244 parenting system in multiple ways, including relational asserts (Orthner, Jones- Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009), a positive perception of children, emotional availability for children, supply of resources for parenting tasks, flexibility of parental problem-solving, availability of a partner for parenting processes, and consistency of child management (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Dix, 1991; Floyd, Gilliom, & Costilgan, 1998). Empirically, the questionnaire data supported the effect of parenting mediating the link between marital functioning or satisfaction and child outcomes (Frosch & Mangelsdorf, 2001; Gonzales, Pitts, Hill, & Roosa, 2000; Jouriles et al., 1989; Mann & MacKenzie, 1996).

Five distinctive features of the results obtained in this study are worth discussing. They are the investigation of non-conflict related attributes, the measurement of the inter-parental relationship from an adolescent’s viewpoint, the unique predictive power of perceived non-conflict related attributes, the use of Chinese samples and investigating both the positive and negative indexes of mental health.

When investigating non-conflict related attributes, past studies on the link between the inter-parental relationship and child developmental outcomes overly emphasized inter-parental conflict (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Fok & Shek, 2013). Fok and Shek (2013) argued that the over-emphasis had two problems. First, using inter-parental conflict alone assumes a conflict orientation in inter- parental relationships and neglects the inter-parental relationship as a source of support for child development. Second, the over-emphasis on conflict fails to realize the inter-parental relationship as a multi-dimensional concept and fails to investigate the contribution of different aspects of inter-parental relationships to adolescent development. Investigating non-conflict related attributes together with perceived conflict intensity in this study was a direct response to this research gap. In other words, this present study suggests that human interaction is not simply governed by conflict. The emotional climate and interaction dynamics also shape human interaction and development (Steinberg, 2001). According to the

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245 ecological perspective, it is expected that different family processes are intimately linked to adolescent developmental outcomes. Hence, comprehensive family processes and dynamics should be explored further in the future studies.

Concerning measuring the inter-parental relationship from an adolescent’s viewpoint, there were relatively fewer studies measuring the positive inter-parental relationship from an adolescent’s viewpoint (Fok & Shek, 2013). Previous studies on the link between the quality of the relationship between parents and child outcomes mainly measured the construct from the parents’ perspective (Gonzales, Pitts, Hill, & Roosa, 2000; Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009, Jouriles et al., 1989; King, Radpour, Naylor, Segal, & Jouriles, 1995; Mann & MacKenzie, 1996). There were only limited studies measuring the quality of the relationship between parents from the viewpoint of children (e.g., Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jeong & Chun, 2010; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009; Kaye, Moore, Hair, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009). Among this literature, there is a significant amount of related studies coming from the same dataset or the same group of researchers (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009; Kaye, Moore, Hair, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009). Investigating the inter-parental relationship from the adolescent’s perspective is important because adolescent perceptions and understanding of inter-parental relationships might be different from those of parents (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992). There was a need to investigate whether or not the link between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health would still hold in the data from adolescents. The present study filled this research gap by providing such data.

The third distinctive feature was the discovery of the unique predictive power of perceived non-conflict related attributes. Perceived non-conflict related attributes was a new concept (Fok & Shek, 2013). It was necessary to provide a unique nomological network to prove the usefulness of this construct. In the regression analyses done for this study, it was found that perceived non-conflict

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246 related attributes uniquely predicted hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development whereas perceived conflict intensity only uniquely predicted life satisfaction. The analyses also showed that perceived non-conflict related attributes accounted for more variance than perceived conflict intensity did. These results not only answered the research question “whether or not the positive inter- parental relationships can still predict unique adolescent mental health after controlling for negative inter-parental relationships” (Fok & Shek, 2013, p.3) but also implied a paradigm shift (i.e., from a deficit-based view of inter-parental relationships to a strength-based view).

Similar to the picture for inter-parental conflict, there have been comparatively few empirical studies done on the positive aspects of the inter- parental relationship in Chinese samples. Only twenty-eight citations were found based on a survey of PsycINFO conducted through March 2014 when “inter- parental relationship quality”, “relationship quality”, “marital quality”, and “Chinese” were used as keywords (e.g., Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004; Shek, 2000). The present study has deepened our understanding of familial processes and patterns in Chinese societies by investigating the association between positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health (Yang, 1999).

Finally, when investigating both positive and negative indexes of mental health, past studies on the effects of the inter-parental relationship focused mainly on child pathology, such as internalizing and externalizing problems (Cummings & Davies, 2010). Little was known about the effects of the inter-parental relationship on positive indexes of mental health. This study found that non- conflict related attributes was associated with both life satisfaction and positive youth development. These results supported the idea that the inter-parental relationship fostered the well-being of adolescents.

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8.3 Relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and parenting

In this section, Research question 2 (i.e., Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence parenting style and parenting practice?) is addressed. Consistent with the family ecological perspectives (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and previous literature on the effects of interpersonal relationships on parenting (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 2010; Erath, Bierman, & The Conduct problems Prevention research group, 2006; Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Campbell, Frabutt, & Lamb, 2002; Low & Stocker, 2005; Sturge-Apple et al., 2006a; 2006b), the present findings confirmed that inter-parental relational quality (i.e., inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes) was associated with parenting style (i.e., parental concern and harshness) and practice (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts). The discussion on the relationship between perceived inter-parental relational quality and parenting has been divided into two parts and is presented in the following sections. The first part is about the relationship between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and parenting. The second part is about the relationship between perceived non-conflict related attributes and parenting.

8.3.1.1 Relationship between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and parenting

In this study, it has been documented that adolescent perceived inter- parental conflict intensity was associated with parenting style (i.e., parental concern and harshness) and practice (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) in correlation analyses. The association was consistent with previous literature on the effects of inter-parental conflict on parenting processes (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Sturge- Apple et al., 2006a; 2006b). These results were also consistent with previous studies in which parenting processes served as mediators between inter-parental

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248 conflict and child developmental outcomes (Erath, Bierman, & The Conduct problems Prevention research group, 2006; Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Campbell, Frabutt, & Lamb, 2002; Low & Stocker, 2005).

To explain the association between perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and parenting, a spillover hypothesis was proposed (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 2010; Bradford, Burns Vaughn, & Barber, 2007; Gerard, Krishnakumar, & Buehler, 2006). Sharing ideas with stress theory (Conger et al., 1992, 1993), the ecological perspective (Almeida, Wethington, & Chandler, 1999), and the family systems framework (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992), the spillover hypothesis theorized that negative moods, emotions, or the behavior of the inter- parental system during intense or frequent conflicts, was transferred to the parent- child system, affecting parents’ parenting style and practice (Ere1 & Burman, 1995; Katz & Gottman. 1996; Repetti, 1987). Since the parent-child bond was salient in children’s socialization and development (Peterson & Hann, 1999), scholars believe that children’s developmental outcomes were compromised when inter-parental conflict lead to high levels of parental harshness and low levels of parental concern, as well as low levels of behavioral control, parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts, and high levels of psychological control.

There was empirical evidence supporting the spillover of inter-parental conflict onto child outcomes (e.g., Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Cummings et al., 2002; Krishnakumar, Buehler, & Barber, 2003; Nicolotti, El-Sheikh, & Whitson, 2003). Several meta-analytic reviews also provided evidence in support of the spillover hypothesis. For instance, Krishnakumar and Buehler (2000) examined 39 studies of the associations between inter-parental conflict and parenting and found a moderate association. The average weighted effect size was .62 (i.e., inter- parental conflict predicted negative parenting behavior), supporting the spillover hypothesis. Moreover, Bradford and colleagues (2003) found relatively consistent evidence of the spillover of inter-parental conflict onto parenting and onto adolescent well-being among nine samples from both Western and non-Western

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249 cultures. This suggested that the spillover hypothesis may operate among non- Western families. In sum, although scholars were uncertain what processes are being transferred from inter-parental conflict to parenting, parenting is theoretically and empirically a salient mediator for the link between inter-parental conflict and child outcomes.

In terms of the regression analyses, the present results had three distinctive features, including simultaneously examining parenting style and parenting practice, discovering the unique protective power of perceived conflict intensity, and simultaneously examining paternal and maternal parenting.

First, both parenting style and practice were assessed in this study. Gerard, Krishnakumar, and Buehler (2006) reviewed previous studies on the link between inter-parental conflict and parenting. They pointed out that most of the past studies focused on a single dimension of parenting, leaving multiple dimensions of parenting not fully examined (e.g., Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, &Wierson, 1990; Gonzales et al., 2000). Thus, the interrelations between inter-parental conflicts and parenting were not specifically tested (Cummings & Davies, 2010). By conceptualizing parenting as multi-dimensional constructs which consisted of parenting style (concern and harshness) and practice (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts), this study assessed the unique and relative association of each parenting concept with inter-parental conflict. In other words, this study has extended the literature by examining these associations contemporaneously (Gerard, Krishnakumar, & Buehler, 2006). In particular, the present study found that perceived conflict intensity predicted parenting styles and parenting practices except behavioral control. This result implied that the explicit rules and regulations that parents set for their children were relatively unaffected by negative interactions between parents, when compared with expectations based on cultural rules (Smetana & Daddis, 2002) and a conditionally approving attitude towards children (Soenens, Park, Vansteenkiste, Mouratidis, 2012). This might be

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250 because explicit rules and regulations were comparatively clear and obvious as well as easily remembered even during a stressful situation or under a low level of psychological resources.

Like the association between inter-parental conflict and child outcomes, the unique protective power of perceived conflict intensity over parenting variables was seldom examined. Past studies documenting inter-parental conflict predicted parenting variables such as harsh parenting (Barnes & Farrell, 1992; Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004; Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994; Kandel, 1990). However, little was known about whether or not the perceived conflict could still predict parenting variables after controlling for a positive inter-parental relationship. This study extended the literature by directly testing this hypothesis.

Finally, the third distinctive feature was simultaneously examining paternal and maternal parenting. Katz and Gottman (1996) suggested that there was a need to disentangle the effects of inter-parental conflict on paternal and maternal parenting variables. Some past studies also indicated that paternal parenting variables were affected more by inter-parental conflicts (Belsky, Gilstrap, & Rovine, 1984; Belsky, Rovine, & Fish, 1989; Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988; Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984; Brody, Pellegrini, & Sigel, 1986; Belsky, Youngblade, Rovine, & Volling, 1991). Although nearly two decades have passed, scholars have not yet come to a conclusion on the relative impacts of the conflict on various paternal and maternal parenting variables. This study was one of the few positive responses to this research gap. This present study found that the perceived conflict intensity, in general, uniquely accounted for more variances in paternal style and practice, despite the differences being small.

In conclusion, this study was consistent with past literature on the link between inter-parental conflict and parenting (Sturge-Apple et al., 2006a; 2006b). The spillover hypothesis was proposed to explain the linkage. Three distinctive features of this study are also discussed.

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8.3.1.2 Relationship between perceived non-conflict related attributes and parenting

In the correlational analyses done for this study, it was found that adolescent perceived non-conflict related attributes was associated with parenting style (i.e., parental concern and harshness) and practice (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts). These results were consistent with previous studies in which parenting processes served as mediators between marital quality and child developmental outcomes (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009). These findings were also consistent with past studies in which inter-parental relationship quality was linked to child developmental outcomes (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jeong & Chun, 2010; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009; Kaye, Moore, Hair, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Vandervalk, Spruijt, De Goede, Maas, & Meeus, 2005).

To explain the link between perceived non-conflict related attributes and parenting, family system theory was employed (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992). Family system theory suggested that a positive inter-parental system may influence growth in the parent-child system. Theoretically, positive inter-parental relationships could increase parents’ childrearing abilities by creating warm and positive family climates which in turn prime positive responses in children (Cummings & Davies, 2010). Shek (2005b) also suggested that a positive and stress-free family context makes parents more sensitive to their children’s developmental needs and equips parents with more psychological resources to deal with their children’s needs. Although there was no existing data directly supporting such hypothesis, research has found that better inter-parental relationship quality is associated with better parent-child relationships (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009) and communication (Jeong & Chun, 2010). Other studies also found that a positive

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252 inter-parental relationship was associated with parental emotional acceptance toward children, which was very similar to parental concern in parenting style (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Krishnakumar & Buehler, 2000). This implied that family system theory could be a promising theoretical framework that could guide future research into explaining the link between perceived non-conflict related attributes and parenting.

With regard to the results of the present regression analyses, there were three distinctive features. They were simultaneously examining parenting style and parenting practice, discovering the unique protective power of perceived non- conflict related attributes, and simultaneously examining paternal parenting and maternal parenting. Concerning the first feature, past studies on the link between the inter-parental relationship and parenting largely neglected positive inter- parental relationships (Fok & Shek, 2013). Even when there were some studies investigating the effects of a positive inter-parental relationship (such as relationship quality) on parenting (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009), those studies mainly conceptualize parenting as a single-dimension construct. Little was known about the specific interrelations between positive inter-parental relationship and various parenting variables from an adolescent perspective (Cummings & Davis, 2010). On the other hand, Steinberg (2001) suggested that parenting behavior can be classified into parenting style and parenting practice. The present data indicated that perceived non-conflict related attributes, on average, accounted for more variance on parenting style than on parenting practice, indicating the positive aspects of inter-parental relationship which affect parents’ emotional climate towards children more than specific parenting behavior do. The present study supplemented the literature by simultaneously examining parenting style and practice.

Secondly, the unique protective power of perceived non-conflict related attributes over parenting variables was important. Perceived non-conflict related attributes as an index of positive inter-parental relationship from children’s points

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253 of view was newly developed (Fok & Shek, 2013). Although family system theory predicts that perceived non-conflict related attributes should predict parenting variables (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992), these hypotheses needed to be tested. This study provided evidence for these hypotheses, and showed that perceived non-conflict related attributes accounted for more variances in parental concern than variances in harshness. Similarly, the construct accounted more variances in parental behavioral control than in psychological control and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. These patterns were different from those of perceived conflict intensity. In addition, when compared to perceived conflict intensity, the perceived non-conflict related attributes, in general, accounted for more variances in parental variables, especially for parental concern and behavioral control. These results not only supported the validity and value of the perceived non-conflict related attributes but also showed how positive and negative aspects of the inter-parental relationship were connected to parenting variables in a specific way.

Finally, associations between perceived non-conflict related attributes and the parenting variables of both parents were assessed. Limited past studies suggested that bad marriages affected paternal parenting more than the parenting of mothers (Belsky, Gilstrap, & Rovine, 1984; Belsky, Rovine, & Fish, 1989; Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988; Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984; Brody, Pellegrini, & Sigel, 1986; Belsky, Youngblade, Rovine, & Volling, 1991). However, scholars did not know whether or not the revised pattern would hold (i.e., paternal parenting would benefit more from a positive inter-parental relationship). This study tested this hypothesis and found that perceived non-conflict related attributes generally accounted for more variances in paternal parenting variables than in maternal variables. These results implied that fathers did benefit more from a good marriage as seen through the eyes of their children and suggested that positive inter-parental relationships created positive emotional climates in which fathers can express their warm, set clear behavioral rules and have high cultural expectations for their children.

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In conclusion, this study was consistent with past literature on the link between inter-parental relationship quality and parenting (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jeong & Chun, 2010). Family system theory was proposed to explain the linkage (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992). Three distinctive features, simultaneously examining parenting style and parenting practice, discovering the unique protective power of perceived non-conflict related attributes, and simultaneously examining paternal and maternal parenting, were discussed.

8.4 Relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health

In this section, Research question 3 (i.e., i.e., Do parenting style and parenting practice influence adolescent mental health?) is addressed. Consistent with family ecological perspectives (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979) and previous literature on the effects of parenting on child developmental outcomes (e.g., Lamborn, Mount, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mount, & Dornbusch, 1994; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992; Shek, 1999a; 1999b; Steinberg, 2001), the present findings found that parenting style (i.e., parental concern and harshness) and practice (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) were associated with adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development). The discussion on the relationship between parenting and adolescent mental health is divided into two parts in the following sections. The first part is about the relationship between parenting style and adolescent mental health. The second part is about the relationship between parenting practice and adolescent mental health.

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8.4.1.1 Relationship between parenting style and adolescent mental health

In the correlational analyses for this section of this study, the results documented the link between parenting style (i.e., paternal and maternal concern and harshness) and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). These associations were consistent with previous findings in which parenting style was related to children’s well-being (e.g., Paulson, 1994; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989; Shek, 1999a; 1999b; Suldo & Huebner 2004), academic competence (Shek, 2002) and problem behavior (Suldo & Huebner 2004). In other words, the present study replicated the association between parenting style and adolescent mental health found in Western samples (Lamborn, Mount, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mount, & Dornbusch, 1994; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992; Steinberg, 2001) and Chinese samples (Shek, 1999a; 1999b; Chang et al., 2004).

To explain the link between parenting style and adolescent mental health, scholars suggested that higher levels of parental concern and lower levels of parental harshness were associated with better adolescent mental health because such parenting styles satisfied the basic emotional and bonding needs of the children (DeWolff & van Ijzendoorn, 1997; Waters & Cummings, 2000). Moreover, Steinberg (2001; 2008a; 2008b) proposed three possibilities in which positive parenting style (high level of concern and low level of harshness) helps the children’s growth: First, the nurturance and parental involvement expressed through positive parenting style make children more receptive to parental socialization (Bogenschneider, Small, & Tsay, 1997; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Mackey, Arnold, & Pratt, 2001; Mounts, 2002; Sim, 2000). This makes parental socialization more efficient. Second, the combination of support and structure in positive parenting styles foster the self-regulation skills, self-reliance, and self- assurance which are necessary for the further development of other competences (Glasgow, Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinberg, & Ritter, 1997; Steinberg, Elmen, &

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Mounts, 1989). Third, the verbal and behavioral parent-child interactions under positive parenting styles develop children’s cognitive and social skills (Reuter & Conger, 1998; Smetana, Crean, & Daddis, 2002). Later empirical research gave some support for these possibilities. For instance, a positive parenting style helped the executive functioning of children, which is part of their self-regulation system (Gross, 2007).

There were three features of the results of this study that needed further attention. They were distinguishing parental concern and harshness in predicting adolescent mental health, comparing paternal and maternal parenting style, and comprehensive indexes of mental health. First, distinguishing parental concern and harshness in predicting adolescent mental health was important. Past studies on parenting style indicated that parental concern was consistently related to children’s mental health (e.g., Paulson, 1994; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989) whereas the association between parental harshness and child outcomes was less clear (Chen et al., 2000; Leung, McBride-Chang, & Lai, 2004). Some studies suggested that culture was the moderator for the inconsistent findings. In particular, the association between parental harshness and child outcomes tends to be insignificant in Chinese samples (Leung, McBride-Chang, & Lai, 2004). In this study, the results documented that parental concern predicted all three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). However, parental harshness predicted none of them. These results were consistent with Cheung and McBride-Chang (2008) in which maternal warmth but not restrictiveness predicted children’s academic performance. The reason why parental harshness had unclear predictive power in Chinese samples was that harshness might be perceived as less negative by some children because those children regarded strict control from parents as an expression of parental involvement (Chao, 1994). Future studies are suggested to explore further the role of parental harshness in adolescent mental health and related moderators in the Chinese samples.

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Second, comparing paternal parenting style with maternal parenting style was also important. Some scholars proposed the parenting style of the mother was more influential than that of the father in adolescent development (Zemore & Rinholm, 1989; Leung, McBride-Chang, & Lai, 2004). Other data also suggested paternal parenting style was less influential because fathers tended to be more distant, less involved, and less available to their children than mothers (Shek, 1999a; Youniss & Smollar, 1985). However, other studies did not document such a pattern (e.g., Baumrind, 1991; Dubois, Eitel, & Felner, 1994; Paulson, 1994; Stice & Barrera, 1995). In this study, there was no difference in the predictive power of paternal concern and maternal concern over hopelessness. However, maternal concern accounted for relatively more variance in life satisfaction and positive youth development than did paternal concern. These results implied that both paternal and maternal parenting style had similar influences on the negative aspects of mental health whereas maternal parenting style had more influence on the positive sides of mental health. These results also suggested that types of development outcomes might be possible moderators for previous inconsistent findings. In other words, whether paternal parenting style is less predictive than maternal parenting style depends on what kind of child developmental outcomes are studied.

Finally, this study employed comprehensive indexes of adolescent mental health. Although the association between parenting style and adolescent mental health has been studied for decades (Baumrind, 1991; Weiss & Schwarz, 1996; Miller et al., 1993; Shek, 1999a; Shek, 2005a; 2005b; Steinberg, 2001), comparatively more studies were done on psychopathology and psychological distress. Less was done on positive indexes of mental health (Shek, 2005b). Those studying positive indexes of mental health focused mainly on Hedonic well-being where the Ryff and colleagues (2006)’s conceptualization of mental health was applied. The area of eudaimonic well-being was largely neglected. This study was one of the few studying the association of parental style and eudaimonic well- being as measured by positive youth development.

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In conclusion, this study found that parenting style was related to adolescent mental health. This is consistent with past studies (e.g., Paulson, 1994; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989; Shek, 1999a; 1999b; Suldo & Huebner 2004). Steinberg’s (2001) theory was used to explain the link between parenting style and adolescent mental health. Several features of the present findings were discussed.

8.4.1.2 Relationship between parenting practice and adolescent mental health

In the data from this study, it was found that parenting practice (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) was associated with three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). These associations were consistent with previous findings in which parenting practice was related to children’s health and psychosocial adjustments (Aquilino & Supple, 2001; Beck, Boyle, & Boekeloo, 2004; Gary & Steinberg, 1999; Bingham & Shope, 2004; Coley, Morris, & Hernandez, 2004; Li, Stanton, Feigelman, 2000; Park, & Benson, 2004; Peterson, Madden-Derdich, & Leonard, 2002; Rhee, 2008; Silk, Morris, & Kanaya, & Steinberg, 2003; Sullivan, Kung, & Farrell, 2004). In other words, the data obtained in this study replicated the past studies regarding the link between parenting practice and adolescent well-being in Chinese samples (Shek, 2005b; 2007c).

To explain the associations between parenting practice (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development), Darling and Steinberg (1993)’s conceptualization of parenting practice was used. Darling and Steinberg (1993) suggested that parenting practice had a direct effect on the development of specific child behaviors (such as amount of time spent on homework) or outcomes (level of self-esteem, depression, anxiety and purpose in life). This is because parenting

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259 practices are the mechanism by which parents directly help their children to achieve the goal of socialization. For instance, parents can help their children to improve school performance by increasing parental involvement (Stevenson & Baker, 1987). In the context of adolescent mental health, parents’ clear regulations, rules and guidance may help children to avoid unnecessary failures, thus protecting their children’s self-esteem or other psychological resources. These regulations, rules and guidance also help children to develop cognitive, behavioral, and social competences that are essential for good mental health. In addition, appropriate psychological control helps children to build self-regulation, autonomy, and self-reliance, enhancing the children’s mental health. Moreover, the cultural expectation holds that parents should inform their children of the specific ways in which they should behave as mentally healthy citizens within a culture. These mechanisms may be the possible channels through which parenting practices directly impact adolescent mental health.

Three of the present findings of this study needed further attention. They were differentiating paternal and maternal parenting practices, investigating parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts, and using comprehensive adolescent mental health indexes. First, this study differentiated paternal and maternal parenting practices. Similar to the case with parental style, the impacts of paternal and maternal parenting practices on adolescent mental health might be different (Zemore & Rinholm, 1989; Leung, McBride-Chang, & Lai, 2004). However, there was no updated existing data for a Chinese sample. This study filled this research gap and found that maternal parenting practices, in general, accounted for more of the variances in the three indexes of adolescent mental health. In the data collected for this study, maternal parenting practice predicted most of the indicators of mental health, except that maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not predict hopelessness and life satisfaction. However, only paternal behavioral control predicted life satisfaction and positive youth development. Paternal psychological control predicted hopelessness and life satisfaction. The relatively weaker influences of paternal

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260 parenting practice may be due to the fact that Hong Kong Chinese fathers have only a limited amount of time to get involved with their children (Shek, 1999a; Youniss & Smollar, 1985).

Investigating parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts was also important. Shek (2007d) proposed this concept and found it was correlated with parent-child relationship quality. Shek (2008a; b; c) also exanimated the interrelationship among behavioral control, psychological control and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. However, relatively little was known about the link between parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts and adolescent mental health. In this study, maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts uniquely predicted positive youth development. This result gave further support to the value and validity of the concept by showing a specific nomological network with different mental health indexes.

Finally, comprehensive adolescent mental health indexes were assessed in this study. Consistent with investigating parenting style, the link between parenting practice and adolescent outcomes has been heavily studied (Aquilino & Supple, 2001; Beck, Boyle, & Boekeloo, 2004; Gary & Steinberg, 1999; Bingham & Shope, 2004; Coley, Morris, & Hernandez, 2004; Li, Stanton, Feigelman, 2000; Park, & Benson, 2004; Peterson, Madden-Derdich, & Leonard, 2002; Rhee, 2008; Silk, Morris, & Kanaya, 2003; Sullivan, Kung, & Farrell, 2004). However, regarding that mental health literature, most of it investigated negative aspects of mental health, such as anxiety. Less research was done on the positive indexes of mental health, especially eudaimonic well-being (Shek, 2005b). This study was one of the few studying the association of parental practice with eudaimonic well- being as measured by positive youth development.

In conclusion, this study found that parenting practice was related to adolescent mental health. This was consistent with past studies (e.g., Aquilino & Supple, 2001; Beck, Boyle, & Boekeloo, 2004; Gary & Steinberg, 1999; Bingham

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& Shope, 2004; Coley, Morris, & Hernandez, 2004; Li, Stanton, Feigelman, 2000; Park, & Benson, 2004; Peterson, Madden-Derdich, & Leonard, 2002; Rhee, 2008; Silk, Morris, & Kanaya, 2003; Sullivan, Kung, & Farrell, 2004). Darling and Steinberg’s (1993) theory was used to explain the link between parenting practice and adolescent mental health. Several features of the present findings were discussed.

8.5 Parenting styles and practices as mediators of the influences of inter-parental relations on adolescent mental health

In this section, research question 4 (i.e., Does parenting style and practice mediate the influence of perceived inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health?) is addressed. Consistent with previous findings in which parenting processes served as mediators (Erath, Bierman, & The Conduct problems Prevention research group, 2006; Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Campbell, Frabutt, & Lamb, 2002; Low & Stocker, 2005), some parenting variables investigated here were found to be mediators between perceived inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health (i.e., hopeless, life satisfaction and positive youth development). The discussions are divided into two parts, namely the mediating role of parenting style between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health, and the mediating role of parenting practice between the inter- parental relationship and adolescent mental health.

8.5.1 Parenting styles as mediators of the influences of inter-parental relations on adolescent mental health

Based on the regression analyses and the Sobel tests, it was found that paternal and maternal concern mediated the effects of perceived conflict intensity on life satisfaction. The mediating role of parental concern was consistent with previous literature (Cummings & Davis, 2010). Past studies showed that lack of warmth, acceptance, and emotional availability mediated the effects of inter-

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262 parental conflict on internalizing problems (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). The data from this study, in other words, replicated the previous findings.

In addition, Paternal and maternal concern also mediated the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes on hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development. Since previous studies seldom investigated the impacts of the positive sides of the inter-parental relationship from an adolescent’s perspective, the mediating role of parenting style was uncertain. Although limited past studies suggested positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship affect adolescents via parent-child communication (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009), this study served as a pioneer to investigate this issue. These findings were also consistent with those in previous literature in that a negative inter-parental relationship harmed children’s development by negative parenting. In other words, the present findings could be treated as replications of past studies of inter-parental conflicts in the reverse direction.

On the other hand, it was surprising to note that parental harshness failed to mediate the effects of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes on all indexes of adolescent mental health. These results might be partly attributed to the fact that the unique predictive power of perceived inter- parental conflict intensity was greatly reduced when accounted for perceived non- conflict related attributes. This was also because of an inconsistent association between parental harshness and child outcomes (Chen et al., 2000; Leung, McBride-Chang, & Lai, 2004).These results were surprising because harsh parenting was regarded as a mediator of perceived inter-parental conflict in previous studies (Chang, Lansford, Schwartz, & Farver, 2004; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). The findings of this study are different from previous ones because multiple variables of parenting style were assessed here whereas a single-dimension of parenting style was used in the past studies

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(Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, & Wierson, 1990; Gonzales et al., 2000)

In conclusion, paternal and maternal concern also mediated the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes on all indexes of adolescent mental health as well as the effects of perceived conflict intensity on life satisfaction. In contrast, parental harshness failed to mediate the effects of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and non-conflict related attributes on all indexes of adolescent mental health.

8.5.2 Parenting practices as mediators of the influences of inter-parental relations on adolescent mental health

Based on the regression analyses and the Sobel tests, it was found that paternal and maternal psychological control mediated the link between perceived conflict intensity and life satisfaction. This result was consistent with previous findings. Past studies showed that inter-parental conflict increased the level of psychological control which, in turn, undermined adolescents’ development (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). In addition, maternal psychological control and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts mediated the link between perceived conflict intensity and positive youth development. While the mediating role of maternal psychological control echoed that mentioned in past studies (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002), the mediating effects of maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts was a new discovery. Previous research on the parenting processes as mediators for the inter-parental relationship never investigated culturally specific parenting variables. The present study indicated that the inter-parental relationship influenced child development not only via “universal” parenting practice but also via Chinese indigenous parenting practice. In other words, intense inter-parental conflict negatively affected adolescent mental health through lowering parents’ expectations of their children based on Chinese cultural concepts. This might be

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264 because parents were preoccupied by the intense conflicts and failed to communicate and demonstrate their cultural expectations.

On the other hand, regarding the link between perceived non-conflict related attributes and adolescent mental health, it was found that parental psychological control mediated the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes on hopelessness and life satisfaction. Maternal psychological control also mediated the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes on positive youth development. These results again confirmed that psychological control does play an important mediating role, as previous studies have suggested (Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). Moreover, it was found that parental behavioral control mediated the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes on life satisfaction and positive youth development. Maternal behavioral control was found to be a mediator for hopelessness. Although limited past studies documented that poor behavior control of the child reflected due to lax monitoring was one of the mediators, the role of parental behavioral control was inconclusive. This present study has expanded the literature by providing direct empirical support from Chinese samples.

Finally, maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts mediated the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes on positive youth development. This result combined with the mediating role of maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts in the link between conflict intensity and positive youth development. These results suggested that Chinese indigenous parenting practice together with behavioral control was important for the development of adolescents’ eudemonic well-being.

In conclusion, parental behavioral control and psychological control were found to be important mediators for hopelessness and life satisfaction whereas parental behavioral control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts were important for positive youth development.

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8.6 The integrated model based on the structural equation modeling

Based on regression analyses, a combined model was tested using structural equation modeling. The results of the model showed that perceived conflict intensity predicted paternal concern, maternal harshness, and paternal and maternal control based on Chinese concepts. Non-conflict related attributes predicted all parenting style variables except maternal harshness. Non-conflict related attributes also predicted all parenting practice variables except paternal psychological control. Regarding the paths between parenting variables and mental health variables, hopelessness was predicted by parental concern, maternal behavioral control, and parental psychological control. Life satisfaction was predicted by maternal concern, parental behavioral and psychological control. Positive youth development was predicted by parental behavioral control, maternal psychological control and maternal control based on Chinese concepts. Finally, non-conflict related attributes predicted hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development.

The overall fit indexes showed that the model matched the data well. There were three features in this model that needed further attention. First, this model showed that the effects of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity on adolescent mental health were completely mediated by paternal concern and maternal control based on Chinese concepts, whereas the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes were partially mediated by parental concern, parental behavioral control, maternal psychological control, and maternal control based on Chinese concepts. Past studies showed that there was a debate over the role of the parenting processes in the effects of the inter-parental relationships on child development. Some studies suggested a full mediation while the rest suggested a partial mediation (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). The present model pointed out a possible solution to the debate: the parenting processes served as a full mediator for the negative aspects of inter-

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266 parental relationships whereas it is a partial mediator for the positive aspects of inter-parental relationships.

Second, perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and perceived conflict intensity showed a different pattern of effects on the familial processes. Perceived conflict intensity only directly impacted paternal concern, maternal harshness, and parental control based on Chinese concepts whereas perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes impacted nearly all variables except maternal harshness and paternal psychological control. In other words, perceived conflict intensity only had effects on specific parenting processes whereas perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes impacted the parenting processes in general and comprehensive ways.

Third, positive inter-parental relationship and parenting variables, in general, were more influential on adolescent mental health than negative inter-parental relationship and parenting variables. Only seven paths involving negative inter- parental relationship and parenting variables had significant effects on adolescent mental health. In contrast, there were ten significant paths for positive inter- parental relationship and parenting variables. In addition, variances explained by positive inter-parental relationship and parenting variables were larger than those of negative inter-parental relationship and parenting variables. These results were consistent with literature from a poor parenting prevention program in UK. This literature suggested that an increase in positive parenting was the best predictor of improvement in child problems (Gardner et al., 2006; 2009; 2010; Dishion et al., 2008). The present model together with this literature echoed a paradigm shift from reducing the negative influences in a family to promoting positive influences in a family.

In conclusion, the proposed model, in general, matched the results from the OSL regression analyses and achieved an acceptable goodness of fit. Three features of the model, namely different types of mediation by parenting of positive

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267 and negative aspects of inter-parental relationships, comparing the effects of perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and perceived conflict intensity on the familial processes, and comparing positive and negative effects of the inter-parental relationship and parenting variables on adolescent mental health, were discussed.

8.7 Theoretical implications of the research

Since there was limited research available on different aspects of the inter- parental relationship as perceived by adolescents and its effects on their mental health development in a Chinese context, this research attempts to fill those gaps. Against this background, there were several unique characteristics of this study with reference to the conceptual and methodological limitations of the studies in the existing literature. These were: (1) Replication of existing findings in the Chinese context; (2) theoretical advance; (3) employment of a family ecological perspective using an integration of inter-parental relationship literature, parenting literature and the conceptualization of mental health in the formulation of a theoretical framework; (4) investigation of indigenous concepts of parenting and the inter-parental relationship; (5) employment of a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health; (6) investigation of both positive and negative aspects of inter-parental relationships; (7) assessment of inter-parental relationships from an adolescent perspective; (8) simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice; (9) study of positive youth development as a developmental outcome, (10) simultaneous assessment of both paternal and maternal parenting variables; and (11) test of the mediating role of different parenting variables in the link between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health. The subsections below outline the theoretical implications in detail. The theoretical implications of the research are listed in Table 8.1.

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8.7.1 Replication of existing findings in the Chinese context

The findings of this study suggested that the inter-parental relationship consisted of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity and perceived inter-parental non conflict related attributes. Inter-parental conflict intensity influenced paternal concern, maternal harshness, paternal control based on indigenous Chinese concepts, and maternal control based on indigenous Chinese concepts, whereas perceived inter-parental non conflict related attributes influenced paternal concern, maternal concern, paternal harshness, paternal behavioral control, maternal behavioral control, maternal psychological control, paternal control based on indigenous Chinese concepts, and maternal control based on indigenous Chinese concepts. Furthermore, this study found that hopelessness was influenced by paternal concern, maternal concern, maternal behavioral control, paternal psychological control, maternal psychological control, and perceived inter-parental non conflict related attributes. Life satisfaction was influenced by maternal concern, paternal behavioral control, maternal behavioral control, paternal psychological control, maternal psychological control, and perceived inter-parental non conflict related attributes. Positive youth development was influenced by paternal behavioral control, maternal behavioral control, maternal psychological control, and perceived inter-parental non conflict related attributes. These results were used to formulate a model which was supported by the data using structural equation modeling.

This model was consistent with the past studies that showed that the inter- parental relationship and the parenting processes were interdependent and both the inter-parental relationship and the parenting processes had a large impact on adolescent mental health (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke- Morey, & Cummings, 2002). In other words, the present study replicates and confirms the existing literature on the impacts of inter-parental conflict and parenting on adolescent development (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Steinberg, 2001) in a Chinese context.

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8.7.2 Theoretical advance

On the level of knowledge accumulation, this study introduced and tested a hypothetical model demonstrating the linkage among inter-parental relationship, parenting processes and adolescent mental health in a Chinese context. As there was no similar research on the pathways through which the inter-parental relationship shaped adolescent mental health via parenting processes in a Chinese population, the study could be regarded as a pioneering and constructive response to the urge for “open(ing) new paths to a deeper understanding of Chinese cultural, social, and psychological processes and patterns” (Yang, 1999, p. 182). In addition, the findings of this study suggested special attention should be paid to the paths through which positive and negative inter-parental relationships affected adolescent mental health via various parenting variables. The data from this study also shows the importance of a newly proposed construct, perceived non-conflict related attributes, and provides specific patterns of interdependency between inter- parental relationships and parenting processes. By testing a new hypothetical model, proposing the new construct of perceived non-conflict related attributes, and providing specific patterns of interdependency between inter-parental relationships and parenting processes, this present study extended existing literature on the inter-parental relationship and parenting (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Steinberg, 2001).

8.7.3 Employment of a family ecological perspective

The family ecological perspective is widely used in family research. The family ecological perspective empathizes the importance of the family context in affecting human development (e.g., Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992; Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bubolz & Sontag, 1993). With such an emphasis, it provides a systematic theoretical framework for understanding the impacts of family systems on adolescent mental health. The family ecological perspective

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270 also has various advantages, including clear theoretical structure, huge empirical support, consideration of the interdependence of different systems within a family, heuristic value and sensitivity, good explanatory and predictive power, and practical utility.

In this study, the family ecological perspective was used as an overall theoretical framework to study the linkage among the inter-parental relationship, parenting processes, and adolescent mental health in the Chinese context. Both positive and negative inter-parental relationships, multi-dimensional aspects of the parenting processes and a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health are also incorporated.

Although the family ecological perspective provides a systematic theoretical framework, it was criticized for its inability to provide guidance in selecting specific family variables for formulating research questions. This is because the scope of the family ecological perspective might be too board as it includes all relationships within a family, thus losing focus, and making it inadequate for building theories (Wakefield, 1996a; 1996b; 1996c).

To overcome the limitations of the family ecological perspective, integrating the perspective with parenting and inter-parental relationship literature (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002) can provide essential theoretical rationale for selecting relevant sub-systems within a family with which to develop a specific research question. This integration also enriches the family ecological perspective by describing inter-relationships among the inter-parental relationship, the parenting processes, and adolescent mental health.

Parenting and inter-parental relationship literature (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002) proved the inter- parental relationship system and parenting system had significant impacts on

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271 adolescent development. Parenting and inter-parental relationship literature also facilitated selecting perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, perceived non- conflict related attributes, parenting style and parenting practice to form a unified model. However, parenting and inter-parental relationship literature had two limitations with respect to understanding adolescent mental health. First, the literature largely ignores the inter-dependent nature of the inter-parental relationship system and the parenting system. Only a few studies investigate the impacts of both systems on child development (Fok & Shek, 2011a). Second, past literature fails to specify the interrelations of perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, perceived non-conflict related attributes, parenting style and parenting practice in a unified model.

Integrating the family ecological perspective with parenting and inter- parental relationship literature embodies the strengths of both these theories. It also minimizes the limitations of these theories. The family ecological perspective emphasizes the importance of the family as an immediate context for child development and points out the interrelations between the inter-parental relationship and parenting, enabling the formulation of a testable model. In other words, the family ecological perspective underscores the importance of looking at different systems with a family when investigating the impacts of family processes on adolescent development (e.g., Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992; Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Bubolz & Sontag, 1993).

8.7.4 Investigating indigenous concepts of parenting and the inter-parental relationship

Yang (1999) suggested that knowledge is a function of social, cultural, intellectual and historical context. Cross-cultural psychologists had long argued for developing indigenous research for each specific culture (Bond, 2010). Developing indigenous research is particularly important for Chinese societies due to its unique systems of values, culture and philosophies developed over five

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272 thousand years. Moreover, empirical data has also indicated that family processes vary across cultures (Stewart et al., 1998). For instance, Stewart et al. (1998) pointed out that the predictive power of parental warmth was different across cultures. These results pointed out the issue of a lack of compatibility when applying Western theories and research findings to explain the family processes of Chinese people (Shek, 2006). This is because Western cultures emphasize individualistic ideology whereas Chinese culture is based on collectivistic ideology. Yang (1999) also argued that the unquestioning borrowing of Western concepts and assessment tools would result in neglecting culturally specific values and views in explaining local social behavior. Fok and Shek (2011a) even claimed that indigenous concepts and research was necessary to understand culturally specific phenomena. Based on the above comments and findings, there is a need to develop indigenous concepts of the family processes, including parenting and the inter-parental relationship.

In this study, despite the fact that western concepts and theories were employed, Chinese indigenous concepts of parenting and inter-parental relationship were incorporated. For the indigenous concepts of the inter-parental relationship, perceived non-conflict related attributes was proposed. In Chinese culture, inter-parental conflict, which was frequently used in the Western literature, may not be a sensitive indicator of inter-parental marital quality as perceived by children because of the emphasis on relationship harmony in Chinese samples (Shek, 2000). An indigenous concept of a positive inter-parental relationship was needed. Based on a review of the relevant literature and focus group data from Hong Kong Chinese adolescents and social workers, this study, partially, showed the content of the positive inter-parental relationship from a Chinese perspective. The data in this study showed that perceived non-conflict related attributes included Togetherness, Communication, Appreciation, Criticism, Concern, Helping, Understanding and Acceptance, Trust, Satisfaction, Indigenous Chinese concepts, Passion, and Commitment. Furthermore, the Chinese characteristics of the inter-parental relationship, family structure, the interdependent nature of a

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273 parent’s role, family hierarchy, well-defined family roles, a collectivist orientation towards socialization, and interdependence in parent-child relationships were used to explain the results obtained for the inter-parental relationship in this present study.

On the other hand, Chinese indigenous concepts of parenting were also used. Instead of operationalizing parenting style under authoritative parenting style and non-authoritative parenting style which were dominant in Western literature (Baumrind, 1971), this study employed an orthogonal approach to the conceptualization of parenting style (Lim & Lim, 2004). This was done because Baumrind’s (1971) conceptualizations may not be applicable to Chinese contexts (McBride-Chang & Chang, 1998) and might not completely represent a picture of Chinese parenting style (Chao & Sue 1996). In addition, Chinese indigenous parental control was also used (Shek, 2007c). The Chinese indigenous parental concepts represented parents’ expectations of their children based on Chinese indigenous cultural values and beliefs. Moreover, family structure, the gender roles of Chinese parents, family hierarchy, and collectivist orientation toward socialization were used to explain the obtained results for the parenting processes in this study.

Finally, all measurement tools used in this study were either indigenously developed or validated in Chinese samples. The data showed that all measurement tools used had good psychometric properties. This step can ensure the trustworthiness of the results, facilitate further exploration of a nomological network of indigenous Chinese concepts, and help build a family model for use in the Chinese context.

8.7.5 Employing a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health

Past studies on the link between family processes and adolescent mental health seldom employed a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health

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274 which included negative aspects of mental health (such as hopelessness, internalizing and externalizing problems) as well as positive aspects of mental health (Fok & Shek, 2011a). Those past studies mainly investigated negative aspects of mental health and defined good mental health in terms of the absence of manifested psychological and behavioral symptoms and problems (Shek, 2007c). Relatively few studies investigated the impacts of parenting and inter-parental relationships on children’s outcomes in terms of positive mental health attributes (Diener, 1984) or coping resources (Folkman, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1979). For instance, Shek (2005b) exanimated psychological symptoms and positive mental health attributes with the Existential Well-Being Scale, the Life Satisfaction Scale, the Mastery Scale, the Chinese Self-Esteem Scale, and the General Health Questionnaire to investigate parental influences on adolescent mental health.

However, researchers recommended investigating adolescent mental health from a holistic perspective (Shek, 2005a). Investigating both positive and negative aspects of mental health was necessary to pinpoint the specific relationship between family process variables, such as the inter-parental relationship and parenting, and different aspects of mental health (Fok & Shek, 2011a).

Furthermore, the concept of positive mental health was expanded to include both hedonic well-being such as positive mental health attributes (e.g., life satisfaction) and eudaimonic well-being such as positive youth developmental outcomes (Catalano, Hawkins, Berglund, Pollard, & Arthur, 2002; Ryff & Singer, 2008). Hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being were different and had different biological correlates (Ryff, Singer, & Love, 2004). Although attachment theories suggested relationships with significant others, including family processes, might impact on both hedonic well-being and eudaimonic well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2001), there was limited empirical data to show the different patterns of the relationships between family processes, including the inter-parental relationship and parenting, and these two aspects of positive mental health. This study filled this research gap.

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Based on the data used in this study, some preliminary patterns of specific relationships between various aspects of family processes and different aspects of adolescent mental health were observed. For instance, maternal control based on indigenous Chinese concepts did not predict hopelessness and life satisfaction but it was an important predictor of positive youth development. These results implied that family process nurturing expectations, moral values, and goals are influential in the development of eudaimonic well-being. However, they imply that family processes nurturing expectations, moral values, and goals are not related to other aspects of mental health. In addition, the data indicated that life satisfaction and hopelessness shared similar predictors whereas positive youth development had its own distinctive pattern of predictors. These results implied that hedonic well-being and negative aspects of mental health might be two sides of the same coin. Both are under thee influences of the same family process in the reverse direction. To have good mental health in terms of the absence of psychological distress and the presence of positive feelings, adolescents need a positive inter-parental relationship, appropriate behavioral regulations, and low levels of psychological control. However, to have high levels of eudaimonic well-being, in addition to the above family processes, adolescents need to be cultivated in positive values and beliefs based on cultural norms.

To sum up, employing a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health in this study enabled the demonstration of specific patterns of relationship between family processes, including the inter-parental relationship and parenting, and various aspects of positive mental health. In other words, this study provides a more complete picture of the impact of the perceived inter-parental relationship and parenting on adolescent mental health.

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8.7.6 Investigating both positive and negative aspects of inter-parental relationships

Past studies on the link between the inter-parental relationship and child development were dominated by negative inter-parental relationships, especially inter-parental conflict (Cummings & Davies, 2002; Fok & Shek, 2013; Grych & Fincham, 2001). Past studies only documented the impact of negative inter- parental relationships, especially inter-parental conflict, on various child developmental outcomes, including peer relationships, academic performance, depression, problem behavior, and life satisfaction (Coming & Davis, 2010; Ellis & Garber, 2000; El-Sheikh, Harger, & Whitson, 2001; Fergusson & Horwood, 1998; Grych & Finchan, 2001). Little was known about the impact of positive inter-parental relationships on child development, including adolescent mental health (Fok & Shek, 2013).

Theoretically, inter-parental relationships are multi-dimensional and consist of different aspects. Scholars of marital research also suggested segregating the positive and negative relationship features of marriage. They claimed that positive and negative characteristics are dimensions of the construct of inter-parental relationships (Fincham & Linfield, 1997; Kiecolt-Glaster & Newton, 2001; Whisman, 2001). By differentiating between positive and negative aspects of inter-parental relationships, it is possible to show the contribution of different aspects of inter-parental relationships to adolescent development.

Investigating both positive and negative aspects of inter-parental relationships had two advantages. First, such a practice showed the unique contribution of different aspects of the inter-parental relationship to child development. Although limited studies showed that a positive inter-parental relationship, such as inter-parental relationship quality, was linked to child developmental outcomes (Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jeong & Chun, 2010; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009;

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Kaye, Moore, Hair, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009; VanderValk, Spruijt, Goede, Maas, & Meeus, 2005), no empirical studies indicated the unique contribution of a positive inter-parental relationship to adolescent development after negative inter- parental relationships were controlled (Fok & Shek, 2013). In addition, those studies documenting the impacts of positive inter-parental relationships came from a national survey in which the psychometric properties of the assessment of positive inter-parental relationships were under question. The practice of investigating both positive and negative aspects of inter-parental relationships simultaneously helps with differentiating the unique contribution of positive inter- parental relationships as well as providing additional valid evidence for the impacts of positive inter-parental relationships.

Second, neglecting positive inter-parental relationships assumes inter- parental relationships are a source of problems rather than a source of support within the family system (Fok & Shek, 2013). Although the spillover hypothesis stated that problems with poor inter-parental relationships can be transferred into problems in adolescents, and the spillover hypothesis was supported by data (e.g., Cummings & Davies, 2010; Bradford, Burns Vaughn, & Barber, 2008; Gerard, Krishnakumar, & Buehler, 2006), other theories like the attachment theory and family system theory suggested that positive inter-parental relationships can be a source of support for adolescent development. However, there was only limited data to support these predictions (Shek, 2000). The data from this study has filled this research gap by testing these predictions explicitly. The data implied a paradigm shift from a pathological perspective of inter-parental relationships to a strength perspective.

To sum up, investigating both positive and negative aspects of inter- parental relationships expanded past literature in terms of providing data supporting the impact of positive inter-parental relationships, and linking the studies of inter-parental relationships to attachment theory and family system theory.

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8.7.7 Assessing inter-parental relationships from an adolescent perspective

The present study assessed inter-parental relationships, including positive and negative aspects, from an adolescent perspective. In the past studies in the literature, the assessments of inter-parental relationships were mainly based on questionnaires or scales investigating marital satisfaction and quality and completed by married couples (Graham & Christiansen, 2009; Graham, Diebels, & Barnow, 2011; Graham, Liu, & Jeziorski, 2006; Karney & Bradbury, 1997; Whisman, 2001), or based on observations of couples’ behaviors during disputes in a laboratory setting, and reported in child mental health literature (Reese-Weber & Hesson-McInnis, 2008).

Although there was a scale (i.e., The Children’s Perception of Inter- parental Conflict Scale, CPIC; Grych et al., 1992) assessing inter-parental relationships from an adolescent perspective, the scale only measures inter- parental conflict and neglects other aspects of inter-parental relationships. This does not match the theoretical requirement for inter-parental relationships as a multi-dimensional construct (Fincham & Linfield, 1997; Fok & Shek, 2013; Kiecolt-Glaster & Newton, 2001; Whisman, 2001).

On the other hand, research has shown that children’s perceptions of inter- parental relationships are different from those of parents (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992; Joshi, 2001). Research has also indicated that adolescents’ perceptions and understanding of the inter-parental relationship can more directly reflect the influences of inter-parental relationships on adolescent development (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992).

Given that assessing various aspects of inter-parental relationships from an adolescent perspective might be a preferred measurement and that there was no existing measurement tool for measuring positive inter-parental relationships from

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279 an adolescent perspective, this study proposed a new construct called “perceived non-conflict related attributes” and developed a related scale which was validated by several types of independent data. In addition, this study used the Chinese version of the Children’s Perception of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC) to measure the perceived conflict intensity. The CPIC was also further validated in the data from this study. In other words, this study assessed positive and negative inter-parental relationships from an adolescent perspective using validated measurement tools.

In sum, this study extended the literature by proposing the newly constructed perceived non-conflict related attributes scale and by investigating various aspects of inter-parental relationships from an adolescent perspective.

8.7.8 Simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice

Past studies suggested parenting processes were related to inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health (e.g., Buchanan & Waizenhofer, 2001; Frosch, Mangelsdorf, & McHale, 2000; Kitzmann, 2000; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1999). Other studies suggested parenting processes served as mediators between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health (Cummings & Davis, 2010; Grych & Fincham, 2001). However, past studies that investigated the mediating role of parenting processes either focused on parenting style or parenting practice, but not both. For instance, Webster-Stratton and Hammond (1999) found that parenting style acted as a mediator between poor inter-parental relationships and child conduct problems with peers. However, Webster-Stratton and Hammond (1999) failed to collect data about parenting practice. Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, and Wierson (1990) found that parenting practice (e.g., lax control, psychological control, and parental rejection/withdrawal) could be a mediator between inter-parental conflict and adolescents’ adjustment. However, Fauber, Forehand, Thomas, and Wierson (1990) did not exanimate parenting style.

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Theoretically, parenting style and parenting practice are different constructs (Steinberg, 2001). Parenting style refers to a constellation of parental attitudes towards the child which creates an emotional climate or shapes the emotional relationships between parent and child. Parenting practice is defined as specific parental behavior (Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Darling & Steinberg, 1993).

The simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice had two advantages. First, the simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice enabled the possibility of comparing the relative contribution of parenting style and parenting practice as mediators. This study found that parenting practice, in general, provided more mediating paths between the inter- parental relationship and adolescent mental health than the parenting style in the present structural equation modeling did. In other words, these results implied a difference in mediating power between parenting style and parenting practice.

Second, simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice pinpointed a specific correlation between various aspects of the inter- parental relationship and different dimensions of the parenting processes (Cummings & Davies, 2010). The correlations among parenting processes related to the inter-parental relationship have been well documented (e.g., Buchanan & Waizenhofer, 2001; Frosch, Mangelsdorf, & McHale, 2000; Kitzmann, 2000; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1999). However, little was known about how specifically a particular inter-parental relationship variable is related to a particular parenting variable (Cummings & Davies, 2010). In this study, perceived conflict intensity was found to be linked to paternal concern, maternal harshness, and parental control based on Chinese indigenous concepts. In contrast, perceived non- conflict related attributes was linked to most of the parenting variables except maternal harshness and paternal psychological control. In other words, specific correlations between two aspects of the inter-parental relationship and various parenting variables were shown. These results provided a detailed description of

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281 the family processes under which the inter-parental relationship and parenting affected each other. Given that documentation of family processes in a Chinese context was scarce (Yang, 1999), this study was a positive response to the research need in this area.

In sum, simultaneous investigation of parenting style and parenting practice enabled the possibility of comparing the relative contributions of parenting style and parenting practice as mediators. The investigation also showed specific correlations between inter-parental relationship variables and various parenting variables, describing family processes in a Chinese context.

8.7.9 Studying positive youth development as a developmental outcome

This study investigated positive youth development as a developmental outcome of the inter-parental relationship and parenting. Positive youth development can be conceptualized as the growth, cultivation, and nurturance of developmental assets, abilities, and potential of adolescents (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 2004; Benson, Mannes, Pittman, & Ferber, 2004; Lerner & Benson, 2003). Catalano et al. (2002) summarized the following 15 positive youth development constructs. They are: (a) promotion of bonding (enhanced relationships with healthy adults and positive peers), (b) cultivation of resilience (enhanced capacity for adapting to change and stressful events in healthy and adaptive ways), (c) promotion of social competence (promotion of interpersonal skills and providing opportunities to practice such skills), (d) promotion of emotional competence (emotional maturity and management), (e) promotion of cognitive competence (development of cognitive skills and thinking), (f) promotion of behavioral competence (cultivation of verbal and nonverbal communication and taking action skills), (g) promotion of moral competence (development of a sense of right and wrong), (h) cultivation of self-determination (promoting a sense of autonomy), (i) development of self-efficacy (promoting coping and mastery skills), (j) promotion of spirituality (development of purpose

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282 and meaning in life, hope, or beliefs in a higher power), (k) promotion of beliefs in the future (development of future potential goals, choices, or options), (l) development of clear and positive identity (promotion of healthy identity), (m) recognition for positive behavior (developing systems for rewarding), (n) providing opportunities for pro-social involvement (designing activities and events that promote opportunities for program participants to make positive contributions to groups), and (o) fostering pro-social norms (encouraging program participants to develop clear and explicit standards for pro-social engagement).

Past studies on positive youth development consisted mainly of three lines of research. They were i) positive youth development programs and their evaluation (e.g., Catalano et al., 2004; Moore, Lippman, & Brown, 2004; Shek, & Chak, 2011; Shek, Ma, & Tang, 2011; Shek, Ma, & Kan, 2011; Law & Shek, 2011; Shek & Chan, 2011a; 2011b; Weissberg & Greenberg, 1998; Weitzman, Mijanovich, Silver, & Brazill, 2008), ii) basic conceptualization of positive youth development constructs and related measures (e.g., Catalano et al., 2004; Lau & Wu, 2012; Lee, Cheung & Kwong, 2012; Moore, Lippman, & Brown, 2004; Shek, 2012; Shek & Ma, 2010), and iii) positive youth development constructs as predictors and/or correlates of adolescent problem behavior (e.g., Law & Shek, 2013; Lee & Shek, 2013; Shek & Lu, 2011; 2013).

Interestingly, little was known about how the link between family processes and positive youth development constructs operated (e.g., Hillaker, Brophy-Herb, Villarruel, & Haas, 2008). The family ecological perspective, family system theory, and attachment theory suggested family processes as important factors for child development. Positive family processes, including the inter-parental relationship and parenting, are hypothesized as important predictors of positive youth development. However, there was no systematic empirical study in this area. This study was a pioneer study to document which inter-parental relationships and which parenting variables were important predictors. This study located perceived non-conflict related attributes, parental behavioral control,

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283 maternal psychological control, and maternal control based on Chinese concepts. In sum, this study extended the literature by showing the family processes under which positive youth development was nurtured.

8.7.10 Simultaneous assessment of both paternal and maternal parenting variables

In this study, adolescent perceptions of paternal and maternal parenting processes were collected. Simultaneously assessing both paternal and maternal parenting variables extended the literature in three ways. First, the data provided the contents of adolescent perceptions of paternal parenting processes. The past studies on parenting processes mainly collected data about maternal parenting processes and largely neglected paternal data (Benner & Mistry, 2007; Chao, 1994; 1996; Chao & Kim, 2000; Padmawidjaja & Chao, 2010). This pattern happened partly because researchers assumed mothers were the primary caregivers of the children and regarded fathers as being relatively uninvolved in the parenting processes. However, other past studies suggested fathers did have an impact on adolescent development (Shek, 2007c). In the context of adolescent mental health, limited studies suggested paternal parenting influenced adolescents’ externalizing of problems (Cummings & Davies, 2010). In the face of a lack of paternal parenting variables data, this study provided data on the linkages among inter- parental relationship, paternal parenting processes and adolescent mental health. The results indicated that hopelessness was linked to paternal concern and psychological control; life satisfaction was linked to paternal behavioral and psychological control; and positive youth development was linked to paternal behavioral control. In other words, this study supplemented what is known about the linkage between paternal parenting variables and various indexes of adolescent mental health.

Second, simultaneous assessing both paternal and maternal parenting variables enabled a comparison of the relative influences of paternal and maternal parenting on adolescent mental health in a Chinese context. Past studies had

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284 inconsistent findings about the relative influences of paternal and maternal parenting on child development. Some suggested maternal parenting was more influential (Zemore & Rinholm, 1989; Leung, McBride-Chang, & Lai, 2004) whereas other studies failed to reach this conclusion (e.g., Baumrind, 1991; Dubois, Eitel, & Felner, 1994; Paulson, 1994; Stice & Barrera, 1995). This study found that paternal and maternal parenting style did not differ in predicting hopelessness whereas maternal concern accounted for a little more of the variance in life satisfaction and positive youth development than it did for paternal concern. The present study also found that maternal parenting practices were more influential than paternal ones on adolescent mental health because maternal parenting practices accounted for more of the variance in the adolescent mental health variables and provided more significant paths linked to adolescent mental health variables. These results implied that it is important to consider two types of parenting processes (style or practice) and two types of adolescent mental health variables (positive or negative mental health) as possible moderators when comparing the relative influences of paternal and maternal parenting on adolescent mental health. In other words, there were relatively fewer differences in the effect on adolescent mental health between paternal and maternal parenting styles when compared with parenting practice. In addition, maternal parenting variables seemed to have more influence on the positive sides of mental health than on the negative ones. This study supplemented past studies by showing how specific paternal and maternal parenting variables differ.

Finally, the present study disentangled the effects of the inter-parental relationship on paternal and maternal parenting variables. Although limited past studies suggested paternal parenting variables were affected more by poor inter- parental relationships (Belsky, Gilstrap, & Rovine, 1984; Belsky, Rovine, & Fish, 1989; Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988; Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984; Brody, Pellegrini, & Sigel, 1986; Belsky, Youngblade, Rovine, & Volling, 1991), such a claim was inconclusive. In addition, little was known about paternal parenting benefitting more from a positive inter-parental relationship. This study filled this

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285 research gap by showing that perceived conflict intensity uniquely accounted for more variance in paternal parenting than in maternal parenting. More importantly, this study found that the reversed pattern also held. Paternal parenting did benefit more from a positive inter-parental relationship.

8.7.11 Testing the mediating role of different parenting variables in the link between inter-parental relationships and adolescent mental health

This study tested the mediating role of different parenting variables in the link between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health. Although there have been many studies supporting the idea that parenting variables served as mediators between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health, null findings were not uncommon (Frosch & Mangelsdorf, 2001; Katz & Windecker-Nelson, 2006; Skopp, McDonald, Jouriles, & Rosenfield, 2007; Stocker & Richmond, 2007). On the other hand, some studies suggested parenting variables can fully mediate the link between the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health whereas the others indicated partial mediation (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Davies, Harold, Goeke-Morey, & Cummings, 2002). The data from this study can be useful for identifying sources of heterogeneity in the past studies (Cummings & Davies, 2010).

In this study, it was found that parental harshness failed to serve as a mediator and parenting practice played a more important role in mediating than parenting style did. The data also suggested parenting variables fully mediated the effects of perceived conflict intensity but they only partially medicated the effects of non-conflict related attributes. These results suggested that negative parenting styles failed to serve as mediators. The past null findings might be due to using negative parenting styles (Frosch & Mangelsdorf, 2001; Katz & Windecker- Nelson, 2006; Skopp, McDonald, Jouriles, & Rosenfield, 2007; Stocker & Richmond, 2007). In addition, the debate over full and partial mediation in the past studies could be resolved because parenting variables were shown to be full

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286 mediators for negative inter-parental relationships and to be full mediators for positive inter-parental relationships. In other words, this study provided some clues to explain the inconsistent findings in the past literature.

The theoretical implications of the study are summarized and listed in Table 8.1.

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Table 8.1: Theoretical advances of the study

Theoretical gap Advances in the study Theoretical implications of the study Lack of studies on • Investigating the impacts • Confirming the impacts the impacts of the of adolescent perceived of perceived conflict inter-parental inter-parental conflict intensity on adolescent relationship on and non-conflict related mental health in a adolescent attributes on adolescent Chinese context development in a mental health Chinese context Theoretical • Testing a hypothetical • Proposing the new advance model demonstrating the construct of “perceived linkage among the inter- non-conflict related parental relationship, attributes” in a model parenting processes and • Providing specific adolescent mental health patterns of in a Chinese context interdependency between inter-parental relationships and parenting processes Limitations of • Employment of the • Supports the family theoretical ecological perspective ecological perspective perspectives and providing an overall with the integration of models in literature on the inter- theoretical perspective consideration of parental relationship and the impacts of for studying the effects of parenting in studying the multiple family multiple family processes familial processes that processes on on adolescent mental influence adolescent adolescent mental health mental health in a health Chinese context • Employment of literature on the inter-parental relationship and parenting in studying and formulating a testable model Inadequate • Integration of indigenous • Enhances understanding indigenous concepts of parenting and of family processes in conceptualization the inter-parental Chinese families and of parenting and relationship into a construction of relevant the inter-parental theoretical model, such family models, which relationship as the Conceptualization take the collectivistic of the orthogonal nature of Chinese culture

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approach to parenting into consideration style, parental control • Understanding of based on indigenous underlying facets of Chinese concepts, and perceived non-conflict perceived non-conflict related attributes related attributes • Allows further • Conceptualization of exploration of various perceived non-conflict aspects of inter-parental related attributes as well relationships on as development and adolescent development validation of a related • Allows comparing the scale impacts of parental • Employment of control based on measurement tools that indigenous Chinese were indigenously concepts with other validated with samples in parental practices based a Chinese community on Western literature and showed good • Development and psychometric properties validation of a scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes Limited scope of • Comprehensive • Allows understandings the conception of conceptualization of of how various family mental health mental health was used processes, including the • Emphasized negative and inter-parental positive aspects of relationship and mental health which parenting related to consisted of hedonic and different aspects of eudaimonic well-being mental health • Explores interrelations among various aspects of mental health Inadequate • Proposing perceived non- • Differentiate specific conceptualization conflict related attributes effects of positive and of inter-parental as Chinese indigenous negative inter-parental relationships concepts of a positive relationships on inter-parental adolescent mental health relationship • Development and • Investigation of both validation of a scale of positive and negative adolescents’ perceived inter-parental non-conflict related relationships attributes • Showing unique • Differentiate specific predictive power of correlations between positive and negative positive and negative

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inter-parental inter-parental relationships on mental relationships and health different dimensions of parenting Inadequate • Investigating positive and • Showing that positive conceptual model negative inter-parental and negative inter- of inter-parental relationships from an parental relationships relationships from adolescent perspective from an adolescent an adolescent • Validating two perspective influence perspective assessment tools of inter- adolescent development, parental relationship as marital conflict and from an adolescent relationship quality perspective literature showed Inadequate • Employing a • Showing specific conceptualization comprehensive patterns of correlations of the linkage conceptualization of between parenting between parenting parenting which can processes and various style and parenting operationalize parenting indexes of mental health practice as a multi-dimensional • Comparing the impacts construct and include of parenting style and parenting style and practice on various practice indexes of mental health • Assessing the orthogonal • Showing specific approach to parenting patterns of correlations style, parental behavioral between positive and control, parental negative inter-parental psychological control and relationship and various parental control based on parenting processes indigenous Chinese concepts Inadequate • Employing positive • Showing positive youth conceptual model youth development as an development is of positive youth index of eudaimonic influenced by family development as well-being processes, including the developmental • Validating a short inter-parental outcomes version of the positive relationship and youth development scale parenting in a Chinese sample • Showing that positive youth development is under a distinctive pattern of family processes that is different from other indexes of mental health Lack of • Including assessments on • There were different investigation of adolescents’ perception contributions to

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290 paternal parenting of both paternal and adolescent mental health variables maternal style and made by paternal and practice maternal parenting • Validating assessment processes tools for different • Showing maternal paternal parenting parenting processes, in variables in a Chinese general, had more effect context than paternal ones • Showing that paternal parenting was affected more by the inter- parental relationship Debate on the • Assessing various • Providing theoretical mediating role of parenting styles and model for the debate on parenting practice as well as the mediating role of processes between positive and negative parenting processes the inter-parental inter-parental between inter-parental relationship and relationships relationship and adolescent mental • Showing parenting adolescent mental health health processes as partial • Providing data for a mediators for positive theoretical model linking inter-parental the inter-parental relationships but as full relationship, parenting, mediators for negative and adolescent mental inter-parental health relationships • Replicating past studies on parenting processes as mediators

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8.8 Practical Implications

The findings of the research provide important information for social workers and other mental health practitioners for formulating intervention and prevention programs for building positive familial contexts that will foster adolescent mental health. The findings also helped policymakers to make policy changes for the same objectives. By building up positive inter-parental relationships and parenting processes, good adolescent mental health can be achieved. In addition, the findings are also useful for the education of mental health practitioners. In this section, four practical implications are discussed: the importance of assessments of family processes in a Chinese context, implications for intervention and prevention programs for building positive familial contexts that help adolescent mental health, implications for social policy for adolescent mental health, and implications for the education of mental health practitioners.

8.8.1 Development of assessment instruments

Scientific and objective assessment tools for family processes and psychosocial attributes is heavily lacking in Chinese societies (Shek, 2002; 2010). This has greatly obstructed the development of theoretical models for understanding Chinese families and the formulation of intervention and prevention programs that are designed for building positive familial processes in Chinese populations (Phillips et al., 1998; Shek, 2007d). In response to the need for indigenous Chinese measures for family processes and psychosocial attributes, this study involved the development and validation of a scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes. This assessment tool was developed with consideration for indigenous concepts of the inter-parental relationship and qualitative data from focus groups of social workers and adolescents.

In addition, the data showed that this assessment tool had good psychometric properties for internal consistency, test-retest reliability, content validity, construct validity and factorial validity. This assessment tool

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292 operationalizes the construct of positive inter-parental relationships from an adolescent perspective in a Chinese context, facilitating concepts of, and theory building for, family processes in Chinese societies.

8.8.2 Implications for intervention and prevention programs

In the current practices of mental health practitioners, individual counseling and intervention programs targeting adolescents are emphasized for promoting adolescent mental health. The present findings suggest that family processes are important in fostering adolescent mental health in a Chinese context. In addition, the results of this study also have implications for family counseling services.

8.8.2.1 Promoting adolescent mental health through building positive family processes

It was found that family processes, including perceived conflict intensity, perceived non-conflict related attributes, parental concern and harshness, parental behavioral control, parental psychological control, and parental control based on indigenous Chinese concepts, are important in promoting adolescent mental health in a Chinese context. Building positive family processes could be an important mental health service for adolescents and their parents. This suggestion matches the theoretical prediction from family system theory and the family ecological perspective (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992; Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Moreover, promoting adolescent mental health through building positive family processes may bring about long term effects that individual counseling and intervention programs targeting adolescents hardly achieve. This is because building positive family processes fundamentally changes the immediate context in which adolescents develop (Steinberg, 2001; 2008a). Unfortunately, promoting adolescent mental health through building positive family processes has been

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293 largely ignored in mental health services for adolescents. It is important that mental health practitioners take family processes into account when fostering adolescent mental health, and especially when fostering eudaimonic well-being (Ryff, Singer, & Love, 2004). Mental health practitioners should make use of family processes in intervention or prevention programs for promoting adolescent mental health.

8.8.2.2 Promoting positive inter-parental relationship in families

In the current practice of family services, social workers often give interventions or counseling to couples with frequent or intense inter-parental conflicts because family services practitioners normally regard conflicts as important indicators of the inter-parental relationship and neglect other dimensions of the inter-parental relationship. However, the present study suggests the importance of non-conflict related attributes. The present results indicate that the positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship are a better indicator of the overall quality of relationships between couples, when compared to inter-parental conflicts, in Chinese societies. In Chinese culture, family harmony is highly valued (Bond, 2010). Therefore, conflicts within a family are not easily expressed (Shek, 2000), making inter-parental conflict not a sensitive indicator of inter- parental marital quality (Fok & Shek, 2013). This means that the absence of inter- parental conflict does not necessarily represent a good inter-parental relationship in Chinese families. In other words, the present results have a practical implication for family services. Social workers should design interventions or counseling to increase the positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship in order to build harmonious families.

8.8.2.3 Improving parenting through building positive inter-parental relationships

Based on the family ecological perspective, parenting does not exist in a social vacuum. It influences and is influenced by other family relationships,

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294 including the inter-parental relationship (Fok & Shek, 2011a). In fact, past studies have shown that parenting and the inter-parental relationship were inter-dependent (Cummings & Davis, 2010; Davies & Cummings, 1994). This study also suggests that the inter-parental relationship influences both parenting styles and practices. These results imply that social workers can improve the quality of a parent-child relationship or the quality of parenting processes through building positive inter- parental relationships in some families. As Leung and Lam (2009) suggest, parenting is “more than a technical exercise of instrumental reasoning” (p. 354). Parenting problems are often a reflection of the inner struggles of parents, rather than a lack of knowledge and skills (Lam, 2005; Tam, Lam, Cheng, Ho, & Ma, 2001). Given the inter-dependence between parenting and the inter-parental relationship, a positive inter-parental relationship can certainly help parenting processes. Limited research on marital intervention programs in the West indirectly provided evidence supporting the idea that marital intervention programs benefited effective parenting practices (Cowan & Cowan, 2002; Cowan, Cowan, & Heming, 2005; Cummings & Davis, 2010).

Normally, family therapy with a different theoretical background often focuses on a single issue, such as martial conflict, parent-child communication or extra-marital affairs (Carlson & Kjos, 2002; Carr, 2012; Gurman, 2008). This study can remind family therapists that relationships within a family are inter- dependent (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992; Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Problems in a particular relationship can spillover onto other relationship in the family (Cummings & Davis, 2010). For instance, problems in the inter-parental relationship affect parenting partly because parents cannot use each other as emotional support for parenting (Cummings & Davis, 2010). Thus, this study reminds us that a family therapist can improve parenting through building a positive inter-parental relationship.

In addition, family therapies are often problem-focused (Carlson & Kjos, 2002; Carr, 2012; Gurman, 2008). In other words, family therapists intervene after

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295 problems have appeared in a family. This study suggests that family therapists can prevent potential parenting problems from happening by providing services for families with inter-parental relationship issues. In sum, this study has implications for service. It reminds social workers or family therapists to organize prevention or intervention programs or services to improve parenting through building positive inter-parental relationships.

8.8.2.4 Strengthening paternal parenting

In this study, it was found that paternal concern, behavioral control and psychological control influenced adolescents’ hopelessness and life satisfaction. These results imply that fathers play an important role in fostering adolescent development. However, the long working hours and the distanced role of fathers based on Chinese culture hinder fathers’ involvement in nurturing adolescents (Shek, 1999a; Youniss & Smollar, 1985). Social workers should provide services to fathers to strengthen their role in helping their children develop. For instance, social workers can provide educational programs for parenting skills. In addition, social workers can provide individual counseling to improve fathers’ communication with their partners. This study suggests that paternal parenting can benefit from positive inter-parental relationships.

8.8.2.5 The quest for gender-sensitive practices for fathers and mothers’ roles in family intervention

The present study shows that fathers and mothers have different paths that affect adolescent mental health. For instance, maternal Control based on Chinese concepts affected positive youth development but paternal control did not. Based on the results of this study, mothers seem to play a more important role in developing adolescents’ eudaimonic well-being (Ryff & Singer, 1998; 2000). In addition, maternal parenting variables accounted for more of the variance in all three indexes of adolescent mental health than paternal ones did. This implies that

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mothers carry a heavier burden in the job of parenting in the Hong Kong context (Caplan & Hall-McCorquodale, 1985; Shek, 2008b). In contrast, fathers seem to shoulder the responsibility of serving as the major source of family income. Such different roles in a family mean both parents have completely different needs regarding family and psychological services. Social workers should be sensitive to these differences and provide different services to fathers and mothers

8.8.3 Policy formulation on fostering adolescent mental health

8.8.3.1 Using a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health in policy making

In current mental health policy, the Hong Kong government hopes that adolescents can coordinate their thoughts, feelings, emotions and behaviors in order to understand and accept themselves, develop harmonious relations with others, and master the skills of emotion and stress management (Department of Health, 2013). Another focus of adolescent mental health from the Hong Kong government perspective is to minimize health-compromising behavior like smoking, drinking, substance abuse, casual sex, deliberate self-harm, and suicide (Department of Health, 2013). From the things the mental health policy of the Hong Kong government focuses on, it is easy to note that there is no evidence- based and theoretically driven definition of adolescent mental health.

Although the Hong Kong government puts in a lot of resources, and offers various programs for promoting adolescent mental health, implementation of this policy have been carried out without a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health, making the implementation inefficient and inconsistent. For instance, there is a standardized assessment to evaluate the mental health status of the majority of Hong Kong adolescents in schools. The standardized assessment mainly emphasizes the absence of symptoms of psychological and behavioral problems.

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On the other hand, the Hong Kong Government offered an Adolescent Health Programme (AHP) in 2001 through local schools with the support of a multi-disciplinary team that consisted of doctors, nurses, dietitians, social workers and clinical psychologists. The objective of the Adolescent Health Programme (AHP) was to promote various aspects of adolescent psychosocial health such as self-understanding and acceptance, emotion, stress management and interpersonal and problem-solving skills (Department of Health, 2013). There is consistency between the above mentioned assessment and the Adolescent Health Programme. According to the comprehensive conceptualization of mental health used in this study, the assessment mainly emphasizes negative sides of adolescent mental health whereas the Adolescent Health Programme focuses on parts of eudaimonic well-being. In other words, the assessment does not match the needs of the Adolescent Health Programme, showing a discrepancy among policy implementations.

Therefore it is suggested that the Hong Kong Government adopt the comprehensive conceptualization of mental health used in this study. Based on this comprehensive conceptualization, the government can design specific assessments for each component of mental health for the general population of Hong Kong adolescents and provide related programs trailer-made for each component. Such practices would not only enable the government to realize the mental needs of adolescents effectively, but also enhance consistency among the policies and their implementations.

8.8.3.2 Changing the orientation toward the inter-parental relationship in families

Although the Hong Kong Government claims to promote family harmony in its policies, the Hong Kong Government, in practice, adopts a “problem- centered” view towards the inter-parental relationship. This can be partially revealed by Hong Kong government policies about family harmony and the inter- parental relationship. For instance, the Social Welfare Department (SWD)

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298 organizes a large-scale public education campaign annually. The major objective of these public education campaigns is to prevent family problems through the increase of public awareness of the problem, but not to promote positive interactions among family members (the Social Welfare Department, 2013). In addition, the service provided by the Hong Kong government that is most related to the inter-parental relationship is the Family Crisis Support Centre. The Centre aims at tackling family crisis at an early stage by providing a package of integrated and easily accessible services to assist individuals or families in crisis or distress. It provides a 24-hour hotline service, short-term emergency intervention with overnight accommodation, temporary retreat and other support services (the Social Welfare Department, 2013). From the above examples, it is revealed that the Hong Kong government regards the inter-parental relationship as a potential source of problems in families rather than a source of support for adolescent development.

It is suggested that the Hong Kong Government change its views on inter- parental relationships in families. Based on this study, a positive inter-parental relationship is an important family ecological factor in the healthy development of adolescents. The government should adjust its views on the inter-parental relationship and provide extensive large-scale education programs to educate the public regarding the values of the inter-parental relationship in families

8.8.3.3 Formulating family policy for the promotion of adolescent mental health

Logically, the government needs to have an integrated family policy in order to provide various services to families, such as medical care, education, labour and social welfare. However, there is no systematic integrated family policy to guide family services in Hong Kong. Although family harmony has dropped recently because of the disintegration of traditional Chinese beliefs (Shek, 2006), the instability of the economic situation (Shek, 2003), and changes in family structures, the family still remains the basic elementary unit of social life in Hong Kong (Shek, 2003; 2006). Therefore, an integrated family policy with an emphasis

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This study shows that a positive inter-parental relationship and parenting serve as an important ecological context for adolescent mental health development. This gives insight for formulating family policy for the promotion of adolescent mental health. An increase in non-conflict related attributes, a reduction in inter- parental conflict intensity, growth in parental concern, an increase in behavioral control and parental control based on Chinese concepts and a decrease in parental psychological control are important familial processes through which adolescents develop mental health. Thus, it is important for policymakers to promote these familial processes by developing family-friendly policies that enhance parents’ ability to foster a harmonious, supportive and responsive family environment for adolescents.

Moreover, non-standard and long hours of work have become an obstacle to parents developing close and positive inter-parental relationships and an obstacle to parenting effectively. The Hong Kong government should set up a family-friendly policy that encourages a family-work balance and harmonious interactions among family members.

8.8.3.4 Informing policy regarding family-based intervention for adolescents’ mental health problems

This study pointed out the importance of two family processes (i.e., the inter-parental relationship and parenting) in adolescents’ problems. However, the current policy on intervention for adolescents’ mental health problems is largely individual-based. There is nearly no policy on family-based intervention for adolescents’ mental health problems. Given that family ecology is important for adolescents’ mental health (Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992; Bronfenbrenner,

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1979), any policy on intervention for adolescents’ mental health problems should take family-based intervention into consideration.

8.8.4 Implication for social work education

8.8.4.1 Evidence-based practice in social work training

Sackett and his colleagues (1997) suggest using evidence-based practice in social work education. Scholars define evidence-based practice as considering “the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individuals” (Sackett, Richardson, Rosenberg, & Haynes, 1997). Evidence-based practice includes (1) motivation to apply evidence-based practice, (2) converting information about cases into a well- formulated answerable question, (3) tracking down the best evidence with which to answer the question, (4) critically judging the evidence for its validity and applicability to clinical practice, (5) applying the results of this evidence appraisal to policy/practice, (6), evaluating performance, and (7) teaching others to do the same (Sackett et al., 1997; Greenhalgh, 2001). Gambrill (1999) suggests that evidence-based social work practice regards clients as informed participants by seeking out practice-related research findings regarding important decisions and sharing the results of such a search with clients. If no evidence can be found to support a service decision, the client needs to be informed and practitioners need to describe their rationale for making their recommendations to their clients.

Although evidence-based practice in social work and its related features has long been suggested, there are only a limited number of evidence-based social work practices in Hong Kong (Shek, Lam & Tsoi, 2004). This study indicates the importance of the inter-parental relationship and parenting for the development of Hong Kong young people as well as the inter-relationship between the inter- parental relationship and parenting. These results are important for social workers for promoting positive family interactions and adolescent mental health in Chinese

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8.8.4.2 Teaching family based intervention models and strategies

Historically, social workers classify themselves as “youth workers”, “family workers”, “community workers” etc., according to the clientele they serve. Related to this classification, youth workers often adopt an individual perspective in understanding the needs of Hong Kong adolescents. Thus, when giving counseling services or programs that promote adolescent mental health, youth workers often focus only on the individual adolescent factors such as resilience and social skills. They may ignore the family as the closest context in which adolescents develop. This orientation and mindset of social workers hinders a holistic assessment of the needs of the adolescents and their families and hinders providing comprehensive services for them.

However, this study shows that the adolescent mental health is greatly influenced by familial processes including the inter-parental relationship and parenting. It is important to consider family process as ecological factors when delivering mental health services to Hong Kong young people. This suggestion echoes the family ecological perspective and family system theory in which interdependency among family members and inter-relationships among sub- familial systems are emphasized and scientifically studied (e.g., Anderson, Lindner, & Bennion, 1992; Bronfenbrenner, 1979). To provide holistic services for promoting adolescent mental health, family based intervention models and strategies should be proposed.

Recently, the Social Welfare Advisory Committee (SWAC) produced a Long-term Social Welfare Plan in Hong Kong (July, 2011). The Committee strongly advised that the family dimension and the role of the family needs to be

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8.8.4.3 Family assessment for promoting adolescent mental health

To include family based intervention models and strategies in social work education, the introduction of family assessment is the initial step. As clinicians, social workers need to identify, describe and quantify, with objective and scientific assessment, family processes and interactions among family members that have an influence on the development of an individual and functioning family (Cierpka et al., 2005a). There are three-levels of family assessment. They are the individual, the dyads, and the family system (Cierpka et al., 2005b). In addition to evaluating the needs and behavior of adolescents at an individual level, social workers also need to assess interactions among family members and the needs and behavior of adolescents at the dyadic level and family system level. The scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes developed in this study is an example of family assessment at the dyadic level.

Assessing families with reliable and valid assessments on different levels, social workers are already equipped with knowledge of psychosocial theories and family perspectives for providing services. Therefore, the use of scientific family assessments on different levels should be included in social work education.

8.8.5 Methodological advances of the study

Employing the post-positivist approach, this study aimed to investigate the influence of the inter-parental relationship and parenting on adolescent mental health in Chinese society. In the previous section, the methodological limitations of past studies were addressed. In this section, the methodological advances of the present study are discussed.

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8.8.5.1 Systematic use of qualitative and quantitative methods on scale construction and validation

With the limitations of past literature on marital quality and measurement tools for marital relationships and interactions as well as children’s perception of the inter-parental relationship, there was a need to indigenously conceptualize adolescent perceived positive aspects of the inter-parental relationship in Chinese culture, and develop a related assessment tool. This study systematically employed both qualitative and quantitative methods in scale construction and validation. In addition to reviews of the literature on marital quality and measurement tools for marital relationships and interactions, focus groups comprised of adolescents and social workers were conducted to understand the phenomenon directly from the stakeholders’ perspectives and to allow the researcher to grasp the native meanings and characteristics of the phenomenon. In fact, Yang (1999) suggests that it is a wise idea to collect qualitative data such as that from direct observation in order to understand the indigenous phenomenon fully and comprehensively for the conceptualization of the phenomenon. He even suggests that a qualitative pilot study is important for the quantitative main study regarding the construction of a scale. In other words, qualitative data from focus groups is important for the construction of an indigenous scale. In this study, such advice was followed. The construction of items for the adolescent perceived non-conflict related attributes scale was based on both a review of the literature and the data from four focus groups.

Moreover, the items based on the literature review and the focus groups data was evaluated by a panel of experts for its relevance, clarity and representativeness. Qualitative and quantitative data were provided by the experts to check the validity of each item and to make modifications to an item’s content if needed. Then, two quantitative studies were conducted to exanimate the proposed scale’s internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criteria validity, construct

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In sum, this study serves as an example of the systematic use of qualitative and quantitative data in the construction and validation of a scale. This study shows detailed procedures of how psychosocial assessment tools should be properly constructed and validated.

8.8.5.2 Employment of indigenous measurement tools

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the study of adolescent mental health and family processes in Hong Kong relies heavily on translated assessment and measurement tools (Fok & Shek, 2011b). This situation happens mainly because of a severe lack of psychosocial assessment tools in Chinese culture (Shek, 2002; 2010; Shek, Lam & Tsoi, 2004). However, caution must be taken when assessment and measurement tools are used in a context that is different from the one in which they were originally developed (Fok & Shek, 2011b). Cross-cultural psychologists suggest that “when an instrument has been applied in different cultural groups, it cannot be assumed that the meaning of the score obtained is identical” for each group (Van de Vijver & Leung, 1997, p. 144).

In this study, three indigenously developed scales were used. They were the Chinese Paternal Control Scale, the Chinese Maternal Control Scale and the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale Short Form. In addition, a new scale, the scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes, was developed. This new scale was shown to have good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criteria validity, construct validity and factorial validity in both the validation and

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305 the main studies. The other scales were originally developed in Western cultures. They were the Conflict intensity subscale of the Children's Perceptions of Inter- parental Conflict Scale, the Paternal Treatment Scale, the Maternal Treatment Scale, a scale measuring paternal and maternal behavioral control, the Paternal Psychological Control Scale Short Form, the Maternal Psychological Control Scale Short Form, the Hopelessness Scale and the Life Satisfaction Scale. Although they were originally developed in Western cultures, they had been validated with Chinese samples and showed good psychometric properties. The indigenously developed scales and the indigenously validated translated scales facilitated further conceptualization and model building in a Chinese context.

8.8.5.3 Use of multiple indicators

Past studies on parenting, the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health seldom used multiple indicators to assess these constructs (Fok & Shek, 2011b). These constructs are very complex and can be measured in different ways (Fok & Shek, 2011b). For instance, parenting processes can be measured by global parenting style (i.e., parenting characteristics that transcend context and that constitute an emotional climate as perceived by the child) and by specific parenting practices (i.e., specific behavior such as behavioral control and psychological control) (Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Shek, 2001a). Similar pictures can be applied to children’s perceptions of the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health. Children’s perception of the inter-parental relationship can be divided into a negative aspect including perceived conflict intensity and a positive aspect including non-conflict related attributes (Fok & Shek, 2013). Adolescent mental health can be classified into positive mental health attributes, positive youth development and psychological symptoms. Each of these constructs should be measured by multiple indicators in order to provide comprehensive assessments of the multiple aspects of these constructs.

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Methodologically, the use of multiple indicators in these constructs is a type of within-method triangulation (Denzin, 1970). It can enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of results because researchers can cross-check data from different measurements for support of the validity of the findings. Such a practice can also enable researchers to build a comprehensive picture of the nomological network among the constructs.

In this study, parenting, the inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health were assessed by multiple indicators. For instance, parenting was assessed by parental concern, parental harshness, parental behavioral control, parental psychological control, and parental control based on indigenous Chinese concepts. This study serves as an example in which all complex constructs were assessed by multiple indicators to assure the credibility and persuasiveness of the results.

8.8.5.4 Using structural equation modeling analyses

The present study employed structural equation modeling analyses (SEM) for model building. SEM is an advanced statistical technique for testing theory- derived models/ hypotheses. This technique involves testing the structure of functional relationships among observed variables on latent variables. The relationships among the variables are determined by the magnitude of the direct and indirect effects that the independent variables exert on the dependent variables (Marcoulides & Schumacker, 1996). SEM has several advantages. They are improving the statistical estimation of relationships among factors of variables, simultaneous estimation of the inter-dependency of variables, and facilitation of model confirmation (by evaluation of goodness-of-fit criteria) and theory testing (Hair et al., 2010; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Based on the literature on parenting and the inter-parental relationship, this study is one of the a few that have used structural equation modeling analyses in building a model

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8.8.5.5 Studying a Chinese sample

Most of the studies on parenting and the inter-parental relationship were conducted in Western contexts (Shek, 2005a). There are only a limited number of related studies conducted in a Chinese context. Given that family processes such as those in parenting and the inter-parental relationship have cross-cultural differences, it is important to build a theory and model with Chinese samples. For instance, a PsycINFO search using the keywords “parenting” and “adolescent” in March 2014 revealed that there were 3,817 relevant citations whereas there were only 157 relevant citations when “Chinese” was added as a keyword. Given that Chinese account around one-sixth of the world’s population, more studies using Chinese samples are needed. This study was one of the few to build an indigenous model in Chinese society.

8.8.5.6 Using a large simple

Most of the studies on the linkage between the inter-parental relationship and parenting employed relatively small samples ranging from 200 to 600 participants, despite the fact that these studies had complicated research designs such as a longitudinal design (e.g., Peris, Goeke-Morey, Cummings, & Emery, 2008; Davies, Strurge-Apple, Cicchetti, & Cummings, 2007, 2008; El-sheikh et al., 2009). There was a need for a large sample for model building and refinement. Without a large sample size, it is statistically difficult to conduct model confirmation (by evaluation of goodness-of-fit criteria) and theory testing (Hair et al., 2010; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). This study was one of the few that used a large simple size for model building and refinement in a Chinese society.

Table 8.2 summarizes the methodological advances of this study.

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Table 8.2. Methodological advances of the study

Methodological gaps Advances of the study Problems in scale • Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were development and used in the development and validation of a scale of validation adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes. • Qualitative data were used to understand the phenomena from shareholders’ perspectives (i.e., adolescents and social works) whereas quantitative data were used to evaluate internal consistency, test- retest reliability, criteria validity, construct validity and the factorial validity of the scale Use of translated • Three indigenously developed scales were used. They assessment tools were the Chinese Paternal Control Scale, the Chinese Maternal Control Scale and the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale Short Form. Indigenous Chinese concepts and culture were considered in the construction and use of the scales. The scales also have good psychometric propensity in Chinese samples. • A scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes was developed based on a literature review and an indigenous investigation of the inter-parental relationship using focus groups. • The scales originally developed in the west showed good psychometric propensity in Chinese samples. Use of single • All constructs, including inter-parental relationships, indicator for a parenting and adolescent mental health were assessed complex construct with multiple indicators in order to enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of the results Lack of usage of • Structural equation modeling analyses has several structural equation advantages, including improvement of the statistical modeling analyses estimation of relationships among factors of variables, simultaneous estimation of the inter-dependency of variables, and facilitation of model confirmation and theory testing. • The present study employed SEM for model building. Lack of studies with • Most of the past studies and theories were developed Chinese samples in the west. There are only limited related studies done in a Chinese context. • The present study recruited a large sample from a Chinese society and tested a model with the Chinese sample. Lack of studies using • Most of the past studies used a limited sample size for

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309 a large sample size model confirmation and theory testing. There was a need for a large sample for model building and refinement. • The present study used a large Chinese sample for model building and refinement.

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8.9 Limitations of the research

8.9.1 Cross sectional design

There are five possibilities when exanimating the relationship between two variables (X and Y). The first possibility is X influences Y (i.e., X  Y). The second possibility is Y influences X (i.e., Y  X). The third one is that X and Y mutually influence each other (X Y). The fourth possibility is that X and Y do not influence each other. The fifth possibility is that the relationship between X and Y is due to a third unmeasured variable Z. In other words, X and Y do not have any causal relationship. The mathematical relationship between X and Y may wrongly infer that they do, due to either coincidence or the presence of Z (i.e., Z  X and Y). In principle, a causal relationship between X and Y can be proved in a true experimental design. However, in many topics and situations, it is partially impossible or unethical to conduct a true experimental design to test the relationship among the variables. In such circumstances, other research designs including a cross-sectional design, quasi-experimental designs, or a longitudinal design might be employed.

Four methods can be used to strengthen the causal relationship between variables when using a cross-sectional design. They are 1) solid theoretical framework; 2) logical time sequence; 3) a dose-response relationship (the larger the causal relationship, the larger the outcome); and 4) consistency of results across similar studies (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007).

In this study, method 1, 3 and 4 were used. First, as a solid theoretical framework, the family ecological perspective together with previous literature on the inter-parental relationship and parenting was used to outline a hypothetical model to be tested. Based on the family ecological perspective and past literature, the inter-parental relationship was hypothesized to be made up of independent

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311 variables, parenting to be mediators and adolescent mental health to be outcome variables. The model was supported by data. Second, in the data from this study, it was found that the higher the level of perceived non-conflicted related attributes and the lower the level of perceived conflict intensity, the better the adolescent mental health. In addition, these relationships were accounted for by parenting processes. Finally, the results, in general, were greatly consistent with past studies (e.g., Belsky, Gilstrap, & Rovine, 1984; Belsky, Youngblade, Rovine, & Volling, 1991; Bradford, Burns Vaughn, & Barber, 2008; Brody, Pellegrini, & Sigel, 1986; Buehler & Gerard, 2002; Cummings et al., 2002; Cummings & Davies, 2010; Belsky, Rovine, & Fish, 1989; Easterbrooks & Emde, 1988; Nicolotti, El-Sheikh, & Whitson, 2003; Gerard, Krishnakumar, & Buehler, 2006; Goldberg & Easterbrooks, 1984; Hair, Moore, Hadley, Kaye, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Jeong & Chun, 2010; Krishnakumar, Buehler, & Barber, 2003; Lamborn, Mount, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991; Orthner, Jones-Sanpei, Hair, Moore, Day, & Kaye, 2009; Kaye, Moore, Hair, Hadley, Day, & Orthner, 2009; Vandervalk, Spruijt, Goede, Maas, & Meeus, 2005; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mount, & Dornbusch, 1994; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992; Shek, 1999a; 1999b; Steinberg, 2001).

Although the methods mentioned above can strengthen the credibility and persuasiveness of the results, the inherent problem of cross-sectional design makes inferences of cause-and-effect relationships among the variables difficult. In addition, other studies also suggest that adolescent mental health issues can impact family processes including the inter-parental relationship and parenting (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Steinberg, 2001). To overcome the shortcoming of having a cross-sectional design, a longitudinal design is recommended for its advantage of having a time sequence, showing logical causal relationships among variables (Shek, 1998b). It is therefore suggested that future research on family processes and adolescent mental health should employ a longitudinal design.

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8.9.2 Using a non-random sampling strategy

Normally, results of any empirical study should be generalized to a target population. Sampling strategy is an important factor affecting the representativeness of a sample with respect to its target population and the level of appropriateness of the generalization of the results. In principle, random sampling allows every individual to have the same probability of being randomly chosen in the sample. The unbiased random selection of individuals is important because this ensures that the average sample would accurately represent the population. Another merit of random sampling is that it can eliminate bias and permit the measurement of random sampling errors.

Although there are advantages to random sampling, there are also practical difficulties in using a random sampling strategy in studying adolescent mental health with a large sample. First, although the majority of Hong Kong adolescents are studying in local secondary schools, it is practically difficult to obtain a complete list of Hong Kong adolescents. Second, a study of mental health might be associated with psychological or mental disorders, producing a potential stigmatization of a study involving adolescent mental health in the minds of some adolescents and their parents. This reduces the possibility of using a random sampling strategy. Third, this study investigates the effects of inter-parental relationships on adolescent mental health. The topic of inter-parental relationships is sensitive in Chinese society. Chinese people may think that anything about inter-parental relationships should not be disclosed to outsiders. Fourth, this study requires a large sample of adolescents. It is practically difficult to recruit a large number of participants with a random sampling strategy. In addition, a random sampling strategy does not guarantee that a particular sample is a perfect representation of the population. Therefore, purposeful sampling was used in this study. In fact, a non-random sampling strategy is common when studying family processes and adolescent mental health (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Shek, 2008a, b, c).

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In this study, the adolescents were recruited through secondary schools. Because of the nine-year compulsory education requirement in Hong Kong, nearly all the adolescents aged 12 to 16 are studying in different types of secondary schools. With a large sample size and by recruiting adolescents through secondary schools, a 'reasonable' cross section of the adolescent population from 12 to 16 years of age in Hong Kong was originally expected. However, the actual simple used in this study was different from that of the general adolescent population aged 12 to 16 in Hong Kong. Based on the data from the Education Bureau (Education Bureau, 2011), the overall female to male ratio is 49:51 for adolescents aged 12 to 16. In contrast, the ratio in this sample is 76.3:23.7. This implied that this sample had proportionally more female adolescents than the overall Hong Kong population. Age distribution is another issue. In this sample, 28.3% of the males were 12 year olds, 24.3% of the males were 13 year olds, 24.3% of the males were 14 year olds, 18.4% of the males were15 year olds, and 4.9% of the males were 16 year olds. In the overall Hong Kong population, 16% of the males were 12 year olds, 18.7% of the males were 13 year olds, 21.5% 14 year old, 21.8% of the males were 15 year olds, and 21.9% of the males were 16 year olds. In terms of females, in this sample, 17.5% of the females were 12 year olds, 16.1% of the females were 13 year olds, 38% of the females were 14 year olds, 22.7% of the females were 15 year olds, and 5.6% of the females were 16 year olds. In overall HK population, 16.1% of the females were 12 year olds, 18.3% of the females were 13 year olds, 21.2% of the females were 14 year olds, 22.1 % of the females were 15 year olds, and 22.3% of the females were 16 year olds. Proportionally, the adolescents in this sample were younger than the adolescents in the overall Hong Kong population.

These figures indirectly point to the importance of using a random sampling strategy to get a representative sample. Without a random sampling strategy, it is very difficult to obtain a representative sample even with such a large simple size as was recruited for this study. With more resources and time, it is

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8.9.3 Use of self-reported data

This study mainly relied on self-reported data obtained from the participants. Using mainly self-reported data has several limitations. First, people’s self-perception might not be an accurate estimation of their actual behavior and feelings. Self-reported data might not be consistent with data from other assessment methods, such as direct observation (e.g. Green et al., 1995; Greene, 2000; Smetana et al., 2000). Third, a study mainly using self-reported data faces the problem of shared method variance, which is the spurious variance that is attributable to the measurement method rather than to the constructs the measures represent (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Shared method variance can mistakenly increase the associations among variables. Fourth, participants might not honestly report their data both consciously and unconsciously. There are self- enhancement and self-presentation motives involved in reporting data (Robins & John, 1997), creating systematic measurement error in the data. Fifth, participants may fail to report data because they cannot understand the items or cannot recall their past feelings, attitudes and behavior, causing bias in the data (Singleton et al., 2010).

Moreover, using mainly self-reported data might bring additional limitations into the study of family processes including the inter-parental relationship and parenting. Participants of a study investigating family processes are members of those families, making the views and perspectives of outsiders unavailable. Some researchers suggest using trained independent observers to conduct direct observations of the family processes and interactions among family members (Cummings & Davies, 2010). The data from outsider’s perspectives in reality can be particularly useful in understanding the family processes which affect adolescent development. Also, family processes are complex. Data that is

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8.9.4 Involving only adolescents’ perspective

In the main study, only adolescents reported their views on the inter- parental relationship, parenting and mental health. In other words, the source of data came solely from adolescents’ perspective. Although it is common to investigate adolescent mental health by using mainly data given by adolescents (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Shek, 2008b), the perceptions of parents on their own relationships, on how they conduct their parenting tasks and on their children’s mental health are neglected. In fact, researchers suggest collecting data from multiple informants (Day et al., 2001), because such practice can provide data with a comprehensive scope and bring multiple perspectives to the study. In addition, different family members can have different views on the family’s processes and interactions (De Los Reyes, 2011; Guion et al., 2009; Collan & Noller, 1986; Ohannessian et al., 1995). The parents’ perceptions can be different from their children’s views (Paulson & Sputa, 1996). For instance, Grych, Seid, and Fincham (1992) found that adolescent perceptions and understanding of inter- parental relationships were different from those of their parents. Differences in views on family interaction not only happen between parents and adolescents, but also between parents (Forehand & Nousiainen, 1993; Noller & Callan, 1990; Paulson & Sputa, 1996). With data only from the adolescents’ perspective, this study failed to exanimate the potential differences between parents and adolescents as well as between fathers and mothers. This study also failed to provide data for family processes and adolescent mental health that is comprehensive in scope.

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8.9.5. Indicators of inter-parental relational quality In the main study, only 8 items of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes and conflict intensity of Children’s Perception of inter-parental conflict scale were used (Fok & Shek, 2013; Grych & Fincham, 1990). Although these items could measure overall positive and negative aspects of inter-parental relational quality, they could not completely cover the comprehensiveness of inter- parental relational quality. In fact, both positive and negative aspects of inter- parental relational quality itself are multi-dimensional in nature and contain various dimensions (Fok & Shek, 2013; Grych & Fincham, 1990). For negative aspects of inter-parental relational quality, there are at least nine domains according to Grych et al. (1992). They are 1) Frequency, 2) Intensity, 3) Resolution, 4) Threat, 5) Coping Efficacy, 6) Content, 7) Self –Blame, 8) Triangulation and 9) Stability. Although conflict intensity was highly correlated with other aspects (Moura et al., 2010), future research should include more aspects to capture the comprehensiveness of negative aspects of inter-parental relational quality. Similarly, according to Fok and Shek (2013), the positive aspects of inter- parental relational quality contain 12 domains. They are Togetherness, Communication, Appreciation, Criticism, Concern, Helping, Understanding and Acceptance, Trust, Satisfaction, Indigenous Chinese concepts, Passion, and Commitment. Although the eight items used in the main study could be used as an indicator of overall positive aspects of inter-parental relational quality, there is a need for future research on exploring and developing a multi-dimensional assessment of the construct. Based on the present results, more focus groups of adolescents and social workers should be conducted to generate more potential items in the 12 domains identified (Fok & Shek, 2013). With more items, it was expected that a scale with multi-dimensional and stable factor structure could be found. It could better represent the comprehensiveness of the construct of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes.

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8.9.6 Ways of handling missing data In the main study, the missing data were handled by listwise deletion in SPSS program. In listwise deletion, participants’ entire data are excluded from analysis if any single value is missing (Allison, 2001). Although using listwise deletion to treat missing data is a common practice in applied behavioral social sciences with large dataset (e.g., Shek, 2008a, b, c; 2010), listwise deletion contains several problems. First, this method affects statistical power of the analyses conducted. It is because statistical power relies on sample size and listwise deletion excludes entire data from a participant if he or she misses to answer one single item. This reduces the sample which is being statistically analyzed (Olinsky, Chen, & Harlow, 2003; Roth, 1994). Second, this method might create bias in the dataset when the reason for missing data is not random in nature (Jones, 1996; Little & Rubin, 2002). If some of the participants do not respond to items which might be sensitive, such as family income level, listwise deletion will exclude these participants’ data from analysis. This may create a bias as participants who divulge this information may have different characteristics from participants who do not. Alternatively, multiple imputations can be considered as a way to handle missing data (Little & Rubin, 2002). In multiple imputations, missing data would be estimated by regression equation in which variables with missing value are treated as dependent variables whereas other variables are treated as independent variables. However, caution should be noted when using multiple imputations. Researchers are suggested not to use predictors of major research questions to impute outcome variables and vice versa. This practice will overstate their relationships (Little & Rubin, 2002). In the present study, there were only a few variables except the predictors, partial mediators and outcome variables. Therefore, multiple imputations were not used. In the future studies with more variables in the dataset, multiple imputations could be considered as a way to handle missing data.

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8.9.7 Loss of data in controlled variables In the present study, many adolescent reported that they did not know their family monthly income and parents’ education level. Although collecting data about socioeconomic status from adolescents as controlled variables is a common practice in applied social sciences research (e.g., Shek, 2008, a, b, c; 2010), this issue might cause loss of data. In the future studies, researchers can consider collecting data about socioeconomic status from parents. On the other hand, these findings implied that adolescents did not know much about their family as well as their parents. Future studies should explore the reasons behind such ignorance and explore the ways to strengthen adolescents’ understanding on their family.

8.9.8 Influences of other variables outside family In the main study, 12 predictors and mediators together (non-conflict related attributes, conflict intensity, paternal concern paternal harshness, maternal concern, and maternal harshness, paternal and maternal behavioral and psychological control, paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) explained 19.2% of hopelessness, 32.6% of life satisfaction, and 24.7% of positive youth development. In other words, around one-fifth to one- third of the variances was explained by the predictors and mediators. This is not too low in applied behavioral sciences (Cohen, Cohen, West, & Aiken, 2003). However, future studies should go beyond family variables and explore the impacts of peers and schools, such as friendship quality, number of close friends, and school climates, on different aspects of mental health (Andersson et al., 2010; Bella et al., 2011).

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Chapter 9: Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research

This section provides a summary of the findings and gives recommendations for future research.

9.1 Summary of findings

This study aimed to explore the relationship among the inter-parental relationship, parenting processes and adolescent mental health. This study consisted of two parts. The first part was scale construction and validation. A scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes was developed and validated. The second part was the main study. The main study tested the effects of inter-parental relationships (i.e., perceived conflict intensity and perceived non- conflict related attributes) on three indicators of adolescent mental health, including hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development. The mediating roles of parenting processes, including parenting styles (i.e., parental concern and harshness) and parenting practices (i.e., parental behavioral and psychological control as well as parental control based on indigenous Chinese concepts) was investigated. With support from a non-government organization and local secondary schools, 2,380 adolescents participated in the study. However, two participants were aged below 12, 59 participants were aged above 16 and 89 other participants did not fill in their age. In addition, 74 and 94 participants reported respectively that their fathers or mothers were not Chinese. 116 and 160 participants respectively did not report whether or not their parents were Chinese. These participants did not or might not meet the inclusion criteria of the study. Their data, therefore, were excluded from the analysis. After excluding these participants, data from 2,007 adolescents aged 12 to 16 with both parents being Chinese were analyzed.

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9.1.1 Construction and validation of a scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes

Based on the literature on marital quality and measurement tools for the marital relationship and the interactions and data from focus groups of social workers and adolescents, a scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes was developed. Two studies were conducted to exanimate the psychometric properties of the scale. Both validation studies showed that the scale had good internal consistency, test-retest reliability, criterion-related validity, discriminant validity, and construct validity.

9.1.2 Summary of findings addressing the research questions of the study Research Question 1: Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence adolescent mental health?

It was found that adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was associated with three adolescent mental health indexes (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction and positive youth development) in the correlation analyses. In particular, perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was positively correlated with hopelessness but negatively correlated with life satisfaction and positive youth development. In the regression analysis, adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity did not predict hopelessness and positive youth development but did predict life satisfaction, after demographic variables and perceived non- conflict related attributes were statistically controlled. On the other hand, in the correlation analyses, adolescent non-conflict related attributes was associated with three adolescent mental health indexes. In particular, non-conflict related attributes was positively correlated with life satisfaction and positive youth development but negatively correlated with hopelessness. In the regression analysis, adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes predicted all three indexes of adolescent mental health.

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Research Question 2: Does perceived inter-parental relational quality influence parenting style and parenting practice?

In terms of parenting style, there were significant correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, parental concern and parental harshness. In particular, perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was positively correlated with paternal and maternal harshness but negatively correlated with paternal and maternal concern. In the regression analysis, adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity uniquely predicted parental concern and harshness. In terms of parenting practices, it was found that perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was negatively correlated with paternal and maternal behavioral control but positively with paternal and maternal psychological control. In addition, perceived inter-parental conflict intensity was positively correlated with paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. In the regression analyses, the perceived conflict intensity did not predict parental behavioral control. In contrast, perceived conflict intensity predicted parental psychological control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts after statistically controlling for the demographic variables of the participants, the family demographic variables, and perceived non-conflict related attributes.

On the other hand, in terms of parenting style, perceived non-conflict related attributes was positively correlated with paternal and material concern but negatively correlated with paternal and material harshness. In the regression analysis, the perceived non-conflict related attributes predicted paternal and maternal concern as well as paternal and maternal harshness when controlling for the demographic variables and perceived conflict intensity. In terms of parenting practices, perceived non-conflict related attributes was positively correlated with paternal and maternal behavioral control but negatively with paternal and maternal psychological control. Perceived non-conflict related attributes was also positively correlated with paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. In the regression analysis, perceived non-conflict related

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Research Question 3: Do parenting style and parenting practice influence adolescent mental health?

In the correlation analyses, paternal and maternal harshness were positively correlated with hopelessness but negatively with life satisfaction and positive youth development. Paternal and maternal concern showed a reversed pattern. Both concerns were negatively related to hopelessness but positively with life satisfaction and positive youth development. In terms of parenting practices, paternal and maternal behavioral control as well as paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts were negatively correlated with hopelessness but positively correlated with life satisfaction and positive youth development. In contrast, paternal and maternal psychological control was positively correlated with hopelessness but negatively correlated with life satisfaction and positive youth development.

In the regression analyses, parental concern predicted all three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) whereas parental harshness did not. For parenting practices, paternal behavioral control predicted hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development whereas paternal psychological control only predicted hopelessness and life satisfaction. Paternal control defined by indigenous concepts did not predicted mental health indexes. Maternal parenting practice predicted most of the indicators of mental health except that maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not predict hopelessness and life satisfaction.

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Research Question 4: Does parenting style and practice mediate the influence of perceived inter-parental relational quality on adolescent mental health?

There were several potential mediators between the inter-parental relationship (perceived conflict intensity and perceived non-conflict related attributes) and adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). These potential mediators include paternal and maternal concern, paternal and maternal harshness, paternal and maternal behavioral control, paternal and maternal psychological control and paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts.

The data in the main part of this study indicate that parenting styles (i.e., paternal and maternal concern and harshness) and practices (i.e., paternal and maternal behavioral control, psychological control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts) did not mediate the links between perceived conflict intensity and hopelessness. On the other hand, parental concern, maternal behavioral control, and parental psychological control did mediate the link between non-conflict related attributes, whereas parental harshness, paternal behavioral control, and parental control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not.

Regarding the link between inter-parental relational quality and life satisfaction, parental concern and psychological control mediated the effects of perceived conflict intensity. However, parental harshness, behavioral control and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate the effects of perceived conflict intensity. On the other hand, parental concern, behavioral control and psychological control mediated the effects of perceived non-conflict related attributes whereas parental harshness and control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts failed to mediate the effects of non-conflict related attributes.

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Regarding positive youth development, only parental concern, maternal psychological control, and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts mediated the effects of perceived conflict intensity. However, parental harshness, parental behavioral control, paternal psychological control, and paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not. On the other hand, parental concern, parental behavioral control, maternal psychological control, and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts mediated the effects of non-conflict related attributes, whereas parental harshness, paternal psychological control and paternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts did not.

To investigate further the relationship among inter-parental relational quality, parenting processes and adolescent mental health, the data were re- analyzed using structural equation modeling. It was found that the perceived conflict intensity had some effect on paternal concern and maternal harshness as well as paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. Perceived non-conflict related attributes had a significant effect on paternal and maternal concern, paternal harshness, paternal and maternal behavioral control, maternal psychological control, and paternal and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. In the model, hopelessness was predicted by parental concern, maternal behavioral control, and parental psychological control. Life satisfaction was predicted by maternal concern, parental behavioral control, and parental psychological control. Positive youth development was predicted by parental behavioral control, maternal psychological control and maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts.

9.2 Message for laymen This research conveys several important messages to the general public. First, inter-parental relationship influences different aspects of adolescent mental health. Second, positive inter-parental relationship is more influential than negative inter-parental relationship in determining adolescent mental health. Third, inter-parental relationship has an impact on parenting, especially for the father side.

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Fourth, the general emotional climate and atmosphere in which parents nurture adolescents has larger impacts on adolescent mental health than specific parenting behaviors. Fifth, in the Hong Kong Chinese context, maternal parenting influences adolescent mental health development more than paternal one. This is possibly because Hong Kong Chinese fathers spend less time with their children. These fathers should consider paying more attention and efforts to their children. Finally, maternal parenting behavior based on traditional Chinese concepts has unique influences on helping adolescents explore their potentials.

9.3 Recommendations for future research

This study provides important information about the effects of inter-parental relational quality on three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) and about the mediating roles of parenting processes in the link between inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health in a Chinese context. However, there is room for further improvements in future studies:

First, in this study, the perceived conflict intensity was investigated as an indicator of the negative aspect of the inter-parental relationship. There are other related indicators of the negative aspect of the inter-parental relationship, including perceived conflict frequency, conflict resolution, perceived threat, perceived efficacy in coping with conflict, blame for conflict, content of conflict, stability and triangulation (Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992). Although these related indicators were highly correlated (Grych & Fincham, 2001; Grych, Seid, & Fincham, 1992), it is suggested that future research include these related indicators in order to explore the unique predictive power of these related indicators over adolescent developmental outcomes when the positive inter-parental relationship is controlled.

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Second, the study investigates the mediating roles of parenting processes in the link between inter-parental relational quality and adolescent mental health. However, limited past studies (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Grych & Fincham, 2001) suggest that other aspects of the parent-child relationship, such as bonding, attachment and communication, can also serve as mediators in the link. Future research is suggested to compare the mediating roles of parenting processes with other aspects of parent-child relationship. Such comparisons can further explore how the inter-parental relationship affects the parent-child relationship and how the inter-dependency of these two relationships shapes adolescent development.

Third, this study only investigated the mediating role of parenting style and practice between inter-parental relationship and adolescent mental health. In fact, limited studies suggest that there might be potential moderating effects of the inter-parental relationship and parenting processes on adolescent development (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Grych & Fincham, 2001). Past parenting studies also recommend investigating the interaction of effects between parenting style and practice on child behavior (Sternberg, 2001). Literature on martial quality also points out the possibility of a positive inter-parental relationship interacting with a negative inter-parental relationship in shaping family dynamics and interactions (Frosch, Mangelsdorf, & McHale, 2000; Graham, Diebels, & Barnow, 2011). Future research can explore the above possible moderation effects.

Fourth, the focus of this study was investigating the effects of inter-parental relationships on parenting and adolescent mental health. However, given the inter- dependent nature of sub-systems within a family (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), past studies have shown the behavior and development of adolescents could affect relations among family members (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Grych & Fincham, 2001; Sternberg, 2001). For instance, past studies showed that inter-parental conflicts increase when children are difficult to nurture (Sternberg, 2001). The future studies should explore the paths through which adolescent mental health affects the inter-parental relationship and parenting in a Chinese context.

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Fifth, employing a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health, this study investigated the impacts of the inter-parental relationship on three indexes of mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development). Although this study used a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health, there are still numerous aspects of mental health to consider. For instance, the present study exanimated life satisfaction as indexes of hedonic well-being However, hedonic well-being consists of life satisfaction, positive affect and negative affect (Diener, (2000). A future study should continue to explore the impacts of family processes, including the inter-parental relationship and parenting, on various aspects of mental health.

In addition, researchers argue for data from multiple informants when investigating family processes and impacts (Day et al., 2001; De Los Reyes, 2011; Guion et al., 2009; Callan & Noller, 1986; Ohannessian et al., 1995). Given that different family members can view family processes differently (De Los Reyes, 2011; Guion et al., 2009; Callan & Noller, 1986; Ohannessian et al., 1995), future studies should explore the impacts of the inter-parental relationship on parenting and adolescent developments from different family members’ perspectives and compare the possible discrepancies among those views.

Moreover, a longitudinal study of the influences of the inter-parental relationship and parenting processes on various aspects of adolescent mental health in a Chinese context can minimize the problem of directionality and address the dynamic nature of family processes and interactions over time. In addition, a longitudinal design can explore the stabilities of individual and family variables as well as the influences of changes in family processes on adolescent development within an extended period of time.

Eighth, this study found the scale of adolescents’ perceived non-conflict related attributes (Fok & Shek, 2013) and the Chinese Positive Youth

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Development Scale Short Form (Shek & Lu, 2011; 2013) to be reliable and valid. Since there are possibilities of the factor structure of the measurements varying across the developmental age of children (Bickham & Fiese, 1997; Moura, Santos, Rocha, & Matos, 2010), it is suggested that the multi-group confirmatory factor analyses be used to confirm the factor structure of these two measurements across adolescents from different groups with different ages, genders, and family backgrounds.

Ninth, recently, researchers have suggested using multi-level analysis to explore the effects of individual-level, family-level and community-level variables on adolescent development (DeGoede, Spruijt & Maas, 1999). Multi-level analysis can provide important information on the processes in which family-level and community-level variables shape the effects of individual-level variables on adolescent development.

Tenth, this study mainly relies on questionnaire data in assessing the inter- parental relationship. The relationships among the inter-parental relationship, parenting processes and adolescent mental health should be supported with different sources of data. Thus, it is essential to assess the inter-parental relationship in multiple ways. Other than questionnaire data, direct observation of inter-parental relationships by trained researchers in naturalistic settings is an alternative way of assessing the inter-parental relationship (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Grych & Fincham, 2001).

Eleventh, there are physiological measures of hedonic well-being, eudaimonic well-being, and psychological ill-being (Ryff, Love, Urry, Muller, Rosenkranza, Friedman, & Davidson, 2006). Studying the impacts of family processes, including the inter-parental relationship and parenting processes, on adolescent mental health with physiological measures can provide insight on the mechanisms and processes in which the immediate ecological context affects adolescent biological and psychological development.

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In addition, qualitative methods can be employed to understand the relationship among the inter-parental relationship, parenting and adolescent mental health. Family processes and interactions are complex and dynamic. Interviews and field studies are useful research methods for providing rich, in-depth and detailed information from different family members. That information can be used to address the subjective experiences and dynamic interactions of family processes (Patton, 2002).

Also, past research studying family processes and adolescent mental health often used a non-random sampling strategy (Cummings & Davies, 2010; Shek, 2008a, b, c). Future studies should overcome the practical difficulties of random sampling strategies and recruit a more representative sample. With a random sampling strategy, future studies can estimate the possible error of generalizing the results to the targeted population.

Finally, future research should explore the effects of family processes on adolescent mental health across adolescents with different individual characteristics and family backgrounds. For instance, the age of adolescents might affect their perception of inter-parental conflicts (Bickham & Fiese, 1997). The relations between parenting and adolescent psychological well-being were different for boys and girls (Shek, 1998; 1999a; 1999b; 2002; 2007b). Therefore, it is important to explore possible moderators of the effects of family processes on adolescent mental health in a Chinese context.

9.4 Conclusion

The study investigates the relationships amongst inter-parental relationship, parenting processes and adolescent mental health in a Chinese context. Employing family ecological perspectives and a comprehensive conceptualization of mental health, this study explores the paths through which the perceived conflict intensity

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330 and non-conflict related attributes has an effect on adolescent mental health and explores the mediating roles of parenting processes. It was found that perceived conflict intensity affected adolescent mental health indirectly via parental concern, behavioral control and psychological control whereas non-conflict related attributes had both direct and indirect effects on adolescent mental health. The mediators included parental concern, behavioral control and psychological control as well as maternal control defined by indigenous Chinese concepts. The findings provide important theoretical and practical implications for researchers, social workers, policymakers and social work educators for building positive family environments for nurturing adolescents.

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Table 6.1. Original CPIC items Factors Items Frequency 1.* I never see my parents arguing or disagreeing. 10. They may not think I know it, but my parents argue or disagree a lot. 16. My parents are often mean to each other even when I'm around. 20. I often see or hear my parents arguing. 29.* My parents hardly ever argue. 37. My parents often nag and complain about each other around the house. Intensity 5. My parents get really mad when they argue. 14.* When my parents have a disagreement they discuss it quietly. 33 When my parents have an argument they say mean things to each other 38* My parents hardly ever yell when they have a disagreement. 40 My parents have broken or thrown things during an argument. 45 My parents have pushed or shoved each other during an argument. Resolution 2.* When my parents have an argument they usually work it out. 11. Even after my parents stop arguing they stay mad at each other. 21.* When my parents disagree about something, they usually come up with a solution. 30.* When my parents argue they usually make up right away. 41.* After my parents stop arguing, they are friendly toward each other. 48. My parents still act mean after they have had an argument. Content 3. My parents often get into arguments about things I do at school. 22. My parents' arguments are usually about something I did. 31. My parents usually argue or disagree because of things that I do. 39. My parents often get into arguments when I do something wrong. Perceived 7. I get scared when my parents argue. Threat 17. When my parents argue I worry about what will happen to me. 26. When my parents argue I'm afraid that something bad will happen. 35. When my parents argue I worry that one of them will get hurt. 42. When my parents argue I'm afraid that they will yell at me too. 47. When my parents argue I worry that they might get divorced.

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Coping 6.* When my parents argue I can do something to make myself Efficacy feel better. 15. I don't know what to do when my parents have arguments. 25.* When my parents argue or disagree I can usually help make things better. 34. When my parents argue there's nothing I can do to stop them. 46. When my parents argue or disagree there's nothing I can do to make myself feel better. 51. When my parents argue they don't listen to anything I say. Self-blame 9.* I'm not to blame when my parents have arguments. 19. It's usually my fault when my parents argue. 28. Even if they don't say it, I know I'm to blame when my parents argue. 43. My parents blame me when they have arguments. 50.* Usually it's not my fault when my parents have arguments. Triangulation 8. I feel caught in the middle when my parents argue. 18.* I don't feel like I have to take sides when my parents have a disagreement. 27. My mom wants me to be on her side when she and my dad argue. 36. I feel like I have to take sides when my parents have a disagreement. 44. My dad wants me to be on his side when he and my mom argue. Stability 13. My parents have arguments because they are not happy together. 23. The reasons my parents argue never change. 32. My parents argue because they don't really love each other. 49. My parents have arguments because they don't know how to get along. Note: * Items are reverse coded items.

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Table 6.2. Interview guides of adolescents focus groups 1 Is the relationship between your parents good? 你的父母關係是否良好? 2 Is the relationship between your parents good? Can you tell whether the relationship is good? How you can know? 你的父母的關係是否良好，你能否看出? 如果你可以看出，你是如何看出的? 3 When observing the relationship between your parents, what aspects will you pay attention to? 你看父母的關係時，會留意些什麼? 4 How you define whether the relationship between your parents is good? 你是如何界定父母的關係是否良好? 5 In addition to inter-parental conflicts, what else you can use to judge whether the relationship between your parents is good? 除了婚姻衝突，你還有什麼可以分辨你父母的關係是否良好? 6 Will you use “whether parents appreciate each other” as a way to judge their inter-parental relationship quality? 你會不會用「父母有沒有互相肯定/欣賞」來鑑定父母婚姻質素 7 Is “inter-parental consistency in opinion, thinking and behaviors” judge their inter-parental relationship quality? 「父母對事物的意見、思想和行為是不是一致」是否你用來鑑定父母婚姻質素的良好指標? 8 Is “whether parents spend time together or share with each other” as a way to judge their inter-parental relationship quality? 「父母有沒有常常一起做事、分享」是否你用來鑑定父母婚姻質素的良好指標? 9 Is “inter-parental trust” as a way to judge their inter-parental relationship quality? 「父母相不相信對方」是否你用來鑑定父母婚姻質素的良好指標? 10 Is “inter-parental respect” your way to judge their inter-parental relationship quality? 「父母相敬如賓」是否你用來鑑定父母婚姻質素的良好指標?

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Table 6.3. Interview guides of social workers focus groups 1 Based on your working experiences, what are the characteristics of a good marital relationship 根據你的工作經驗，美滿的婚姻有什麼特點? 2 How can you tell whether a couple is having a good relationship? 你是如何看出一對夫婦的關係是否良好? 3 What is the behavior expression of a couple having a good relationship? 你認為婚姻美滿的夫婦有什麼行為表現? 4 How can you know whether a couple will not divorce? 你是如何看出一對夫婦會不會離婚? 5 Can children know whether their parents are having a good relationship? If they can know, how can they know? 你認為父母的關係是否良好，子女能否看出? 如果他們可以看出，他們是如何看出的? 6 What aspect will children observe when judging their parents’ relationship? 你認為子女看父母的關係時，他們會留意些什麼? 7 What do you think about adolescents’ perception on their parents’ relationship? 你認為青少年人是如何看父母的關係的? 8 How does Chinese culture define a good marital relationship? 華人文化是如何界定美滿婚姻的? 9 In Chinese culture, what is a good marital relationship? 在華人文化中，美滿的婚姻是怎樣的? 10 Present literature of inter-parental relationship focus on conflicts, In addition to conflicts, what else can be used to judge whether the relationship between parents is good? 現在的文獻大多注重婚姻衝突，除了婚姻衝突，還有什麼可以分辨一對夫婦的關係是否良好?

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Table 6.4. Themes of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Themes Examples of Narratives No. of participants mentioned Adole Social Total s-cent worke r Respect “(father) will listen to mother’s opinion when deciding 7 19 26 things” (S, a 12-year-old girl) Appreciatio “my father will praise my mon if she cooks good food” 7 38 45 n (M, a 13-year-old girl) Responsibili “my mother said…my father is very 11 49 60 ty responsible…taking care of the family…” (M, a 13- year-old girl) Trust “Trust…can make the relationship survive in time…the 5 2 7 kids might know…” (G, a female social workers) Body touch “they (parents) holding hands…”(L, a 13-year-old girl) 8 8 16 “they (parents) kiss in front of me…” (W, a 13-year-old boy) Togethernes “I feel their relationship is good and secured if they 49 41 90 s (parents sit down on the sofa and watch TV together” (J, a 13-year-old girl) “they (parents) cook together…feel that they are close…”(H, 11-year-old boy) Intimacy “My father will miss my mon once he is off from 8 9 17 work…will call her…” (L, a 13-year-old girl) Communica “I observe whether they (the parents) talk to each other 48 31 79 tion before sleeping to judge if their relationship is good” (K, a 12-year-old boy) Acceptance “…accept each other’s weakness…even the mother is in 0 12 12 bad mood…the father accept it and focus her sacrifice for the family…(A, a female social worker) Concern “(mother) tell him (the father) to get more cloths when it 15 28 43 is cold” (M, a 13-year-old girl) Criticism “(father) say bad things about her (mother)” (L, a 13- 20 25 45 year-old girl) Consistency “they will act the same ways and do not allow me 4 20 24 to…when their relationship is good” (K, a 12-year-old boy) Helping “helping…is a sign of good relationship and bonding” 12 11 23 (B, a 12-year-old boy) Response “my mon know what is in my dad’s mind…understand 1 15 16 his behaviors…she will give him slippers automatically without my dad saying anything” (H, 11-year-old boy) Total 195 308 503

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Table 6.5. 60 items pool of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes A: Togetherness(Yi-Qi) 共同一起/團聚 1. My parents do things together. 我的父母一起活動。 2. My Parents stay at home together. 我的父母一起在家。 3. In their spare time, my parents took me out together. 在閒暇時間，我的父母一起帶我外出。 4. When my parents are at home, they do their own things. 我的父母在家時，各自做自己的事。 5. When my parents are at home, they rarely work together. 我的父母在家時，他們很少在一起做事。 B: Communication (Gou-Tong) 溝通 6. My parents talk to each other and share fun. 我的父母有講有笑。 7. My parents share little things in life with each other. 我的父母互相分享生活小事。 8. My parents talk to each other when having dinner. 我的父母在一起吃晚飯時有交談。 9. My parents get along well. 我的父母會相處良好。 10. My parents have communication. 我的父母有溝通。 11 My parents are in a Cold War. 我的父母冷戰。 12. My parents ignore each other. 我的父母不理會對方。 13. My parents communicate with a good attitude. 我的父母溝通時態度良好。 14. My parents know each other well. 我的父母互相瞭解。 C: Appreciation (Xin-Shang) 欣賞 15. My parents affirm each other’s contribution to the family. 我的父母肯定對方對家庭的貢獻。 16. My parents praise each other. 我的父母讚賞對方。 17. My parents express that the other party is a good partner. 我的父母表示對方是稱職的伴侶。 18. My parents express that the other party is a good parent. 我的父母表示對方是稱職的家長。

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19. My parents appreciate of each other 我的父母欣賞對方。 20. My parents express that the other party is a responsible partner. 我的父母表示對方是負責任的伴侶。 21. My parents express that the other party is a responsible parent. 我的父母表示對方是負責任的家長。 D: Criticism(Pi-Ping) 批評 22. My parents say "bad things” about each other. 我的父母講對方「壞話」。 23. My parents criticize each other. 我的父母互相批評。 24. My parents complain about each other. 我的父母抱怨對方。 25. My parents expressed dissatisfaction with each other in front of me. 我的父母在我面前表示不滿對方。 E: Concern (Guan-Xin-Guan-Zhu) 關心關注 26. My parents care about each other. 我的父母關心對方。 27. My parents are considerate of each other. 我的父母體諒對方。 28. My parents value each other. 我的父母重視對方。 29. My parents respect each other. 我的父母尊重對方。 30. My parents take into account each other's views when making the decision. 我的父母作出決定時會考慮對方的意見。 F: Helping(Bang-Zhu) 幫助 31. My parents help each other. 我的父母互相幫助。 32. My parents show dissatisfaction when helping each other. 我的父母幫助對方時會表現出不滿。 33. My parents help when the other parties face difficulties. 我的父母面對困難時配偶會幫忙。 34. My parents expect their spouses to help when facing difficulties. 我的父母面對困難時期望配偶幫忙。 G: (Understanding and Acceptance(Li-Jie-Bao-Rong) 理

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解包容 35. My parents accept their spouse's shortcomings. 我的父母接受配偶的缺點。 36. My parents tolerate their spouse's shortcomings. 我的父母互相包容配偶的缺點。 37. My parents understand their spouses’ behavior. 我的父理解配偶的行為。 38. My parents have a tacit understanding of each other. 我的父母有默契。 H:Trust(Shen-Ren) 信任 39. My parents say that their spouses cannot be trusted. 我的父母表示不能信任配偶。 40. My parents say that their spouses are completely honest. 我的父母表示配偶是完全誠實的。 41. My parents express trust in each other. 我的父母表示信任對方。 42. My parents say that the other's promise is credible. 我的父母表示對方的諾言可信。 I: Satisfaction(Man-Yi) 滿意 43. My parents are happy to get along. 我的父母相處是快樂的。 44. My parents’ relationship is good. 我的父母關係良好。 45. My parents are satisfied with their marriage. 我的父母滿意婚姻。 46. My parents are satisfied with each other. 我的父母滿意對方。 47. My parents have a good link between them. 我的父母之間聯繫緊密。 48. My parents will choose each other again if they had an opportunity to do so. 如果再有一次機會，父母會再次選擇對方。 49. My parents feel that the other is the ideal companion. 我的父母覺得對方是理想伴侶。 50. My parents have confidence in each other. 我的父母對對方有信心。 51. I hear that my parents express their regret in getting married. 我聽見父母說後悔結婚。 J: Indigenous Chinese concepts(Hua-Ren-She-Hui- GaiNian) 華人社會概念 52. My parents are courteous to each other as guess.

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我的父母相敬如賓。 53. My parents “ren-i”. 我的父母恩愛。 K: Passion(Ji-Qing) 激情 54. My parents feel the other party is attractive. 我的父母覺得對方吸引。 55. My parents’ relationship is romantic. 我的父母關係浪漫。 56. My parents adore each other. 我的父母傾慕對方。 L: Commitment(Cheng-Nuo) 承諾 57. My parents strain at their relationship. 我的父母緊張他們的關係。 58. My parents committed to maintaining their relationship. 我的父母致力於維護他們的關係。 59. My parents are confident in the stability of their relationship. 我的父母對他們的關係的穩定有信心。 60. My parents have a sense of responsibility for their marriage. 我的父母自覺得對婚姻有責任感。

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Table 6.6. Table of CVI on the measure on aspects of relevance, clarity and respresentativeness Domain/Item Togetherness CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 01 .95 .90 1.00 02 .95 .81 .90 03 .86 .86 .90 04 .90 .86 .81 05 1.00 .86 .90 Togetherness Average .93 .86 .90 Communication CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 06 1.00 1.00 1.00 07 1.00 1.00 1.00 08 .95 .95 .95 09 1.00 .95 1.00 10 1.00 .95 .95 11 .90 .81 .90 12 .90 .90 .90 13 1.00 1.00 1.00 14 1.00 .95 .95 Communication Average .97 .95 .96 Appreciation CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 15 .90 .90 .90 16 .86 .86 .86 17 .90 .90 .90 18 .90 .86 .90 19 .86 .81 .86 20 .90 .86 .90 21 .90 .90 .90 Appreciation Average .89 .87 .89 Criticism CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 22 .86 .81 .86 23 .95 .90 .95 24 .90 .81 .90 25 .90 .86 .90 Criticism Average .90 .85 .90 Concern CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 26 1.00 .90 .90 27 .95 .86 .86 28 1.00 .90 .90 29 .95 .86 .86 30 1.00 .90 .90 Concern Average .98 .88 .88 Helping CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 31 1.00 1.00 1.00 32 .90 .90 .90

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33 .90 .90 .90 34 .90 .90 .86 Helping Average .93 .93 .92 Understanding and Acceptance CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 35 .90 .81 .86 36 .90 .86 .90 37 .90 .81 .90 38 1.00 1.00 .95 Understanding and Acceptance .93 .87 .90 Average Trust CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 39 .90 .86 .90 40 .90 .81 .86 41 .90 .86 .90 42 .90 .86 .90 Trust Average .90 .85 .89 Satisfaction CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 43 1.00 1.00 1.00 44 1.00 1.00 1.00 45 .90 .86 .90 46 .90 .86 .86 47 .90 .90 .86 48 .90 .86 .86 49 .90 .90 .90 50 .81 .81 .81 51 .90 .86 .86 Satisfaction Average .91 .89 .89 Indigenous Chinese concepts CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 52 .86 .90 .86 53 .86 .95 .81 Indigenous Chinese concepts .86 .93 .84 Average Passion CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 54 .86 .90 .90 55 .95 .95 .81 56 .95 .95 .95 Passion Average .92 .93 .89 Commitment CVI(relevance) CVI(clarity) CVI(representativeness) 57 .90 .81 .86 58 .90 .86 .90 59 .90 .90 .90 60 .90 .86 .86 Commitment Average .90 .86 .88 Overall Average .92 .89 .90

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Table 6.7. Table of CVI(representativeness) of 12 domains* Domain CVI(representativeness) A. 共同一起/團聚 (Togetherness) .93 B. 溝通 (Communication) .93 C. 欣賞 (Appreciation) .93 D. 批評 (Criticism) .93 E. 關心關注 (Concern) .86 F. 幫助 (Helping) .93 G. 理解包容 (Understanding and Acceptance) .86 H. 信任 (Trust) .86 I. 滿意 (Satisfaction) .86 J. 華人社會概念 (Indigenous Chinese concepts) .86 K. 激情 (Passion) .86 L. 承諾 (Commitment) .93 Overall Average (exclude) .90 Note: *The ratings were given by 14 experts as 7 experts did not response the items

Table 6.8. Modifications of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes Item Problem and suggestions made Modifications suggested My parents Two experts think that appreciation The item change into “My parents appreciate might not be a publicly observable express their appreciation of each each other behavioural expression other” My parent Two experts think that complaint The item change into “My parents complain might not be a publicly observable express their complaint of each each other behavioural expression other” My parent Three experts think that inter- The item change into “My parent will help parental helping might be unwilling will actively help when their when their under some situations and partner face difficulties” partner face unwilling helping cannot reflect difficulties positive inter-parental relationship

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Table 6.9. Modified 60 items pool of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes A: Togetherness(Yi-Qi) 共同一起/團聚 1. My parents do things together. 我的父母一起活動。 2. My Parents stay at home together. 我的父母一起在家。 3. In their spare time, my parents took me out together. 在閒暇時間，我的父母一起帶我外出。 4. When my parents are at home, they do their own things. 我的父母在家時，各自做自己的事。 5. When my parents are at home, they rarely work together. 我的父母在家時，他們很少在一起做事。 B: Communication (Gou-Tong) 溝通 6. My parents talk to each other and share fun. 我的父母有講有笑。 7. My parents share little things in life with each other. 我的父母互相分享生活小事。 8. My parents talk to each other when having dinner. 我的父母在一起吃晚飯時有交談。 9. My parents get along well. 我的父母會相處良好。 10. My parents have communication. 我的父母有溝通。 11 My parents are in a Cold War. 我的父母冷戰。 12. My parents ignore each other. 我的父母不理會對方。 13. My parents communicate with a good attitude. 我的父母溝通時態度良好。 14. My parents know each other well. 我的父母互相瞭解。 C: Appreciation (Xin-Shang) 欣賞 15. My parents affirm each other’s contribution to the family. 我的父母肯定對方對家庭的貢獻。 16. My parents praise each other. 我的父母讚賞對方。 17. My parents express that the other party is a good partner. 我的父母表示對方是稱職的伴侶。 18. My parents express that the other party is a good parent. 我的父母表示對方是稱職的家長。

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19. My parents express their appreciation of each other 我的父母表示欣賞對方。 20. My parents express that the other party is a responsible partner. 我的父母表示對方是負責任的伴侶。 21. My parents express that the other party is a responsible parent. 我的父母表示對方是負責任的家長。 D: Criticism(Pi-Ping) 批評 22. My parents say "bad things” about each other. 我的父母講對方「壞話」。 23. My parents criticize each other. 我的父母互相批評。 24. My parents express their complaint of each other. 我的父母表示抱怨對方。 25. My parents expressed dissatisfaction with each other in front of me. 我的父母在我面前表示不滿對方。 E: Concern (Guan-Xin-Guan-Zhu) 關心關注 26. My parents care about each other. 我的父母關心對方。 27. My parents are considerate of each other. 我的父母體諒對方。 28. My parents value each other. 我的父母重視對方。 29. My parents respect each other. 我的父母尊重對方。 30. My parents take into account each other's views when making the decision. 我的父母作出決定時會考慮對方的意見。 F: Helping(Bang-Zhu) 幫助 31. My parents help each other. 我的父母互相幫助。 32. My parents show dissatisfaction when helping each other. 我的父母幫助對方時會表現出不滿。 33. My parents actively help when the other parties face difficulties. 我的父母面對困難時配偶會主動幫忙。 34. My parents expect their spouses to help when facing difficulties. 我的父母面對困難時期望配偶幫忙。

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G: (Understanding and Acceptance(Li-Jie-Bao-Rong) 理解包容 35. My parents accept their spouse's shortcomings. 我的父母接受配偶的缺點。 36. My parents tolerate their spouse's shortcomings. 我的父母互相包容配偶的缺點。 37. My parents understand their spouses’ behavior. 我的父理解配偶的行為。 38. My parents have a tacit understanding of each other. 我的父母有默契。 H:Trust(Shen-Ren) 信任 39. My parents say that their spouses cannot be trusted. 我的父母表示不能信任配偶。 40. My parents say that their spouses are completely honest. 我的父母表示配偶是完全誠實的。 41. My parents express trust in each other. 我的父母表示信任對方。 42. My parents say that the other's promise is credible. 我的父母表示對方的諾言可信。 I: Satisfaction(Man-Yi) 滿意 43. My parents are happy to get along. 我的父母相處是快樂的。 44. My parents’ relationship is good. 我的父母關係良好。 45. My parents are satisfied with their marriage. 我的父母滿意婚姻。 46. My parents are satisfied with each other. 我的父母滿意對方。 47. My parents have a good link between them. 我的父母之間聯繫緊密。 48. My parents will choose each other again if they had an opportunity to do so. 如果再有一次機會，父母會再次選擇對方。 49. My parents feel that the other is the ideal companion. 我的父母覺得對方是理想伴侶。 50. My parents have confidence in each other. 我的父母對對方有信心。 51. I hear that my parents express their regret in getting married. 我聽見父母說後悔結婚。 J: Indigenous Chinese concepts(Hua-Ren-She-Hui- GaiNian) 華人社會概念

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52. My parents are courteous to each other as guess. 我的父母相敬如賓。 53. My parents “ren-i”. 我的父母恩愛。 K: Passion(Ji-Qing) 激情 54. My parents feel the other party is attractive. 我的父母覺得對方吸引。 55. My parents’ relationship is romantic. 我的父母關係浪漫。 56. My parents adore each other. 我的父母傾慕對方。 L: Commitment(Cheng-Nuo) 承諾 57. My parents strain at their relationship. 我的父母緊張他們的關係。 58. My parents committed to maintaining their relationship. 我的父母致力於維護他們的關係。 59. My parents are confident in the stability of their relationship. 我的父母對他們的關係的穩定有信心。 60. My parents have a sense of responsibility for their marriage. 我的父母自覺得對婚姻有責任感。

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Table 6.10. Item-total statistics Item Corrected Cronbach’s Item Corrected Cronbach’s item total alpha if item total alpha if correlation item correlation item deleted deleted 1 .725 .983 31 .854 .983 2 .644 .983 32 .113 .984 3 .579 .984 33 .744 .983 4 .347 .984 34 .705 .983 5 .415 .984 35 .817 .983 6 .764 .983 36 .811 .983 7 .762 .983 37 .821 .983 8 .746 .983 38 .859 .983 9 .826 .983 39 .458 .984 10 .728 .983 40 .707 .983 11 .597 .983 41 .868 .983 12 .660 .983 42 .838 .983 13 .751 .983 43 .834 .983 14 .806 .983 44 .849 .983 15 .678 .983 45 .875 .983 16 .789 .983 46 .303 .985 17 .882 .983 47 .862 .983 18 .823 .983 48 .462 .984 19 .878 .983 49 .872 .983 20 .886 .983 50 .907 .983 21 .728 .983 51 .471 .984 22 .249 .984 52 .847 .983 23 .335 .984 53 .898 .983 24 .335 .984 54 .758 .983 25 .336 .984 55 .755 .983 26 .798 .983 56 .780 .983 27 .823 .983 57 .780 .983 28 .875 .983 58 .770 .983 29 .857 .983 59 .867 .983 30 .845 .983 60 .758 .983

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Table 6.11. Result of independent sample t-test of the 60 items Domain/Item Togetherness t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 01 2.78 45 .008* .83 (large) 02 3.34 45 .002* .99 (large) 03 1.85 45 .071 .55 (medium) 04 -1.82 45 .076 -.54 (medium) 05 -1.76 45 .086 -.52 (medium) Communication t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 06 3.82 45 .000* 1.13 (large) 07 3.19 45 .003* .95 (large) 08 4.20 45 .000* 1.25 (large) 09 4.65 45 .000* 1.39 (large) 10 4.30 45 .000* 1.28 (large) 11 -1.25 45 .217 -.37 (medium) 12 -2.59 45 .013* -77 (large) 13 2.79 45 .008* .83 (large) 14 3.03 45 .004* .90 (large) Appreciation t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 15 2.17 45 .036* .65 (large) 16 2.38 45 .022* .71 (large) 17 3.34 45 .002* 1.00 (large) 18 2.31 45 .025* .69 (large) 19 3.22 45 .002* .96 (large) 20 2.85 45 .007* .85 (large) 21 2.41 45 .020* .72 (large) Criticism t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 22 -.87 45 .390 -.26 (small) 23 -1.05 45 .300 -.32 (medium) 24 -.61 45 .526 -.18 (small) 25 -.99 45 .329 -.30 (medium) Concern t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 26 2.36 45 .023* .70 (large) 27 2.23 45 .031* .66 (large) 28 3.47 45 .001* 1.03 (large) 29 3.37 45 .002* 1.00 (large) 30 3.17 45 .003* .95 (large) Helping t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 31 3.46 45 .001* 1.03 (large) 32 -.37 45 .715 -.11 (small) 33 3.01 45 .004* .90 (large) 34 2.06 45 .045* .61 (large) Understanding & t-value Df p-value Cohen's d Acceptance 35 2.45 45 .018* .73 (large) 36 1.55 45 .129 .46 (medium)

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37 2.62 45 .012* .78 (large) 38 2.20 45 .033* .66 (large) Trust t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 39 -1.71 45 .094 -.51 (medium) 40 1.57 45 .123 .47 (medium) 41 2.27 45 .028* .68 (large) 42 2.01 45 .051 .60 (large) Satisfaction t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 43 3.04 45 .004* .91 (large) 44 3.96 45 .000* 1.18 (large) 45 3.98 45 .000* 1.19 (large) 46 .64 45 .529 .19 (small) 47 4.27 45 .000* 1.27 (large) 48 1.11 45 .275 .33 (medium) 49 3.92 45 .000* 1.17 (large) 50 3.25 45 .002* .97 (large) 51 -3.48 45 .001* -1.04 (large) Indigenous Chinese t-value Df p-value Cohen's d Concepts 52 2.03 45 .049* .61 (large) 53 2.93 45 .005* .87 (large) Passion t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 54 2.18 45 .034* .65 (large) 55 2.17 45 .035* .65 (large) 56 1.92 45 .061 .57 (medium) Commitment t-value Df p-value Cohen's d 57 1.18 45 .244 .35 (medium) 58 1.51 45 .138 .45 (medium) 59 2.46 45 .018* .73 (large) 60 2.03 45 .048* .61 (large) Overall Mean t-value Df p-value Cohen's d Mean of all items 3.77 45 .000 1.12 (large) * p-value <.05

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Table 6. 12. Item-total statistics of the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Time 1 Time 2 Item Corrected Cronbach’s Item Corrected Cronbach’s item total alpha if item total alpha if correlation item correlation item deleted deleted 1 .678 .923 1 .754 .909 2 .703 .922 2 .731 .910 7 .351 .943 7 .253 .941 9 .836 .911 9 .792 .905 10 .852 .910 10 .852 .899 16 .877 .908 16 .845 .900 20 .871 .908 20 .848 .900 21 .837 .912 21 .790 .905

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Table 6.13. Correlation matrix of the adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, CPIC-CI, HOPEL, LIFE and CMCDS for time 1 and 2 1 2 3 4 5 1. T1_NC 1 2. T1_C -.54** 1 3. T1_LIFE .61** -.33** 1 4. T1_HOPEL -.41** .23** -.61** 1 5. T2_NC .82** -.49** .61** -.45** 1 6. T2_C -.43** .71** -.31** .31** -.50** 7. T2_LIFE .56** -.32** .76** -.49** .57** 8. T2_HOPEL -.30** .13 -.50** .64** -.36** 9. T2_CMCDS .25** -.25** .23** -.22** .32** 6 7 8 9 1. T1_NC 2. T1_C 3. T1_LIFE 4. T1_HOPEL 5. T2_NC 6. T2_C 1 7. T2_LIFE -.42** 1 8. T2_HOPEL .24** -.49** 1 9. T2_CMCDS -.25** .33** -.37** 1 Notes: T1_NC=total score of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes at time 1, T1_C=total score of Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC- CI at time 1, T1_LIFE=total score of Chinese version of Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) at time 1, T1_HOPEL= total score of Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale at time 1, T2_NC=total score of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes at time 2, T2_C=total score of Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI at time 2, T2_LIFE=total score of Chinese version of Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) at time 2, T2_HOPEL= total score of Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale at time 2, and T2_CMCDS=total score of Chinese version of short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS) at time 2. *p-value <.05, ** p-value <.01.

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Table 6.14. Partial correlation matrix of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, HOPEL, and LIFE after controlling CPIC-CI for time 1 and 2 1 2 3 1. T1_NC 1 2. T1_LIFE .54** 1 3. T1_HOPEL -.35** -.62** 1 4 5 6 4. T2_NC 1 5. T2_LIFE .47** 1 6. T2_HOPEL -.28** -.48** 1 Notes: T1_NC=total score of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes at time 1, T1_C=total score of Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC- CI at time 1, T1_LIFE=total score of Chinese version of Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) at time 1, T1_HOPEL= total score of Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale at time 1, T2_NC=total score of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes at time 2, T2_C=total score of Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI at time 2, T2_LIFE=total score of Chinese version of Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) at time 2, T2_HOPEL= total score of Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale at time 2, and T2_CMCDS=total score of Chinese version of short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS) at time 2. *p-value <.05, ** p-value <.01.

Table 6.15. Partial correlation matrix of adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes, HOPEL, and LIFE after controlling CPIC-CI and CMCDS for time 2 1 2 3 1. T2_NC 1 2. T2_LIFE .49** 1 3. T2_HOPEL -.24** -.42** 1 Notes. T2_NC=total score of revised adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non- conflict related attributes at time 2, T2_C=total score of Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI at time 2, T2_LIFE=total score of Chinese version of Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) at time 2, T2_HOPEL= total score of Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale at time 2, and T2_CMCDS=total score of Chinese version of short form of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale (CMCDS) at time 2. *p-value <.05, ** p-value <.01.

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Table 7.1 age and form distribution with respect to gender Male Female Age Form Age Form 12 134 F.1 186 12 268 F.1 315 28.3% 39.2% 17.5% 20.6% 13 115 F.2 107 13 246 F.2 282 24.3% 22.6% 16.1% 18.4% 14 115 F.3 117 14 582 F.3 620 24.3% 24.7% 38.0% 40.5% 15 87 F.4 64 15 348 F.4 313 18.4% 13.5% 22.7% 20.5% 16 23 16 86 4.9% 5.6% Total 474 Total 474 Total 1530 Total 1530 100% 100% 100% 100% Unidentified Age Form 12 0 F.1 0 0% 0% 13 0 F.2 0 0% 0% 14 1 F.3 1 33.3% 33.3% 15 2 F.4 2 66.7% 66.7% 16 0 0% Total 3 Total 3 100% 100%

Table 7.2. Item-total statistics of the revised adolescents’ perception of inter- parental non-conflict related attributes Time 1 Item Corrected item total correlation Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted 1 .663 .911 2 .614 .915 7 .328 .932 9 .804 .900 10 .846 .896 16 .834 .897 20 .844 .896 21 .838 .897

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Table 7.3. Component matrix of revised adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes for main study data Items Factor 1. 我的父母有講有笑。(My parents talk to each other .740 and share fun.) 2. 我的父母在一起吃晚飯時有交談。(My parents .699 talk to each other when having dinner.) 7. 我聽見父母說後悔結婚。*( I hear that my parents .397 express their regret in getting married.) 9. 我的父母表示對方是稱職的伴侶。(My parents .864 express that the other party is a good partner.) 10. 我的父母表示欣賞對方。(My parents praise each .895 other.) 16. 我的父母表示對方是負責任的伴侶。(My parents .885 express that the other party is a responsible partner.) 20. 我的父母表示對方是理想伴侶。(My parents feel .893 that the other is the ideal companion.) 21. 我的父母對對方有信心。(My parents have .886 confidence in each other.)

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Table 7.4. Item-total statistics of Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI) Item Corrected item total Cronbach’s alpha if item correlation deleted 1 .697 .796 2 .497 .829 3 .559 .819 4 .682 .798 5 .713 .793 6 .565 .820 7 .417 .837

Table 7.5. Item-total statistics of Paternal Treatment Scale (PTS) and Maternal Treatment Scale (MTS) Paternal Concern Maternal Concern Item Corrected item Cronbach’s Corrected item Cronbach’s total correlation alpha if item total correlation alpha if item deleted deleted 1 .726 .876 .711 .869 3 .473 .896 .501 .887 6 .659 .880 .657 .872 7 .537 .889 .499 .885 9 .560 .889 .593 .878 11 .642 .882 .667 .871 12 .760 .872 .749 .864 13 .766 .872 .730 .867 15 .766 .871 .703 .868 Paternal Harshness Maternal Harshness Item Corrected item Cronbach’s Corrected item Cronbach’s total correlation alpha if item total correlation alpha if item deleted deleted 2 .470 .759 .574 .812 4 .613 .722 .713 .781 5 .549 .739 .651 .796 8 .296 .795 .349 .849 10 .582 .729 .646 .794 14 .650 .712 .702 .782

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Table 7.6. Correlations Paternal and Maternal Treatment subscales and overall measures Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Paternal 1 Concern 2. Maternal .455** 1 Concern 3. Paternal -.605** -.277** 1 Harshness 4. Maternal -.235** -.659** .321** 1 Harshness 5. PTS .947** .431** -.828** -.294** 1 6. MTS .402** .945** -.320** -.868** .411** 1 Note: **p<.001 Note: PTS=Paternal Treatment Scale; MTS=Maternal Treatment Scale

Table 7.7. Item-total statistics of Paternal Parenting Practice Scales and Maternal Parenting Practice Scales Paternal Behavioral Control Maternal Behavioral Control Item Corrected item Cronbach’s Corrected item Cronbach’s total correlation alpha if item total correlation alpha if item deleted deleted 1 .646 .822 .630 .808 2 .641 .822 .600 .813 3 .418 .853 .457 .833 4 .475 .847 .391 .849 5 .711 .811 .696 .798 6 .747 .805 .728 .792 7 .620 .825 .651 .804 Paternal Psychological Maternal Psychological Control Control Item Corrected item Cronbach’s Corrected item Cronbach’s total correlation alpha if item total correlation alpha if item deleted deleted 8 .472 0.847 .598 .876 9 .681 0.753 .751 .817 10 .717 0.738 .774 .806 11 .708 0.740 .751 .816

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Table 7.8. Correlations Paternal and Maternal Parenting Practice Scales Scale 1 2 3 4 1. Paternal Behavioral Control 1 2. Maternal Behavioral Control .441** 1 3. Paternal Psychological Control -.004 -.017 1 4. Maternal Behavioral Control -.098** -.050* .456** 1 Note: *p<.05; **p<.001

Table 7.9. Item-total statistics of Chinese Paternal Control Scale (CPCS) and Chinese Maternal Control Scale (CMCS) Paternal Behavioral Control Maternal Behavioral Control Item Corrected item Cronbach’s Corrected item Cronbach’s total correlation alpha if item total correlation alpha if item deleted deleted 1 .592 .835 .603 .837 2 .618 .833 .632 .836 3 .598 .835 .608 .837 4 .506 .839 .506 .843 5 .535 .837 .536 .841 6 .516 .839 .535 .840 7 .501 .840 .518 .842 8 .441 .844 .363 .852 9 .553 .836 .557 .839 10 .448 .844 .523 .841 11 .513 .839 .530 .841 12 .505 .839 .505 .843

Table 7.10. Correlations among Paternal and Maternal Behavioral, Psychological Control, and control based on indigenous Chinese cultural beliefs Scale 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. PBC 1 2. MBC .441** 1 3. PPC -.004 -.017 1 4. MPC -.098** .050* .456** 1 5. CPCS -.404** -.257** -.325** -.111** 1 6. CMCS -.159** -.373** -.125** -.368** .546** 1 Note: *p<.05; **p<.001 Note: PBC= Paternal Behavioral Control; MBC=Maternal Behavioral Control; PPC= Paternal Psychological Control; MPC= Maternal Psychological Control; CPCS=Chinese Paternal Control Scale; CMCS=Chinese Maternal Control Scale

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Table 7.11. Item-total statistics of Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale (C- HOPEL) Item Corrected item total correlation Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted 1 .308 .767 2 .635 .591 3 .614 .606 4 .532 .659

Table 7.12. Correlations among Chinese version of Hopelessness Scale (C- HOPEL), Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), and revised adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Scale 1 2 3 1. C-HOPEL 1 2. Non-conflict related attributes -.304** 1 3. CPIC-CI .18** -.527** 1

Table 7.13. Item-total statistics of Chinese version Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE) (C-HOPEL) Item Corrected item total correlation Cronbach’s alpha if item deleted 1 .783 .880 2 .837 .869 3 .837 .869 4 .742 .888 5 .661 .913

Table 7.14. Correlations among Chinese version of Life Satisfaction Scale (LIFE), Conflict intensity subscale of the Chinese version of Children's Perceptions of Inter-parental Conflict Scale (CPIC-CI), and revised adolescents’ perception of inter-parental non-conflict related attributes Scale 1 2 3 1. LIFE 1 2. Non-conflict related attributes .45** 1 3. CPIC-CI -.31** -.527** 1

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Table 7.15. Item-total statistics of Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale Shot Form (CPYDS-SF) Item Corrected Cronbach’s Item Corrected Cronbach’s item total alpha if item total alpha if correlation item correlation item deleted deleted 1 .422 .957 23 .534 .956 2 .440 .957 24 .508 .956 3 .501 .956 25 .642 .956 4 .610 .956 26 .634 .956 5 .583 .956 27 .546 .956 6 .664 .955 28 .482 .956 7 .597 .956 29 .581 .956 8 .587 .956 30 .624 .956 9 .592 .956 31 .590 .956 10 .529 .956 32 .606 .956 11 .591 .956 33 .712 .955 12 .443 .957 34 .546 .956 13 .550 .956 35 .655 .956 14 .549 .956 36 .611 .956 15 .536 .956 37 .559 .956 16 .564 .956 38 .659 .956 17 .570 .956 39 .502 .956 18 .602 .956 40 .444 .957 19 .550 .956 41 .456 .957 20 .567 .956 42 .696 .955 21 .575 .956 43 .643 .956 22 .548 .956 44 .652 .956

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Table 7.16. Correlation coefficients among subscales, second-level factor suggested by Shek and Ma (2011) and overall measure of CPYDS Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1. BO 1 2. RE .436 1 3. SC .413 .448 1 4. PB .574 .427 .489 1 5. EC .377 .509 .495 .430 1 6. CC .301 .523 .455 .361 .680 1 7. BC .386 .506 .463 .417 .594 .652 1 8. MC .357 .494 .395 .423 .492 .534 .566 1 9. SD .315 .525 .458 .368 .468 .552 .582 .585 1 10. SE .256 .481 .383 .332 .373 .454 .481 .486 .648 1 11. CPI .377 .503 .570 .464 .463 .497 .516 .465 .653 .623 1 12. BF .347 .551 .415 .355 .414 .460 .477 .431 .582 .504 .707 1 13. PI .555 .487 .505 .573 .463 .409 .461 .446 .430 .371 .557 .558 1 14. PN .454 .438 .389 .437 .398 .383 .411 .489 .354 .290 .369 .435 .587 1 15. SP .389 .732 .426 .385 .436 .425 .460 .425 .508 .463 .560 .647 .483 .421 1 16. CBC .389 .607 .537 .446 .679 .862 .861 .658 .840 .621 .652 .595 .506 .447 .549 1 17. PA .567 .520 .504 .569 .484 .445 .490 .524 .442 .374 .523 .560 .899 .883 .511 .536 1 18. .690 .761 .728 .744 .742 .659 .678 .720 .657 .623 .679 .595 .682 .581 .656 .778 .711 1 GPYDQ 19. P_I .391 .571 .529 .441 .474 .517 .537 .484 .666 .607 .916 .931 .603 .437 .654 .673 .587 .688 1 20. PYD .619 .739 .693 .671 .720 .728 .749 .714 .752 .655 .783 .737 .749 .647 .691 .870 .785 .957 .821 1 Note: All parameters were significant (p<.001) BO bonding, RE resilience, SC social competence, PB recognition for positive behavior, EC emotional competence, CC cognitive competence, BC behavioral competence, MC moral competence, SD self-determination, SE self-efficacy, CPI clear and positive identity, BF beliefs in the future, PI prosocial involvement, PN prosocial norms, SP spirituality, CBC cognitive-behavioral competencies, PA prosocial attributes, GPYDQ general positive youth development qualities, P_I positive identity, PYD mean of CPYDS

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Table 7.17. Partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, non-conflict related attributes, and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) Variables 1 2 3 4 5 1. Conflict 1 2. Non-Conflict -.477 1 3. Hopelessness .155 -.288 1 4. Life Satisfaction -.295 .434 -.457 1 5. PYD -.175 .347 -.573 .524 1 Note: All parameters were significant (p<.001) Conflict=Adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; Non-Conflict= Adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; PYD= Positive Youth Development

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Table 7.18. Summary of results of hypothesis 1 Research Hypothesis Predictor Dependent Findings Status % of Question variable variance explained Does 1a) a higher Conflict Hopelessne Conflict NS NA perceive level of ss did not d inter- conflict predict parental would be hopelessn relational associated ess quality with a higher influence level of adolesce hopelessness nt mental 1b) a higher Life Conflict S 1% health? level of Satisfaction predicted conflict life would be satisfacti associated on with a lower level of life satisfaction 1c) a higher PYD Conflict S NA level of predicted conflict PYD would be associated with a lower level of PYD 1d) a higher Non- Hopelessne Non- S 5.9% level of non- conflict ss conflict conflict related related attributes attributes predicted would be hopelessn associated ess with a lower level of hopelessness 1e) a higher Life Non- S 10.3% level of inter- Satisfaction conflict parental non- related conflict attributes related predicted attributes life would be satisfacti associated on with a higher

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level of life satisfaction 1f) a higher PYD Non- S 8.4% level of inter- conflict parental non- related conflict attributes related predicted attributes PYD would be associated with a higher level of PYD Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; PYD= positive youth development; NS=Not Supported; S=Supported; NA=Not available

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Table 7.19. Partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, non-conflict related attributes, parenting styles Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Conflict 1 2. Non-Conflict -.477 1 3. Paternal Concern -.403 .559 1 4. Maternal Concern -.322 .421 .471 1 5. Paternal Harshness .362 -.350 -.639 -.301 1 6. Maternal Harshness .292 -.270 .252 .665 .350 1 Note: All parameters were significant (p<.001) Conflict=Adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; Non-Conflict= Adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes

Table 7.20. Partial correlations among perceived inter-parental conflict intensity, non-conflict related attributes, parenting styles Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. C 1 2. NC -.477** 1 3. PBC -.227** .439** 1 4. MBC -.116** .336** .442** 1 5. PPC .304** -.271** -.049 -.011 1 6. MPC .272 -.256** -.123** .043 .454** 1 7. PIC -.079* .162** -.373** -.281** -340** -.133** 1 8. MIC -.120 .083* -.166** -.386 -.132** -.368** 579** 1 Note: **p<.001; *p<.005 C=Adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; NC= Adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; PBC= Paternal Behavioral Control; MBC= Maternal Behavioral Control; PPC Paternal Psychological Control; PPC= Maternal Psychological Control; PIC= Paternal Indigenous Control; MIC= Maternal Indigenous Control

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Table7.21. Summary of results of hypothesis 2a and 2c Research Hypothesis Predictor Dependent Findings Status % of Question variable variance explained Does 2ai) A Conflict Paternal Conflict S 2.2% perceived higher level concern predicted inter- of paternal parental adolescent concern relational perceived quality inter- influence parental parenting conflict style and would be parenting associated practice? with a lower level of paternal concern 2aii) A Maternal Conflict S 1.9% higher level concern predicted of maternal adolescent concern perceived inter- parental conflict would be associated with a lower level of maternal concern 2aiii) A Paternal Conflict S 4.5% higher level harshness predicted of paternal adolescent harshness perceived inter- parental conflict would be associated with a higher level of paternal harshness

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2aiv) A Maternal Conflict S 3.4% higher level harshness predicted of maternal adolescent harshness perceived inter- parental conflict would be associated with a higher level of maternal harshness 2ci) A lower Non- Paternal Non- S 15.2% level of conflict concern conflict perceived related inter- attributes parental predicted non-conflict paternal related concern attributes would be associated with a lower level of paternal concern 2cii) A Maternal Non- S 8.7% lower level concern conflict of perceived related inter- attributes parental predicted non-conflict maternal related concern attributes would be associated with a lower level of maternal concern 2ciii) A Paternal Non- S 3.6% lower level harshness conflict of perceived related inter- attributes

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parental predicted non-conflict paternal related harshness attributes would be associated with a higher level of paternal harshness 2civ) A Maternal Non- S 2.1% lower level harshness conflict of perceived related inter- attributes parental predicted non-conflict maternal related harshness attributes would be associated with a higher level of maternal harshness Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; NS=Not Supported; S=Supported

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Table7.22. Summary of results of hypothesis 2b and 2d Research Hypothesis Predictor Depende Findings Status % of Question nt variance variable explained Does 2bi) a higher Conflict paternal Conflict NS NA perceived level of behaviora did not inter- perceived inter- l control predict parental parental conflict paternal relational would be behavior quality associated with al influence a lower level of control parenting paternal style and behavioral parenting control practice? 2bii) a higher maternal Conflict NS NA level of behaviora did not perceived inter- l control predict parental conflict maternal would be behavior associated with al a lower level of control maternal behavioral control 2biii) a higher paternal Conflict S 4% level of psycholo predicte perceived inter- gical d parental conflict control paternal would be psychol associated with ogical a higher level of control paternal psychological control 2biv) a higher maternal Conflict S 3% level of psycholo predicte perceived inter- gical d parental conflict control maternal would be psychol associated with ogical a higher level of control maternal psychological control 2bv) a higher Paternal Conflict S 3.3% level of control predicte

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perceived inter- defined d parental conflict by paternal would be indigeno control associated with us defined a lower level of Chinese by paternal control concepts indigeno defined by us indigenous Chinese Chinese concepts concepts 2bvi) a higher Maternal Conflict S 3.2% level of control predicte perceived inter- defined d parental conflict by maternal would be indigeno control associated with us defined a lower level of Chinese by maternal control concepts indigeno defined by us indigenous Chinese Chinese concepts concepts 2di) a lower Non- paternal Non- S 13% level of conflict behaviora conflict perceived inter- l control predicte parental non- d conflict related paternal attributes would behavior be associated al with a lower control levels of paternal behavioral control 2dii) a lower maternal Non- S 9.1% level of behaviora conflict perceived inter- l control predicte parental non- d conflict related maternal attributes would behavior be associated al with a lower control levels of maternal behavioral control

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2diii) a lower paternal Non- S 1.7% level of psycholo conflict perceived inter- gical predicte parental non- control d conflict related paternal attributes would psychol be associated ogical with a higher control level of paternal psychological control 2div) a lower maternal Non- S 1.8% level of psycholo conflict perceived inter- gical predicte parental non- control d conflict related maternal attributes would psychol be associated ogical with a higher control level of maternal psychological control 2dv) a lower Paternal Non- S 5.4% level of control conflict perceived inter- defined predicte parental non- by d conflict related indigeno paternal attributes would us control be associated Chinese defined with a lower concepts by levels of indigeno paternal control us defined by Chinese indigenous concepts Chinese concepts 2dvi) a lower Maternal Non- S 2.7% level of control conflict perceived inter- defined predicte parental non- by d conflict related indigeno maternal attributes would us control be associated Chinese defined with a lower concepts by levels of indigeno

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maternal us indigenous Chinese control concepts Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; NS=Not Supported; S=Supported; NA=Not Available

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Table7.23. Partial correlations among parenting style and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Paternal 1 Harshness 2. Maternal .341 1 Harshness 3. Paternal .636 .253 1 Concern 4. Maternal .290 .667 .452 1 Concern 5. Hopelessness .249 .238 .321 .316 1 6. Life -.344 -.307 -.458 -.458 -.454 1 Satisfaction 7. PYD -.236 -.233 -.361 -.367 -.570 .523 1 Note: All parameters were significant (p<.001) PYD= Positive Youth Development

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Table 7.24. Partial correlations among parenting practices and three indexes of adolescent mental health (i.e., hopelessness, life satisfaction, and positive youth development) Variables 1 2 3 4 5 1. PBC 1 2. PPC -.037 1 3. MBC .43** -.01 1 4. MPC -.10** .44** .042 1 5. PIC -.36** -.34** -.27** -.13** 1 6. MIC -.17** -.13** -.39** -.36** .568** 7. H -.23** .248** -.243** .265** .062 8. LS .349** -.30** .275** -.32** -.050 9. PYD .349** -.14** .329** -.20** -.19** 6 7 8 9 1. PBC 2. PPC 3. MBC 4. MPC 5. PIC 6. MIC 1 7. H .045 1 8. LS -.002 -.45** 1 9. PYD -.17** -.57** .511** 1 Note: **p<.001 PBC=Paternal Behavioral Control; PPC= Paternal Psychological Control; MBC= Maternal Behavioral Control; MPC=Maternal Psychological Control; PIC= Paternal Indigenous Control; MIC= Maternal Indigenous Control; H= Hopeless- ness; LS=Life Satisfaction; PYD=Positive Youth Development

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Table 7.25. Summary of results of hypothesis 3a-3c Research Hypothesis Predicto Dependent Findings Statu % of Question r variable s variance explaine d Do 3ai) more Paternal Hopelessne Paternal S 0.3% parenting paternal concern ss concern style and concern predicted parenting would be Hopelessne practice associated ss influence with lower adolesce level of nt mental hopelessnes health? s 3aii) more Materna Maternal S 0.3% maternal l concern concern concern predicted would be Hopelessne associated ss with lower level of hopelessnes s 3aiii) less Paternal Paternal NS NA paternal harshnes harshness harshness s did not would be predicted associated Hopelessne with lower ss level of hopelessnes s 3aiv) less Materna Maternal NS NA maternal l harshness harshness harshnes did not would be s predicted associated Hopelessne with lower ss level of hopelessnes s 3bi) more Paternal Life Paternal S 0.7% paternal concern satisfaction concern concern predicted would be Life associated satisfaction

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with higher level of life satisfaction 3bii) more Materna Maternal S 1.8% maternal l concern concern concern predicted would be Life associated satisfaction with higher level of life satisfaction 3biii) less Paternal Paternal NS NA paternal harshnes harshness harshness s did not would be predicted associated Life with higher satisfaction level of life satisfaction 3biv) less Materna Maternal NS NA maternal l harshness harshness harshnes did not would be s predicted associated Life with higher satisfaction level of life satisfaction 3ci) more Paternal PYD Paternal S 0.5% paternal concern concern concern predicted would be PYD associated with higher level of PYD 3cii) more Materna Maternal S 0.9% maternal l concern concern concern predicted would be PYD associated with higher level of PYD 3ciii) less Paternal Paternal NS NA paternal harshnes harshness harshness s did not

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would be predicted associated PYD with higher level of PYD 3civ) less Materna Maternal NS NA maternal l harshness harshness harshnes did not would be s predicted associated PYD with higher level of PYD Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; PYD= Positive Youth Development; NS=Not Supported; S=Supported; NA=Not Available

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Table 7.26. Summary of results of hypothesis 3d Research Hypothesis Predictor Dependent Findings Statu % of Question variable s variance explaine d Do 3di) a paternal Hopelessne Paternal NS NA parentin higher behavioral ss behavioral g style paternal control control did and behavioral not predict parentin control hopelessnes g would be s practice associated influenc with a e lower level adolesce of nt hopelessnes mental s health? 3dii) a maternal Maternal S 1.1% higher behavioral behavioral maternal control control behavioral predicted control hopelessnes would be s associated with a lower level of hopelessnes s 3diii) a paternal Paternal S 0.7% lower psychologic psychologic paternal al control al control psychologic predicted al control hopelessnes would be s associated with a lower level of hopelessnes s 3div) a maternal Maternal S 0.5% lower psychologic psychologic maternal al control al control psychologic predicted al control hopelessnes

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would be s associated with a lower level of hopelessnes s 3dv) a Chinese Chinese NS NA higher indigenous indigenous Chinese paternal paternal indigenous control control did paternal not predict control hopelessnes would be s associated with a lower level of hopelessnes s 3dvi) a Chinese Chinese NS NA higher indigenous indigenous Chinese maternal maternal indigenous control control did maternal not predict control hopelessnes would be s associated with a lower level of hopelessnes s Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; NS=Not Supported; S=Supported; NA=Not Available

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Table 7.27. Summary of results of hypothesis 3e Research Hypothesis Predictor Dependen Findings Statu % of Question t variable s variance explaine d Do 3ei) a paternal Life Paternal S 1% parenting higher behavioral satisfactio behavioral style and paternal control n control parenting behavioral predicted practice control life influence would be satisfaction adolesce associated nt mental with a health? higher level of life satisfaction 3eii) a maternal Maternal S 0.6% higher behavioral behavioral maternal control control behavioral predicted control life would be satisfaction associated with a higher level of life satisfaction 3eiii) a paternal Paternal S 0.5% lower psychologic psychologic paternal al control al control psychologic predicted al control life would be satisfaction associated with a higher level of life satisfaction 3eiv) a maternal Maternal S 0.4% lower psychologic psychologic maternal al control al control psychologic predicted al control life would be satisfaction associated with a

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higher level of life satisfaction 3ev) a Chinese Chinese NS NA higher indigenous indigenous Chinese paternal paternal indigenous control control did paternal not predict control life would be satisfaction associated with a higher level of life satisfaction 3evi) a Chinese Chinese NS NA higher indigenous indigenous Chinese maternal maternal indigenous control control did maternal not predict control life would be satisfaction associated with a higher level of life satisfaction Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; NS=Not Supported; S=Supported; NA=Not Available

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Table 7.28. Summary of results of hypothesis 3f Research Hypothesis Predictor Depende Findings Statu % of Question nt s variance variable explaine d Do 3fi) a higher paternal PYD Paternal S 0.7% parentin paternal behavioral behavioral g style behavioral control control and control predicted parentin would be PYD g associated practice with a influence higher level adolesce of PYD nt mental 3fii) a maternal Maternal S 1% health? higher behavioral behavioral maternal control control behavioral predicted control PYD would be associated with a higher level of PYD 3fiii) a paternal Paternal NS NA lower psychologic psychologic paternal al control al control psychologic did not al control predict would be PYD associated with a higher level of PYD 3fiv) a maternal Maternal S 0.5% lower psychologic psychologic maternal al control al control psychologic predicted al control PYD would be associated with a higher level of PYD 3fv) a Chinese Chinese NS NA higher indigenous indigenous

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Chinese paternal paternal indigenous control control did paternal not predict control PYD would be associated with a higher level of PYD 3fvi) a Chinese Chinese S 0.8% higher indigenous indigenous Chinese maternal maternal indigenous control control maternal predicted control PYD would be associated with a higher level of PYD Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; PYD= Positive Youth Development; NS=Not Supported; S=Supported; NA=Not Available

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Table 7.29. Results of Sobel tests: paths between Inter-parental relational quality and Hopelessness Predictor Dependent Mediators t-value of Status variable Sobel tests Conflict Hopelessness Paternal Concern 0.90 NS Intensity Maternal Concern 0.89 NS Paternal Harshness 0.72 NS Maternal Harshness 0.80 NS Paternal Behavioral 0.61 NS Control Maternal Behavioral 0.94 NS Control Paternal Psychological 0.93 NS Control Maternal Psychological 0.91 NS Control Paternal control defined by 0.85 NS indigenous Chinese concepts Maternal control defined 0.43 NS by indigenous Chinese concepts Non-conflict Paternal Concern 2.52 S related Maternal Concern 2.26 S attributes Paternal Harshness 1.07 NS Maternal Harshness 1.42 NS Paternal Behavioral 0.78 NS Control Maternal Behavioral 3.81 S Control Paternal Psychological 3.68 S Control Maternal Psychological 2.73 S Control Paternal control defined by 1.78 NS indigenous Chinese concepts Maternal control defined 0.48 NS by indigenous Chinese concepts Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; NS=Not Significant; S= Significant

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Table 7.30. Results of Sobel tests: paths between Inter-parental relational quality and Life Satisfaction Predictor Dependent Mediators t-value of Status variable Sobel tests Conflict Life Paternal Concern 2.94 S Intensity Satisfaction Maternal Concern 4.01 S Paternal Harshness 1.74 NS Maternal Harshness 0.86 NS Paternal Behavioral Control 0.51 NS Maternal Behavioral 1.69 NS Control Paternal Psychological 2.85 S Control Maternal Psychological 2.51 S Control Paternal control defined by 0.36 NS indigenous Chinese concepts Maternal control defined by 0.17 NS indigenous Chinese concepts Non-conflict Paternal Concern 3.193 S related Maternal Concern 4.95 S attributes Paternal Harshness 1.17 NS Maternal Harshness -0.85 NS Paternal Behavioral Control 3.787 S Maternal Behavioral 3.08 S Control Paternal Psychological 2.66 S Control Maternal Psychological 2.41 S Control Paternal control defined by .36 NS indigenous Chinese concepts Maternal control defined by .17 NS indigenous Chinese concepts Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; PYD= Positive Youth Development; NS=Not Significant; S= Significant

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Table 7.31. Results of Sobel tests: paths between Inter-parental relational quality and Positive Youth Development Predictor Dependent Mediators t-value of Status variable Sobel tests Conflict Positive Youth Paternal Concern 2.67 S Intensity Development Maternal Concern 3.11 S Paternal Harshness 0.70 NS Maternal Harshness .099 NS Paternal Behavioral 0.51 NS Control Maternal Behavioral 1.18 NS Control Paternal Psychological .482 NS Control Maternal Psychological -2.79 S Control Paternal control defined 1.56 NS by indigenous Chinese concepts Maternal control defined 2.97 S by indigenous Chinese concepts Non-conflict Paternal Concern 2.85 S related Maternal Concern 3.49 S attributes Paternal Harshness .68 NS Maternal Harshness .99 NS Paternal Behavioral 3.05 S Control Maternal Behavioral 3.78 S Control Paternal Psychological 0.48 NS Control Maternal Psychological 2.65 S Control Paternal control defined 1.57 NS by indigenous Chinese concepts Maternal control defined 2.91 S by indigenous Chinese concepts Notes: conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental conflict intensity; non- conflict= adolescent perceived inter-parental non-conflict related attributes; PYD= Positive Youth Development; NS=Not Significant; S= Significant

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Table 7.32. Summary of the fit indices of model based on paternal, model based on maternal variables and combined model Model Chi- df Chi- CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR Square Square Test Test p- value 1. Full-model based 264.832 35 0.00 0.978 0.914 0.057 0.028 on regression 2. Reduced Model 273.901 43 0.00 0.978 0.931 0.052 0.029 based on regression 3. Father Model 157.087 20 0.00 0.971 0.903 0.058 0.024 4. Reduced Father 132.183 18 0.00 0.976 0.916 0.056 0.024 Model 5. Mother Model 190.337 20 0.00 0.962 0.871 0.065 0.029 6. Reduced Mother 221.983 25 0.00 0.956 0.880 0.063 0.030 Model Notes: Full model based on regression = model based on previous regression results, Reduced Model based on regression = model based on previous regression results after removing insignificant paths, Father Model = model based on previous regression results with only paternal variables, Reduced Father Model = model based on previous regression results with only paternal variables after removing insignificant paths, Mother Model = model based on previous regression results with only maternal variables, Reduced Mother Model = model based on previous regression results with only maternal variables after removing insignificant paths, Chi-Square Test = value of Chi-Square Test of Model Fit, df = degree of freedom, Chi-Square Test p-value = the p-value of the Chi-Square Test of Model Fit, CFI = Comparative Fit Index, TLI =Tucker-Lewis Index, RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error Of Approximation, SRMR = Standardized Root Mean Square Residual

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Table 7.33. Summary of paths in combined model Path Predictor Dependent Variables β SE Status Fa Conflict Paternal Concern -.164 .025 S(p<.001) Fb Conflict Paternal Harshness .017 .042 NS Fc Non-Conflict Paternal Concern .258 .02 S(p<.001) Fd Non-Conflict Paternal Harshness -.059 .026 S(p<.001) Fe Conflict Paternal Psychological .001 .025 NS Control Ff Conflict Paternal Control based -.193 .022 S(p<.001) on Chinese concepts Fg Non-Conflict Paternal Behavioral .247 .01 S(p<.001) Control Fh Non-Conflict Paternal Psychological .006 .016 NS Control Fi Non-Conflict Paternal Control based .075 .014 S(p<.001) on Chinese concepts Fj Paternal Concern Hopelessness -.167 .026 S(p<.001) Fk Paternal Concern Life Satisfaction .051 .033 NS Fl Paternal Concern Positive Youth .03 .016 NS Development Fm Paternal Behavioral Life Satisfaction .313 .055 S(p<.001) Control Fn Paternal Behavioral Positive Youth .078 .027 S(p=.004) Control Development Fo Paternal Hopelessness .123 .038 S(p=.001) Psychological Control Fp Paternal Life Satisfaction -.265 .051 S(p<.001) Psychological Control Ma Conflict Maternal Concern -.041 .036 NS Mb Conflict Maternal Harshness .107 .043 S(p=.014) Mc Non-Conflict Maternal Concern .172 .023 S(p<.001) Md Non-Conflict Maternal Harshness -.049 .027 NS Me Conflict Maternal Psychological -.041 .025 NS Control Mf Conflict Maternal Control based -.138 .021 S(p<.001) on Chinese concepts Mg Non-Conflict Maternal Behavioral .142 0.11 S(p<.001) Control Mh Non-Conflict Maternal Psychological -.054 .016 S(p=.001) Control Mi Non-Conflict Maternal Control based .059 .013 S(p<.001) on Chinese concepts Mj Maternal Concern Hopelessness -.097 .028 S(p<.001) Mk Maternal Concern Life Satisfaction .078 .035 S(p=.026)

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Ml Maternal Concern Positive Youth .002 .019 NS Development Mm Maternal Behavioral Hopelessness -.203 .039 S(p<.001) Control Mn Maternal Behavioral Life Satisfaction .432 .055 S(p<.001) Control Mo Maternal Behavioral Positive Youth .252 .03 S(p<.001) Control Development Mp Maternal Hopelessness .177 .041 S(p<.001) Psychological Control Mq Maternal Life Satisfaction -.245 .051 S(p<.001) Psychological Control Mr Maternal Positive Youth -.149 .026 S(p<.001) Psychological Development Control Ms Maternal Control Positive Youth .05 .025 S(p<.05) based on Chinese Development concepts Ct Conflict Life Satisfaction -.026 .043 NS Cu Non-Conflict Hopelessness -.053 .019 S(p=.005) Cv Non-Conflict Life Satisfaction .147 .03 S(p<.001) Cw Non-Conflict Positive Youth .056 .014 S(p<.001) Development NS=Not Significant; S= Significant

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Figure 7.2: Path model using paternal variables

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Figure 7.3: Path model using maternal variables

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Figure 7.4: Path model using parental variables

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Appendix 6.1

Content Validation Questionnaire for Experts (Chinese Version)

親愛的社工同工:

我們現正進行一項有關青少年子女對父母關係的觀感之研究計劃。在本研究中，我們希望從青少年的角度出發，找出子女是如何衡量父母的婚姻質素，我們特別希望找出「與婚姻衝突無關的特質」(non-conflict related attributes)。我們根據聚焦小組和文獻回顧，建立以下量表，以測試青少年子女如何衡量父母婚姻質素。我們希望尋求有家庭服務工作經驗社會工作者的意見，去改良量表。請你為以下量表提供意見。我們特別希望你就以下量表的 (1) 題目內容與主題之符合(relevance) 、 (2) 題目的清晰度 (clarity) 及 (3) 題目之代表性 (representativeness) 提供意見。

在本研究中，我們特別希望了解「與婚姻衝突無關的特質」(non-conflict related attributes)。「與婚姻衝突無關的特質」(non-conflict related attributes) 是指青少年子女用來對父母關係作出評估的因素，而這些因素是父母的婚姻衝突無關的。我們根據聚焦小組和文獻回顧，我們發現「與婚姻衝突無關的特質」(non-conflict related attributes) 覆蓋不同的主題，這些主題包括：

主題含義共同一起/團聚指根據青少年子女的觀察，父母有多經常在一起及一起 (Togetherness) 做事溝通指根據青少年子女的觀察，父母有多經常溝通及溝通時 (Communication) 的態度欣賞 (Appreciation) 指根據青少年子女的觀察，父母有多經常正面地評價對方批評 (Criticism) 指根據青少年子女的觀察，父母有多經常負面地評價對方關心關注 (Concern) 指根據青少年子女的觀察，父母有多經常考慮對方的狀況和關心對方幫助 (Helping) 指根據青少年子女的觀察，父母有幾經常互相幫助和互相幫助時的狀況理解包容指根據青少年子女的觀察，父母有多經常接受和理解對 (Understanding and 方，並願意採取相應的行動 Acceptance) 信任 (Trust) 指青少年子女有幾多同意，父母覺得對方可信、可靠和

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誠實滿意 (Satisfaction) 指青少年子女有多同意，父母滿意對方和他們的關係調整 (Adjustment) 指青少年子女有多同意，父母適應對方和他們的關係中國本土概念指青少年子女根據中國的傳統觀念有多同意，父母關係 (Indigenous Chinese 是良好的 concepts) 激情 (Passion) 指青少年子女有多同意，父母的關係是激情的承諾 (Commitment) 指青少年子女有多同意，父母確保他們關係的長久

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題題目題目內容與主題之符合(relevance) 題目的清晰度(clarity) 題目之代表性號 (representativeness) I. 你認為題目內容與主題概念是否相符？ II. 你認為題目是 III. 你認為題目是否

足夠表達其主題？否清晰表達？題目內容若不修改題目內題目內容與主題題目內容題目內容與建議修十分不清十建議十分不不足足十建議增題目例子與主題概容，則無法與主概念符合，但須與主題概主題概念不訂不清清晰分修訂足夠夠夠分加之題念不符合題概念符合作輕微修訂念符合符合之理據 (如你的晰晰清 (如你足目 (如你的選擇選擇是 1 晰的選夠 (如你的是 1 或 2) 或 2) 擇是選擇是 1 或 2) 1 或 2) 主題 A 共同一起/團聚 (Togetherness) 1 我的父母一起活 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 動。 2 我的父母一起在 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 家。 3 在閒暇時間，我 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 的父母一起帶我外出。

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總結

(1) 整體而言，你認為 13 項主題 (共同一起/團聚 (Togetherness) 、溝通 (Communication) 、欣賞 (Appreciation) 、批

評 (Criticism) 、批評 (Criticism) 、關心關注 (Concern) 、幫助 (Helping) 、理解包容 (Understanding and Acceptance)、

信任 (Trust)、滿意 (Satisfaction)、調整 (Adjustment)、中國本土概念(Indigenous Chinese concepts)、激情 (Passion) 及

承諾 (Commitment))是否足夠表達「少年子女衡量父母婚姻質素與婚姻衝突無關的特質」？

□十分不足夠 □不足夠 □足夠 □十分足夠

(2) 若認為「十分不足夠」或「不足夠」，請你建議應增加什麼？ ______

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(3) 請你使用以下標示來表示你對問卷所列的主題的代表性的意見。

十分不足足夠十分不足夠足夠夠 A. 共同一起/團聚 (Togetherness) 1 2 3 4 B. 溝通 (Communication) 1 2 3 4 C. 欣賞 (Appreciation) 1 2 3 4 D. 批評 (Criticism) 1 2 3 4 E. 關心關注 (Concern) 1 2 3 4 F. 幫助 (Helping) 1 2 3 4 G. 理解包容 (Understanding and Acceptance) 1 2 3 4 H. 信任 (Trust) 1 2 3 4 I. 滿意 (Satisfaction) 1 2 3 4 J. 調整 (Adjustment) 1 2 3 4 K. 中國本土概念 (Indigenous Chinese concepts) 1 2 3 4 L. 激情 (Passion) 1 2 3 4 M. 承諾 (Commitment) 1 2 3 4

個人資料：

你的職業是： □社工 □學者 □其他，請列明：______

你從事家庭服務的年資合共為： ______年

你的學歷是：□文憑 / 高級文憑 / 副學士 □大學學士 □碩士

□博士 □其他，請列明：______

姓名：______日期：______

再次多謝你的參與和支持。

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Appendix 6.1

Content Validation Questionnaire for Experts (English Version)

Dear Social Workers,

We are conducting a research on adolescent perception on inter-parental relationship. In this research, we hope to investigate how adolescents assess the quality of their parents’ marriage. In particular, we are interested in “non-conflict related attributes”. Based on focus group interviews and literature reviews, we have developed a scale to measure how adolescents evaluate the quality of their parents’ marriage. We hope to seek the professional opinions from social workers with family services experiences to further improve the scale. Please advise the following scale in terms of (1) relevance, (2) clarity and (3) representativeness.

In this research, we are interested in “non-conflict related attributes”. “non-conflict related attributes” refers to attributes in which adolescents evaluate their parents’ relationship and these attributes are not related to conflicts between parents. Based on focus group interviews and literature reviews, we found that “non-conflict related attributes” covered various themes. They include:

Theme Meaning Togetherness Based on adolescents’ observation, how often parents stay together and do things together Communication Based on adolescents’ observation, how often parents communicate and attitudes during their communications Appreciation Based on adolescents’ observation, how often parents positively comment each other Criticism Based on adolescents’ observation, how often parents negatively comment each other Concern Based on adolescents’ observation, how often parents consider and care each other Helping Based on adolescents’ observation, how often parents help each other and the helping situations Understanding Based on adolescents’ observation, how often parents accept and Acceptance and understand each other as well as are willing to take corresponded actions

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Trust To what extend adolescents agree that their parents think each other is trustworthy, reliable, and honest Satisfaction To what extend adolescents agree that their parents are satisfied with their relationship Adjustment To what extend adolescents agree that their parents adjust to their relationship Indigenous According to Chinese traditional values, To what extend Chinese adolescents agree that their parents; relationship is good concepts Passion To what extend adolescents agree that their parents’ relationship is passionate Commitment To what extend adolescents agree that their parents’ relationship last long

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No. Item relevance clarity representativeness I. Do you think the item content and theme II. Do you think that the item III. Do you think that item content is enough to express the theme? are consistent? content is expressed clearly?

Simple Iteitem item item content the item Reasons for Suggested Suggested Extremely Not Enough Extremely Suggested content content and theme content inconsistency modification Extremely Not clear Extremely modification not enough enough modification and and are and between item (if you not clear clear clear (if you enough (if you theme are theme are consistent theme are content and choose 1 or choose 1 or choose 1 or not not but minor consistent theme (if you 2) 2) 2) consistent consistent modification choose 1 or unless is needed 2) item is modified Theme A Togetherness 1 My 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 parents do things together 2 My 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Parents stay at home together

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3 In their 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 spare time, my parents took me out together

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Conclusion

(1) In Sum, Do you think that the 13 themes: Togetherness, Communication, Appreciation, Criticism, Concern, Helping,

Understanding and Acceptance, Trust, Satisfaction, Adjustment, Indigenous Chinese concept, Passion, and Commitment are

enough to express “adolescents’ perception on inter-parental non-conflict related attributes”?

□Extremely not enough □Not enough □Enough □Extremely enough

(2) If you choose “Extremely not enough” or “Not enough”, please suggest what should be added? ______

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(3) Please use the following indictors to express your views on the representativeness of each theme in the questionnaire

Extreme Not Enough Extreme ly not enough ly enough enough A. Togetherness 1 2 3 4 B. Communication 1 2 3 4 C. Appreciation 1 2 3 4 D. Criticism 1 2 3 4 E. Concern 1 2 3 4 F. Helping 1 2 3 4 G. Understanding and Acceptance 1 2 3 4 H. Trust 1 2 3 4 I. Satisfaction 1 2 3 4 J. Adjustment 1 2 3 4 K. Indigenous Chinese concepts 1 2 3 4 L. Passion 1 2 3 4 M. Commitment 1 2 3 4

Personal Information:

Your occupation: □Social Workers □Scholars

□Other, please specify:______

Your family services working experiences: ______year

Your education level: □Diploma / Higher Diploma / Associate Degree

□Bachelor’s Degree

□Master

□PhD

□Other, please specify:______

Name: ______Date: ______

Thank you for your participation and support again

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Appendix 7.1

Questionnaire used in main study (Chinese Version)

香港理工大學應用社會科學系

香港青少年發展和家庭狀況問卷

親愛的同學：

我們現正進行一項有關青少年發展和家庭狀況的研究，現懇請你完成本問卷。這項研究不會為你帶來負面影響，參與純屬自願性質，你所提供的一切資料只作研究用途，而且是絕對保密的，你的校長、老師和父母是絕對不會知道個別參與者的資料和分析結果。

本問卷並非評估你的能力，而問卷內的問題亦沒有所謂對或錯的答案，所以請你依據對自己的認識和感覺選擇答案。

請你回答問題前，細心閱讀每部分的指示，亦按照下列填寫問卷的方法，回答每一部分所有問題。請你在各題選項中，選出最能代表你想法和感受的答案。

我們已獲得學校的同意，進行此項研究。我們亦已去信貴家長/監護人，知悉貴家長/監護人同意你參與這項研究。如果你願意接受我們的邀請參與這項研究，請你填寫同意書和完成本問卷。

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同意書

我現在就讀 ______(班級)

□ 願意回答這分問卷內的問題 □ 不願意回答這分問卷內的問題

我清楚了解這項研究的目的、有關問卷調查內容及相關的資料，當中包括以下的條文:

1. 我明白這項研究的有關資料。 2. 我明白這次的參與是自願性質。 3. 我明白我有權就我不想回應的問題不作答，並明白我有權就程序的任何部份提出疑問，及有權隨時退出而不受任何懲處。 4. 我明白我所提供的資料可能被用作日後的研究和發表，但我的個人資料不會被公開。 5. 我明白我所提供的資料在完成研究用途後會被銷毁。 6. 我明白我参與這項研究不會為我帶來負面影響

簽名：______日期：______

你所提供的一切資料絕對保密

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第一部分

這部分是有關爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]和媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人]之間的關係的。在每個家庭中，子女經常有機會觀察到爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]和媽[或繼母或女性監護人]的關係，當子女觀察父母之間的行為時，會有不同的感受。我們想知道你父母的行為是怎樣，而這些行為又令你有甚麼感受。如果現在你的主要監護人是單身[例如離婚或喪偶]，請你跳過這個部分，直接回答第三部分。

從來間中有時經常大部從來沒有分都是時間 1. 我的父母有講有笑。 1 2 3 4 5 6 2. 我的父母在一起吃晚飯時 1 2 3 4 5 6 有交談。 3. 我聽見父母說後悔結婚。 1 2 3 4 5 6 4. 我的父母表示對方是稱職 1 2 3 4 5 6 的伴侶。 5. 我的父母表示欣賞對方。 1 2 3 4 5 6 6. 我的父母表示對方是負責 1 2 3 4 5 6 任的伴侶。 7. 我的父母表示對方是理想 1 2 3 4 5 6 伴侶。 8. 我的父母對對方有信心 1 2 3 4 5 6

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第二部分

這部分是有關爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]和媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人]之間的關係的。在每個家庭中，爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]和媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人]的意見或做法都有不一致的時候，當父母之間發生爭論或吵架時，你自己可能有各種各樣的想法和感受。我們想知道當你的父母爭吵時，你有什麼感受。如果現在你的主要監護人是單身[例如離婚或喪偶]，請你跳過這個部分，直接回答第三部分。

題目例子完全比較比較完全符合符合不符合不符合現況現況現況現況 1. 爸爸媽媽爭吵時，他們會發很大 1 2 3 4 的脾氣。 2. 爸爸媽媽爭吵時，他們會動手打 1 2 3 4 對方。 3. 爸爸媽媽意見不一致時，他們會 1 2 3 4 很平靜地商量。

現在和你住在一起的人有（可選多一個答案）：請在下列選項加上✓號 A. 爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人] □ B. 媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人] □ C. 祖父 □ D. 祖母 □ E. 外公 □ F. 外婆 □ G. 家傭 □ H. 其他人（請說明）______□

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第三部分

在下面的句子中，我們想知道在你的感覺中，你覺得你的爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]一向對你的態度是怎樣。請按着你自己的感受作答。

例子：我覺得我的爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]一向對待我的方式是：誠懇 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 不誠懇

如果你覺得你的爸爸一向對待你的方式是十分誠懇，請圈 1 如果你覺得你的爸爸一向對待你的方式是相當誠懇，請圈 2 如果你覺得你的爸爸一向對待你的方式是有點誠懇，請圈 3 如果你覺得你的爸爸一向對待你的方式是介乎誠懇與不誠懇之間，請圈 4 如果你覺得你的爸爸一向對待你的方式是有點不誠懇，請圈 5 如果你覺得你的爸爸一向對待你的方式是相當不誠懇，請圈 6 如果你覺得你的爸爸一向對待你的方式是十分不誠懇，請圈 7

在我的感覺中，我覺得我的爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]一向對待我的方式是：

題目例十分相當有點介乎有點相當十分子兩者之間 1. 溫暖 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 冷酷 2. 嚴厲 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 和善 3. 輕鬆 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 緊張

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第四部分

在下面的句子中，我們想知道在你的感覺中，你覺得你的媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人]一向對你的態度是怎樣。請按着你自己的感受作答。

例子：我覺得我的媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人]一向對待我的方式是：誠懇 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 不誠懇

如果你覺得你的媽媽一向對待你的方式是十分誠懇，請圈 1 如果你覺得你的媽媽一向對待你的方式是相當誠懇，請圈 2 如果你覺得你的媽媽一向對待你的方式是有點誠懇，請圈 3 如果你覺得你的媽媽一向對待你的方式是介乎誠懇與不誠懇之間，請圈 4 如果你覺得你的媽媽一向對待你的方式是有點不誠懇，請圈 5 如果你覺得你的媽媽一向對待你的方式是相當不誠懇，請圈 6 如果你覺得你的媽媽一向對待你的方式是十分不誠懇，請圈 7

在我的感覺中，我覺得我的媽媽或繼母或女性監護人]一向對待我的方式是：

題目例十分相當有點介乎有點相當十分子兩者之間 1. 溫暖 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 冷酷 2. 嚴厲 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 和善 3. 輕鬆 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 緊張

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第五部分

在以下的題目中，請按照現時爸爸[或繼父或男性監護人]和媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人]管教你的情況，從以下四個不同程度的等級(從一個極端“1” 到另一個 “4”) ，圈出一個你認為最能夠代表你的感覺的數字答案。請回答每一條問題。若爸爸/媽媽已去世，而你沒有繼父/母或男/女性監護人，以下相關部分則不用填寫。

例子：爸爸/媽媽要求我吃飯前洗手。如果你覺得這句子十分不準確地描述爸爸/媽媽對你的管教情況，請圈 1 (即十分不同意) 。如果你覺得這句子大致上不準確地描述爸爸/媽媽對你的管教情況，請圈 2(即不同意) 。如果你覺得這句子大致上準確地描述爸爸/媽媽對你的管教情況，請圈 3 (即同意) 。如果你覺得這句子十分準確地描述爸爸/媽媽對你的管教情況，請圈 4(即十分同意) 。

題目例子十分不十分不同同意同意同意爸爸對我的管教情況：意 1. 爸爸清楚知道我在學校的情況。 1 2 3 4 2. 爸爸清楚知道我與什麼人做朋友。 1 2 3 4 3. 爸爸要求我在學校有好的行為。 1 2 3 4 十分不十分不同同意同意同意媽媽對我的管教情況：意 1. 媽媽清楚知道我在學校的情況。 1 2 3 4 2. 媽媽清楚知道我與什麼人做朋友。 1 2 3 4 3. 媽媽要求我在學校有好的行為。 1 2 3 4

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第六部分在以下的題目中，請按着你對爸爸(或繼父或男性監護人)/媽媽[或繼母或女性監護人]和自己的看法，從以下四個不同程度的等級(從一個極端“1”到另一個極端“4”)，圈出一個你認為最能夠代表你的感覺的數字答案。請回答每一條問題。

例子：爸爸/媽媽與我的關係很好。如果你覺得這句子十分準確地描述你與爸爸/媽媽的關係，請圈(即十分同意) 如果你覺得這句子大致上準確地描述你與爸爸/媽媽的關係，請圈(即同意) 如果你覺得這句子大致上不準確地描述你與爸爸/媽媽的關係，請圈 (即不同意) 如果你覺得這句子十分不準確地描述你與爸爸/媽媽的關係，請圈  (即十分不同意)

題目例子十分同意不十分同意同意不對爸爸的看法：同意 1. 爸爸要求我要「生性」。 1 2 3 4 2. 爸爸要求我要「乖」和「聽話」。 1 2 3 4 3. 爸爸要求我要有好的品德和行為。 1 2 3 4

對媽媽的看法： 1. 媽媽要求我要「生性」。 1 2 3 4 2. 媽媽要求我要「乖」和「聽話」。 1 2 3 4 3. 媽媽要求我要有好的品德和行為。 1 2 3 4

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第七部分

請小心閱讀下列各句子，並選出你認為最能夠代表你感受和想法的答案，然後圈上該答案。非常有點題目例子不有點非常不不同意同意同意同意同意同意 1. 當我需要幫助時，我相信我的父/母親（或監護人）一定 1 2 3 4 5 6 會協助我。 2. 當我需要幫助時，我相信我 1 2 3 4 5 6 的老師一定會協助我。 3. 我熱愛我的老師和同學。 1 2 3 4 5 6

請小心閱讀下列各句子，並根據在旁一至七的指標，圈上適當的數字，表達你對各項的同意程度。請以開明和誠實的態度作答。題目例子非常不同意少許中立少許同意非常不同意不同意同意同意 1. 我的生活大致符合我 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 的理想。 2. 我的生活狀況非常圓 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 滿。 3. 我滿意自己的生活。 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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第八部分以下是問及你個人和家庭現況的資料，你所提供的資料是絕對保密。因此，請放心選擇你的答案。 1) 出生日期 ___ 年 ___ 月 2) 性別︰ □ 男 □ 女 3) 年級: □ F.1 □ F.2 □ F.3 □ F.4 □ F.5 4) 住屋類型︰ □私人樓宇 □居屋 □公屋 □其他:______5) 宗教信仰︰ □天主教 □佛教 □基督教 □依斯蘭教 □道教 □其他:______□沒有宗教信仰 6) 每月家庭收入︰ □ ≦$10,000 □$10,001-$20,000 □ $20,001-$30,000 □$30,001-$40,000 □ $40,001-$50,000 □$50,001-$60,000 □ $60,001-$70,000 □$70,001-$80,000 □ >$80,000 □不知道 7) 你家中有多少人一起同住(包括你自己，但不包括家庭傭工) ______人 8) 你有多少個兄弟姊妹︰ □ 沒有兄弟姊妹 □ 有兄弟姊妹 ___ 兄 ___ 弟 ___ 姊 ___ 妹 9) 在香港生活了多少時間︰ □ 從出生開始 □ 在香港生活了 __ 年

10) 與你同住的父母現時的婚 □ 父親與母親已離婚，但沒有再婚姻狀況︰ □ 父親與母親已分居 □ 父親與母親是夫妻關係(第一段婚姻關係) □ 父親與母親是夫妻關係(再婚，即第二段或以上婚姻關係) □ 其他︰______11) 你的父親現在是否和你同住︰你的母親現在是否和你同住︰ □ 是 □ 否 □ 是 □ 否 12) 你的父親現在是否華人︰你的母親現在是否華人︰ □ 是 □ 否 □ 是 □ 否 13) 你父母的最高教育程父親母親度︰ □ □ 沒有接受正規教育，亦不識字 □ □ 沒有接受正規教育，但識字 □ □ 小一至小五

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□ □ 小學畢業 □ □ 中一至中三(包括文法或工業學校) □ □ 中四至中五(包括文法或工業學校) □ □ 中六至中七(包括文法或工業學校) □ □ 大專或理工(非學位課程) □ □ 大學或以上(學位或以上) □ □ 不知道 14) 你的家庭現在是否接受綜合社會保障援助金︰ □ 是 □ 否 15) 你在上學年有或沒有申請學生書簿津貼︰ □ 沒有 □ 有如果有申請，申請結果是怎樣？ □ 全額津貼 □ 半額津貼 □ 沒有津貼

問卷完，多謝參與這項研究！

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Appendix 7.1

Questionnaire used in main study (English Version)

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Applied Social Sciences Hong Kong Adolescent Development and Family Questionnaire

Dear Students, We are conducting a research on adolescent develop and their family. We now sincerely invite you to complete this questionnaire. This research does not bring any negative effect to you. Your participation is voluntary. The information you provide is used for research purpose only and is kept confidential. Your principal, teachers and parents do not know the identity and the results of the participants.

This questionnaire does not assess your ability. There is no right or wrong answer in this questionnaire. Therefore, please choose your answer based on your understanding and feeling.

Please read carefully about the instructions of each part. We have contacted your parents/ guardians. We have known that your parents/ guardians give their consents for your participation in this research. If you agree to join this research, please fill in the consent form and complete this questionnaire.

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Consent Form

I am studying in ______(Class)

□ agree to answer iems in this questionniare □ disagree to answer iems in this questionniare

I understand the objectives of this research, the content of this questionnaire and related information. This information includes:

1. I understand the objectives of this research. 2. I understand that the participation of this research is voluntary. 3. I understand that I reserve all rights not to response any item. I also understand that I reserve all rights to ask questions on any procedure of this research and withdraw from this research without any penalty. 4. I understand that the information you provide can be used for later research and publication, but my personal information are not disclosed. 5. I understand that the information you provide will be destroyed after the completion of this research. 6. I understand that my participation of this research does not bring any negative effect to me.

Signature：______Date：______

All information you provide are kept confidential.

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Part One

This part is about the relationship between your father [or step-father or male guardian] and your mother [or step-mother or female guardian]. In every family, children often have chances to observe about the relationship between your father [or step-father or male guardian] and your mother [or step-mother or female guardian]. When observing inter-parental interactions, children can have different feelings. We would like you to tell us what you think or feel when you observe their interactions. If your guardian is now single, please skip this part and go to part three directly.

Simple Item Never Occasi Someti Often Most Alway onally mes of the s time 1. My parents talk 1 2 3 4 5 6 to each other and share fun. 2. My parents talk 1 2 3 4 5 6 to each other when having dinner. 3. I hear that my 1 2 3 4 5 6 parents express their regret in getting married. 4. My parents 1 2 3 4 5 6 express that the other party is a good partner. 5. My parents 1 2 3 4 5 6 praise each other. 6. My parents 1 2 3 4 5 6 express that the other party is a responsible partner. 7. My parents feel 1 2 3 4 5 6 that the other is the ideal companion. 8. My parents have 1 2 3 4 5 6 confidence in each other.

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Part Two This part is about the relationship between your father [or step-father or male guardian] and your mother [or step-mother or female guardian]. In every family there are times when the parents don’t get along. Below are some things that kids sometimes think or feel when their parents have arguments or disagreements. We would like you to tell us what you think or feel when your parents argue or disagree by answering each of the sentences below. If your guardian is now single, please skip this part and go to part three directly.

Simple Item Comple Relativ Relativ Comple tely ely ely Not tely Applica Applica Applica Not ble to ble to ble to Applica My My My ble to Situatio Situatio Situatio My n n n Situatio n

1. My parents get really mad when 1 2 3 4 they argue. 2. My parents have pushed or shoved 1 2 3 4 each other during an argument. 3. When my parents have a 1 2 3 4 disagreement they discuss it quietly.

Now you live with whom (can choose more than one option) : Please put a ✓in the following option A. Father [step-father or male □ guardian] B. Mother [step-mother or female □ guardian] C. Grandfather from father side □ D. Grandmother from father side □ E. Grandfather from mother side □ F. Grandmother from mother side □ G. Domestic helper □ H. Others (please explain) ______□

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Part Three In the following statements, we would like to know your feelings about the attitude of your father [or step-father or male guardian]. Please responses to the items based on your feelings.

Example: I think that the way my father [or step-father or male guardian] usually treats me is: Sincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Insincere

If you think that the way your father usually treats you is very sincere, please circle 1 If you think that the way your father usually treats you is quite sincere, please circle 2 If you think that the way your father usually treats you is bit sincere, please circle 3 If you think that the way your father usually treats you is between sincere and insincere, please circle 4 If you think that the way your father usually treats you is bit insincere, please circle 5 If you think that the way your father usually treats you is quite insincere, please circle 6 If you think that the way your father usually treats you is very insincere, please circle 7

In my feelings, I think that the way my father [or step-father or male guardian] usually treats me is:

Simple Item Very Some A bit In Some Quite Very what Betw what een 1. Warm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cold 2. Severe 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lenient 3.Relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tense

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Part Four In the following statements, we would like to know your feelings about the attitude of your mother [or step-mother or female guardian]. Please responses to the items based on your feelings.

Example: I think that the way my mother [or step-mother or female guardian] usually treats me is: Sincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Insincere

If you think that the way your mother usually treats you is very sincere, please circle 1 If you think that the way your mother usually treats you is quite sincere, please circle 2 If you think that the way your mother usually treats you is bit sincere, please circle 3 If you think that the way your mother usually treats you is between sincere and insincere, please circle 4 If you think that the way your mother usually treats you is bit insincere, please circle 5 If you think that the way your mother usually treats you is quite insincere, please circle 6 If you think that the way your mother usually treats you is very insincere, please circle 7

In my feelings, I think that the way mother [or step-mother or female guardian] usually treats me is:

Simple Item Very Some A bit In Some Quite Very what Betw what een 1. Warm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cold 2. Severe 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lenient 3.Relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tense

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Part Five

The following items are about how your father [or step-father or male guardian] and your mother [or step-mother or female guardian] parenting you. There are four different levels in the potential response (from one extreme “1” to another “4”). Please circle the number that most represent your feeling. Please answer each question. If your father/mother passed away and you do not have any step- father/mother or male/female guardian, you are not required to fill in the related section.

Example: Father/mother demands me to wash my hands before having meal. If you think this statement very inaccurately describes how your father/mother parenting you, please circle 1 (very disagree). If you think this statement largely inaccurately describes how your father/mother parenting you, please circle 2 (disagree). If you think this statement largely accurately describes how your father/mother parenting you, please circle 3 (agree). If you think this statement very accurately describes how your father/mother parenting you, please circle 4 (very agree).

Simple Item Very Disagree Very Disagree Agree Agree How my father parenting me: 1. My father clearly knows my 1 2 3 4 situation in my school 2. My father clearly understands 1 2 3 4 who my friends are 3. My father requires me to have 1 2 3 4 good behavior in school Very Disagree Very How my mother parenting me: Disagree Agree Agree 1. My mother clearly knows my 1 2 3 4 situation in my school 2. My mother clearly understands 1 2 3 4 who my friends are 3. My mother requires me to have 1 2 3 4 good behavior in school

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Part Six

The following items are about your perception on your father [or step-father or male guardian]/your mother [or step-mother or female guardian] and yourself. There are four different levels in the potential response (from one extreme “1” to another “4”). Please circle the number that most represent your feeling. Please answer each question.

Example: My father/mother and I have a good relationship. If you think this statement very accurately describes your relationship with father/mother, please circle  (very agree). If you think this statement largely accurately describes your relationship with father/mother, please circle  (agree). If you think this statement largely inaccurately describes your relationship with father/mother, please circle  (disagree). If you think this statement very inaccurately describes your relationship with father/mother, please circle  (very disagree).

Simple Item Very Agree Disagree Very Agree Disagree Perception on my father: 1. My father expects me to be mature 1 2 3 4 (sheng xing) 2. My father expects me to be obedient 1 2 3 4 (guai, ting hua) 3. My father expects me to have good virtues and behavior (hao pin de he 1 2 3 4 xing wei)

Perception on my mother: 1. My mother expects me to be mature 1 2 3 4 (sheng xing) 2. My mother expects me to be obedient 1 2 3 4 (guai, ting hua) 3. My mother expects me to have good virtues and behavior (hao pin de he 1 2 3 4 xing wei)

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Part Seven

Please read the following items carefully and choose an answer that most represent your feeling and thinking. Very Somewhat Somewhat Very Simple Item Disagree Agree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1. When I need help, I trust 1 2 3 4 5 6 my parents will help me 2. When I need help, I trust my teachers 1 2 3 4 5 6 will help me. 3. I love my teachers and 1 2 3 4 5 6 classmates.

Please read the following items carefully. Using the 1 - 7 scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number on the line preceding that item. Please be open and honest in your responding. Simple Item Very Disagree Slightly Neutral Slightly Agree Very Disagree disagree Agree Agree 1. In most ways my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 life is close to my ideal 2. The conditions of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 my life are excellent 3. I am satisfied 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 with my life

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Part Eight The following items are about your personal and family information. The information you provide is strictly confidential. Therefore, please feel free to answer the item. 1) Date of Birth: ______2) Gender: □ Male □ Female 3) Form: □ F.1 □ F.2 □ F.3 □ F.4 □ F.5 4) Type of housing: □private □home ownership scheme □public □other:______5) Religious: □Catholic church □Buddhism □Protestant □Slam □Taoism □Other:______□No 6) Monthly family income: □ ≦$10,000 □$10,001-$20,000 □ $20,001-$30,000 □$30,001-$40,000 □ $40,001-$50,000 □$50,001-$60,000 □ $60,001-$70,000 □$70,001-$80,000 □ >$80,000 □Don’t know 7) Number of family member (including yourself but not domestic helper) ______8) No. of siblings □ No □ Yes ___ elder brother ___ younger brother ___ elder sister ___ younger sister 9) How much time living in □ From birth Hong Kong: □ Lived in Hong Kong _ years 10) Your parents' marital status □ father and mother were divorced, but not (the one currently live with remarried you): □ father and mother have been separated □ father and mother are mairred (first marriage ) □ father and mother are mairred (second ore more marriage ) □ others: ______11) Whether your father live with Whether your mother live with you you now: □ Yes □ No now: □ Yes □ No 12) Are you father a Chinese: Are you mother a Chinese:

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□ Yes □ No □ Yes □ No 13) Your parents' highest father mother level of education: □ □ No formal education, nor literacy □ □ No formal education, but literacy □ □ P.1 to P5 □ □ Primary school gradated □ □ F.1 to F.3 (including grammar or technical schools) □ □ F.4 to F.5 (including grammar or technical schools) □ □ F.6 to F.7 (including grammar or technical schools) □ □ College or polytechnic (non- degree) □ □ University or above (degree or above) □ □ Don’t Know 14) Your family is now receiving Comprehensive Social Security Assistance: □ Yes □ No 15) In the last academic year, have you applied for School Textbook Assistance □ No □ Yes If yes, What is the application results? □ Full grant □ Half grant □ No allowance

The End

Thank you for your participation

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