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Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities Vol. 24 (3) Sept. 2016
Contents
Foreword i Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Article Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation: 907 Experience of Universiti Putra Malaysia Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U.
Regular Articles The Legal Perspective of Khalwat (Close Proximity) as a Shariah Criminal 923 Offence in Malaysia Siti Zubaidah Ismail
Motivation and Study Engagement: A Study of Muslim Undergraduates 937 in Malaysia Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari
This Far and No Further: Barriers in the Managerial Woman’s Journey to 953 the Top Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee
Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of Customer Complaining 971 Behaviour (CCB) Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin
A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm 991 in Hong Kong, China Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha
Exploratory Factor Analysis: Blended Motivation of Malay Students 1011 Learning Mandarin as a Foreign Language Tan, T. G., Hairul Nizam Ismail and Ooi, A. E.
Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer 1025 Club of Iran Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour
Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the 1043 Stakeholder Approach Ginta Ginting The Role of Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia 1057 Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R.
ESL Lecturers’ Perceptions on using i-MoL as a Mobile-Based Tool for 1069 Teaching Grammar Ganapathy, M., Shuib, M., Gunasegaran, T. and Azizan, S. N.
Washback Effect of School-based English Language Assessment: 1087 A Case-Study on Students’ Perceptions Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H.
A Comparative Analysis of Pakistani English Newspaper Editorials: 1105 The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai Hayat, N. and Juliana, A. W.
Online Shopping Preference and M-Payment Acceptance: A Case Study 1121 among Klang Valley Online Shoppers Penny, L., Chew, W. L., Raja, R. and Lim, H. A.
Cultures of Teaching: Mapping the Teacher Professional Development 1139 Terrain Chantarath Hongboontri and Mananya Jantayasakorn
Studying a Television Audience in Malaysia: A Practice of Audience 1165 Ethnography in Kampung Papitusulem, Sabak Bernam, Selangor Rofil, L. E. F., Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A.
Controversies in Stylistics: Leading to the Culmination of New Approaches 1181 Norhaslinda, H.
Factors Contributing to the Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World: 1195 An Exploratory Study Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J. and Sultana, T.
Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies 1211 and Gender Effect Moazen, M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A.
The Dynamics of Makean Ethnic Identity in North Maluku, Indonesia: 1223 A Possible Collaboration of Competing Approaches Amin, S. and Syamsiar
Ownership Rights to University Invention: Universities Legal Authority to 1241 Exert Ownership Interest or Claim Ramli, N., Zainol, Z. A. and Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A. Foreword
Welcome to the Third Issue 2016 of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (JSSH)!
JSSH is an open-access journal for the Social Sciences and Humanities that is published by Universiti Putra Malaysia Press. It is independently owned and managed bythe university and run on a non-profit basis for the benefit of the world-wide social science community.
This issue contains 21 articles, of which one is a review article and20 are regular research articles. The authors of these articles come from different countries, namely, Malaysia, Nigeria, India, Hong Kong, Iran, Indonesia, Thailand and Oman.
The review article in this issue discusses the experience of Universiti Putra Malaysia in transforming agriculture research into commercial activities (Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U.). This review contributes to both academic and agricultural industry research, development and commercial activities by illustrating current innovation produced by UPM and industry-university collaboration, conducted at a leading agricultural university in Malaysia.
The regular research articles cover a wide range of topics. The first article is on the legal perspective of khalwat (close proximity) as a shariah criminal offence in Malaysia (Siti Zubaidah Ismail). The issue also contains a study on motivation and study engagement, focussing on Muslim undergraduates in Malaysia (Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari); a study that elaborates on potential barriers in professional women’s journey to the top (Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotraand Nandini Banerjee); a study on customer complaining behaviour (Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin); a qualitative study of the post-80 generation in career development in Hong Kong, China (Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha); a study and exploratory factor analysis on blended motivation with reference to Malay students in learning Mandarin as a foreign language (Tan, T. G., Hairul Nizam Ismail and Ooi, A. E.); an instrumental study on hostile aggression among fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran (Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour); a study that describes the modelling business responsibility of SMEs, focussed on the stakeholder approach (Ginta Ginting); an elaborative study on the role of expert evidence in medical negligence litigation in Malaysia (Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R.); a study on ESL lecturers’ perception of using i-MoL as a mobile-based tool for teaching (Ganapathy, M., Shuib, M., Gunasegaran, T. and Azizan, S. N.); a study that explores the washback effect of school-based English language assessment on students’ perception (Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H.); a comparative study on a Pakistani English newspaper editorial in the case of the Taliban attack on Malala Yousafzai (Hayat, N. and Juliana, A. W.); a case study of Klang Valley online shoppers towards online shopping preference and M-Payment acceptance (Penny, L., Chew, W. L., Raja, R. and Lim, H. A.); a study on culture and teaching, focussed on the terrain of teachers’ professional development (Chantarath Hongboontri and Mananya Jantayasakorn); a study on television audiences in Malaysia, focussed on the practice of audience ethnography in Kampung Papitusulem, Sabak Bernam, Selangor (Rofil, L. E. F., Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A.); a study and discussion on controversies in stylistics, leading to the culmination of new approaches (Norhaslinda, H.); an exploratory study on factors contributing to the survival of standard Arabic in the Arab world (Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J. and Sultana, T.); a comparative study on the use of communication strategies and gender effects on Iranian EFL learners’ perceptionMoazen, ( M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A.); a study on the dynamics of Makean ethnic identity in north Maluku, Indonesia and possible collaboration between competing approaches (Amin, S. and Syamsiar); and a study that describes ownership rights to university invention concerning a university’s legal authority and the exertion of ownership interest or claim (Ramli, N., Zainol, Z. A. and Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A.).
I anticipate that you will find the evidence presented in this issue to be intriguing, thought-provoking and useful in reaching new milestones in your own research. Please recommend the journal to your colleagues and students to make this endeavour meaningful.
I would also like to express my gratitude to all the contributors, namely, the authors, reviewers and editors, who have made this issue possible. Last but not least, the editorial assistance of the journal division staff is fully appreciated.
JSSH is currently accepting manuscripts for upcoming issues based on original qualitative or quantitative research that opens new areas of inquiry and investigation.
Chief Executive Editor Nayan Deep S. KANWAL, FRSA, ABIM, AMIS, Ph.D. [email protected] Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Review Article Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation: Experience of Universiti Putra Malaysia
Mohd-Azmi, M. L.1,2*, Jesse, F. F. A.2, Sarah, S. A.2, Roslan, S.3, Zuraidah, A.1 and Hambali, I. U.2,4 1Deputy Vice Chancellor Office (Research and Innovation), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 3Putra Science Park, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia 4Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria
ABSTRACT One of the major goals of any high impact research and development is an overall improvement in the well-being and sustainable quality of life through innovations. As universities continuously disseminate innovations from R&D activities, many prototypes and lab-scale products, whether tangible or intangible, can be made available for public use. The success of bringing these innovations to the marketplace depends on the quality and capability of the technology transfer office to lead different types of activities, engagements, negotiation and inclusiveness towards fulfilling the needs of commercialisation partners and the market. This paper presented a general overview of transforming research output into commercialisation in the context of Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). Throughout this paper, different commercialization channels, the roles of technology transfer offices and multiple agencies are further discussed with a special focus on agricultural innovations and technologies. This review contributes to both academic and agricultural industry research, development and commercialization activities by illustrating current innovation produced by UPM and industry-university ARTICLE INFO collaboration, conducted at a leading Article history: Received: 1 March 2016 agriculture university. Accepted: 15 June 2016
E-mail addresses: Keywords: Agriculture commercialization, innovation, [email protected] (Mohd-Azmi, M. L.), [email protected] (Jesse, F. F. A.), research, technology transfer [email protected] (Sarah, S. A.), [email protected] (Roslan, S.), [email protected] (Zuraidah, A.), [email protected] (Hambali, I. U.) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U.
INTRODUCTION to be 5%, a crystal clear indication that Academia to many seems to be a routine most, if not all of the research findings between classrooms and offices. The and innovations in the Universities are but truth remains that the world of academia monumental adornments kept on the shelves has had its fair share of challenges. In of our libraries and laboratories. addition to the conventional teaching and Successful academic entrepreneurship learning processes, academicians play a is a complex target requiring a continuous vital role in conducting and supervising process and series of events (Friedman research, publishing research findings and & Silberman, 2003). Brainstorming, collaborating with other para-academia. development of a multi-stage process model These publications, coupled with public that identifies the key actors and activities and discourse and lectures, are the major success drivers associated with each stage windows of academic research transfer of the innovative commercialization process outputs. The trending demand on research are a major part of the processes involved expansion is geared towards floating research (Mehta, 2004; Perkman et al., 2013; Sanberg outside of the university and proffering et al., 2014). Public and private financial lasting solutions to debilitating economic involvement is a pillar for the success of downturn in related sectors. Universities academic commercialisation of research are now saddled with the responsibility findings (Tansey & Stembridge, 2005). of commercialising research findings and In this paper, an overview of agriculture innovations as a way of cushioning the many research and its commercialization to problems of the rapidly growing human the market place through patents, trade population. secrets, and copyrights was discussed and To achieve the desired commercialisation highlighted based on the experience of of research findings and innovations, a wide Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM). range of activities ranging from market validation, identification of governmental RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION IN AGRICULTURE or private partners or collaborators ready for developing these research findings and Agricultural research and development have innovations into commercial or marketing always received considerable funding for products is a cardinal necessity (Razak the single reason of maintaining a steady et al., 2014). Other key factors include supply of food and animal products to match saleable innovations, managerial support the increasing pace of human population. (Thiruchelvam, 2004), appealing marketing The most important key to sustainable environment and trained human resource food security is innovation, through which (Asmawi et al., 2013). Sanberg et al, food safety, resource-efficiency, climate (2014) and Mehta (2004) rated the average changes and quality of farm products can commercialisation of research findings be improved while jobs opportunities
908 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation are being created (Godfray et al., 2010; with weekly tips on professional breeding Hoffmann, 2011). Within the past century, systems, nutritional values, milk production technology and innovation have been and dairy management. the major drivers of both agricultural Hence, understanding farmers’ needs, productivity and financial success of many market signals and market needs is the farms and agro-related marketing. main driving force behind successful To actually bridge the gap and disseminate research and innovation (Govindaraju the products of academic research findings et al., 2009; Mansori et al., 2015). In and innovations to the private sector, addition, upscaling agricultural innovations particularly farmers and end users of to determine the consistency of the results such products, certain technical skills and might be challenging. As an example, to technology must be put in place to aid in obtain evidence of the efficiency of certain achieving the sole aim of commercialisation. vaccines, fundamental research must be The challenges of bringing new technology carried out before scaling up vaccine to market in the agricultural industry are high production (Lo et al., 2011; Ismail et al., because it is difficult to convince and educate 2012; Vakhshiteh et al., 2013). Efficiency farmers to adopt the technology that results and productivity of the world food systems from new invention. A typical scenario is must increase in order to ensure that people the iCOW Technology in Kenya (called have access to high quality and quantity of iCOWT), a simple mobile phone application food (Godfray et al., 2010). Achieving the , particularly for farmers involved in animal substantial increases in demand for food will fattening and production where they can have greater global implications for livestock easily track and record parturition periods production systems in the coming decades or the expected length of gestation of (Kristensen et al., 2014). As a general their animals. This Kenyan farmers aided background, the global livestock sector is technology (KFAT) allows farmers to send growing faster than any other agricultural SMS codes to actually register individual sub-sector and provides livelihoods to more animals on the farm and, for example, than 1.4 billion people and contributes about to register their insemination dates. The 40% to global agricultural output. According technology provider in collaboration with to the Food and Agriculture Organization the professional academicians in the related of the United Nations (FAO), global meat field of study therefore sends a prompt production is projected to be approximately notification to the farmers advising them of 465 million tons in the year 2050. Between the expected date of delivery and best days 2000 and 2050, the global cattle population for next insemination thereby increasing may increase from 1.5 billion to 2.6 billion, farmers’ awareness of the modus operandi and the global goat and sheep population of insemination and economic expectations. from 1.7 billion to 2.7 billion. The majority There are other farmer-based technologies of the increased demand will occur in Asia,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) 909 Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U.
Africa and Latin-America. Therefore, farmers, particularly innovations that solve research and innovations targeting increased regional issues (Shanmugavelu et al., 2012). animal production should be conducted to A typical illustration is Kilimo Salama cater for the expected market demand. mobile based Technology where farmers A plethora of research and innovations in Swahili are offered crop insurance could be carried out to include mechanical against drought or excessive rainfall. The (tractors and combines), biological technology sends information through (crossbreeds), chemical (fertilizers and feed SMS to the farmers on expected weather supplement), agronomic (new management conditions and its effect on crop production. practices) as well as biotechnological Another example is the increases in innovations (GMO) (Saenphoom et al., numbers of animals and the higher demand 2013; Abubakr et al., 2015). A total of 8075 in feed supply. In the intensive mixed livestock breeds are annually produced systems, food-feed crops are vital ruminant globally, which includes 1053 trans- livestock feed resources. The prices of boundary breeds, of which 490 are regional food-feed crops are likely to increase at trans-boundary breeds occurring only in faster rates than the prices of livestock one region and 563 are international trans- products. Therefore, demand for a suitable boundary breeds with a wider distribution. feed that is easy to grow and contains These breed populations represent unique high nutritional value is pursued by the combinations of genes for production and industry. Moreover, any technology towards functional traits but also the ability to adapt accelerating production of feedstock will be to local conditions, including feed and water greatly accepted. availability, climate and disease conditions Environmental impact, labour (Hoffmann, 2011). assessment and public concerns are among In response to increasing demands the key points that will be assessed following despite limited farm lands, confined livestock an impact of innovation, whereby innovative production systems in industrialized agriculture should also protect the natural countries are the source of the world’s resources, biodiversity, landscape, soil poultry and pork production and presently and water, and increase the environmental such systems are being established in and climate benefits that farming provides, developing countries, particularly in Asia. however, each of the research outcomes may Moreover, modern smart farming systems raise different concerns and policy questions (MSFS) using cameras, sensors and other (McClintock et al., 2014). forms of technology are being tested to Among the biggest challenges in the improve irrigation efficiency or reduce livestock industry are management and use of pesticides by improving detection control of infectious diseases through the of diseases. Hence, any research towards use of various biosecurity approaches improving the system will definitely benefit including the use of diagnostics, vaccines
910 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation and other therapeutics. The burden of COMMERCIALISATION: infectious diseases in livestock and other AN OVERVIEW animals continues to be a major constraint Commercialisation is a process aimed to sustained agricultural development, food at generating academic impact as it security and participation of developing constitutes immediate and measurable and in-transition countries in the economic market acceptance for outputs of academic benefits of international livestock trade and research and innovations (Markman et marketing (Fitzpatrick, 2013). al., 2008). To increase the possibilities of Vaccines are essential biologics to producing commercial innovations, more control and prevent disease occurrence. In engagement with the public and industrial Malaysia today animal vaccine production partners is a process that must be targeted is a multi-million dollar business. Malaysia (Berman, 2008; Martinelli et al., 2008) as imports vaccines and pharmaceuticals this provides platforms where scientists worth RM650 million annually and there and researchers can comfortably discuss is a dire need to seriously look into ways with people from relevant industries. It is to increase locally produced vaccines. also vital that key people within the system Initiating successful development and clearly understand important concepts in production of locally produced vaccines commercializing university innovations involves strong collaborative efforts like intellectual property ownership, between the universities, industries, technology transfer, sharing revenues, governmental and private agencies. Several licensing and start-ups (Govindaraju et al., fundamental research investigations aimed 2009; Bruneel et al., 2010). Policies may at understanding responses towards infection represent organization’s commitment and will need to be conducted before vaccine guide operational activities, but there should development (Zamri-Saad et al., 1999; Lo be enough flexibility for things to move et al., 2011; Shin et al., 2014). Many of quickly in unprecedented but controlled these works have already been conducted ways (Tansey & Stembridge, 2005). to develop effective vaccines against local strains in Malaysia. The examples Intellectual Property mentioned above are only a small fraction The innovations created in the university of innovation in agriculture research. and the technical know-how involved are There are a lot more opportunities yet to normally the intellectual property (IP) be explored by researchers and later to be of the university. The university usually commercialized in the market. bears the cost to file for the registration and maintenance of the IP based on the evaluation of their commercialization potential or further improvements. In the usual practice, revenue generated from any
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) 911 Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U. commercial endeavour of these intellectual disclosed, intellectual property protection properties will be shared with the inventors, is secured and to facilitate the transfer of the scientists and researchers according the university’s intellectual property to to the institution’s policy. As there are outside partners. As such, the TTO can many types of intellectual properties, it is be thought of as the coordinating hub of imperative that continuous training is given commercialization activities and often plays to educate scientists and researchers. Filing one of the most central roles in the academic for intellectual property rights may also entrepreneurship process (Markman et al., involve complex deliberations related to 2008; Wood, 2011).Policies developed strategic planning. will be adopted to protect the rights of researchers and to preserve core academic Technology Transfer Office values as well as to protect the universities Many universities have established from conflicts of commitment and conflicts specialised structures, such as technology of interest. transfer offices (TTOs), science parks and In actual practise, commercialization incubators to support the aforementioned is a complex, often non-linear process activities. These offices manned by and with a lot of impediments in between technology transfer professionals are stages. The challenges might start with responsible for managing innovations from finding public and private investment in registration to coordination of different R&D, the fluctuation and inconsistency aspects of technology transfer activities of R&D performance, decisions about (Fishburn, 2014; Sanberg et al., 2014). This whether the innovation is worth the time, is to include creating supportive internal effort and expenses required to secure rules and procedures (Thursby et al., 2001). intellectual property (IP) protection, Established TTOs also have structures building a prototype to demonstrate the handling disclosures, evaluations and technology, the further development needed filings, customer discovery and marketing as for commercialization and finally resulting well as business matching and negotiations. in the successful acceptance or rejection of Once a deal is established, TTOs will work a product or service in the market (Boehm & closely with the legal department towards Hogan, 2013; Perkmann et al., 2013; Jamil drafting and signing of agreements by the et al., 2015). designated signatories empowered by the board. TTOs will also monitor and facilitate University and Industry Partnership post licensing activities to warrant complete Universities in Malaysia have established and smooth technology transfer from the a number of mechanisms to accelerate university to the industrial partner. university-industry linkages especially in Essentially, the mission of the TTO is to commercialization of research results (Table ensure that the university’s innovations are 1). Though UPM named its technology
912 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation transfer office as Putra Science Park, enhance prospects for the development which serves as the pre-incubation hub for of technology-based companies through research commercialization, its function university–industry collaboration (Malairaja differs from five science parks which have & Zawdie, 2008). Science parks are built been set up throughout the country by the to foster enhanced university partnership Federal and State governments; 1) Kulim leading to greater utilisation of university Hi-Tech Park in the northern state of Kedah, research results. These parks serve as 2) Technology Park Malaysia in Bukit Jalil effective interfaces between university and in Kuala Lumpur, 3) Selangor Science Park industry. (SSP), 4) UPM-MTDC Incubation Centre in The financing of university research the state of Selangor, located in University is being scrutinized in Malaysia as Putra Malaysia (UPM) and 4) Technovation governments increasingly demand measures Park based at the UTM Campus in Skudai of impact and outcomes such as scientific in the state of Johore. These science parks output and socio-economic values from were mainly functioning as a platform the grants awarded (Payne & Siow, 2003; to stimulate innovation among small and Kamariah et al., 2012). Moreover, the medium sized enterprises (SMEs) and to direction of research has progressed from
Table 1 Commercialization division under five Research Universities (RU) in Malaysia
University Name Function of commercialization unit Universiti Sains@USM Support start-up companies, innovators and Sains Malaysia (http://sains.usm.my/) researchers with projects or products that are close to commercialization. University of UM Centre for Innovation and One Stop Centre for IP management and legal Malaya Commercialization (UMCIC) services, technology licensing, incubator centre (http://umcic.um.edu.my/about/) management, start-up business development and provides commercialization support services. Universiti Innovation & Commercialisation Focuses on developing and commercializing Teknologi Centre UTM's research products by tapping into the Malaysia (http://www.utm.my/research/ University's ample facilities and experts research-support-units/innovation- commercialisation-centre/) Universiti UKM Technology Sdn Bhd. Accelerate the commercialization of UKM’s Kebangsaan (http://www.ukmtech.com/v2/) R&D and Intellectual Properties. It is also Malaysia the Holding Company for UKM start-up companies. Universiti Putra Science Park Assists in securing and protecting novel Putra Malaysia (http://www.sciencepark.upm.edu. innovations through intellectual property my/aboutpsp) processes and identifying applicable commercialisation strategies for the created intellectual property. PSP becomes the middle entity between UPM and UPM Holdings regarding commercialisation.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) 913 Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U. basic science free of societal needs to a and missions. The success of industry- more demand-driven science that must university partnerships is determined by meet certain objectives (Amran et al., people who work in them. It is suggested 2014). Apart from public research grants that universities must have people capable of that are generally associated with wide building and managing partnerships in order scope projects, private contracts concentrate to attract industry involvement (Asmawi et on short-term objectives aiming at the al., 2013). Collaborations only work well production of knowledge that can rapidly be when they are managed by people who used as one of the resources to fund research cross boundaries easily and who have a deep as the potential for commercialization understanding of the two cultures they need is high (Goldfarb & Henrekson, 2008; to bridge (Powell & Grodal, 2006; Boehm Kamariah et al., 2012). & Hogan, 2013). Private funding of joint ventures Moreover, collaborators should not be with private organizations are among the troubled by intellectual property (IP). A useful instruments for sharing funding broad comprehensive framework agreement responsibilities (Amran et al., 2014). should be developed and details must be There are two major reasons for such joint well spelt out on a case-by-case basis. ventures. First, it is somehow cheaper for Hence, a framework agreement would save private companies to contract certain types time and avoid the acrimony that might of research to the public sector, rather than arise. Sometimes, no matter how good the establish or expand their own research innovation project, company executives tend facilities. Second, universities and players in to walk away from universities that have an the agricultural sector in particular, usually inflexible approach to IP. Noteworthy, IP is lack the skills needed to mass produce an important element, but it should not be and distribute the production of particular regarded as the core of industry-university generated technology, which has been relations. Moreover, it should not be viewed identified as one of the main limitations to as the main income source. The income technology distribution (Perkmann et al., stream will be greater and benefits wider 2013). Joint ventures between public and through university-industry partnership, private-sector institutions is currently being where a form of partnership with industry developed in many countries, whereby they helps to modernize teaching and learning as share the costs and benefits of research well as dissemination of research (Saguy, in fields such as genetic improvement, 2011). seed production, plant propagation, and From the traditional point of view, veterinary products. university-industry partnership seems However, the challenges are high when difficult to apply to the agricultural field. It is collaboration takes place between two generally believed that agriculture is a highly entities with totally different backgrounds tasking profitable investment. However,
914 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation after the year 2000, the situation is changing. teams engage in the wide range of research. The upgrading of agricultural industry is The outputs and innovations produced increasingly prominent, which not only later become the technologies which Putra makes agricultural investment opportunities Science Park (PSP) sought out for its on the increase, but also provides good commercial potential. There was enormous investment value for agriculture (Boehlje, commercial potential derived from the effort 2004). However, partnerships could suffer and to date out of 1600 total IPs, 94 of them when the focus changes. For instance, to have been successfully commercialised. In please R&D, the research might aim to gain total, UPM has recorded above USD 10 knowledge about emerging technologies. million gross sale. On the other hand, to please the business Putra Science Park (PSP) UPM is a special development group, it might look for start- dedicated division for commercialization ups that could become acquisition targets. and innovation of research work with While to satisfy the Chief Finance Officer, it researchers to attract corporate partners might aim for a certain threshold of financial that can bring inventions and discoveries returns. Hence, it is important for each side to the market through technology licensing of the partnership to understand the other’s agreements. PSP coordinates the entire perspective, whereby all collaborators process from negotiation to completion understand each other’s roles and motive as of licensing agreement towards granting incompatibilities hinder the development of rights to commercialise technologies to productive collaborations (Perkmann et al., companies. PSP ensures the needs and 2013). In Malaysia, the theory of research to interests of all parties involved are fulfilled. commercialization has been successfully put The participation of various financial hubs into practise by University Putra Malaysia. has been recognized and triggered to enhance the efficacy of PSP and university incubators Commercialisation Experience for an expanded research commercialization. University Putra Malaysia has successfully World Halal Innohub is one of the success established multidisciplinary research teams stories of partnership effort between Halal with cutting-edge science and technology Development Corporation and UPM to projects. Most of these projects have been increase innovation capabilities for the Halal identified and developed in accordance with Industry. The program provides common governmental policies and national needs. office facilities, shared services and shared Academic entrepreneurship in UPM actually facilities, as well as centre’s capacity began well before the TTO’s involvement building programme such as intellectual (namely Putra Science Park). It started in property protection services, education the university’s diverse array of laboratories and training via mentoring and coaching and research centres, which is the place programme. As an impact, this program has where faculty members and their research successfully created jobs, commercialization
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) 915 Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U. of high-impact technologies and wealth multiple partners or enter into exclusive creation for the halal industries. agreements when commercializing, and For several years during the early the research shows advantages to both establishment of UPM, technology approaches depending on the nature of the transfer was conducted through informal innovation (Colyvas et al., 2002). Whether mechanisms such as publications, training, there are multiple partners or an exclusive and meetings with the clients as well arrangement, the collective group of key organising technology exhibitions. To date, stakeholders must decide on the best way to technology commercialization in UPM move forward. This leads to the third stage is realised in either business matching, in the academic entrepreneurship process: negotiations or technology transfer with selection of the optimal commercialization various funding opportunities (Figure 1). mechanism. The most commonly used At this stage, the PSP serve as a platform formal mechanisms by which universities to balance and align the broad interests of transfer their intellectual property to the university, including the researcher, any interested parties is via technology with the external interests of entrepreneurs licensing agreements. Alternatively, the and external business partners needed university may help potential entrepreneurs to commercialize the technology. It is to incorporate a completely new start up important to note that the PSP may engage business entity, typically called a ‘spin-off.’
Figure 1. Route of commercialization: funding model at UPM
916 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation
From the university perspective, technology in the agricultural field have improved the licensing is often most preferred because quality of agricultural practices in Malaysia. of the speed to market, facilitation for There are many examples of useful research optimization of multi-partner relationships, output for agriculture applications. One of and also to minimize internal financial the most significant commercial products risk. Many showcases whether alone or by produced by UPM researchers is NDV:V4- syndication with other organisation have UPM vaccine (Figure 2) for Newcastle been organized to attract entrepreneurs and disease which was recorded back in 1993 investors to participate in commercialization (Aini et al., 1990; Aied et al., 2011). A drastic process. Nevertheless, incorporation of increase in the mortality rate of poultry was start-up spinoff companies is entirely a new observed following Newcastle disease virus approach advocated as a sustainable mode infection which resulted in a serious drop of for technology commercialisation. Start-ups income level. An example of potential use can be wholly owned by the university or of research output for agriculture application jointly owned with partners or investors. in the field is the use of virus that is non- UPM, with its prominent strengths in pathogenic to humans for development of a agricultural technology, its rigorous efforts biological control agent to control wild rat in transforming and translating research populations that have caused massive losses output into commercialisation, have helped to rice growers (Loh et al., 2003; Loh et al., strengthen the primary university mission 2006). Interestingly, biological materials of improving and uplifting societal needs. that resulted from extensive animal research Innovations from the university, particularly were also used to safeguard human health
Figure 2. Example of commercial products derived from research activities conducted in UPM
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 907 - 921 (2016) 917 Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U.
(Razis et al., 2006; Vakshiteh et al, 2013; CONCLUSION Hani et al., 2014). Overall, commercialization of agriculture Recently, UPM researcher have research is very important and current produced a new cross-breed chicken called trends to address food security and safety ‘AKAR PUTRA’ characterised by robust issues are actively pursued by scientists growth with bigger body and higher capacity in an area consisting of environmental to lay eggs. This new cross-breed of village efficiency, optimal utilization of raw chicken and red jungle fowl will be of higher materials, production efficiency and healthy value for meat and eggs, an alternative to meat products. The less expensive and more popular and expensive village chicken. effective technology, products or breed that Compared to village chicken, AKAR addresses the need of the 9 billion people PUTRA can produce 120 to 200 eggs per in the year 2050 market will generate more year. Moreover, it produced larger eggs commercial value. To achieve this objective, compared to village chicken with eggs of 60 proper management and execution with grams each compared with village chicken direct involvement of industrial players eggs weigh at 45 grams each. and investors via technology licensing and Currently, several researchers are partnerships must be taken into place. The working on clinic-pathology, biochemical goal is to ensure that the products of world- and cytokine responses towards Pasteurella class science research and innovations can multocida infection, which is having an address the needs of industrial players. apparently high food security concern and Once barriers to innovation are halted or commercial potential (Ali et al., 2014; removed, research output from universities Chung et al., 2015). This research is part of and institutes shall reach its full potential. UPM’S effort to bring back buffalo farming to the glory times in the 1960s. Hence, REFERENCES the executive officer has been actively Abubakr, A., Alimon, A. R., Yaakub, H., Abdullah, involved in assisting the researcher up to N., & Ivan, M. (2015). Effect of feeding palm the commercialization stage. Advice and oil by-products based diets on muscle fatty acid consultancy on consulting arrangements, composition in goats. PLoS ONE, 10, art.no. joint publications with the authoritative e0119756. body, industrial scientists, and collaborative Aied, M. A., SitiAishah, A. B., Rola, A., Abdul relationships between university researchers, Rahman, O., Hair Bejo, M., Aini, I., & Abdul department of veterinary services have been Manaf, A. (2011). Effects of Nnewcastle disease given to facilitate the formation of formal virus strains AF2240 and V4-UPM on cytolysis and apoptosis of leukemialeukaemia cell lines. innovation transfer agreements, all these in International Journal of Molecular Sciences, a calculated attempt to achieve the singular 12(12), 8645-8660. aim of “Transforming Agriculture Research Aini, I., Ibrahim, A. L., & Spradbrow, P.B. (1990). into Commercialisation”. Vaccination of chickens against Newcastle
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
The Legal Perspective of Khalwat (Close Proximity) as a Shariah Criminal Offence in Malaysia
Siti Zubaidah Ismail Department of Shariah and Law, Academy of Islamic Studies, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The original meaning of the word khalwat refers to a pious act of being connected to God. It was later given a technical meaning referring to an offence. When the Shariah Criminal Offences Enactment introduced the offence of close proximity or khalwat, it was not a new invention because kheluat – as it was used to be spelt – can be traced back as far as 1909. Khalwat is one of the ‘moral offences’ classified among the other offences against the precepts of Islam codified under the Enactment. The law relating tokhalwat has attracted interest from many quarters, particularly due to claims that it encroaches on personal freedom and privacy. On the other side of the spectrum, the role and function of religious enforcement officers are also questioned, particularly surrounding the power they have when conducting investigations. This article seeks to examine how khalwat, originating from an act of piety, was then formulated into an offence involving a man and a woman being together in a private place to commit an indecent act. It also analyses the legal requirements that constitute khalwat and the challenges of its enforcement in Malaysia.
Keywords: Khalwat, morality, close proximity, moral offence, Islamic criminal law
INTRODUCTION transgression and intervention are matters In a country like Malaysia where Islam of great debate. Among the questions raised plays an important role in shaping the are whether to have legal intervention or norm, culture, and practices of the Muslim- leave it to society to regulate their moral Malay community, the issue of morality, its behaviour. Under the Penal Code which is the main criminal law statute for general
ARTICLE INFO application in Malaysia, there is no statutory Article history: provision criminalising moral wrongdoing Received: 15 September 2015 Accepted: 23 March 2016 except of those related to unnatural sexual E-mail address: activities. For example, there are offences [email protected] (Siti Zubaidah Ismail)
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Siti Zubaidah Ismail of committing carnal intercourse against are together in any private place under the order of nature (under Section 377A) circumstances that may give rise to suspicion and committing outrages of indecency (as that they might engage in immoral activity, in Section 377D). Furthermore, there are then it can constitute khalwat. This has led several other provisions prohibiting public to the accusation that the law pertaining to indecency and disorderly behaviour under khalwat is an attempt to invade privacy and the Local Government Act 1976 and Park personal freedom. This article elaborates By-Laws 1981 (Federal Territory). on the development of the terminology Since Malaysia has a dual-legal system “khalwat” which originally meant an act of civil and shariah operating in parallel of piety to enhance the relationship with (Ismail, 2015), there is another set of statutes Allah s.w.t. Then, it subsequently assumes administered and applied specifically for a technical meaning referring to a specific Muslims. The Shariah Criminal Offences action involving two or more ajnabis Enactment has numerous provisions with (people without a blood relationship) being regard to decency and morality. This together in a secluded place aiming to category of offences concerning morality commit a sexual offence. This article also and decency, also known as moral offences, seeks to examine the legal context in which attracts most public attention despite the khalwat is framed as an offence, focusing fact that there are three other categories of in particular on the religious framework, offences provided under the statute, namely elements that constitute an offence and the (i) offences against belief, (ii) offences various issues related to the enforcement against the sanctity of religion and its of this offence by the state’s religious institution, and (iii) miscellaneous offences. enforcement unit. Moral offences are said to take centre-stage in an attempt to allegedly limit certain acts The Conceptual Meaning of Khalwat: or behaviours seen as falling within the From Piety to Offence purview of private domain. A particularly Khalwat may be understood as a (moral) controversial issue is the alleged limitation offence, but is khalwat a socially- constructed of personal freedom involved in the offence offence or is it directly prohibited by the of khalwat or close proximity. When a man religion of Islam? If we look at the original and a woman are together in public places meaning in Arabic, the word khalwat comes attracting onlookers, attention may normally from the word khala, which linguistically be given to their looks, dress, and behaviour. means empty or secluded place (al-Marbawi, Other than that, nothing is deemed as wrong, 1990). The original meaning of khalwat as a because being together does not simply term refers to an act of seclusion to increase turn the act into a khalwat. However, when piety. This is understood from the practice a man and a woman who are not mahram of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon (those who can be married to one another) him) when he resorted to being alone in the
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Cave of Hira to submit himself to Allah. (1986), refers to those who are not legally For that matter, the act of being alone in a prohibited to be married to the woman. secluded place for the purpose of ibadah is In another hadith, Ibn Abbas reported known as khalwah or khalwat. that the Prophet (PBUH) says to the effect: In another situation, khalwat can also “Refrain yourself from being together refer to an act of a husband being together with a woman except with a company of a with his wife in an intimate situation. When mahram” (al-Bukhari, 1950, p.104). the Islamic criminal law jurisprudence was The Holy Qur’an enjoins upon people later developed, it gave birth to the specific this reminder: Do not come any closer to context for khalwat. The Muslim jurists later adultery for it is shameful (deed) and an made it an offence when two ajnabis were evil, opening outlet (to other evils) (17:32). together in a close and secluded environment In view of this, khalwat if not prevented, can in a suspicious manner (Ibn Abidin, 1966). lead to adultery. Therefore, it is necessary to Al-Qurtubi (1935) defineskhalwat as being forbid and criminalise khalwat in order to together in a secluded place far from public prevent actions leading to adultery. vicinity and does not confine toajnabis , but Islam places a strong emphasis on also to those who are married. To constitute ethics because it is part of the pillars of khalwat, al-Jaziri (1969, p.146) states that Islam. According to a Muslim thinker, al- the place must be secluded and not publicly Mawdudi (1903-1979), Islam enjoins upon accessible. man a way of life that promotes goodness and frees society from evil. One of the The Basis and Rationale for Criminalising values upheld and emphasised by Islam Khalwat is duties of individuals rather than their The prohibition of this kind of act is derived rights. Individual interests are regarded as from a hadith narrated by al-Tirmidhi to the subordinate to social and public interests. effect: “Do not be alone or in a close vicinity Consequently, family, community and with a woman not permissible for you, even state interventions in private affairs because the third party would be the evil” could be tolerated and justified for the sake (al-Mubarakfuri, 1963, 126). The Arabic of their social benefits. This is in line with word used in the hadith, which is, la yakhlu the Islamic legal maxims: al-maslahah (do not seclude) is the origin of the word al-ammah muqaddam ‘ala al-maslahah khalwat as an offence. It can be understood al-khassah. It means public interest should from the hadith that if a man and a woman come first before the personal interest (Al- are alone in a place far from the crowd, it Suyuti, 1998, p. 124). seems that the evil will be there to seduce As far as Islam is concerned, immoral them into committing an act of enormity, acts or maksiat (vice) can constitute sinful leading to adultery. “A man” in this hadith, acts. To avoid committing and accumulating as explained by Ibn Hajar al-Asqallani sin, Islam encourages its followers to enjoin
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016) 925 Siti Zubaidah Ismail good and forbids wrongdoing in public. values. Devlin (1965, p. 55) wrote that the When a vice is criminalised, the authority function of the law is to preserve public seeks to prevent the deed from having a order and decency, to protect the citizens direct consequence on the doer. Khalwat is from offensive actions and to provide one form of vice that will lead to negative sufficient safeguards against exploitation implications if not prevented. Illegitimate and the corruption of others, particularly sex, pregnancy out of wedlock, abortion, those who are vulnerable. Therefore, baby-dumping and so on are among the in order to secure order and peace in potential related consequences of immoral society, outrageous acts must be prevented. activities starting with khalwat. Islam encourages enjoining rights and Prohibiting khalwat will be able to forbidding wrongs in public. When khalwat prevent other grievous harm from occurring. is criminalised, the authority is enjoining If we compare khalwat with other social what is right and forbidding what is wrong ills plaguing society today such as drug for the benefit of the public. trafficking, alcohol consumption, gambling, prostitution among others, khalwat is related Khalwat and its Place as a Moral Offence to one’s morals. When laws are enacted to Khalwat is not a new offence created under prohibit such act, they may be an indication the current statute. Its existence – originally of prevalence of immoral acts in society spelled as kheluat – can be traced back as and passed by lawmakers to whom society early as 1909 under the pre-independence has given full authority and power. It does statute called the Ecclesiastical Court not, in any way, invade the private rights Procedure Enactment 1909, long before of anybody. Furthermore, when it comes the current Shariah Criminal Offences to freedom of action, there is no absolute Enactment was enacted. The provision was freedom bestowed upon any citizen of a soon amended to include a fine of RM50 country. Freedom must be seen within the for first time offenders in 1938 through an scope and values of the entire system, which enactment to amend the Minor Offences in this case, is the Islamic moral system. Enactment, 1938. In the same year, the Therefore, personal freedoms must always Muhammadan (Offences) Enactment 1938 be in conformity with Islamic teachings. was passed. Section 10 under the 1938 Act Criminalising khalwat means that it is provided that any Muslim if convicted of to be prevented and curbed from becoming khalwat can be fined not more than fifty rampant in society. Public moral offences ringgit or one month imprisonment. For such as obscenity, prostitution and gambling a subsequent offence, the fine would be among others are those offences that offend one hundred ringgit or imprisonment not the community’s morality and are prohibited exceeding two months. The provision because they violate public norms and stated:
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(1) Any male Muslim who is found in guilty of an offence under this section retirement with and in suspicious shall be committed to a home approved proximity to any woman, whether or by the Department for such time, not not professing the Religion of Islam, exceeding six months, as to the Court other than his wife or a woman whom may seem fit. by reason of consanguinity, affinity or In 1952, the Administration of Islamic fosterage he is forbidden by Muslim Law enactment was passed, thereby law to marry, shall be guilty of Kheluat abolishing the 1938 Act. The offence and shall be liable to be punished with of khalwat was inserted under this new imprisonment for a term not exceeding Enactment. In 1953, a new development fourteen days or with fine not exceeding witnessed the merging of all federal Islamic fifty dollars, or, in the case of a second or statutes, which were compiled into one subsequent offence, with imprisonment statute, namely The Council of Religion and for a term not exceeding one month or Malay Custom and Kathis Court Enactment with fine not exceeding one hundred 1953. However, some states retained the dollars or with both such imprisonment previous name of the Administration of and fine. Islamic Law Enactment. This has become (2) Any female Muslim who is found the major statute regarding Islamic law in in retirement with and in suspicious states, containing more than 200 provisions proximity to any male person, whether regulating various matters ranging from or not professing the Religion of Islam, the administration of Shariah Courts to other than her husband or a male person marriage, zakat and the shariah criminal whom by reason of consanguinity, offences. In 1956 when the Civil Law Act affinity or fosterage she is forbidden was passed by the British administrator, by Muslim law to marry, shall be guilty the Federal Constitution was declared the of Kheluat and shall be liable to be supreme law of the land while English punished with imprisonment for term law and the principle of equity were made not exceeding fourteen days or with fine sources of the local law. Islam was made no exceeding fifty dollars, or, in the case the federal religion; however, ironically, of a second or subsequent offence, with Islamic law was not part of the federal law. imprisonment for a term not exceeding As a consequence, matters regarding Islam one month or with fine not exceeding and Islamic law were affirmatively edged one hundred dollars or with both such out of the federal jurisdiction and thereby imprisonment an fine. relegated under state jurisdiction. State and (3) The Court may order in lieu of or in Federal Lists were created under the Federal addition to any other punishment in this Constitution providing separate jurisdictions section provided that any female found to administer.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016) 927 Siti Zubaidah Ismail
In the 1980s, a more systematic change THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK OF occurred which witnessed separate statutes KHALWAT being enacted dealing with each aspect As mentioned earlier, like any other Islamic of the jurisdiction of Islamic law. Six enactments, the Shariah Criminal Offences different enactments were established, Enactment (SCOE) are state-based. There are namely, Family Law, Criminal Offences, altogether 14 SCOEs in Malaysia according Criminal Procedure, Civil Procedure, to states, containing more than 40 provisions Islamic Evidence and Administration of of offences triable at the Shariah court Islamic Law. As far as the Shariah Criminal and, therefore, the provision for khalwat Offences Enactment is concerned, offences exists under each state’s Shariah Criminal are divided into those relating to: (1) `aqidah Offences Enactment. For the purpose of (creed); (2) the sanctity of the religion discussion, the provision in Selangor will of Islam and its institution; (3) decency; be used. Section 31 of the Selangor Shariah (4) miscellaneous; and (5) abetment and Criminal Offences Enactment 1995 defines attempt. The Shariah Court is the forum to the situation where khalwat can occur: apply these laws where offenders will be Any man who is found together with charged and tried. one or more women, not being his wife or mahram: or woman who is THE CONTEMPORARY SCENARIO OF KHALWAT IN MALAYSIA found together with one or more man, not being her husband or Table 1 shows the current statistics of mahram, in any secluded place khalwat cases as registered in the Shariah or in a house or room under court throughout the country between circumstances which may give 2010 and October 2015. According to rise to suspicion that they were Chief Registrar of the Federal Territory engaged in immoral acts shall be Shariah Court, Mr Khairul Nizam, khalwat guilty of an offence and shall on constitutes the highest registered cases conviction be liable to a fine not compared with other offences. The official exceeding three thousand ringgit statistics from the Shariah Judiciary or to imprisonment for a term not Department of Malaysia (JKSM), as shown exceeding two years or to both. in Table 1 below, shows that the number of khalwat cases has fluctuated over the past five years. Within that period, Selangor has Based on the above provision, khalwat recorded the highest number of khalwat is when two persons of different gender not cases (5696 cases), followed by Johor (5462 married to each other meet or are together cases), Terengganu, Pahang and Penang. in a private place away from the public eye, thereby exposing themselves to suspicions for committing khalwat. This is subjected
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Table 1 Total number of Khalwat Cases according to States 2010-2015
STATES 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 TOTAL Johor 1472 1390 1126 586 415 473 5462 Kedah 177 152 396 171 327 200 1423 Kelantan 547 622 524 554 493 395 3135 Melaka 181 812 459 269 121 287 2129 Pahang 713 492 471 1085 565 289 3615 Perak 471 420 421 482 656 567 3017 Perlis 73 54 91 49 28 4 299 Penang 494 818 591 521 570 559 3553 Sabah 24 67 32 10 27 21 181 Sarawak 17 9 12 8 1 3 50 Selangor 960 537 999 1191 1292 717 5696 Terengganu 775 1006 814 603 804 609 4611 Federal 460 240 140 174 80 139 1233 Territory TOTAL 6364 6619 6076 5703 5379 4263 34404 (source: JKSM 2015) to the manner or circumstances they put that there were cases where khalwat was themselves in. It can be clearly understood occasionally committed by a Muslim and a that there are specific elements that can non-Muslim partner. Since the Islamic law constitute khalwat. Merely being together is only applicable to Muslims, it would be in a secluded place is insufficient if lacking unlawful to charge, convict, or punish a non- in any suspicion of possible advancement of Muslim in a Shariah Court. In that case, the an illegitimate act, as detailed below. implication is that only Muslim offenders will be charged but the non-Muslim party i. The Participation of Man and will not be asked to present him/herself at Woman the Shariah court. This has created unease The offence of khalwat requires the and seems to be unfair because only Muslims participation of at least two Muslims of the get caught and charge and the non-Muslim opposite sex. They must not be mahram is free to go (Hashim, 2006). There should 1 to each other. Khalwat can also involve be a provision to prosecute non-Muslims for more than two persons. An issue arises abetment or incitement for the commission when the case involves a non-Muslim as of khalwat or any shariah offences. a party to khalwat. Previous records show When the state is given power to enact 1 Mahram means a man and a woman prohibited Islamic law, including powers for the to marry each other according to Islamic law. “creation and punishment of offences by When both are not mahram, it means that persons professing the Muslim religion both can marry one another. List of mahram is against precepts of that religion” as provided outlined in the Quran 4:23.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016) 929 Siti Zubaidah Ismail by the List 2 of the Federal Constitution, it to maintain the effectiveness of the Islamic means that the laws can only be applied to criminal law. Muslims. This phrase undoubtedly restricts As explained above, the involvement the legislative body. First, the offences in khalwat requires persons that are not which they can create are those against mahram to each other. Mahram is explained the precepts of the Muslim religion, and under Surah al-Nisa’ in al-Qur’an (4:23), second, only Muslims can be made liable to where Allah says to the effect: punishment for committing shariah criminal Prohibited to you (for marriage) offences. Any state law that purports to are: your mothers, daughters, make a non-Muslim liable for offences sisters, father’s sisters, mother’s against the precepts of the Islamic religion sisters, brother’s daughters, sister’s will therefore be ultra vires to the Federal daughters, your step daughters Constitution. It was once decided that a under your guardianship, born of non-Muslim involved with khalwat should your wives to whom ye have gone be tried under the Penal Code for abetment, in. No prohibition if ye have not which was what happened in the case of Re gone in. (Those who have been) Barathan Kunju ([1962] MLJ c1iv) more wives of your sons proceeding than 50 years ago. from your loins, and two sisters in Under the Shariah Courts and Muslim wedlock at one and the same time, Matrimonial Causes Enactment of 1966, except for what is past, for Allah is there used to be a provision penalising oft-forgiving, most Merciful. (4:23) abetment for the commission of Islamic criminal law. The prosecution was done in the Magistrate court and punishable under Prohibition of marriage between two the Penal Code. Tun Salleh Abas (Abas, persons related by consanguinity or affinity 1984, pp. 90-95), the then Chief Justice, are considered absolute or a permanent in his judgement, contended that when prohibition (mu’abbad) and are called dealing with non-Muslim involvement mahram (Md Nadzeri & Ismail, 2010). with the shariah offences, it should not be Consequently, when two persons who associated with religious law, but should are mahram to each other are together in be seen as a violation of a moral conduct a secluded place, it does not constitute a and social standards for the purpose of khalwat. maintaining law and order. Action against all parties involved in a crime must be seen ii. Secluded Place as a fair and just reaction from the authority. His Lordship Azmi Ahmad in the case of A. Aziz (2011, 63) argues that the spirit Mohd Ibrahim bin Mohd Sharif v. Syarie of this recommendation is not to bind the Prosecutor of Penang ([1999] 13 JH 185) non-Muslim to Islamic criminal law, but gave examples that secluded places might
930 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016) The Legal Perspective of Khalwat include a house, a room, hotel room or any involved in an immoral act. In the case of other places which are outside the vicinity Syarie Prosecutor vs. Mohamad bin Sabu of people which can give rise to a suspicion ([1997] 10 JH 61) it was argued that being that khalwat is or about to take place. Most together for a short time “doing nothing”, cases showed that khalwat occurred in cannot be interpreted as raising suspicion a hotel room like in the cases of Syarie for khalwat. Even though they were alone Prosecutor vs. Mohd Naim bin Abu Bakar in a hotel room, the circumstances and (08012-143-0017-2009, Syariah Court of manner they were in, i.e., fully dressed, Perak) and Syarie Prosecutor vs. Zawawi swift moment together, and the tidiness Said (08012-143-0041-2008). A man and of the room meant that it was unlikely a woman caught in an indecent manner in any suspicious acts were going to take open space is insufficient to be connected place. Both the accused were subsequently with the offence of khalwat. acquitted by the court. Similarly, in the case of Syarie Prosecutor of Negeri Sembilan vs. iii. The Suspicion of Engagement in an Ahmad Rashid and Another ([1995] 10 JH Immoral Act 113), the couple were in a private house at The couple must not only be together, but 4.00 p.m. and were about to discuss a matter the manner and circumstances they are in pertaining to a business proposal. This failed must be capable of showing that sexual to raise the issue of khalwat. The court held activity is about to or have taken place. His that the Syarie Prosecutor must establish Lordship Ismail Yahya in an appeal case the fact that not only the accused were of Mohd Ibrahim bin Mohd Sharif (above) together behind closed door, but they must explained that any conduct that might lead also be proven to have committed something to adultery is prohibited in Islam, and, suspiciously immoral. Comparing this therefore, being together in a hotel room with the case of Mohd Ibrahim bin Mohd is highly suspicious that some immoral Sharif (above), the accused, at the time behaviour is taking place. In most cases, of the offence, was in a highly suspicious the accused couples are convicted upon state with a prostitute. He was convicted of confession of being together in a hotel khalwat after pleading guilty to the charge. room. This is clearly shown in the case of From the above discussion, the Perak Syarie Prosecutor vs. Mohamed bin conditions needed to constitute an act Abdul Rahman and Norlia ([1989] Jurnal as khalwat have been clearly laid down Hukum 143), where the couple were found by the statute. The court interprets the to be living together in a house and acted conditions through cases and it helps to as a married couple. However, the fact that further understand the legal requirements a couple was found together is not in itself of the offence. The next section examines sufficient to constitute khalwat, unless it the enforcement agency mandated with can be proven that they were going to be the power and authority to enforce the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016) 931 Siti Zubaidah Ismail shariah criminal offences and the challenges to criticise the REOs. Accusation has it they face when establishing the required that there is a conflict of interest between conditions for khalwat. upholding the law and justice and personal interpretations of what constitutes personal THE ENFORCEMENT OF KHALWAT freedom, individual privacy and rights. While it is understood that the sets of rules Some Muslims are very particular with the regarding khalwat and its enforcement subject of choice and personal rights and have been regulated through the Shariah come out blatantly criticising the existence Criminal Offences Enactment and Shariah of khalwat law and its enforcement by the Criminal Procedure Code, enforcing such Religious Enforcement Division. Zainah a law is never easy and is not free from Anwar, an activist, accused khalwat as a criticism. The Religious Enforcement “religious sin (that) has become a crime Officers (hereinafter REOs) under the against state” (Anwar, 2005) while a group States’ Religious Department is entrusted which called itself as G25 want the khalwat with the task of enforcing the law, including law to be abolished. For some others, it is to handle complaints, to investigate, arrest not about the law, but arguably, more on the and so on as provided for under the Shariah issue of the manner of enforcement. Zainul Criminal Procedure Code. The duty of Abidin (2007) described the investigation enforcement will be initiated by the First procedure by REOs as snooping and spying, Information Report (F.I.R), usually lodged but he failed to realise that in order to by the public on the suspicion of khalwat. investigate the public complaint, REOs This is where the challenge lies because should go to the alleged location, not simply the suspicion will have to lead them into any private residence as claimed by the encroach into a private space in the name former Mufti. Zainul Abidin, the former of investigation. In some occasions, they Mufti also suggested that REOs prioritised are accused of harsh handling of the khalwat their job and one of the examples he gave suspect (Ismail, 2008, p. 538). Accusations was regarding the menace created by the of peeping, harsh raiding and arrest are so-called Mat Rempit, the street-racers, but not uncommon, even though REOs have he clearly failed to understand the law and the power and authority to investigate jurisdiction of REOs, as such a matter is not the offence. Acting on public complaints, within REOs area of enforcement. the REOs embark on investigation by The REOs have also been accused of frequenting the private “crime scene” and being the “moral police” and were urged to conducting interrogations. This does not leave the policing to the parents. The fact amount to peeping as they are accused of is that they are duty-bound to enforce the (Zainul Abidin, 2007). law that was passed by the Parliament – The issue of invasion of personal signed and sealed by His Royal Highness freedom has always been used as the basis the Yang DiPertuan Agong. Questioning
932 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016) The Legal Perspective of Khalwat the law is like criticising the power of the is a violation of personal freedom. If we Yang DiPertuan Agong, as the ruler of scrutinise the provision of khalwat, we the country (Ismail & Awang Mat, 2007). understand that it regulates the moral The good thing is that since 2007, the conduct of the people so as to ensure that Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) has society is free from immoral conduct and been created to facilitate and standardise wrongdoing that jeopardise its value and the proper manner of the enforcement and system. In general, the law is to protect application of the law by the REOs in their the reputation of Muslims by prohibiting daily operations. Some REOs admit that the unmarried couples from becoming involved real challenge is in establishing the evidence in an intimate relationship in private. The to meet the legal requirement or element of enforcement of this law is in line with the suspicion and not the public perception of responsibility of the authority as well as them. Another challenge is the capacity of society to enjoin the right and prohibit the legal understanding among newly-appointed wrong (amr ma’ruf nahi munkar). This is REOs. Most REOs do not have a legal how a Muslim should look at the issue of background because it is not required for enforcing moral law. It does not deprive any the position of a REO. Muslim of their basic rights but is a means of strengthening and safeguarding them. CONCLUSION The discussion touches on the legal The discussion shows that the term khalwat issues of enforcing khalwat for Muslims. in the context of an offence has been given The provision concerning khalwat and other a technical meaning in a legal sense. It is related offences seek to protect the Muslim distinctive from the literal meaning of the community from anti-social activities related word khalwat as an act of ibadah to improve to morals, beliefs, and the nobility of Islam. the relationship with Allah. The term In the context of moral offences, challenges khalwat, at least in the Malaysian context, is revolve not only around its enforcement, well-known as one of the offences provided but also its existence. As for khalwat and for under the Shariah Criminal Offences indecency in public, their prohibition can Enactment and applied to Muslims only. be understood from the teachings of Prophet Even though the law outlines the definition Muhammad. A devout Muslim should of khalwat and lays down the ingredients to understand that it is forbidden to be with be fulfilled in order to establish the offence, any woman alone without a third person, the challenges in the investigation and the preferably her mahram. Regulating khalwat establishment of facts are still there, not to is an approach to implement this hadith mention the opposition by certain quarters and therefore, the law of khalwat was not of the public or the so-called the “freedom enacted to invade one’s privacy or violate fighters”. The most typical complaint the basic freedom. adduced by them is that the khalwat law
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 923 - 935 (2016) 933 Siti Zubaidah Ismail
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Motivation and Study Engagement: A Study of Muslim Undergraduates in Malaysia
Arif Hassan1* and Ibrahim Al-Jubari2 1Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Malaysia, PO Box 10, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 2Department of Business Management, Management and Science University, Seksyen 13, 40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT There has always been a serious concern about students’ academic performance in schools and institutions of higher learning. Mostly, it has been seen in terms of lack of motivation. However, little attention has been given to the reasons for poor motivation. The Self- Determination Theory (SDT) of motivation provides a new perspective on motivation. This paper investigates students’ motivation and study engagement using the SDT framework. It examines the role of learning climate, intrinsic motivation resulting from basic needs satisfaction, self-perception of choice and self-awareness on students’ study engagement. This study attempts to validate SDT propositions on students’ motivation and study engagement in the Asian context and within an Islamic institution of higher education. Data were collected from 432 undergraduate students (Females = 62.2%) representing several study disciplines. Standardised instruments were employed to measure the constructs of learning climate, basic needs, perceived self-determination and study engagement. Results provided strong support for the SDT propositions suggesting that an autonomy supportive learning climate significantly contributed to intrinsic need satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness. It was also found that the autonomy supportive learning climate and satisfaction of competency need contributed to greater study engagement. This study provides good empirical support to the SDT propositions from a non-Western cultural context.
Keywords: Self-determination, Intrinsic motivation, ARTICLE INFO learning climate, study engagement Article history: Received: 12 March 2015 Accepted: 23 March 2016
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Arif Hassan), [email protected] (Ibrahim Al-Jubari) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari
INTRODUCTION it is of interest to him/her. Another person Student engagement has re-emerged to may do the same but expect some outcomes become one of the most popular constructs such as better grade for example. Therefore, in the educational context (McCormick & SDT distinguishes between two types of Plucker, 2013). It has been found that student motivation, namely intrinsic motivation engagement is related to improvement which means doing something because it in their overall academic performance is interesting and enjoyable, and extrinsic and greater achievement and thus, it is motivation which means doing an action considered a key component of their success because it leads to separable outcomes. (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Engaged students Motivation can arise from various usually have intrinsic motivation and thus, sources including needs, cognitions, they invest time and effort in learning, emotions and environmental events (Reeve, attend classes and actively participate in 2012). However, in the present study, it is their academic activities (Bakker et al., viewed from the needs perspective within 2014). They ask questions out of curiosity the SDT framework, where motivation is and enjoy learning challenges. They feel equated with the satisfaction of students’ energetically immersed in their studies and inner psychological needs. The SDT argues feel vigorous and dedicated, and that what that students’ performance and the quality of makes them successful (Salanova et al., experience in learning are much better when 2010). their needs of autonomy, competence and To get students engaged in their learning, relatedness are satisfied while the opposite is they need to be motivated. As motivation true when these needs are frustrated (Deci & and engagement are inherently linked and Ryan, 2000). Further, social context plays a each influences the other, engagement is key role in facilitating or thwarting students’ seen as an outcome of the motivational needs as they interact with teachers and processes and motivation as a source of peers in classrooms. engagement (Reeve, 2012). Motivation is traditionally being viewed as something that RESEARCH MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVE differs in degree, hence, parents and teachers would like to increase the motivation The theoretical propositions of SDT on level of less motivated students. However, motivation need to be tested in different the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) cultural as well as organisational contexts. of motivation by Ryan and Deci (2000) In particular, SDT along with student places more emphasis on the type rather engagement have not been tested in Muslim than degree of motivation. They argue that countries and Islamic institutions. Some people differ in motivation based not only in of the unique cultural characteristics terms of degree but also in types. Thus, an that may be observed in Asian as well as individual may engage in an activity because Muslim countries such as Malaysia include
938 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016) Motivation and Study Engagement: A Study of Muslim Undergraduates in Malaysia collectivism, relationship orientation, yet distinct aspects, namely behavioural, conformity to social and religious norms, emotional and cognitive (Fredricks et al., face saving, power distance and obedience 2004). Behavioural engagement is about the to authority (Abdullah, 1996; Fontaine & active involvement of students in learning Richardson, 2005; Terpstra-Tong et al., activities such as their effort, attention 2014). There are arguments that the basic and concentration (Fredricks et al., 2004). propositions of SDT should not apply in such Emotional engagement refers to the presence cultures (Bond, 1988; Markus et al., 1996; of emotions that help in facilitating learning Markus & Kitayama, 2003, as cited in Jang tasks such as interest and the absence of et al., 2009). According to these scholars, in emotions that may cause withdrawal from Eastern collectivistic cultures like Malaysia, tasks such as distress (Reeve, 2012). The priority is given to maintaining social last aspect of student engagement, which obligations over autonomy support. The is cognitive, refers to what Reeve (2012) preferred parenting and teaching styles, calls “sophisticated rather than superficial therefore, are characterised by controlling learning strategies” (p. 150). According rather than encouraging autonomy (Quoss & to Reeve, sophisticated learning strategies Zhao, 1995). As such, psychological needs entails energy (i.e., intensity and vigour), satisfaction proposed in SDT may not yield direction (i.e., purpose and guidance) and the same impact on positive educational durability (i.e., tenacity and commitment) outcomes (namely engagement) as found Another slightly different approach to in Western contexts (Iyengar & DeVoe, engagement was proposed by Schaufeli et 2003; Tseng, 2004). Though studies have al. (2002) who define engagement in the been conducted to examine parenting as work context as a positive, fulfilling state well as teaching styles in Asian cultures, of mind that is characterised by vigour, no study has challenged the validity of dedication and absorption. As such, study SDT propositions. The theory proposes that engagement may be defined as students’ the need for autonomy, competence and positive and fulfilling mental state that is relatedness are universal needs and when reflected in their vigour, dedication, and satisfied, will promote positive learning absorption levels in studies. Vigour refers outcomes among students. Therefore, to high levels of energy and resilience while the objective of this study was to test the studying. Dedication is characterised by premises of SDT in Malaysian as well as being strongly involved in one’s activities institutional (Islamic) context. and experiencing a sense of significance and enthusiasm. Absorption is the state of being THEORETICAL BACKGROUND fully concentrated and happily engrossed. Students’ Study Engagement Such conceptualisations could be seen as consistent with other conceptualisations Educational researchers would agree that where behavioural, emotional and cognitive engagement features three highly interrelated
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016) 939 Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari aspects entail vigour, dedication and activities are intrinsically interesting and absorption aspects, respectively. It is argued enjoyable to derive satisfaction from them, that engaged students are very energetic an individual needs some instrumental and and enthusiastic about their studies and extrinsic factors to get him/her motivated. they can be fully immersed in their learning Extrinsic motivation refers to doing an activities to a degree that time passes activity with the expectations of external without them noticing (Bakker et al., 2014). reward or avoidance of punishment. The Therefore, engaging students in classroom SDT argues that extrinsic motivation can settings is very important. Not only can vary in degrees and not as one category engagement predict important outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Extrinsic motivation such as learning and development, it also can vary in degrees from fully controlled by reveals the underlying motivation (Guay et contingencies external to individuals, such as al., 2001) expecting rewards or avoiding punishments (doing an assignment because students Self-Determination Theory fear losing their grades), to autonomous Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a motivation (doing an assignment because macro theory of motivation. It posits that students perceive it valuable to their careers) all students, regardless of their backgrounds, which can be considered as identical to possess inherent growth tendencies and intrinsic motivation. Doing an assignment readiness to learn, to explore, to grow and because of fear of loss and because it to assimilate knowledge and to develop is perceived valuable are still extrinsic new skills (Ryan & Deci, 2000). These motivation but they vary in their degrees. tendencies (e.g., intrinsic motivation, What differentiates both behaviours is that curiosity, psychological needs) could in the first one, students are pressurised to provide a motivational foundation for do so. However, in the second behaviour, students to be highly engaged and positively it involves some sort of endorsement and function in classrooms (Ryan & Deci, 2000; relative autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Reeve, 2012). Given the classification of motivation The SDT classifies motivation into (intrinsic and extrinsic) and how extrinsic two main categories, namely intrinsic and motivation can be further divided into sub- extrinsic motivation. When intrinsically groups, SDT proposes that people have three motivated, students engage in activities for universal, psychological needs in order for the potential fun, excitement and challenge. them to develop and function optimally. These behaviours originate from within the These three needs are autonomy, or the self-associated feelings of curiosity and perception that one’s behaviour is self- interest, rather than being brought about congruent and volitional; competence, or the by any external contingencies (Niemiec perception that one is capable of influencing & Ryan, 2009). Due to the fact that not all the environment in desirable ways and
940 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016) Motivation and Study Engagement: A Study of Muslim Undergraduates in Malaysia relatedness, or the feeling of closeness and for classroom topics and materials, as well connectedness with others (Weinstein & as their performance in school, whereas Ryan, 2011). It is suggested that the social, autonomy support facilitated it. contextual factors that provide people As postulated by SDT that satisfying the opportunity to satisfy these needs students’ needs is vital for their academic will facilitate intrinsic motivation and the motivation internalisation, Jang et al. integration (the fullest type of internalisation) (2009) found that experiencing the feelings of extrinsic motivation, whereas those of autonomy and competence enhances that prevented satisfaction of these needs intrinsic motivation. They conducted a will decrease intrinsic motivation and series of studies testing SDT in South the integration of extrinsic motivation Korea, which is collectivistic, using (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Weinstein and Ryan middle-class students as samples. As it is (2011) argue that individuals move towards argued that collectivistic culture does not motivational states that are characterised as value autonomy, the authors, specifically, self-volitional or autonomous when their wanted to examine whether those students environments support their needs. But, if enjoy learning activities that afford basic environmental factors do not support the psychological need satisfaction. Findings basic needs, motivation is pressured or show that the basic assumptions of SDT controlled. held true even in a collectivistic culture. It Benware and Deci (1984) conducted was found that basic needs satisfaction led a study on university students to test to more satisfying learning experiences and whether those who learn with an active greater academic achievement. orientation (learn to teach) would be more Some scholars have questioned the intrinsically motivated than those who learn universality of SDT. Brickman and Miller with a passive orientation (learn to take (2001, cited in Zhou et al., 2009) for exam on the same material given to the instance, argue that students acquire their active orientation group). Findings show needs, values and attitudes from their culture that students with the passive orientation which in turn influence their motivation were less intrinsically motivated, had for learning. Accordingly, children in lower conceptual learning scores and had collectivist cultures are inclined to develop lower perception of themselves to be more a strong sense of belonging as these cultures actively engaged with the environment than do not value autonomy, whereas children the students with the active orientation. in individualistic cultures are raised to Niemiec and Ryan (2009) report that two develop a strong need for autonomy. To studies conducted in the USA (Grolnick & be autonomously motivated, the three Ryan, 1987) and Japan (Kage & Namiki, needs should be met. However, it has been 1990) found that evaluative pressures suggested that autonomy is not important undermined students’ intrinsic motivation for school outcomes in collectivist cultures
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016) 941 Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari such as China. Using a sample of elementary teachers and their educational institutions. school students, Zhou et al. (2009) applied The characteristics that teachers and students SDT in a study to investigate the motivation bring to their educational settings and culture for learning among rural collectivist of that setting interact and affect students’ Chinese children. Findings supported SDT outcomes either positively or negatively. as it shows that students’ autonomous Guay et al. (2001) argue that the congruence motivation was associated with a higher between students’ self-determined inner level of interest, perceived competence and motives and their classroom activity are choice whereas controlled motivation was facilitated by autonomy-supportive teachers related to a lower level of perceived choice through identifying and nurturing students’ and reduced interest. Further, students’ needs, interests and preference. In contrast, perception of teachers’ autonomy supports these inner and self-determined motives positively predicted changes in autonomous could be degraded by controlling teachers motivation, controlled motivation and as they shape their agendas of what students perceived competence (Zhou et al., 2009). should think, feel and do. As teachers’ In their review of SDT application agendas are shaped, controlling teachers to education, Niemiec and Ryan (2009) introduce extrinsic incentives in order to concluded that intrinsic motivation and shape student adherence to those agendas, autonomous types of extrinsic motivation which essentially bypass students’ inner are essential to students’ engagement and motives. optimal learning in educational contexts. According to Guay et al. (2001), They also reported that students’ academic teachers can be supportive of students’ performance and well-being are facilitated inner resources if they are trained to do so. by the perceptions of their teachers’ support They reported that trained teachers, who of their basic psychological needs for participated in an informational session autonomy, competence and relatedness. on how to support students’ autonomy and Students’ academic performance was also who engaged themselves in independent found to be influenced by their perceived study on the study-specific website, were autonomy and competence (Fortier et al., able to display greater autonomy-supportive 1995). behaviours than the non-trained ones. Furthermore, they found that students’ Teachers’ Motivational Support engagement was more enhanced with Students differ in their perception of teachers who used autonomy support during the learning environment and thus, their instruction. engagement relies on what they perceive. Lack of motivation towards learning Hardré et al. (2006) mention that students’ among students is one of the pressing issues outcomes are the results of systematic in academic contexts. Students lose the desire interactions of factors that involve students, to do the tasks assigned to them and thus,
942 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016) Motivation and Study Engagement: A Study of Muslim Undergraduates in Malaysia feelings of frustration and discontentment finally, lack of value placed on the task arise and their productivity and well-being (Legault et al., 2006). Also, the study can be encumbered (Legault et al., 2006). further shows that inadequate social support Generally, various positive outcomes are (from parents, teachers and friends) gives associated with self-determined motivation rise to amotivation and thus, negatively and negative outcomes are associated with affects students’ academic outcomes less self-determined forms of extrinsic (e.g., achievement, academic self-esteem, motivation. In the academic context, intention to drop out). boredom and poor concentration in class, As SDT is argued to be universal and higher perceived stress at school, poor that its propositions predict several positive psychosocial adjustment to college while outcomes, the following hypotheses were studying, and high school dropout have been developed for examination: associated with Amotivation (Legault et al., H1: The autonomy supportive 2006). Amotivation is defined as a state in learning climate, sense of choice which students lack the intention to learn. and self-awareness foster the Amotivated students are not able to sense satisfaction of the three basic needs the connection between their behaviour of undergraduate students. and its subsequent outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Amotivation and factors affecting H2: The satisfaction of the three it have been given little attention whereas basic needs, which constitute the motivation has been extensively studied ingredients of intrinsic motivation, (Legault et al., 2006). Amotivation has contribute to undergraduate been treated as one-dimensional when students’ study engagement. it is believed to be multidimensional. Legault et al. (2006) conducted three METHODOLOGY studies to explore and validate this claim Sample and to determine the factors that give rise to academic amotivation. Four dimensions A sample of 432 undergraduates from were identified: (1) ability beliefs, (2) effort several faculties participated in this study. beliefs, (3) characteristics of the task and They included 270 (62.2%) females. The (4) individual values relative to the task. sample largely conformed to the population Results show support and validation of the distribution in terms of female versus four sub-dimensions of amotivation. They male students in the university where data also show distinct classes of reasons that were collected. All 432 students were give rise to students’ amotivation. These Malaysians and Muslims. Stratified random include lack of belief in their ability, lack of sampling was used for sample selection. belief in their effort capacity, unappealing One department each was randomly selected characteristics of the academic task and from the total seven faculties located in one campus of the University. Subsequently, two
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016) 943 Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari lecturers were randomly selected from these aware of their feelings and their sense of departments to distribute the questionnaires self and (b) feeling a sense of choice with in their classroom. All students attending the respect to their behaviour. The SDS is a class sessions responded to the questionnaire. 10-item scale with two 5-item sub-scales. The first sub-scale measures awareness of Measures oneself and the second is perceived choice in The following scales were used to measure one’s actions. Responses were recorded on a the constructs, namely basic needs 5-point scale. The scale has been extensively satisfaction, self-determination, learning used by researchers in several contexts thus, climate, and study engagement. All the providing it the empirical validity (Sheldon scales were adopted from the published et al., 1996; Sheldon, 1995). sources. Learning Climate Questionnaire Basic Psychological Needs Scale (LCQ). The 15-item scale developed by (BPN). This 7-point scale included three Williams and Deci (1996) was adapted to sub-scales that measure autonomy (7 items), measure students’ perception of autonomy competence (6 items) and relatedness (8 support provided to them by faculty items) needs. However, one item measuring members. Responses were solicited on a relatedness need was removed as it obtained 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7= low reliability value. Examples of items are: strongly agree). Example item is: “I feel “I feel like I am free to decide for myself that my lecturers provide me choices and how to live my life” (Autonomy), “People options.” Several studies using this scale I know tell me that I am good at what I do” in different contexts have provided good (Competence) and “I get along with people empirical support to this scale (Williams et I come in contact with” (Relatedness). The al., 1994; Black & Deci, 2000). BPN scale was developed by Deci et al. Study Engagement Scale (SES). This (2001) and has been widely used in several scale measures the degree to which students studies (Kasser, Davey & Ryan, 1992; Ilardi, feel engaged in their studies. Items of this Leone, Kasser & Ryan, 1993; Deci et al., scale were adapted from Utrechet’s Work 2001) and has provided good empirical Engagement Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli validity. & Bakker, 2004). The construct of work The Self Determination Scale (SDS). engagement includes vigour, dedication This scale was designed by Deci and Ryan and absorption. This 9-item scale has (2000) to assess individual differences in the been reworded to measure students’ study extent to which people tend to function in engagement. Responses were obtained a self-determined way. It is thus considered on a 5-point scale. Items included: “I am as a relatively enduring aspect of people’s immersed in my studies”. The alpha value personalities which reflect: (a) being more measured in the present study for this scale is .86 (See Table 1).
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Background Information. A few determination constructs (self-awareness relevant pieces of background information and choice) and students’ engagement were also collected such as gender, too received moderate to high scores nationality (local/international), faculty, on a five-point scale: choice (Mean = department, and year of study. Apart 3.31), self-awareness (Mean = 3.58) and from these demographics, the survey was engagement (Mean = 3.44). The reliability anonymous. for all scales was generally good (alphas ranged from .70 to .91). Almost all the Method of Data Collection variables were significantly correlated to Data were collected during class time one another. Though not reported in Table with the support extended by the faculty 1, no significant mean differences was found members. Instructions were provided on between male and female students on any the cover page of the printed questionnaire. variable. Respondents were requested not to disclose their identity anywhere on the questionnaire Learning Climate and Basic Needs Satisfaction to ensure anonymity and to encourage candid responses. According to SDT, teachers play an important role in creating a learning climate RESULTS that is either controlling or providing choice to the students which in turn would General Findings determine student satisfaction of the three Table 1 summarises the general findings. basic needs, namely autonomy, competence The mean values of the three basic needs and relatedness. satisfaction indicate endorsement in the The theory also posits that individuals following order: autonomy, competence differ in the extent to which they tend to and relatedness. Learning climate was also function in a self-determined way. It is rated slightly above average. The self- considered as a relatively enduring aspect
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics, Alpha and Correlations
Mean SD Alpha 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Autonomy (6) 5.22 .84 .70 - 2. Competence (6) 4.50 .74 .72 .54** - 3. Relatedness (8) 4.96 .81 .78 .42** .50** - 4. L. Climate (15) 4.53 .88 .91 .27** .24** .28** - 5. Self-awareness 3.58 .77 .79 .33** .27** .31** .23** - (5) 6. Choice (5) 3.31 .85 .86 .38** .25** .27** .17** .30** - 7. Engagement (9) 3.44 .57 .86 .29** .37** .19** .37** .29** .17** - ** p < .01; *p <.05, Numbers in parentheses are number of items in the scale.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 937 - 951 (2016) 945 Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari of people’s personalities which reflects: (a) Basic Needs Satisfaction, Learning being more aware of their feelings and their Climate, and Self-Determination as Predictors of Students Study sense of self and (b) feeling a sense of choice Engagement with respect to their behaviour. This could Overall, the model explained 22% variance be the result of the way they are exposed to and was highly significant. However, only the social environment. Thus, a strong and two variables, namely competence and supportive family, school and community learning climate, significantly predicted the environment should foster greater sense of dependent variable i.e., study engagement. choice in life and the awareness of one’s Table 3 presents the results. own feelings and cognitions. Tables 3 present multiple regression results to test DISCUSSION the hypotheses. The results were in the expected The study was planned to test the universality direction. It supported the universality of of the Self Determination Theory of SDT. The three independent variables that motivation in the institutional context which entered into equations significantly predicted was non-Western, collectivistic and Islamic. satisfaction of autonomy, competency, and It is argued that in Eastern collectivistic relatedness needs and explained 26%, cultures, priority is given to maintaining 17% and 19% variances respectively. social obligations over autonomy support. Thus, the results suggest that if teachers The preferred parenting and teaching styles, were perceived as less controlling and therefore, are characterised by controlling more autonomy supportive and if students rather than encouraging autonomy (Quoss developed a better sense of choice in life & Zhao, 1995). This holds true as well in and were more aware of their thoughts and traditional Muslim societies. For instance, feelings, then satisfaction of the basic needs it is expected that a good child should for autonomy, competence and relatedness be obedient to parents and teachers, and is facilitated. should be forced into submission. Although
Table 2 Multiple Regressions Predicting Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness Need Satisfaction from Learning Climate, Self-Awareness, and Choice
Autonomy Competence Relatedness Std. β t Std. β t Std. β t Learning climate .28 6.32*** .21 4.55*** .27 5.81*** Self-awareness .18 3.94*** .21 4.52*** .20 4.22*** Choice .27 6.04*** .17 3.75*** .15 3.23*** Adj. R² = .26, Adj. R² = .17, Adj. R² = .19, (F= 50.67, p<.000) (F= 30.85., p<.000) (F= 33.66, p<.000)
*** p<.000
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Table 3 Multiple Regressions Predicting Study Engagement
Predictors Std. β t-value Significance Autonomy -.07 -1.36 .17 Competence .30 5.38 .00 Relatedness .00 .05 .96 Learning Climate .29 6.18 .00 Self-awareness .07 1.42 .15 Choice .06 1.23 .21 Adj. R² = .22; (F = 21.15, p <.00)
Malaysia is a country in transition, family on fulfilment of competence need and values and religious beliefs are still core students’ positive learning outcomes and foundations for successful parenting in most well-being (Jang et al., 2009; Skinner & families (Selin, 2014). Similar parenting Chi, 2012). styles are found in other Muslim countries. The SDT posits that the basic For instance Al-Khawaja (1999) reported psychological needs function as the requisite that among Egyptian college students, nutriment for students’ active engagement 64.4% of women and 33.1% of men favoured and positive school functioning (Jang et al., “absolute submission” to parents. As such, 2009), and as the essential ingredient for psychological need satisfaction proposed in optimal learning and well-being (Zhou et al., the SDT should not yield the same impact 2009). That is, people whose psychological on positive educational outcomes as found needs are satisfied will be psychologically in Western contexts (Iyengar & DeVoe, healthier and more effective in learning 2003; Tseng, 2004). The results, however, regardless of differences in the institutional did not find this to be true. On the contrary, and cultural context. Because of the claim the result supported our first hypothesis that that autonomy is insensitive to culture the autonomy supportive learning climate as differences, the SDT received criticism, well as sense of personal choice and self- where it is argued that the Eastern culture awareness foster satisfaction of the three may not value autonomy as much as basic needs, i.e., autonomy, competence the Western culture does (Zhou et al., and relatedness. 2009). Since the study was conducted in When it came to predicting students’ Malaysia which ranks high on collectivistic study engagement, the results partially culture (Fontaine & Richardson, 2005) supported our second hypothesis. Among and moreover in an Islamic institution of the three basic psychological needs, the need higher education, the findings partially for competence contributed significantly to supported this argument. Neither autonomy students’ study engagement. The finding is nor relatedness need made any significant consistent with previous research findings contributions to students’ study engagement.
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However, students’ perceptions of autonomy- satisfied result in optimal functioning and supportive learning climate enhanced positive outcomes, guided this research. The their engagement. This is consistent with findings provide empirical validity to the previous research where autonomy-support SDT by showing that autonomy supportive predicted increase in perceived competence, learning climate and an individual’s sense autonomous self-regulation and enjoyment of choice in life as well as being self-aware (Black & Deci, 2000). Also, Roth et al. of thoughts and feelings contributed to (2009) found that autonomy-support predicts the satisfaction of three basic needs for choice and academic engagement. autonomy, competence and relatedness. The The contributions of other variables results also provided strong support for the on study engagement, namely choice and effects of competence and learning climate self-awareness, were positive though not (autonomy support) on study engagement. significant. As posited by SDT, choice can Future research should examine how the be either motivating or otherwise. It can SDT proposition predicts students’ academic promote engagement when it is offered in a performance while controlling for factors way that meets students’ needs. For instance, such as intelligence and aptitude. “choice is motivating when the options are relevant to the students’ interests and goals ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (autonomy support), are not too numerous This study was supported by IIUM Research or complex (competence support), and are Endowment Fund which the authors congruent with the values of the students’ gratefully acknowledge. culture (relatedness support)” (Katz & Assor, 2007) . REFERENCES Al-Khawaja, M. (1999). Alshabab al A’rabi [Arab CONCLUSION youth]. In K. Zakareya, (Ed.), Derasat fi This study was mainly planned to address the almojtamaa’ al A’rabi almoa’aser, Studies in issue of student motivation and engagement the contemporary Arab society, (pp. 255-304). Damascus, Syria: Al Ahali Publications. and how they are facilitated in the unique context of an Asian collectivistic culture Asma, A. (1996). Going Glocal: Cultural Dimensions and within an Islamic institution of higher in Malaysian Management. KL: Malaysian Institute of Management education. The SDT has been largely examined in the western cultural context. Bakker, A. B., Vergel, A. I. S., & Kuntze, J. (2014). Additionally, no such study has been Student engagement and performance: A weekly diary study on the role of openness. Motivation conducted in any Islamic institutional and Emotion, 39(1), 49–62. environment. As such, this study assumes significance. The Self-Determination Benware, C. A., & Deci, E. L. (1984). Quality of learning with an active versus passive Theory, which proposes that humans motivational set. American Educational naturally have innate needs, which when Research Journal, 21(4), 755–765.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
This Far and No Further: Barriers in the Managerial Woman’s Journey to the Top
Surbhi Kapur*, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee KIIT School of Management, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
ABSTRACT Though various studies are available on the education, competence, professional prowess and dexterity exhibited by women in management and ample research has clearly indicated enhanced profitability and employee productivity in organisations with more women in managerial positions, their presence, especially at the highest hierarchical levels, remains grossly discouraging. Much water has flowed under the bridge since the gender equality trumpets reverberated the business corridors. Yet, a study in the December 2014 issue of Harvard Business Review stated that the disparity between the two sexes with respect to movement to top positions remained nearly intact and according to the recent International Business Report by Grant Thornton, 14% of women represented senior management in India, 24% globally and only 12% businesses had a female CEO. Surprisingly no noteworthy change has been observed and the figure remained almost the same in 2015, 2014, 2013, 2009 and 2007. Against this backdrop, the present paper aims at probing further into the reasons which stall the progress of women using a mixed method design. Without pointing fingers only at the male bastion, it also attempts a two pronged focus - the role of women themselves and the veracity of lack of support from other women in the workplace in thwarting their progress.
Keywords: Women, management, progress, barriers, mixed method design
INTRODUCTION With similar beginnings, education,
ARTICLE INFO credentials, men and women step out Article history: with similar goals, aspirations and hopes Received: 13 March 2015 Accepted: 24 April 2016 for their careers. Both look forward to E-mail addresses: and talk about “job titles, job levels and [email protected] (Surbhi Kapur), [email protected] (Ratika Mehrotra), professional achievements at roughly the [email protected] (Nandini Banerjee) * Corresponding author same rates”. A survey of more than 25000
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee
HBS graduates across age groups ranging the Grant Thornton International Business from 26 to 67 revealed that the goals aspired Report 2014 states that the proportion of for are realised differently across genders women in senior positions in India is only even by the top tier B school graduates 14%. Surprisingly, this seems to be almost who step out equally equipped and adept a global phenomenon and recent statistics with ample openings and opportunities. show disappointing results with Demark “Among HBS graduates working full-time, and Germany also at 14%, US and Spain men were significantly more likely than at 22%, UK at 20%, Switzerland 13%, women to have direct reports, profit-and- Netherlands 10% and Japan a miniscule loss responsibility, and positions in senior 9%. The Southeast Asian countries exhibit management.” Men across three generations more promising results with Indonesia at were much more satisfied on the four prime 41%, Philippines at 40% and Thailand at dimensions: “meaningful work, professional 38%. China has made some headway and accomplishments, opportunities for career is now at 38% but globally the figures show growth and compatibility of work and no progress in 2014 and remain the same as personal life” (Ely et al., 2014). The in 2007 and 2009. Moreover, only 12% of discrepancy between the ascent of men businesses have a female CEO. and women to top positions remains almost In 2015 too, “the proportion of the unharmed despite sharp progression in top jobs in business held by women has number of women equally accomplished barely changed” In fact the women in for top notch roles across organisations and senior management globally has reduced increased impetus on developing women from 24% in 2014 to 22% in 2015. They employees. In fact, barely 5% of Fortune “remain concentrated in management 1000 CEOs are women. Only 20% of Fortune support functions rather than in leadership 500 board seats are held by women and roles [indicating] a bottleneck for women even “fewer women of colour (below 5%) upon reaching the management level” occupy Fortune 500 board seats”. Again, (Grant Thornton International Business
*did not include China or Brazil
Figure 1. Proportion of Women in Senior Management Globally (2014) Source: Grant Thornton IBR 2014
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Report (IBR), 2015). This glaring gender REVIEW OF LITERATURE gap has been comprehensively discussed. The implicit presumption behind the study Extensive research and academic studies is the glass ceiling phenomenon which record a host of barriers from societal has become a metaphor that has been and organisational prejudices to gender discussed and dissected but is supposedly pigeonholes, the iniquitous glass ceiling, still prevalent despite rebuttals. The popular pay variation, childcare, inadequate career phrase was defined by the US Glass development, promotion pathways and Ceiling Commission as “the unseen, yet mentoring provision. It could be argued unbreachable barrier that keeps minorities that if Harvard graduates with the best and women from rising to the upper rungs of opportunities could be plagued with of the corporate ladder, regardless of stereotypes, maybe to a lesser degree, as their qualifications or achievements” compared to their less fortunate counterparts (Recommendations of the Federal Glass from the not so elite B schools, then this Ceiling Commission Washington, D.C. demands further attention. Having said that, November, 1995). After more than three this study probes further into the reasons decades of its maiden appearance in the Wall which impede the progress of women to Street Journal in 1986, the glass ceiling still top positions and without blaming only the seems to be current, relevant and in the thick male stronghold, it also attempts a focus of discussion. Research reveals that though on women themselves. It could be a male the number of girls going to school has pulling the rug from under her feet but multiplied and in many parts of the world the emphasis here would be more on the girls have received better tertiary education hindrances due to stereotypical baggage than the boys, majority of women have not etched in the women’s psyche or their own found it easy to reach the top management gender blocking their upward clamber. jobs. Therefore, despite efforts towards gender equality, minimal number of women
Figure 2. Proportion of Women in Senior Management (2015) Source: Grant Thornton IBR 2015
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 955 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee have been able to make it to the senior financial success” (Fitzpatrick & Maggie, management levels in the corporate world 2013). Research on women leadership too (Wallace & Smith, 2011). Equipped with the has revealed positive results. Jack Zenger reality of higher educational levels and the and Joseph Folkman’s article based on a promise of gender equality, more and more survey conducted on 7280 leaders in 2011 women are entering the corporate world. concludes that women are undoubtedly But it has been found that the strength of better leaders at each level and women at the women at lower management levels is more top management levels are found to be more than that in the higher level managerial jobs. impressive than their male counterparts. Statistics and studies have shown that the The study also showed that companies with cardinal tenet is still the same – higher the a higher representation of women at the position, fewer the women. The Centre for management levels are more profitable and Social Research (CSR) 2009 report titled exhibit enhanced employee productivity. Women Managers in India: Challenges If this is a reality then why are women so and Opportunities states that women hold sadly under-represented at the senior most only 1 to 3 per cent of top executive jobs levels? Findings indicate that women don’t and the organisations without women in self-promote. They take the back seat in senior management positions have stood management and remain complacent at their at 38% since 2004. Further, if 70% of the level of achievement and rank (Zenger & women in developed countries and 60% Folkman, 2011). Many other core issues in developing countries are working and affecting women’s progress to senior 40% of women contribute to global labour management positions have been repeatedly force, the representation of women in senior cited. Though family responsibilities and positions worldwide seems dispiriting. child care remain as major barriers, long Women in management in India represent working hours, less flexibility at workplace, a nominal 2 per cent of the entire executive low levels of self-confidence, society’s strength despite a phenomenal increase negative attitude towards women as leaders in the number of women in the corporate also add up to the list. The gender centred world. It has been observed that women theorists have attributed the differences are a key part of a company’s success and between the sexes to common heritage, companies having women in top positions beliefs and assumptions. It is assumed that have a positive financial impact. Even at women give greater weightage to family the time of economic downturn, women lives than to their careers. Women’s own who owned hedge funds lost less than those expectations of their performances and their owned by men (Wallace, 2013). Studies relatively depleted levels of self-confidence have discussed how “women in senior are also a setback. Factors such as societal management positions” can “offer different and institutional practices, expectation, perspectives” resulting in “corporate corporation’s culture, history as well as
956 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) This Far and No Further its structure affect the women’s limited They were unable to reach the executive ability to attain high level position (Sposito, status in the industries where leaders were 2013). The barriers notwithstanding, we mostly men whereas in “industries where do witness a sea change in the present the gender ratio was balanced at first level scenario with women outshining men management”, one third of the women in academia, in certain areas and with slipped off the ladder before attaining the companies implementing programmes to managerial rank. So regardless of the ratio counter “structural biases against women”. of women in the leadership stratum, “men So, do we believe that women “are finally are significantly more likely to be in high poised to make it to the top” or is this a potential programs” (Howard & Wellins, “delusion of progress” (Carter & Silva, 2008, 2009). The article The Corporate 2010) where we happily judge that there Boardroom: Still a Male Club underscores is no gender disparity? The women are the “lack of women on company boards making it but the flip side is that the last and distinguishes the wasted resource of decade has showed slower growth than female talents”. It reveals that women are what was expected. Even after years of “often demoted to lessen their pay and experience, women lag behind because of responsibility” (Broome, 2007). Reasons their slow start up and the gap becomes from boardrooms being perceived as a difficult to breach. Those who taste success “man’s world” and old executives not probably start post-MBA at middle level being comfortable with the idea of having management or above. The first boss, low women at the apex to women themselves salary, lower satisfaction in job than men being responsible due to their lack of have also come up as reasons behind women confidence, insecurity, fear of disapproval not breaking the glass ceiling. “Reports of on appearing too ambitious are spread all progress in advancement, compensation, over the research firmament. Are women and career satisfaction are at best overstated, less self-assured than men? Is it all this or at worst just plain wrong” (Carter & Silva, is it “prioritising family over work”? Is it 2010). An investigation conducted by Ann the continuous career graph of men which Howard and Richard S. Wellins revealed does not exhibit any break due to family that the presence of women at executive and child-rearing constraints that make levels “was half” as compared to “that them more likely than women to have direct in first level management” and in “all reports, profit and loss accountability and major global regions, women were more top management positions (Ely et al., 2014). likely than men to fall off the management Finally, is women’s exclusion from their ladder before reaching the top”. It was also organisations “old boy’s network” or the found that the probability of having men unofficial power citadel composed of men in high, international leadership positions who operate and take decisions at the golf is twice as compared to that of women. course or during the more than occasional
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 957 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee drink or lunch together? Does this prevent Claire Shipman, women keep grappling with women from “being privy to important lack of confidence in strange ways. They inside information that might have helped blame themselves when things go wrong them to position themselves to move up” at the professional front and easily shower (Glaser & Smalley, 1995). The present study accolades and bestow credit on others when tries to revisit the barriers to women’s career something goes right. What holds women advancement and addresses two research back is not their actual ability to do well at questions: Are women responsible for the higher levels. They are indeed as able as their plight and does lack of support from the men. What holds them back is the choice other women at the workplace act as an to quit or not to try. Women are perfectionists encumbrance? and would normally abstain from soliciting a promotion till “they met 100% of the The Inner Demons: Are Women qualifications” while a man could strut themselves to Blame? confidently even with 50% information and The thought that they are probably not surety (Kay & Shipman, 2014). The germs smart enough and the fear of appearing can be traced in their childhood when they overtly ambitious and hence not liked were repeatedly expected to look better, by their peers/superiors are a part of the perform better, be better daughters and stereotypical baggage that women carry sisters. They do not ask for a raise because with them. These have roots in the psyche again they have to be better wives, better which have been nurtured and watered mothers and better employees. We do through their childhood, adolescence and have innumerable corporate women who possibly adulthood. These restrictive beliefs are supremely confident but they might be limit their ability to succeed. Girls who were playing safe and obeying rules which was taught to be “seen and not heard” might be a lesson learnt during childhood. But when “interrupted more” and “viewed by men as this spills over to adulthood quite a few invisible”. At meetings while men do most of them appear hesitant to take risks and of the talking and table thumping some disinclined to make their own rules. Other women hold themselves back waiting for allegations are that women are “consensus the “right moment” to offer ideas “and then seekers” which is fine but that can “translate do so without conviction and confidence”. into indecisiveness on the job”(Glaser & There are chances then that they are ignored, Smalley, 1995). Is this the case or do we are “not taken seriously” and don’t get encounter a role of the other women in the credit for their ideas (Glaser & Smalley, workplace who create roadblocks in the 1995). Does “speaking up first at meetings” progress of their own sex? involve the risk of “being disliked” or “being labelled a bitch”? The confidence wavers and according to Katty Kay and
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Does the other Woman (Read Older and of being intolerant of competition and Peer) Support or Foil the Upward from members of their own sex constitute a Ascent? major barrier? Or is this issue overhyped? A number of studies have shown that The article Sisters in Arms contradicts the women who succeed in a male dominated perception of female same sex conflict environment tend to resist the rise of at the workplace. The article talks about other women and sometimes become attribution theory to propose that female obsessive about retaining or safeguarding same–sex conflict is more “problematised” their position. According to a survey in by third parties. The issue of women being 2011, 95% of working women alleged that unsupportive and spiteful towards other they were destabilised and demoralised female employees has been exaggerated. It by another woman in certain phases of has to be noted that there is a lack of research their career. The women superiors “exploit similar to the queen bee syndrome among female vulnerabilities that men may not men although men use indirect aggression see” through strategies that would escape more than women. The same-sex conflict the attention of their male counterparts and among women is highlighted because this makes these queen bees very effective of the prescriptive stereotypes and the and damaging. (Drexler, 2013). Though evaluations that occur when women violate successful women link their achievement them. Further, only few women relative to to one or more mentors at some stage of men attain the top position and when they their careers, they mostly give credit for do, they often hold token status, thereby guidance, support, perspective and ideas creating the perception that there is limited to men rather than women. They have room for women at the top (Sheppard & often voiced their preference for a male Aquino, 2014). boss rather than a female one. Research by Workplace Bullying Institute indicates OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THE that when women bully, 71% of their STUDY targets are women but when men do the In the fast changing scenario of women same, women constitute only 57% of their making their presence felt in all fields and victims. This is the reason why women their increasing numbers in the corporate are more comfortable working with men world, the figures of progress to the senior (Rossbacher, 2013). Do these queen bees most levels too should be quite encouraging. want to make it tough for others as they But the disparity between the two genders themselves climbed the corporate ladder the with respect to movement to top positions hard way? Does the queen bee syndrome or remains almost stationary. “In fact, there the tendency of senior successful women in has been a decline, and now only 15 per male-dominated environments to impede cent of women believe that they have equal the progress of junior female colleagues opportunity (compared with 20 per cent last
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 959 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee year) for promotion to senior management mixed method design with both a qualitative positions”. Despite all talk and emphasis and quantitative component was selected. on gender equivalence, the “slow pace The goal of a qualitative approach is to of change is confounding” and “some “understand how individuals make meaning upward momentum on the perceptions of of their social world” which is “created equal opportunity for women” is expected through social interactions of individuals (Sanders et al., 2011). This generates a with the world around them”. This makes genuine need to return to the issue and the respondent “the expert” as “it is his or verify the facts. Hence, the objective of this her view of reality that the researcher seeks paper was to revisit the barriers obstructing to interpret” (Hesse-Biber, 2010). From the managerial woman’s movement to the multiple theoretical variations of the the top and to identify the prime barriers qualitative domain, this study deals with in present times. It also aims to explore the feminist theory (Denzin & Lincoln, whether women themselves are responsible 2007) which “seeks to understand the lived for their plight or do other women in the experiences of women”. Moreover, the workplace play a role in preventing their postulation central to feminist theories is progress. The target group was middle and “that knowledge does not exist outside of senior level women managers in the age the social world. There is no view from groups ranging from 35 to 55 across the ‘nowhere’; instead, all knowledge contains IT, Telecommunication, Finance and Retail a perspective” (Hesse-Biber, 2010) and Intelligence sectors. These sectors were in the present case, the perspective has chosen owing to the sizable presence of to be of the women in management and women at the managerial level there. Three their take on the glass ceiling. Differently companies from IT, three from Finance, two put, the participants have much more from Telecommunications and two from experience with issues being studied by the Retail Intelligence sectors were identified in researcher and hence, may have valuable the Indian cities of Bhubaneswar, Bangalore, insights to share. Therefore, a study must Pune, Mumbai and Delhi. The responses give importance to the perspectives of the received manually and electronically were respondents, “rather than relying entirely almost equally distributed across the sectors. on established theoretical views or the All companies identified were large except researcher’s perspective”. This does not two which were medium sized. imply that “participants’ perspectives are necessarily beyond criticism or that other METHODOLOGY perspectives are illegitimate” (Menzel, To delve deeper into the present paradox 1978). of a sharp influx of qualified women in Hence, keeping in mind both the management and the discouraging figures of “perspectives” of the participants and their progress to the senior most positions, a the “established theoretical views”, the
960 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) This Far and No Further research instrument (questionnaire) was (questionnaire) for the quantitative survey. developed in two parts. The first part was This mixed method design was inspired by an in-depth interview with the women Catherine M. Fuentes’ (2008) sequential in question (senior and middle level exploratory mixed methods model (Figure women managers across organisations) 3) which she used in her study ‘Pathways for their views regarding women falling from Interpersonal Violence to Sexually off the corporate ladder with very few Transmitted Infections: A Mixed Method reaching the pinnacle and the barriers Study of Diverse Women’. In the first phase, thereof. The second part was an exhaustive a convenience sampling of 28 women from review of relevant literature to probe into diverse ethnicities was conducted and in the existing research about the veracity of the second phase a quantitative survey of 215 same. As mixed method research drifts women was done “to generalise the results towards “a more positivist methodological of her qualitative study” (Hesse-Biber, orientation” and “employs qualitative data 2010). as ‘handmaiden’” to help in developing Similarly, in the present study, an in “more robust quantitative measures, such depth interview (IDI) with 26 senior and as survey research questions” (Hesse- middle level women managers from IT, Biber, 2010), this study adopts the same Telecommunications, Finance and Retail methodology to build the research instrument Intelligence sectors was conducted to
Figure 3. Fuentes’ (2008) sequential exploratory mixed methods design
Figure 4. Research framework of the study
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 961 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee discern their views about the existence and role of the other women in the workplace nature of barriers. An extra component of in preventing the climb) and the prime relevant literature review in phase one was barrier. However, after a pilot study, only added to the original design as illustrated 19 variables were retained. Therefore, the in Figure 4. IDI served a dual purpose. First, it helped The research review was included to identify the barriers that the participants to support the result obtained from the experienced which, in turn, assisted in qualitative IDI. For instance, the basic the development of the questionnaire and premise of this study that a miniscule number second, it gave the views of the managerial of women reach topmost positions and quite women on the identified barriers and the a few women fall off the management prime barrier to their progression to senior- ladder before reaching the top found most positions. Each barrier which emerged almost complete agreement from the target during the IDI was noted along with the group during the IDI. Additionally, it was broad category suggested by the interviewee corroborated by multiple existing research under which it fell. The transcript of the sources such as Women in Management: interview therefore, helped in grouping of Delusions of Progress (Carter & Silva, similar barriers under the category umbrella. 2010), Rethink What You “Know” about The four categories so finalised were also High-Achieving Women (Ely et al., 2014), substantiated by scholarly articles and books What Stops Women from Reaching the Top? whose authors and years of publication are Confronting the Tough Issues (Sanders et mentioned below: al., 2011), Holding Women Back Troubling 1. Importance to family and family Discoveries and Best Practices for Helping constraints (Sanders et al., 2011), Female Leaders Succeed (Howard & (Wallace & Smith, 2011), Wellins, 2008, 2009) and reports like Grant 2. Unsupportive work environment, Thornton IBR 2014 and The Centre for organisational culture and societal Social Research (CSR) 2009 report on pressures (Sposito, 2013), Women Managers in India: Challenges and Opportunities. A total of 25 variables 3. Women themselves and their inner were identified from the IDI which were demons (Glazer & Smalley, 1995; also supported by the literature review. The Zenger & Folkman, 2011), and variables encompassed the basic premise (a. 4. Other women in the workplace prevent Very few women have reached the senior the climb (Drexler, 2013; Rossbacher, most positions b. Quite a few women fall 2013). off the management ladder before reaching th the top positions), the possible barriers to the The 19 and the final statement in the movement of women to topmost positions questionnaire was open ended seeking the (including the two research questions: respondents’ opinion regarding the prime a. the role of women themselves and b. the or topmost hindrance in organisational
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Table 1 Main Premise and Barriers Main Premise Despite efforts towards gender equality, very few women have a Fundamental reached the senior most positions 1 Assertion Quite a few women fall off the management ladder before b reaching top positions
Barriers Categories of Barriers A Women give more priority to family than to their careers Breaks in career due to family and child care constraints limit Family constraints B their experience as compared to continuous record of male 1 and importance to counterparts family A woman's commitment to family and child rearing is the main C reason in turning down offers of promotion Unsupportive work environment, organisational culture, societal A Unsupportive pressures affect women's ability to attain high level position work environment, Women often do not get the critical inside information which 2 organisational B forms a part of the informal male social networks that women culture and societal frequently avoid pressures Women managers are not utilised and developed to the same C extent as male counterparts Women managers are less self-assured and confident than their A male counterparts B Women lack the desire to advance to senior level Gender stereotypes and fear of appearing too ambitious and not Women themselves C 3 and their inner likeable prevents progress up the ladder demons D Women don't self-promote and themselves take a back seat. Men overestimate their abilities and performance and women E underestimate both F Women have to work harder to prove themselves Other women in the workplace play a role in obstructing their A progress Other women in the B Most senior women do not mentor younger women 4 workplace preclude Women who succeed in male dominated work environments C the climb oppose the rise of other women to maintain their authority One good female friend in the workplace can become a principal D support.
Prime Barrier The topmost hindrance in upward progression or organisational 1 Prime barrier A ascent is ______
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 963 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee ascent. This was also classified under the survey (which was conducted on a larger categories of ‘importance to family and population of 200 women managers, out of family constraints’, ‘ unsupportive work whom 134 responded) to validate what had environment/societal pressures’ and ‘women been achieved by the qualitative interview themselves with their inner demons’. method. The 5-point likert scale containing The Table 1 shows the statements of the response options of strongly agree, agree, questionnaire, including the main premise, uncertain, disagree and strongly disagree was the barriers clubbed into four categories and used to assess agreement and disagreement the prime barrier to the progress of women to the statements in the questionnaire. in management as discussed earlier. The results of the interview showed RESULTS AND FINDINGS almost complete denial of the last two The quantitative study led to the following categories (women themselves and their observations: An overwhelming 79% of the inner demons and other women at the women agreed to our fundamental assertion workplace obstruct their way to the top) that despite efforts towards gender parity, and suggested that unsupportive work very few women have reached the senior environment/societal pressure was a bigger most positions while 9% disagreed. Further, culprit (prime barrier) as against the normally 63% agreed that quite a few women fall off accepted family constraints. Therefore, the ladder before reaching the top position in the first phase, the qualitative IDI and while only 16% disagreed. This is clearly the literature review helped in building indicated in the Figure 5. the questionnaire. The questionnaire was As mentioned in the methodology, finalised after being tested through a pilot the barriers to women’s progress to study. This was followed by a quantitative senior most positions were classified into
Figure 5. Percentage distribution of the result of the study’s basic premise
964 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) This Far and No Further four categories. The leading category - work environment, organisational culture Importance to family and family constraints and societal pressures can be a major - gave expected results. The oft cited and the barrier in attaining high level position most commonly declared barrier of giving while 49% agree that women do not get the more importance to family fetched 52% critical inside information discussed in the agreement but retardation in progress due to informal power networks or the old boys family constraints gave predictable results. club which proves to be a deterrent to their Seventy four per cent of women managers advancement. Table 2 shows the response agreed that breaks in career due to family to the first two categories. and child care limit their experience in The reactions to the third category workplace and 62% agreed that a women’s (illustrated in Table 3), which is also commitment to family and child rearing is the first research question, exhibit that the main reason in turning down offers of women themselves and their insecurities promotion. (inner demons as we call them) seem to be The second category - Unsupportive emerging from under the shadows of their work environment, organisational culture fears with 76% disagreeing that women and societal pressures - has almost usurped lack the desire to advance to senior level the crown from the generally reigning and 75% vehemently denying that they prime barrier of family constraints. Sixty are less self-assured and confident than eight per cent are sure that unsupportive their counterparts. Though 56% agree
Table 2 Results for the first and second categories of barriers
Barriers SA A N D SD Women give more priority to family than A 16% 46% 22% 9% 7% to their careers Family Breaks in career due to family and child constraints and care constraints limit their experience as B 31% 43% 12% 13% 1% importance to compared to continuous record of male family counterparts A woman's commitment to family and C child rearing is the main reason in turning 19% 43% 13% 25% 0% down offers of promotion Unsupportive work environment, organisational culture and societal A 24% 44% 14% 15% 3% pressures affects women's ability to attain Unsupportive high level position work Women often do not get the critical inside environment, information which forms a part of the organisational B 7% 42% 27% 16% 9% informal male social networks that women culture and frequently avoid societal pressures Women managers are not utilised and C developed to the same extent as male 7% 21% 20% 27% 25% counterparts
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 965 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee that they have to work harder to prove The fourth category (other women in themselves, a meagre 20% agree that the workplace preclude the climb) answers women underestimate their abilities as well the second research question. This is the as performance. Twenty eight per cent agree surprise package and refutes the conjecture that women don’t self-promote while 42% that other women in the work place create feel that fear of appearing too ambitious, road blocks and are unsupportive towards hence not likeable, obstruct their path to their own sex. Only 20% agreed that senior reach higher positions. women do not mentor younger women while 21% agreed that women who succeed in male dominated work environments oppose the rise of other women and 23% of the women agreed that other women in the workplace play a role in obstructing their progress. Table 3 showcases the results of category 3 and 4 mentioned above. Further, responses to the statement that ‘one good female friend in the workplace can become a principal support’ showed an interesting Figure 6. One Good Female Friend in the result. An overwhelming 75.7% agreed that Workplace Can Become a Principal Support women can become a prime support in their workplace (Figure 6). Table 3 Result of the third and fourth category of barriers
Barriers SA A N D DA Women managers are less self-assured and A 5% 9% 11% 33% 42% confident than their male counterparts B Women lack the desire to advance to senior level 7% 7% 10% 40% 36% Women Gender stereotypes and fear of appearing too themselves C ambitious and not likeable prevents progress up 7% 35% 38% 16% 4% and their the ladder inner Women don't self-promote and themselves take a D 6% 22% 28% 25% 18% demons back seat. Men overestimate their abilities and performance E 4% 16% 30% 32% 18% and women underestimate both F Women have to work harder to prove themselves 16% 40% 15% 17% 11% Other women in the workplace play a role in Other A 4% 19% 33% 33% 11% women obstructing their progress in the Most senior women do not mentor younger B 5% 15% 20% 44% 16% workplace women preclude the Women who succeed in male dominated work climb C environments oppose the rise of other women to 5% 16% 22% 40% 18% maintain their authority
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Finally, to the query regarding what DISCUSSION they think was the prime hindrance to their The important pronouncement about the organisational ascent, quite interestingly, prime barrier was found to be ‘unsupportive 52% of the women stated that unsupportive work environment/societal pressures’ with environment at workplace and societal over 52% of the women managers across pressures were the topmost barriers. This middle and senior levels supporting it. statement which solicits the respondents’ This is especially interesting as most of judgement about the jewel in the crown, that the research has repeatedly suggested is, the topmost barrier is also analysed under that family constraint is the main barrier. the first three categories and the responses Though that does remain an important received revealed that 22% give importance barrier, the chief barrier in the present to family and family constraints, 26% to study was found to be ‘unsupportive work women themselves and 52% to unsupportive environment/societal pressures’ with family environment at work place and societal constraints showing a meagre 22% and pressures (Figure 7). Out of the 52%, a women themselves 26%. This reveals a whopping 34% of the women managers shift as it indicates that families are more considered unsupportive environment at supportive these days as compared to the workplace as their chief obstacle. A chi- past. Besides, women can and do make square test was done to check if there alternate arrangements to tackle family exists a significant relationship between constraints but the workplace needs to take ‘societal pressures, organisational culture more effective measures and change their and unsupportive work environment’ and mind-sets and culture. Future research ‘women who have to work harder to prove could include the men’s perspectives to themselves’. The chi-square test (value was help strategise more inclusion at the top 16.89 at 5 per cent level with one degree of organisational strata despite the perception freedom) establishes here that both factors that men either present a rosier picture of are very much dependant. acceptance of female executives especially at the higher most wrung or tend not to see the barriers (Carlson et al., 2009). In addition to revisiting the barriers and identifying the current prime barrier, the present study addresses two research questions, namely: are women themselves responsible, and does lack of support from other women at the workplace act as a hindrance? In this context, the statement ‘women are less self-assured and confident Figure 7. Topmost barrier than men’ received a vehement disagreement
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 967 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee from 84% of the respondents. Similarly, the impediments of the organisational climb that response to the other query on whether they experienced. This helped in building ‘women lack the desire to advance to senior the questionnaire for the quantitative survey. level’ also got a clear no with as high as Again, as mixed methods “can enhance the 84% respondents not agreeing with it. On validity and reliability of findings” and test the issue of senior women not mentoring “pertinent results”, the qualitative study was younger women, 75% of the women “followed” by a quantitative study “on a managers disagreed. Also the statement wider population” leading to “triangulation” of successful, senior women opposing or “convergence in findings” (Hesse-Biber, the rise of other women fetched a clean 2010). The results of the survey conducted by 75% disagreement from the respondents. the present study clearly indicate that though Therefore the much publicised myth of family constraints, including child rearing, ‘other women at the workplace obstructing remains a major barrier, unsupportive work their progress’ was busted. The detailed environment and organisational culture are response is given in Table 4. equally responsible or maybe more for the As mixed method research can almost static figures from 2004 to 2015 “complement, develop, initiate, or expand representing progress. The quantitative a current or future study” (Hesse-Biber & results corroborate the initial findings of Leavy, 2011), the qualitative method (IDI) the qualitative IDI (which had also refuted was used to develop the instrument to be that women themselves and other women at employed for the quantitative method. workplace were responsible for their limited The IDI gave a clear insight into how the growth and revealed that unsupportive work women managers make sense of their environment could be a bigger evil than reality by fully agreeing to the problem family constraints) exhibiting convergence addressed and providing a window to the of findings.
Table 4 Women themselves or other women at the workplace
Barriers SA A N D DA % * Women are less self-assured and confident than men A 7 12 15 44 56 0.84 managers B Women lack the desire to advance to senior level 10 9 13 54 48 0.84 C Women have to work harder to prove themselves 21 54 20 23 16 0.66 D Most senior women do not mentor younger women 7 20 27 59 21 0.75 Women who succeed in male dominated work E environments oppose the rise of other women to maintain 7 21 29 54 24 0.73 their authority [*Note: Percentages calculated after ignoring ‘neutral’ responses and finding the proportion of ‘yes’ to ‘no’.]
968 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) This Far and No Further
CONCLUSION Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2007). Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials (3rd ed.). Like an encouraging family, a supportive Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. work culture and environment can go a long way to help women finally break the Drexler, P. (March 6, 2013). The tyranny of queen bee. Retrieved November 12, 2014 from http:// glass ceiling and in more numbers. There www. wsj.com. is no denying to changing times, changing mind-sets, education, opportunities and Ely, R., Stone, P., & Ammerman, C. (2014). Rethink What You “Know” About High-Achieving steps forward but the change is probably Women. Harvard Business Review, 92(12), not enough and definitely not adequate to 100-109. see larger number of women at topmost Glaser, C., & Smalley, S. B. (March 1996). Swim levels. Research has repeatedly shown with The Dolphins: How Women Can Succeed family limitation as the main barrier. But in Corporate America on their own terms. New the present study indicates that women York: Grand Central Publishing. might be able to figure out ways to handle Grant Thornton (2014). Grant Thornton International family demands but the workplace needs to Business Report (IBR) 2014. Retrieved from be more open to change and diversity. The http://www.grantthornton.ie/Publications/ inner demons may still haunt the women International-Business-Report-(IBR)/ occasionally but as the study showcases, International-Business-Report-(IBR)-2014 lack of confidence, insecurities seem to Grant Thornton (2015). Grant Thornton International be receding into history and as the women Business Report (IBR) 2015. Retrieved from make giant strides towards their not-so- http://www.grantthornton.global/globalassets/1.- distant goal, other women at the workplace member-firms/global/insights/ibr-charts/ do not obstruct their scramble but, in ibr2015_wib_report_final.pdf. contradiction to the inflated stereotypical Hesse-Biber, S. (2010). Qualitative approaches to perspective, support their sisters in their mixed method practice. Qualitative Inquiry, efforts. 16(6), 455-468. Hesse-Biber, S. N., & Leavy, P. (2011). The Practice REFERENCES of Qualitative Approach (2nd Ed.). p.281. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Broome, L. L. (2007). The Corporate Boardroom: Still a Male Club. Journal of Corporation Law, Howard, A., & Wellins. R. S. (2008, 2009). Holding 33(3), 665-680. women back troubling discoveries—and best practices for helping female leaders succeed. A Carlson, S. D, Kacmar, M., & Whitten. D. (2006). Special Report From DDI’s Global Leadership What men think they know about executive Forecast 2008-2009 retrieved from http://www. women. Harvard Business Review, 84(9), 28. ddiworld.com/DDIWorld/media/trend-research/ Carter, M. N., & Silva, C. (March, 2010) Women in holding-women-back_tr_ddi.pdf?ext=.pdf. Management: Delusions of Progress: Harvard Kay, K., & Shipman, C. (April, 2014). The Confidence Business Review, 88(3), 19-21. Gap. Retrieved from www.the atlantic.com/ features/archive//the-confidence-gap/359815.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 953 - 970 (2016) 969 Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee
Maxwell, J. A. (June, 2012). Qualitative Research Sposito. C. A. (Jun, 2013). Women in Management Design: An Interactive Approach (3rd Edn.). p.53. Research: Theoretical Perspectives. Franco- London: Sage. Tcheque Trends in International Business, Lyon, France. p.11. United States Department of Labor. (1995). Recommendations of the Federal Glass Ceiling Centre for Social Research (CSR). (2009). Commission Washington, D.C. Retrieved from Women Managers in India: Challenges http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/ and Opportunities. Retrieved from http:// reich/reports/ ceiling2.pdf. womenleadership.in/Csr/Women-Managers-In- India.pdf Rossbacher, A. L. (2013). From the Chair of the Women’s Network Executive Council. Retrieved Wallace, K. (2013). What changes with women from http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/ in the boardroom?. Retrieved from edition. Documents/NetworkNews-Spring-2013.pdf cnn.com/2013/10/23/living/identity-women- management/. Sanders, M, Hrdlicka, J., Hellicar, M, Cottrell, D, & Knox, J. (2011). What stops women Wallace, T., & Smith, B. H. (October, 2011). Core from reaching the top? Confronting the tough issues affecting women progressing to senior issues. Retrieved from http://www.asx.com. management. Paper presented at IIEP Policy au/documents/about/bain-and-company-chief- forum on gender equality education, Paris, executive-women-research.pdf. France.
Sheppard, D. L., & Aquino, K. (June 25, 2014). Sisters Zenger, J., & Folkman, J. (March 15, 2012). Are at Arms: A Theory of Female Same-Sex Conflict Women Better Leaders than Men? Retrieved from and Its Problematization in Organizations. https://hbr.org/2012/03/a-study-in-leadership- Journal of Management, 25 June 2014. doi: women-do. 10.1177/0149206314539348.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of Customer Complaining Behaviour (CCB)
Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar* and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Customer complaining behaviour is universal and studies relating to it have received substantial attention over recent years. Customers expect fair treatment from service providers for the effort invested in the relationship. Perceived unfairness would make customers feel as though they have been betrayed. Hence, they are likely to express their dissatisfaction through complaining. In certain cases, they might also resort to exhibiting aggressive behaviour to compensate for the unfairness they experienced. This paper proposes a conceptual framework by investigating the effect of customer’s dissatisfied service experience attribution (DSEA) on aggressive complaining and its motivation in achieving fairness of treatment in a business relationship. Through a review of relevant literature on this topic, this paper attempts to conceptualise the framework of customer retaliatory complaining behaviour (CRCB). Understanding the implications could help service providers create more robust strategies to overcome negative consequences. Such an understanding is likely to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on how dissatisfaction can be dealt with effectively as empirical evidence could now be established on the importance of dealing with retaliatory behaviours in the service industry.
Keywords: Aggressive complaining, conceptual paper, customer complaining, dissatisfaction, emotional reaction, retaliatory complaining, service experience attribution
INTRODUCTION Customer satisfaction is one of the most researched areas in the marketing literature ARTICLE INFO and it has been proven to produce positive Article history: Received: 13 March 2015 responses from customers such as an Accepted: 28 September 2015 increase in intention to repurchase and E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar), giving positive recommendations to others [email protected] (Rosmimah Mohd Roslin) * Corresponding author (Han & Kim, 2009). Dissatisfaction on
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin the other hand, could trigger customers (Richins, 1997; Svari & Olsen, 2012). For to behave in the opposite way. There is example, they may resort to a more extreme empirical evidence that shows some of the dysfunctional behaviour such as vandalism most common responses from dissatisfied and theft as a way of venting their anger customers include exit, voice, switch, and (Fisk et al., 2010). This types of behaviour is negative word-of-mouth (Richins, 1983; supported by psychological research findings Fornell & Wernerfelt, 1988; Singh, 1990a; which posit that in order for aggressive Smith & Bolton, 2002; Bechwati & Morrin, behaviour to occur, a strong affective trigger 2003; Panther & Farquhar, 2004; Blois, is required (Verona et al., 2002), which often 2008; Tronvoll, 2011). In contrast, there are times is in the form of emotion (Roos & also studies that indicate incidents where Friman, 2008). Therefore, in the context of unsatisfied customers would rather remain this study, the affective trigger is linked to passive than to complain (Oliver, 1993, angry emotions that will motivate customers 1994). Of the two responses, however, into displaying aggressive complaining complaining is seen as a more attractive behaviour (CRCB) after experiencing bad option although it may or may not lead to service. retaliation. Although complaining is not a new Creating superior customer experience research area in marketing literature, very seems to be the central objective in today’s little attention has been given to study the service environment but to gain complete link between customer’s blaming attribution satisfaction among customers would indeed and their actual aggressive complaining be a difficult if not an impossible task. behaviour (Keng et al., 1995). This is There will still be customers who will particularly so for Malaysia because such not be happy with the level of services issues have the tendency to be viewed as rendered. Customers’ dissatisfaction may confrontational (Ndubisi & Ling, 2005) be for reasons such as delayed service, and therefore studies that examine such receiving bills with unnecessary charges, behaviour or attributes may not be seen as or even having to wait in a long queue for providing positive inputs for marketing. service. However, these incidents are not This view, however, should change as necessarily strong enough to force them to studies on retaliatory behaviours in business behave aggressively. In order for aggressive settings can enhance our understanding behaviour to occur, a strong trigger linked on how to deal effectively with such to emotions such as anger would need to behaviours. Therefore, in order to advance be present ( Westbrook, 1987; Phillips & our comprehension of CRCB, it is necessary Baumgartner, 2002). Indeed, marketing to have an in-depth understanding of how researchers have established that emotions and why customers react to unsatisfying do play a role in determining customers’ service experiences and whether complaints aggressive responses after service failures that evolve from such experiences ultimately
972 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of CCB lead to retaliation by the customers. This is or what is to be blamed for the shortcomings. still an area that has not been dealt with However, in more serious cases, it has been comprehensively in the literature on services said that customers have also resorted to marketing. exhibiting aggressive behaviour as a way of expressing their emotions for the service PROBLEM STATEMENT shortcomings (Bougie et al., 2003). In a service-based industry, managing The Malaysian National Consumer customer experience is an important element Complaint Centre’s (NCCC) annual report in building long-term relationships as showed a total of 40,560 complaints were repetitive patronage is sought by service received by the centre in 2013 which costs providers. Customer service experience RM61,700,640.62 in expenditure. Although includes every point of contact at which the number of complaints had dropped the customer interacts with a business compared with 2012, there was a dramatic (Sandström et al., 2008; Grewal et al., increase of 34.2% on the expenses incurred 2009). For example, providing a conducive for dealing with such complaints in 2013. service atmosphere is crucial for customer The followings are the top five areas of satisfaction as it plays an important role complaints received by NCCC based on in customer evaluation of the quality and sector category; (1) General Consumer value of service (Martín-Ruiz et al., 2012), Products, (2) Telecommunication, (3) which can also be the source of customer Retailers (including e-commerce), (4) dissatisfaction. Further, research findings Automobile, and (5) Travel and Leisure have revealed that customers do not only Industry (including Airlines). Malaysia blame service providers for their bad should therefore take consumer complaints experience, but also make inferences to seriously as it could provide essential factors that are beyond the control of the information to help improve the quality of service provider (Brocato et al., 2012). life and contribute to the country’s economy For example, service disruption due to the in its efforts to becoming a developed nation inability to follow instructions properly by 2020. will be considered as internally caused. Although there has been extensive Hence, self-blame will most likely be the research conducted on CCB, understanding dissatisfying outcome for not being able to of the overall concept is still scarce and does comply with a service requirement (Svari et not reflect the full spectrum of the subject. al., 2011). These two varying causes (service Indeed, past research conducted on reaction atmosphere, and customers themselves) from dissatisfied customers focused only would motivate customers to act differently on certain aspects of behavioural responses in their complaining behaviours. Therefore, such as switch and complain, commonly in dealing with dissatisfied customers, it is known as complaining behaviour (Singh, crucial for organisations to understand who 1988). It overlooks other possible response
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) 973 Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin behaviours that might be exhibited by customer self-evaluations, and the existence customers such as aggressive complaining of ER may mediate the DSEA – CRCB (Huefner & Hunt, 1994, 2000; Funches et relationship. al., 2009). Pertinent concepts such as emotional LITERATURE REVIEW reactions (ER) are ignored and this omission This section discusses customer aggressive creates a knowledge vacuum that fails to complaining behaviour (CRCB), dissatisfied highlight the severity of the complaining service experience (DSEA), and emotional behaviour. The CCB taxonomies (Singh, reaction (ER) as a mediator. In this 1988) that were referred to by many conceptual paper, relevant literatures were researchers in the past only focused on reviewed and four hypotheses proposed two main behavioural aspects, which were accordingly. complaining and non-complaining. This perspective therefore left researchers and A. CRCB – an extension of CCB practitioners with limited information in Although studies on complaining behaviour understanding the full spectrum of customer have received considerable attention in complaining responses when faced with the West, there are very few studies on the poor services and where emotional elements topic conducted in Southeast Asia. Keng are likely to be inherent. This issue has et al. (1995) conducted the first study received limited attention in the academic with the aim of profiling complaining literature. To address the gap in the literature behaviour of Singaporean consumers. The which focuses specifically on complaining study concluded that complainers who responses (such as exit, voice, and third resorted to public actions were assertive party complaining) and in order to expand and possessed greater self-confidence the current CCB taxonomy (Singh, 1990b), with strong individualistic traits. Another the elements of ER will be investigated, and study by Phau and Sari (2004) investigated vindictive word of mouth and online word the complaining and non-complaining of mouth will be included in the CCB to behaviour of consumers at a shopping reflect CRCB. As dissatisfied customers are mall in Indonesia. The study revealed that the ones displaying retaliatory behaviours, consumers were more inclined to make a elements influencing such actions will complaint when they attribute blame to be a subject of interest. As such, service sellers and manufacturers for their bad conditions including the atmosphere and experiences. customers’ perceived inclinations when In Malaysia, the research study by Aizzat confronted with service situations will be et al. (2004) was among the first conducted included in the study. It is proposed that to discriminate between complainers and CRCB displayed by dissatisfied customers non-complainers in the manufacturing may be driven by service atmosphere and company in the Northern region. The
974 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of CCB findings revealed that consumers with a through the act of complaining. Therefore, more positive attitude were more likely to better understand CRCB, it is deemed to complain, which is consistent with the important to first understand CCB. findings by Keng et al. (1995). Another The original work of Hirschman (1970) attempt to investigate gender differences in on complaining behaviour has attracted complaining was conducted in the context significant attention among behavioural of banking services (Ndubisi & Ling, researchers where several attempts have 2005, 2007). The study investigated the been made to extend the model (Rusbult relationship between private complaint, et al., 1982; Singh, 1988; Hunt, 1991; public complaint, and customer defection. Huefner & Hunt, 2000). This work was an The findings show that both public and early attempt to understand how customers private complaints are associated with respond to poor consumption experiences. In defection. More recently, a study carried out the framework, three behavioural responses by Norazah (2011) attempted to investigate were introduced, which are: exit, voice and complaining behaviour of public library loyalty. Exit and voice are the two main users in Malaysia. The study focuses on five recuperative mechanism of a dissatisfying types of user responses to dissatisfaction. experience. Loyalty on the other hand, What is clearly missing in all these studies is a more subtle way of expressing is the cause of aggressive complaining. dissatisfaction where consumers give the Additionally, none of the studies investigated organisation time to make corrections before customer retaliatory complaining behaviour they decide to exit the relationship. Other in the Malaysian context. Therefore, it is applications of Hirschman’s exit-voice- timely for such studies to be conducted in loyalty includes investigating consumer’s order to advance our understanding and complaint in China’s retail industry (Jin, provide a full spectrum of CCB. 2010), complaint behaviour among library The basic premise of CRCB is to reach users (Oh, 2008), and in an online shopping equitable business relationship. Unlike context (Kim et al., 2003). Huefner & Hunt normal complaining, aggressive complaining (2000) extended this work into the realm of is performed with specific motive(s). and theory of retaliatory behaviour. In particular, the purpose of retaliatory Another classic work on CCB is the complaining exhibited by customers is to taxonomy proposed by Day & Landon cause inconvenience (Bechwati & Morrin, (1977) which generated a starting point for 2003), restore fairness (Grégoire & Fisher, studying the variation in possible CCBs. In 2006, 2008), or to get even (Funches et the study, the authors introduced a three- al., 2009; Huefner & Hunt, 2000) with a tiered classification of CCB. The first tier service provider as a way of coping. This distinguishes between action and no action. perspective posits that the main motive for Here, a dissatisfied customer may choose CRCB is to restore balance in a relationship to either take action or take no action. If
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) 975 Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin the customer decided to take action, he and Stern (1997) with an addition of exit and can either decide between private actions loyalty dimension. Two empirical studies or public actions. Private action entails subsequent to Singh’s were conducted specific behaviours such as boycotting, by Dart and Freeman (1994) on clients in negative word of mouth, and redress seeking accounting firm, and Hansen, Swan, & behaviour. Alternatively, for public action, Powers, (1997) on organisational buyer he can choose to take legal action, or complaints behaviour. Both studies support complain to consumer agencies. Using Singh’s three dimensional CCB taxonomies. the same model, Broadbridge & Marshall Studies concerning CCB continue (1995) investigated levels of post-purchase to receive significant attention from the dissatisfaction of customers regarding marketing scientist in the new millennium. domestic and major electrical appliances. Researchers continue to advance their The result of their study showed that for understanding on dissatisfaction and the electrical goods, customers prefer to take various possible complaining behaviour public actions rather than undertake private due to the richness of information obtained complaints. that could help organisations strategise Another study on complaining appropriately. For example, switching, behaviour that has been commonly cited negative word of mouth, exit, voice, neglect, is the work of Singh (1988). He collected inertia, and avoidance (Huefner & Hunt, empirical data from four different consumer 2000; Bougie et al., 2003; Zeelenberg & categories namely banking services, medical Pieters, 2004; Mattila & Ro, 2008; Fisk services, grocery stores, and automobile et al., 2010; Ferguson & Johnston, 2011; repairs. The study revealed that customer Tronvoll, 2011; Petzer et al., 2012) are complaint intention can be divided into three among the specific behaviour being studied. dimensions of private response, voice, and These behaviours are generally known as third party complaining, which was later complaining. known as Singh’s CCB Taxonomy. Private In contrast, CRCB requires a strong response refers to negative word-of-mouth trigger to occur (Verona et al., 2002). It to friends and relatives, while voicing demands that an individual experiences relates to complaining directly to sellers to a negative emotional reaction prior to seek redress. The final dimension of CCB aggression in his or her behaviour (Bennett, Taxonomy signifies a consumer taking 1997). As such, in consumer studies, triggers legal action, or complaining to a third party are factors that could influence customer to address dissatisfaction. Attempts have perceptions resulting in actual behaviour been made to extend Singh’s Taxonomy to (Roos & Friman, 2008) and often occur different environments. Among them are in the form of emotions. For example, a conceptual studies by Davidow and Dacin study conducted on customer response to (1997) with a new addition of exit / boycott, dissatisfaction indicates that emotional
976 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of CCB response (irritated/annoyed) is a trigger to of their first study that in addition to a customer’s aggressive behaviour (Huefner exit and voice, retaliation independently & Hunt, 2000) such as vandalism and occurs as a standard response to consumer theft (Fisk et al., 2010). Very few studies dissatisfaction. Grégoire and Fisher (2008) however, have delved into verbal aggression in another study as well as Funches et (Huefner & Hunt, 2000) as a way of coping. al. (2009) looked at anti-consumption In getting even with a service provider, behaviour where customer retaliates not a customer’s aggressive complaining may just to get even, but instead to teach service come in many forms. Among others are providers a lesson, or to save others from vindictive complaining, spreading negative experiencing the same fate. Recent studies words of mouth or third party complaining however, have not extensively investigated for publicity (Grégoire & Fisher, 2008). how or why a particular situation arise Conversely, it is also argued that motivations (Phau & Baird, 2008) which limits the for customer aggression goes beyond CCB taxonomy to only certain behavioural just getting even (Funches et al., 2009). outcomes. Customers may behave aggressively for many other reasons such as to teach the B. Dissatisfied Service Experience service provider a lesson, save others from Attribution (DSEA) the same fate and seek redress, or revenge While studies on satisfaction have received (Friend et al., 2010; Grégoire et al., 2010; considerable academic attention in the Funches, 2011) . past due to the nature of its continuous Although different aspects of aggression enriched positive findings, study on have been identified and studied in many dissatisfaction may also yield valuable research areas, the topic has only received knowledge for organisations. For example, a passing mention in the area of consumer studies conducted to investigate satisfaction dissatisfaction and complaining behaviour revealed that satisfaction does have a positive (Huefner & Hunt, 2000). Huefner and impact on customer’s behavioural intention Hunt (2000) conducted the first exploratory (Ali & Amin, 2014), loyalty (Martensen et study to discover the types of retaliation al., 2000), willingness to return (Bowen & in which dissatisfied consumers engage. Chen, 2001), business performance (Morgan The study revealed that cost/loss demands, & Rego, 2006), and profitability (Hallowell, vandalism, trashing, stealing, negative word 1996). Similarly, studies on dissatisfaction of mouth, and personal attack are among may also generate important findings for the most common retaliatory behaviours business organisations as it could provide of consumers who are dissatisfied with important cues in understanding a customer’s services deemed as poor. Subsequent study negative responses such as switching by Huefner et al., (2002) on shopping (Panther & Farquhar, 2004), negative word behaviour in malls confirmed the findings of mouth (Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2004),
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) 977 Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin exit (Phau & Sari, 2004), boycotting (Day On a loyalty premise, Fornell & & Landon, 1977), and retaliation (Huefner Wernerfelt (1988) find that dissatisfied & Hunt, 2000), all of which will tarnish customers, once persuaded to stay, are more an organisation’s reputation (Svari et al., loyal and valuable and are likely to generate 2011; Tronvoll et al., 2011) and hence, positive word-of-mouth communications. loss of business and profit for the service This is because they feel that the service providers in the long run (Grégoire & Fisher, provider appreciates and values them as 2006). Therefore, organisations should customers. Therefore, it is very important look at dissatisfaction as an opportunity to for organisations to take customer improve service offerings, which will lead dissatisfaction seriously as it could be the to the enhancement in the strength of the source of untapped competitive advantage, relationship and not as a threat to business. or organisations’ disruption. However, Dissatisfaction occurs when customers’ despite the importance of creating superior prior expectation is disconfirmed by service experiences, our understanding of the evaluation made on actual service what customers actually experience during received. Disconfirmation here refers to a service remains limited (Esbjerg et al., the inadequate return to the effort invested 2012) mainly because most of the prior in the relationship (Fornell & Wernerfelt, studies were focused on service failures and 1988) felt by customers. Similarly, Michel recovery Mattila, 2001; Xin, 2006; Ngai et (2001), defined dissatisfaction as the al., 2007; Vázquez-Casielles et al., 2007; disconfirmation of service expectation Gelbrich, 2009; McColl-Kennedy et al., due service failure where expectations 2009; Gelbrich & Roschk, 2010; Varela- are determined by a variety of factors. Neira et al., 2010; McColl-Kennedy et al., This perspective posits that customers 2011; Tsarenko & Tojib, 2011; Ro, 2013) may feel dissatisfied with their purchase and not service dissatisfaction. experience when service providers fail to Unlike product consumption, the meet the expectation of at least one or more production and consumption of a service aspects of a service, product specification takes place simultaneously. Therefore, in and operations (Ferguson & Johnston, any service transaction, both the service 2011). When customers feel dissatisfied, provider and customers’ involvement are they will form a negative cognitive and required to create a successful exchange. emotional impression (Tronvoll, 2007) For example, in a retail banking setting, towards the service and will then start to the service provider will rely on customers question what or who is responsible for the to explain what kind of service is needed. situation. Sometimes, they may also end up Conversely, the customer depends on the complaining or, in a worst case scenario, service provider to execute his or her request, behave aggressively (Singh, 1985, 1988; thus a creating a successful exchange. Any Keng et al., 1995; Mattila & Ro, 2008; unsuccessful exchanges between the two Funches et al., 2009; Svari & Olsen, 2012). parties will lead to dissatisfaction and
978 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of CCB will be perceived as relationship inequity success in complaining, and difficulty of causing the customer to respond in order complaining as antecedents in profiling to cope with the situation (Varela-Neira young adults’ complaining behaviour in et al., 2010). Besides these two elements, Sabah. service atmosphere is also important in Despite the many studies that have ensuring successful exchanges (Pareigis, demonstrated the link between factors of Edvardsson, & Enquist, 2011). Indeed, service experience such as store environment, service atmosphere was found to have direct service environment, convenience, and effect on service dissatisfaction and thus hedonic service (Gelbrich & Roschk, 2010; influenced customers’ behavioural responses Walter, Edvardsson, & Öström, 2010; (Ryu & Han, 2011). This is because when Esbjerg et al., 2012; Wong, 2013), and customers undergo a dissatisfying episode, customer dissatisfaction behaviour, our specific emotions will be triggered. The understanding of the relationship between occurrence of emotions will distinguish these elements remain limited, especially in the blaming attribution either to one’s self, Malaysia. Indeed, most of these studies were or other factors (Menon & Dubé, 2004; Yi conducted in the context of western culture & Baumgartner, 2004; Svari et al., 2011). focusing on service failures, recovery, and For example, if the service disruption was behavioural intention, and not on customers’ due to matters such as failure to provide actual aggressive response behaviour. necessary supporting documents; then Similarly, for the case of Malaysia, none of the dissatisfaction will automatically be the studies (Aizzat et al., 2004; Ndubisi & attributed to customers themselves. If the Ling, 2005, 2007; Norazah, 2011; Syahmi, failure was caused by factors such as the Daleela, & Khasimah, 2013; Tam & Chiew, service environment, then the customer 2012) focused on the customer’s aggressive will blame the service provider for their complaining or retaliation as a way of dissatisfaction. responding to dissatisfaction. This fact With regards to Malaysia, past studies may be due to the lack of formal data on dissatisfaction have focused on factors on retaliatory complaining behaviours such as demographics, psychographics, compiled within the Malaysian context. attitude toward businesses, and product Therefore, it is important to consider the attributes (Aizzat et al., 2004). Alternatively, dynamic aspect of service experience when a study by Osman (2011), used four investigating the situation. As suggested by dimensions (e.g. perceived control, self- Varela-Neira et al. (2010), further studies monitoring, procedural perception, and low should be conducted to investigate whether efficacy) to study the extent of complaints by different causes of service dissatisfaction consumers. In a more recent study, Tam and produce different customer reactions in Chiew (2012) used general attitude towards different parts of the world as a number business, sense of justice, likelihood of of studies have reported that individuals
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) 979 Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin in different cultures focus on different feelings or emotions determine their factors when evaluating services. These aggressive responses after a service failure differences may well be linked to ethnic (Bechwati & Morrin, 2003; Smith & Bolton, factors embedded in cultural underpinnings 2002; Tronvoll, 2011). as posited by Ali (2012), who looked at Consequently, it was also revealed that the effects of ethnicity and religiosity on ER is a significant predictor of customer customer loyalty. Therefore, based on the response to dissatisfaction (Bougie et al., above, the research hypothesised [H1] that: 2003). Often times, emotionally affected customers tend to feel more betrayed H : There is a significant relationship 1 and this feeling influences them to react between DSEA and CRCB. negatively to a greater extent (Grégoire & Fisher, 2008). This link can be also equated C. Emotional Reaction (ER) as with angry responses that occur as a result of mediator dissatisfactory service experiences. Indeed, Studies have proven that dissatisfaction customer’s actual behaviour is also said to alone is not enough to cause customers be mostly driven by emotions, where even to behave aggressively but instead such if the complaints can be fixed, customers do a behaviour is triggered by the negative not necessarily remain loyal if the emotions emotional state produced by the appraisal are not properly taken care of (Chebat & of unfavourable consumption (Fornell & Slusarczyk, 2005). Therefore, based on Westbrook, 1979; Smith & Bolton, 2002; the above, the following hypothesis [H3] is Tronvoll, 2011). For example, when a developed for further testing. customer experiences dissatisfaction, he or she will tend to evaluate the causes that H3: There is a significant relationship are important and relevant (Bagozzi et al., between ER and CRCB. 1998; Folkman & Lazarus, 1988; Smith Empirical evidence indicates that & Lazarus, 1990). These causes will then emotion mediates the relationship between influence their affective state of thoughts service dissatisfaction and behavioural and affect their emotional stability (Bougie responses (Bougie et al., 2003; Chebat et al., 2003); hence, the generation of ER & Slusarczyk, 2005; Ng & Hodkinson, [H2]. 2005; Schoefer & Diamantopoulos, 2008).
H2: There is a significant relationship Customers who experienced unfavourable between DSEA and ER. service will be motivated to search for the cause and, depending on the attribution, Emotions positive and/or negative, related emotions will be triggered which are said to have effects on a customer’s will influence their subsequent behaviour behaviour (Chebat & Slusarczyk, 2005). (Casado-Díaz, Más-Ruiz, & Kasper, Marketing research has also provided 2007; Vázquez-Casielles et al., 2007). support for this claim that customer’s
980 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of CCB
For example, in a retail banking setting, a emotions either positive or negative have customer who went through a dissatisfying important mediating roles on customer experience (too crowded space, or inability behaviour. Therefore, based on this, ER will to provide supporting documents) would feel be investigated as a mediator [H4]. uneasy with the moment and therefore will H : ER mediates the relationship be motivated to find the cause for his or her 4 between DSEA and CRCB. inconvenience. They would question who or what is to be blamed for the shortcomings. D. The Conceptual Framework In this case, dissatisfaction caused by the space management issue will be attributed Review of relevant literatures provides to the service provider while the latter will enough evidence to show the linkage be attributed to the customers themselves. between DSEA and CCB. Specifically Depending on the blame attribution, in this study, the independent variable specific emotions will be triggered, thereby (DSEA) influences the dependent variable resulting in specific response behaviour. (CRCB) with the mediation of ER in place. Hence for this research, we consider that The inclusion of ER is to understand how the different evaluations made on the retaliatory complaining can result from attributions of service dissatisfaction (e.g. service dissatisfaction. With Huefner and service atmospheric, and customer own- Hunt’s Theory of Customer Retaliatory self) does have an effect on customers’ Behaviour (CRB) as the platform of emotions, which may in turn influence their conceptualisation, Figure 1 addresses the specific aggressive complaining behaviour. influence of dissatisfied service experience. This reasoning is in line with the findings of DeWitt et al. (2008) who posits that
Figure 1. The mediating effect of emotional reaction on dissatisfied service experience attribution – customer retaliatory complaining behaviour
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 971 - 989 (2016) 981 Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin
In essence, the CRB theory addresses and the dependent variable (CRCB); specific complaining behaviours brought and about by dissatisfaction experienced by iv. complete mediation is demonstrated the customers which may reach an extreme when, after controlling for ER, the point leading to retaliation. This study relationship between DSEA and CRCB is extended to propose that much of the is zero. retaliatory behaviours may be affected by the customers’ emotional reactions. The more likely scenario in this example Although this model is merely an excerpt is one of partial mediation, where after of a much larger model of retaliatory controlling for ER, the relationship between complaining behaviours, what is posited DSEA and CRCB is reduced. In other here is the core element of dissatisfactory words, part of the relationship between service experience and its influence on DSEA and CRCB is explained by ER. retaliation in a service setting. As consumers This example provides an illustration of and as humans, it is the emotions that how identification of potential mediators often trigger a reaction that can be either can increase theoretical richness, and may accepting or retaliating. It is envisaged that enhance both the predictive and explanatory retaliation is the conduct of emotions even power of the underlying theory. in a situation involving the transaction of buying and selling. Figure 1 illustrates the CONCLUSION AND proposed role of ER as mediator. To test this RECOMMENDATION model empirically, a Structural Equation In a competitive business environment, Modelling (SEM) tool would be appropriate. organisations offer more or less the Generally, for mediation to be demonstrated, same product or services like the others. four conditions must be present (Baron & Thus, any feeling of dissatisfaction will Kenny, 1986). The conditions are: trigger emotional reactions (ER) that will i. there must first be a statistically influence how a customer reacts towards significant relationship between the an organisation. In the past, studies have independent variable (DSEA) and the indicated that dissatisfaction could create dependent variable (CRCB); conflict in the buyer – seller relationship and could cause or force customers to ii. there must also be a statistically react in specific ways in order to cope with significant relationship between unfavourable situations (Athanassopoulos, independent variable (DSEA) and the 2000; Keaveney & Parthasarathy, 2001; mediator (ER); Yang et al., 2009). Some, would respond iii. after controlling for the effects of by complaining (Singh, 1990b; Singh & the independent variable (DSEA), Wilkes, 1996; Ngai et al., 2007; Sharma et there must be a statistically significant al., 2010) while others would do nothing relationship between the mediator (ER) (Day & Landon, 1977). However, there will
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm in Hong Kong, China
Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha Department of Social Work, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, Hong Kong
ABSTRACT The transition from school to work is a critical milestone in the life of young people and plays a crucial role in how their future careers develop. This transition is a complicated process which not only involves a change of identity from a learner to a worker, but also a transition from adolescence to adulthood where one’s life planning is at stake. This paper examines the views of young Chinese in relation to career development in a society where East meets West. The study is a qualitative research with an in-depth semi-structured interview approach to explore the career concerns and issues faced by the post-80 generation in Hong Kong. Data is collected in audiotaped individual interviews with 10 young people aged 18 to 24. The sample is selected purposively in terms of their socio-economic backgrounds and thematic analysis is used to explore a number of key themes including ideas about career development, readiness for continuing education, constraints to career planning, gender differences in acceptance of cross-border work and overtime work, and single child problem for career development. The findings revealed insights on the career development of the post-80 generation and the interplay of ecological system in the Hong Kong context. Practical measures to facilitate a better transition to young adulthood were discussed in the paper as well. The insights from this study would be useful for human resource practitioners, policy makers and interested parties who together can jointly devise appropriate career interventions to assist young people in their transition to adulthood.
Keywords: Career development, lived experience, post-80 generation, ecological system
INTRODUCTION Youths are in a critical period of identity ARTICLE INFO formation during which they separate from Article history: Received: 2 April 2015 their family of origin and develop a sense Accepted: 19 May 2016 of the self through their interactions with E-mail address: [email protected] (Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha) others in new social relationships in the
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha wider society (Erikson, 1968; Kroger, 1996; Groups, 2006a). Continued education, Henderson et al., 2007). The transition from employment, Chinese cultural factors, school to work is a critical milestone in the economic concerns and housing issues all lives of young people and plays a crucial contributed to young people’s prolonged role in how their future careers develop. This financial dependency on families (Hong transition is a complicated process which Kong Federation of Youth Groups 2006a, not only involves a change of identity from 2013). Therefore, the research on post- a learner to a worker, but also a transition 80s generation in mainland China cannot from adolescence to adulthood where one’s be generalised to its counterparts in Hong life planning is at stake. Kong. This younger generation has also been CHANGING SOCIOECONOMIC the main beneficiaries of the expansion CIRCUMSTANCES AND THE POST- of higher education 1990s in Hong Kong 80 GENERATION IN HONG KONG as the colonial government spent more In the mainland China, the post-80s resources on education to tackle the generation is a product of one-child policy. problem of ‘brain drain’ due to handover The media has portrayed the single-child of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997 families as “4-2-1 syndrome”, namely four and to enhance the workforce for the grandparents and two parents pouring their structural transformation of the economy. attentions onto one child (Wu, 1997). They The number of subsidised university places are regarded as a spoiled generation with quadrupled within a decade. Owing to best available education and electronic the increased post-secondary education gadgets (Stanat, 2006). In contrast, as a opportunities in the past 10 years, the youth Special Administrative Region of China, population with post-secondary education Hong Kong was in the administrative increased substantially both in number and transition and unaffected by the one-child in their share of the population. In 2001, policy with its post-80s generation raised in 173,225 youths (or 19.5% of the youth an era when it was on the road to affluence. population) had attended post-secondary This generation has not encountered poverty, education and the number reached 338,301 unlike their. As shown by statistics on the (or 39.3% of the youth population) in 2011 proportion of youths living with parent(s), (Census & Statistics Department, 2013). The the proportion of the generation living development of the economy created more with parent(s) rose from 86.3% in 1996 employment opportunities for young people. to 94.6% in 2011 (Census & Statistics However, the occupational progress made Department, 2013). There is a trend of by young people lag behind the pace of the prolonged ‘adolescence’ as young people expansion of higher education (Wu, 2010). become more financially dependent on their As a result, it was more difficult for college parents (Hong Kong Federation of Youth degree holders in 2006 to find a managerial
992 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm or professional job than it would have been Against a background and unique context a decade ago. of Hong Kong, the post-80s generation is The number of Hong Kong residents confronted with many career-related issues. working in the mainland territory has The social and economic environment young been on the rise according to the survey people now face and their unique experience conducted by the Census & Statistics in terms of upbringing may have inculcated Department of Hong Kong (2011) over the in the post-80s generation different attitude past years. The figures show a rise, from to work and career aspirations (Yip, 2012). around 157,000 in 1998 to 175,000 in 2010. Young people have to adjust to a work With the increasing pace of globalisation environment and resolve issues regarding of the world economy, the mobility of their career direction and manage life workforce resources becomes a key factor. demands in their transition to adulthood. Creating international awareness among They have to manage such career-related youth and enabling them to become multi- tasks in the midst of family and peer talent mobile workers so as to adapt to the expectations. The stress in managing the changing work environment are a matter of career-related tasks can be regarded as concern to the government. career concerns (Super et al., 1996). Career There is rising concern regarding young concerns of young adults show their worry people who are not (N) in education (E), about a current task and career development employment (E) or training (T), i.e. the (Code & Bernes, 2006). It is understandable so-called ‘NEET generation’ (Inui, 2005; that different generations have different Pemberton, 2008; Yates & Payne, 2006; Yuji, values and preferences towards work 2007). Hong Kong has been regarded as a attitudes and work environment (Yi et al., world city and one of the wealthiest societies 2010) and they have to be motivated in in the world in terms of per capita GDP. new ways (Lynton & Thogerson, 2010). However, some young people do not share For the human resource practitioners, the the fruit of economic growth and prosperity. study provides insights into what could be In 2010, 7 per cent of the 837,700 young the most effective approach to developing persons in Hong Kong were non-engaged the ambitions of young people in Hong or not employed. The proportion of NEET Kong. For example, the human resources youths in the total youth population have practitioners can acknowledge their roles fluctuated in tandem with the changes in the in helping the transitions of young people level of youth unemployment and overall from school to work. By understanding unemployment (Hong Kong University of young people’s career concerns such as job Science and Technology, 2012). Concerns security, inadequacies at work, importance have been raised that this group of young of intrinsic rewards, gender differences people are at higher risks of developing in acceptance of cross-border work and poor mental health and becoming involved overtime work for career development in criminal activity (Ngai, 2007). among others, human resource management
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) 993 Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha can take these into account in recruitment to career development in a local context. To and succession planning as well as motivate conclude, this study examines two research and retain this group of young people in the questions: First, what are the career concerns labour market. and problems that the post-80s generation in Although many studies have been Hong Kong may encounter? Second, what conducted on generation Y (Bynner, 2001; are the opportunities and measures that can Raffe, 2003; Alan, 2007; Henderson et al., assist young people for better transition to 2007; Vinken, 2007; Jones, 2009; Twenge career development? & Campbell, 2008) in the western countries and in mainland China, there is a dearth of AIM OF STUDY work of research that explores the experience This study seeks to explore the career of their Hong Kong counterparts in the concerns and issues faced by the post-80s career development realm (Hong Kong generation in Hong Kong. By examining Federation of Youth Groups, 2006a, 2013; the lived experiences of a group of young Wu, 2010; Yip et al. 2011), particularly people from Hong Kong in the career among Hong Kong Chinese, a gap this development realm, this study could provide paper is designed to address. This research a picture of career-related challenges and paper aims to add to existing literature on opportunities that they may encounter in a young people in Hong Kong. It aims to changing global world. fill the gaps in our understanding of the concerns of the post-80s generation in METHODOLOGY relation to their career aspirations, need for This study is a qualitative research with continuing education, constraints in career semi-structured individual interview development, differences in choices in design with a view to obtaining a deeper cross-border work and overtime work and understanding of the post-80s generation’s concerns of single child between career lived experience and concerns about their choice and family responsibility. Such career development. This study provides themes were not explored by previous useful input for human resource management studies in Hong Kong. The eco-systemic and policy agenda that can, where needed, approach adds to the literature as the assist young people for better transition to complex eco-system of personal ability, career development. class background, gender, educational attainment, ethnic status and identity, labour Sample market and family resources impact on the life chances and career development of The sample of this study was selected young people. The eco-systemic approach purposively so as to gain an insight and can be used to analyse the constraints and understanding through interviews with opportunities for young people in transition youths coming from some very different walks of life. Ten interviewees were identified
994 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm from a survey on the basis of their replies and socio-economic background. Third, from willingness to be interviewed individually. the By-census 2006, a large proportion of They were selected from a subset of working youths were engaged as service youth participants from a survey of 1,132 workers and retail workers (29.4%) and respondent returns (the survey related to clerks (27.9%) in 2006. Youths were highly the young people’s perceptions on family- represented in these occupations and hence, building conducted between 2009 and 2012 some respondents were chosen from these by the researcher) as willing to engage occupations. Fourth, with regard to the in an interview in order to explore more median monthly income from the main deeply their views on career development. employment of youths, the census in 2006 A total of 10 young people were interviewed showed that it decreased by 13.3% over the as they were representative of some key past 10 years, from HK$7,500 in 1996 to characteristic of the post-80s youth profile HK$6,500 in 2006. By contrast, the median based on the statistics of the Hong Kong monthly income from the main employment 2006 Population By-census Report (Census of the working population increased by & Statistics Department, 2006). There 5.3%. The median monthly income from were several criteria for selecting the main employment of working youths in above sample of youth purposively. First, 2006 was about 65% of that of the whole regarding gender, the sex ratio of the youth working population. Since the earnings of population (Census & Statistics Department, young people relative to the general working 2006) is relatively evenly distributed. Based population have been declining over time, on the statistics shown, the selection of it was considered important to select for the gender was 5 female and 5 male for the 10 interviews youth representing disparities interviewees in the qualitative individual of income. Fifth, Hong Kong as a world interviews. Second, there is greater chances city and with the integration with mainland for education available to the Hong Kong China since 1997, more and more people youth population. However, improved undertake cross-border work in order to education does not necessarily mean more earn a living and for better work prospects. employment opportunities. Unemployment Additionally, with intense competition rates have been increasing in the past brought about by globalisation, more and decade among young people, especially more people pursue further studies or work the post-80s and post-90s generations, even overtime with a view to maintaining their those with tertiary education. Hence, it was competitiveness. Hence, cross-border work, important to select some interviewees with overtime work and continuing education higher education (degree or above) and with may be significant factors affecting the lower education level (junior high school work life and career development of the or below) respectively to elicit their views post-80s generation. As such, respondents on career development in the context of who were chosen for interviews were
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) 995 Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha known to be undertake cross-border work, arrived youngsters. Issues related to new overtime work and continuing education. immigrants who have been previously Sixth, there is a group of persons with living under the Communist regime need no jobs, no study and receiving social further study to see whether there are any welfare assistance. Such ‘hidden youths’ differences in their values and attitudes often withdraw from and neglected by the towards career development. Here, we community. Prolonged unemployment is define these new immigrants as arrivals from known to be associated with depression, mainland China to Hong Kong and who anxiety, low self-esteem, and poor health have been living in the latter for a period among youth (Bjarnason & Sigurdardottir, of less than seven years. Returnees from 2003; Mossakowski, 2009). Hong Kong has overseas after their study were also one of 1,418,200 youths aged 15-29 representing the target sub samples who might provide 20% of the total population (Census & different insights into their career plans in Statistics Department 2010a). However, the context of global and local culture and young people face high unemployment values. rates. The 2010 unemployment rates Hence, five categories were created (July-Sept) for the 15-19 and 20-24 age based on the selected youths’ socio- groups was 21.7% and 13.6% respectively, economic backgrounds, namely gender, while the rate for the general population educational attainment, job status and during the same period was only 4.4% working conditions, income and immigration (Census & Statistics Department, 2010b). status. The five types consisted of (a) those Higher unemployment rates, lower starting with low skills and academic achievement salaries and insecure jobs have put many with low income (i.e. less than the median young people in disadvantaged positions, monthly income of youth from main protracting the transition from school to employment - HK$8,000 in 2011) (C&SD, work and from childhood to adulthood and 2013); (b) those with high skills level, high alienating them from society generally. academic achievement and high income; Hence, young people from this background (c) those undertaking cross-border work, were targeted and included in the interviews. overtime work or with continuing education; Lastly, as a Special Administrative Region (d) those with no jobs, no study and no of China, there are quite a number of training (the so-called ‘NEET generation’); new arrivals from the mainland who and (e) new arrivals to Hong Kong from come to Hong Kong for family reunion mainland China, or returnees from overseas or for life improvement. The vulnerability study. They ranged in age from 18 to 24. of youth is often associated with some Five were males and five were females. In social characteristic such as immigration this study, youths or young people (these are status, particularly in view of the various used interchangeably) refer to those aged 15 adjustment issues encountered by newly to 24 for both sexes.
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Data Collection project. Participants were asked to sign Before the interviews, the subjects were sent the consent forms agreeing to participate. via post an invitation letter together with The interviews were conducted in private a consent form and an information sheet settings convenient to the participants, i.e. with a brief introduction to the research the researcher’s office and coffee shop.
Table 1 Characteristics of Participants
Name Age Gender Current Educational Remarks Status Level Lok 23 Male Drawing Secondary 5 Low monthly income (around HK$3,000) class tutor and limited occupational skills Irene 19 Female Programme Secondary 5 Low monthly income (HK$6,500) and assistant in limited occupational skills a welfare agency Victor 24 Male Management Bachelor High monthly income (HK$24,000) with trainee degree professional qualification and undertook in public overtime work (around 15 hours per week) administration and also continuing education (following a banking course 10 hours per week). Abi 24 Female Secondary Bachelor High monthly income (HK$24,000) with school degree in professional qualification and worked teacher education overtime (around 15 hours per week) Ken 19 Male Dog trainer Secondary 4 Undertaking cross border work (went to the mainland China 1-2 times per week) and overtime work (around 10 hours per week) Blossom 24 Female Private Post- With continuing education (taking housing secondary management course 6 hours per week) and management education overtime work (around 25 hours per week) officer Ting 21 Male Not in Secondary 5 Few tangible connections with the local education, community, had no paid employment, was employment not studying and had no income or training Ching 18 Female Not in Secondary 5 Few tangible connections with the local education, community, had no paid employment, was employment not studying and had no income or training Chak 23 Male Printing Secondary 5 He had migrated from the mainland China machine in the last 3 years assembler Portia 22 Female Student University A single child, overseas returnee from US Year 1 student (major in Geography)
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The interview environments were safe, method adopted was the six-stage model of comfortable and relaxing. The interviews Braun and Clarke (2006). In the first phase, lasted 60 to 75 minutes, were tape recorded the researcher becomes familiar with data by and transcribed verbatim. The questions reading all of the transcripts and field notes were asked in Cantonese on the subjects’ which assists in grasping broad patterns. career aspirations and plan, and factors The next stage involves initial coding and affecting their transition from a dependent being reflexive about my own assumptions youth to a completely independent adult in and views and to be open about these in terms of career development. The major the analytic process. In phase three, the questions included “Do you have any codes are grouped into potential themes and career plan or career aspirations?”, “Why compared and connections traced. These do/ don’t you have a career plan?”, “What clusters of initial themes and sub-themes are are your career concerns?”, “What kind of organised into an initial thematic map. Phase difficulties do you encounter when you start four entails reviewing, refining and reducing your career?”, “Do you accept/ undertake these themes. This process involves going cross-border work or overtime work? How back and forth between these different stages far does cross-border work or overtime work in a recursive process. Phase five entails a affect your career development?”, “Do you fresh comparison both within and across have any continuing education after work? themes in order to generate their shared How important continuing education would and dissonant features and to establish affect your career plan or development?”, links that help grasp the systemic aspects of and “What policies, measures or service the perspectives of the respondents. In the provision can facilitate or help you develop final stage, the themes are defined in ways your career?” that capture the core of the theme and its relationship with the overall narrative on Data Analysis data and its analysis. Thematic analysis was employed in this Regarding reliability of this qualitative study as it is a commonly used method research, pre-test of the interview schedule (Davies, 2007; Bryman, 2008) that identifies was conducted among three youth samples themes or patterns within data (Braun & to ensure each respondent understood the Clarke, 2006). It was used to seek qualitative questions in the same way and that answers insights in relation to the predetermined could be coded without the possibility of categories of discussion in a systematic and uncertainty. Reliability in this study was also replicable manner. Overall, the thematic addressed by using standardised methods structure reflected the frequency of material to write field notes and prepare transcripts. that addressed the lived experience of the The researcher followed the conventional Post-80s Generation in Career Development contrastive procedure of taking field notes Realm in Hong Kong. In this instance, the as well as audio-taping and drafting the
998 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm transcripts of the individual interviews want more exposure and prospects and comparing both sources to help ensure in my career. (Victor) the reliability of the study. This study also addresses the issue of validity by taking data It should be noted that one young adult and findings back to the 10 interviewees for was not satisfied with doing a job just for verification. financial gain but was primarily attracted to the intrinsic rewards of a career. FINDINGS Because I love it (design). The The themes identified from data describing second reason is that I do not want participants’ experience and views on career to do a job just for a living… oh! I development are outlined below: want to do a job that I enjoy, ah… with a sense of achievement… and Theme 1: Career Aspirations were based a sense of satisfaction... (Lok) on Young People’s Preferred Value and Belief, Primary Interest, Job Stability and Income Trajectory over Time Theme 2: Young People Pursue Continuing Education to Remain A few respondents in this group had some Competitive at Workforce idea about career development. In the interviews, some interviewees had career It is relevant to note the influence of aspirations except for those with no job, globalisation which emphasises a fast and no income and not involved in the study. keen competitive culture, in which one may They wanted to climb a career ladder with have to pursue further education to remain various career aspirations such as being competitive. Some interviewees have a designer, social worker, senior bank indicated that they have pursued or had plans manager, a professional dog trainer, a human for continuing education. They felt the need resources officer and a beautician among for continuing education in order to remain others. Their choice of career practices was competitive. Those with undergraduate based on reasons such as their preferred qualifications would study for a Master’s value and belief, primary interest in the degree or related qualifications in order to specific occupation, career availability and find or keep a career on track. job stability, and the income trajectory over There is more competition. As time. a teacher, you have to get many I would like to seize every chance qualifications and licenses, you to get promoted to the middle have to learn Putonghua... (Abi) management in a few years and Now I’m studying CFA (Chartered getting higher salary in return… Financial Analyst) and preparing Actually I don’t like routine jobs. I for examination for this profession…
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Though I feel tired sometimes I Theme 3 - Constraints to Career hope to have career achievement Development before 30, I have many continuing Sub-theme: Declining or Relocation of education plans for the near future. Industries Increase Uncertainty in Career (Victor) Prospect Some young adults were uncertain about Those without an undergraduate degree their futures in the fast growing economy tended to study for other applied courses of Hong Kong whereby many factories had such as human resource management or an moved to mainland China because of lower art course delivered by a private organisation operating costs. Chak was a fairly recent in order to gain better employment prospects. immigrant from the mainland and worked Some interviewees realised the importance in a printing factory and unsure of his career of continuing education in maintaining prospects as many similar factories had their competitiveness in the workplace. moved to the nearby Guangdong province As more people enter the job market of China where production costs (notably with higher qualifications, they find that labour) were cheaper. they had to re-equip themselves in order to reach their goals or stay competitive We are worried that this industry in their particular labour market. Thus, could disappear suddenly. This year, Victor, a banking trainee at a local bank the number of printing factories wanted to gain professional qualifications is much smaller. Many factories in banking and an MBA before the age of moved across the border. (Chak) 30, while Blossom, an officer at a real estate management company, wanted to study for Sub-theme: Unstable Contract-based a human resource management course in Employment Affected Longer-term Career order to climb up the career ladder. Ken, Planning of Young People 19, and a dog trainer was a high school dropout who did not enjoy school work It is noteworthy that nowadays many young but changed his mind after working several adults are not confident about their career years in different jobs and acknowledged the prospects as their jobs are mostly on fixed importance of qualifications. He planned to term contract basis (Wu, 2010). They were save enough money to acquire a professional not sure whether these contracts would qualification and licence in dog training. be renewed, which in turn affected their longer-term career planning. Abi was a good example of this dilemma, feeling uncertain in employment:
In the past, there were permanent posts, but now many teachers have
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been employed on a contract term Some young people like Irene would basis… The principal may say one like to start a business. However, it is argued day that the school needs to cut that the labour retail market was dominated staff redundancy because of low largely by big conglomerates and that it was birth rate. In fact, there is much very difficult or impossible for young people uncertainty. (Abi) to develop their entrepreneurial skills by setting up small businesses. Young adults with no financial support could not pursue Sub-theme: Lack of Resources and their own business interests or develop Financial Support Hindered Young People related skills. to Pursue Continuing Education and Career Training, and to Run a Business on … Dream? I once dreamt of starting Their Own a small business, but in Hong Kong Such constraints were encountered by it would be very difficult because the the interviewees in pursuing their career shopping malls are all controlled by plans who spoke of high tuition fees and big enterprises… (Irene) time commitments. Blossom, a private housing management officer indicated For this group of young people, Ting and that she has hardly enough time to pursue Ching were in the NEET status. Being in the continuing education because she had to NEET status did not seem to be interesting. work overtime. Irene, a programme assistant Ting who had no job, no income and was at a non-government organisation, wanted not in education did not have any career to be a social worker but she worried about plans and held little hope for the future the high tuition fees for a professional having a history of brief employments, poor qualification. The travelling expense was interpersonal relationship at workplace, another consideration as she could not afford complicated working environment, tiring to go far beyond their local district to pursue tasks, and poor health etc. training opportunities located elsewhere. The following outlines her perception of I have worked as an assistant cook constraints to further study: in a bar but I cannot stay long on the job. I changed to another job to Further study depends on money! deliver meals in a fast food shop. A degree or sub-degree social work But I resigned a month later ’cos course costs over HK$50,000 a I have bad relationship with my year. I need to save enough money colleagues. Now I am unemployed before re-entering university to for several months. The district study the course… I think that the I live in has a lack of working transport costs should be lower… opportunities… I worry about the (Irene) family expenditure. My mom was
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unemployed recently and my father nearly 30% of people thought that sexual is a security man with low salary. I harassment against female employees don’t want to be a financial burden were common in the workplace in Hong to my family. (Ting) Kong, according to a survey by Women’s Commission (2010). A female respondent Interviewees with low education and who worked in a male-dominated property low skills generally had trouble finding management industry indicated that jobs easily. Ting and Ching, both Secondary she had to deal with many male clients 5 school leavers, had been unemployed and professionals whose behaviour was for several years and relied on parental annoying and threatening. Because of financial support. They always stayed at frequent sexual harassments, she had home, playing computer games and seldom planned to change her job. engaged directly with other people and Those around age 40 and lacked communication and interpersonal thereabouts are very interested in relationship skills. young ladies of my age, regardless Unsurprisingly, those who failed in of whether the young ladies are the competitive school system and found beautiful or not. I can be easily no way to compensate for this had much their love target… They would like more difficulty in climbing up the social to touch you…ugh! (Blossom) ladder (see Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups, 2006a, 2013). Ting’s family was Historically, many of the new arrivals poor and could not support him in career from mainland China have lacked adequate training. He was not sure of his area of education and skills and could only take up interest and had no money to pursue further low-skilled jobs (Siu, 1999). As a result of study. the influx of young One-way Permit holders (on future career plan) I have not from the mainland over the past 10 years, thought of it… Now I have no there were more youths who were born in further study because I have little the mainland of China/Macao/Taiwan. The money.’ (Ting) percentage rose from 16.2% in 2001 to 21.9% in 2011. Chak claimed that this led to problems of discrimination against him as a Sub-theme: Sexual Harassment and new immigrant in the work place. Discrimination Affected Career Adjustment When I came to Hong Kong, I Although women are legally protected cannot speak Cantonese… I face against discrimination under the Sex discrimination by others… Even the Discrimination Ordinance in Hong Kong, customers would avoid approaching
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me when they know that I speak In addition, interviewees with higher Putonghua. They know I’m coming income, higher educational level and from China. (Chak) higher skill were more willing to accept overtime than those with lower income, lower educational level and lower skill Theme 4: Differences in Gender, Income levels. The latter were less satisfied about and Educational Levels had Different career opportunities and preferred to have Choices in Cross-border Work and more leisure time and private leisure Overtime Work for Career Development activities with family members or friends. Some male interviewees accepted cross- Thus Victor, a highly ambitious young man border work for reasons such as overseas working as a bank trainee, accepted overtime working experiences and career exposure work from 9:00 am often until 20:00 pm. that in turn increased their opportunities He was also opposed to the enactment of especially in the expanding labour markets legislation on maximum working hours by of contemporary China. Victor was an the Government believing this would hinder example. He was an ambitious young adult his career development. eager to enhance his career prospects. For social justice, the enactment I am very willing to do so or maybe of legislation on maximum hours is I should say I am very eager to have to protect the lower working class. the opportunity to work across the But I don’t support the enactment of border, or in USA or in … because legislation applying to me as I need this would be a good opportunity to work hard in spite of overtime for training and bringing benefits work in order to meet the work to my career. (Victor) quota. (Victor)
Conversely, some female interviewees Theme 5: Single Child’s Problem to Keep did not indicate an interest in cross-border a Balance between Career Choice and work because they wanted to stay near their Family Responsibility parents or were not attracted to what they perceived as lower standards of living in Portia is a typical case of a single child who some parts of the mainland China compared in future sees herself supporting her parents. with Hong Kong. She worries about how to cope with this responsibility when they retire and age. As Cross-border work… it is very a single child, she considers that she has to difficult for me to accept it because sacrifice her dream of being a coach and has all my family members are in Hong to find a decent job to support her parents. Kong. I do not want to leave my family members… (Irene)
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Portia (a returnee from overseas with the environment, structured in terms study): of different levels of the microsystem, the I want to be a coach to teach young mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. people the knowledge and skills in The microsystem represents the face- adventure-based programmes. But to-face interactions with the immediate, I think it is only a dream. I can’t physical or social, surroundings. It also take it up as a future full-time job includes institutions such as the family, as the income is not stable. I’m the school, hospital, church and so forth. single child and when my father The mesosystem reflects the linkages retires one day, my salary equates between two or more of these settings. The to their income. I can’t be so selfish exosystem comprises such linkages with to pursue my own interests. I need settings of which the individual is not a part, to consider my responsibility to care but that nevertheless exert an influence. The for them when they get older. I need macrosystem is equal to culture in that it to find a job with a stable and good consists of values and belief systems. The salary. framework highlights that the developing individual cannot be isolated from the immediate and wider social context, and DISCUSSION that interactions are reciprocal (Segall et al., Interviews with these young people revealed 1999). In this study, the ecosystem is utilised some crucial information for further to examine the barriers at different levels of discussion. Some important findings and the ecosystem and the possible effects on the issues raised with implications for human career development of the youth. resources are listed below: Using Bronfenbrenner’s model of development to explain young people’s An Eco-Systemic Framework Analysis career development would enable us to break The finding of this study indicates that down the many barriers that the researcher an eco-systemic framework proposed by has found in this study. For example, when Bronfenbrenner (1974; 1979; 1989; 1993) looking at the constraints surrounding career could be used for understanding the situation development of the respondents (Theme of the sampled youths and help inform the 3: Constraints to Career Development) at analysis of the respondents’ subjective life the micro and mesosystem level, young experiences in career realm as shown in people from poor and lower educational the diagram. Ecological systems theory backgrounds typically had little in the way (Segall et al., 1999; Crawford & Walker, of academic qualifications or financial 2007) places the individual with his/her support from family to entertain career personal qualities and abilities e.g. sex, age, development, such as undertaking further health, character etc. interacting actively and costly study in career training. Youths
1004 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm from single-child family (Theme 5: Single At the macrosystem level, some Child Problem to Keep a Balance Between interviewees pursued or had plans for Career Choice and Family Responsibility) continuing education in order to remain or newly arrived youths from mainland competitive in today’s knowledge-based China (Theme 3: Constraints to Career economy (Theme 2: Young People Development) also had problems as sole Pursue Continuing Education to Remain supporters of their parents or in gaining Competitive at Workforce). They had work because of discrimination against them different career aspirations which were as a new immigrant. partly affected by their preferred values At the exo-system level, those living in and beliefs (Theme 1: Choice of Career remote areas such as new towns in Hong Aspirations). For some interviewees, Kong found it difficult to travel long and without resources to start a small business expensive distances to urban centres to and having to compete with big enterprises, attend courses that might advance career there was little hope in self-actualising their development (Theme 3: Constraints to ambitions at the macro-system competitive Career Development). The trend of unstable market level, (Theme 3: Constraints to contract-based or freelance jobs in the Career Development). local community also affected long-term The global and socio-economic changes career planning of the youths as they were over the past 20 years have led to the decline unsure whether these contracts would be or relocation of industries from Hong Kong renewed (Theme 3: Constraints to Career to the mainland China, cross-border work Development). and overtime work which can be witnessed
Figure 1. Diagram of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems (Crawford & Walker, 2007)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) 1005 Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha in the young people’s career development approach suggests that the social and through the chronosystem (Theme 4: environmental influences are significant Differences in Gender, Income and contributing factors in young people’s career Educational Levels had Different Choices development. Nevertheless, this approach in Cross-border Work and Overtime Work tends to lack a global perspective that for Career Development ) affecting the work can capture the influence of wider effects pattern of the younger generation. Thus, an such as the likely impact of global values eco-systemic analysis provides researchers, and competitive culture of late modernity the managerial sector and policy-makers on individual career aspiration, career with valuable insights into the complexity choices or work life styles and patterns. It and interplay of the ecologies of young is suggested to deploy a mix of concepts people in career development, from micro combining the eco-systemic approach and to the chronosystem level. late modern notion of reflexive biographies Those young people without a job, or for further research, in order to capture income, or desirable qualifications, or who something of the orientation of youth today. have poor interpersonal skills, or were living some way from urban centres where jobs Young People Voices to Address their or training might exist, were particularly Career Concerns ill equipped for self or career development Under a competitive global economy, to face the future with hope. The influx of many young adults feel the need to pursue low skilled migrant labour from mainland further education in order to maintain their China also reduced chances of work for competitive edge or to be employable. Those Hong Kong youths who are less qualified. without resources may be left behind. As In contrast, those with higher educational we have seen above, there are a number of attainment had more concrete and ambitious complex inter-weaving factors which affect career plans in mind that might include the career development of young people. gaining new professional qualifications. In this research, Ting, being in the The complex eco-system of personal ability, NEET, indicated that he would welcome class background, gender, educational training in interpersonal relationships and attainment, ethnic status and identity, labour interviewing skills. It is likely that some market and family resources have an impact disadvantaged young adults will need on the life chances and career development basic training in developing social skills, of the participants. particularly in the way they relate to people To conclude, the eco-systemic approach when seeking a job. “There was little can provide a comprehensive framework to mention of job searching skills at school” analyse the constraints and opportunities (Ting). for young people in transition to career As young adults enter the job market, development in a local context. This they may not be confident of their abilities,
1006 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm for example, in leading a team composed of in this study, the transitions from school older staff. Human resources management to work have become more precarious and may consider providing suitable coaching unstable than before (Wu, 2010) as there and training to young people. Blossom, are many challenges facing this group a private housing management officer, of young people. Their career concerns suggested that the NGOs or the Government such as job insecurity, inadequacies at could provide interpersonal relationship work, readiness for continuing education, courses or stress management courses to importance of intrinsic rewards, lack of help the younger generation tackle the time and money for further study, sexual adversities they face. She suggested the harassment and discrimination at workplace private sectors could employ social workers are all important issues for human resources to provide counselling services or stress practitioners in order to motivate and management courses for employees. Victor retain this group of young people. The was fortunate to find a job with a higher rank gender differences in acceptance of and income (compared with peers), but had cross-border work and overtime work for the following challenges in the early part career development are also important of his career. “You have to know how to for human resources management to take lead a team, that is, you should be capable into account in recruitment and succession of motivating the team to work…” (Victor). planning. It may also be advisable for human resources practitioners to help set IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS up formal career system whereby young OF THE STUDY recruits can discuss their career aspirations From a research perspective, it appears or problems. For the smaller companies that the single child issue has been with fewer than 100 employees, supervisors misunderstood. Previous studies on single can help young people to set goals through child issue have suggested that single child informal counselling or mentoring. Smaller was being ‘spoilt’ and dependent (Fong, organisations should also consider offering 2004; Stanat, 2006). But this research employees studying opportunities through finds that single child such as Portia had to sponsorship to external courses as young sacrifice her own career aspiration in order people may be ready for continuing to support her elderly parents. She had to education (Lau & Pang, 2000). shoulder a heavier family responsibility. The findings from this study contributed This is a subject needing further research. to the understanding of the lived experiences From the human resources perspective, of young people in career development it is also necessary to acknowledge role realm in Hong Kong. The complex eco- of companies and firms in helping the system of personal ability, class and ethnic transitions of young people from school status and identity, gender, educational to work. As revealed by the respondents level, work market and family support
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 991 - 1010 (2016) 1007 Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha and resources brought constraints and Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. opportunities for career development of the Annals of Child Development, 6, 185-246. post-80s generation. The findings suggested Bronfenbrenner, U. (1993). The ecology of cognitive that social and environmental influences development: research models and fugitive were significant contributing factors in findings. In Wozniak, R. & Fischer, K.W. (Eds.) young people’s career development. This Development in context. (pp. 3-44). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. qualitative study has provided insights into the experience of post-80s generation Bryman, A. (2008). Social research methods, 3rd in Hong Kong and these insights can be edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. viewed as a first step or reference for Census and Statistics Department. (2006). Population human resources practitioners or interested by-census 2006 – thematic report: youths, Hong parties in mapping effective strategies in Kong: C&SD Publication. recruitment and career development of Census and Statistics Department. (2011). Social youths. data collected via the general household survey: The study has its limitations. Since this special topic report – report no. 57. Hong Kong residents working in the mainland China, Hong a preliminary study on youth’s perceptions Kong: C&SD Publication. on career concern and issues, individual interview approach with a small size and Census and Statistics Department. (2013). Population- census 2011 – thematic report: youths, Hong purposive sample has weak generalisations Kong: C&SD Publication. in qualitative analysis as data may be less representative. Despite its limitations, the Code, M., & Bernes, K. (2006). Adolescents’ perceptions of career concerns. The National study can provide a springboard for further Consultation on Career Development research. (NATCON). Retrieved on May 25, 2008, from http://www.natcon.org/natcon/papers/ REFERENCES natconpapers2006c9.pdf Alan, F. (2007). Understanding youth in late Crawford, K., & Walker, J. (2007). Social Work and modernity, New York: Open University Press. Human Development. UK: Learning Matters Ltd.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Exploratory Factor Analysis: Blended Motivation of Malay Students Learning Mandarin as a Foreign Language
Tan, T. G.1*, Hairul Nizam Ismail2 and Ooi, A. E.1 1Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Kedah, 08400 Kedah, Malaysia 2School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT It is believed that motivation to learn a language is strongly influenced by the target language, location and the learners. Nevertheless, the questionnaires administered in the Eastern countries are usually developed in a Western context to a culturally specific context; this means the original questionnaires are adopted or adapted to suit local conditions . This study aims to identify key motivational factors for learners and affirm the suitability of a set of adapted questionnaire namely Language Learning Motivation for Mandarin (LLMM), for a survey on foreign language learning. A total of 148 Malay students at a public university in Malaysia voluntarily participated in answering the LLMM questionnaire. The completed questionnaires were used in an exploratory factor analysis procedure to identify what motivates learners of foreign language. A principal component analysis with varimax rotation obtained five-factor solution; these motivational factors are:Requirement Motivation, Interaction and Better Understanding, Interest and Pleasure, Leisure and Entertainment, and Future Career. The study concludes that blended motivation with Requirement Motivation as the most influential factor. The study also suggests that LLMM questionnaire be replicated to other Asian learners who are learning Mandarin as a foreign language. This is to ascertain its validity and applicability to the learners of Mandarin as a foreign language in the Asian context.
Keywords: Language learning motivation, Exploratory Factor Analysis, foreign language, Mandarin
INTRODUCTION ARTICLE INFO Article history: Motivation is believed to be one of the Received: 11 May 2015 Accepted: 28 September 2015 main determining factors in the success of
E-mail addresses: second/ foreign language learning. Gardner [email protected] (Tan, T. G.), and Lambert (1959, 1972), in their classic, [email protected] (Hairul Nizam Ismail), [email protected] (Ooi, A. E.) seminal studies of socio-educational model, * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Tan, T. G., Hairul Nizam Ismail and Ooi, A. E. introduced the constructs of integrative and into language learning motivation, has been instrumental motivation in the learning of adapted and used extensively in this field. non-native language. Integrative motivation The self-determination theory is characterised as a learner’s desire to learn distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic a language in order to interact and integrate motivations, and contrasts intrinsic-extrinsic into the target-language community . motivation with amotivation (Deci & Ryan, Instrumental motivation on the other hand 1985). Intrinsic motivation refers to the reflects a desire to gain some social or behaviour of an individual performing economic rewards through learning the an activity simply for the pleasure and language (Gardner & Lambert, 1959). satisfaction that accompany the action Gardner (1985) expanded the without expecting a reward. As for extrinsic socio-educational model to include motivation, it is referred to as a behaviour socio-psychological elements which where the activity is performed to receive emphasise strongly on “integrativeness”. positive and avoid negative incentives, Integrativeness is the strong willingness of such as earning a reward or avoiding the learner to associate and assimilate into punishment. Amotivation which is always the target-language community. “side-lined” by scholars, is described as a However, the validity of integrative and non-motivational behaviour. instrumental classification and the concept Although the close proximity of intrinsic- of integrativeness were challenged by many extrinsic motivation and integrative- scholars. Many past studies (see for example instrumental motivation has been noted Ely, 1986; Takayuki, 2002) indicate a desire (e.g. Dickinson, 1995; Noels, Clement & to learn a second/foreign language is not Pelletier, 2003), theorists have emphasised related to either integrative or instrumental the distinctiveness of these two models motivation. Some researchers also found (see Schmidt et al., 1996; Brown, 2007). that integrativeness is not the principal According to Schmidt Boraire and Kassabgy goal of learning the target language (e.g. (1996), and Brown (2007), situations Benson, 1991, 2002; Warden & Lin, which include both intrinsic-extrinsic 2000). The continuous criticisms led to the motivation and integrative-instrumental identification of new types of motivation motivation may coexist. In view of the such as Requirement motivation, Self- coexistence of intrinsic-extrinsic motivation efficacy and Linguistic self-confidence and integrative-instrumental motivation, among others. Efforts were also taken many researchers especially in the Asian by scholars to find alternative theoretical regions accommodate both dichotomies framework by incorporating motivational together with other motivational models in concepts from other fields. Deci and Ryan’s their research framework (e.g. Gonzales, (1985) self-determination theory, which 2010; Chin & Chan, 2011). Findings was not initially considered to gain insight show what motivates learners to learn an
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Asian foreign language is a mixture of This study accepts the challenge in instrumental, integrative, intrinsic and filling the research gap by studying key extrinsic motivations. motivational factors for target language However, a move towards learners and their location through a a set of accommodating the Self Concept from questionnaires known as Language Learning mainstream psychology has been noted Motivation for Mandarin (LLMM). The while maintaining the roots of previous study thus aims to identify the motivational integrative-instrumental and intrinsic- factors as well as to affirm the suitability extrinsic dichotomies. Dörnyei (2009) of LLMM for Mandarin as a method for is the premier and leading scholar who foreign language learner survey. With started this movement by introducing a L2 the development of this inventory, it is Motivational Self System model consisting hoped that the results of this survey re can of three dimensions, namely the Ideal L2 identify the factors that motivate learners Self; the Ought to L2 Self and L2 Learning of Mandarin as a foreign language in Asia. Experience. The Ideal L2 Self is defined as Identification of key motivational factors a “desire to reduce the discrepancy between based on types of students, will enable our actual and ideal selves” (p. 29), while, instructors to implement suitable teaching the Ought to L2 Self concerns “the attributes strategies to enhance and sustain student that one believes one ought to possess to interest in learning. meet expectations and to avoid possible negative outcomes” (p. 29). L2 Learning METHODOLOGY Experience focuses on “situated executive Participants motives related to the immediate learning A total of 148 Malay students from a environment and experience” (p. 29). population of 360 students who were Researchers who study motivation for learning Mandarin as a foreign or third second or foreign language learning in the language in one of the universities in the East, usually adopt or accommodate some northern region of Malaysia, voluntarily elements fromWestern language learning participated in the study. All the participants motivational inventories; this is to enable are Malay students who were born in them to identify motivational factors. The Malaysia. Most of them are from the rural empirical evidence obtained might not areas. They have completed their education be accurate due to the fact that the East in the national primary and secondary and West are culturally different. Dörnyei schools before pursuing their studies in (1994) has stated that motivation is strongly the university. They have been learning influenced by the target language, location English as a second language since six and the learners. In addition, cultural years of age. At the university, they are backgrounds have an impact on the learners’ required to take up a foreign or third motivational patterns (Yu & Watkins, 2008). language from a choice of Arabic, Germany,
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Japanese, Korean or Mandarin. All the The LLMM was administrated to the languages used a standardised syllabus and participants during their Mandarin classes assessment. Although the third language in the first week of the semester. Students is a compulsory elective course, there is completed the questionnaire anonymously no final examination. The assessment is within 10-15 minutes. All the 22 items are based on tests and group assignments. The prefaced by the statement: “I learn Mandarin participants in this study learned Mandarin because…… .” Participants were expected at level one (introductory), two and three. to respond to the 5-point Likert scale The syllabus emphasises on communicative ranging from 1 (never or almost never true skills but very limited amount of Chinese of me) to 5 (always or almost always true of characters are introduced. The participants’ me). All questionnaires were administered age ranges from 21-24 years and 38 (25.7 and collected by the instructors teaching in %) of them are male while the rest (74.3%) the respective classes. females. As for level of study, 22 (14.9%) The 22 items of LLMM is the final of them study Level One Mandarin, 105 version after content-related validation. (71%) of them study Level Two while the It had been subjected to content-related rest (14.1%) study Level Three. validation to establish its psychometric The sample size for the study (factor value of learning motivation for Mandarin. analysis procedure) is based on Hair, The LLMM is written in Malay and it has Anderson, Tatham, and Black’s (2009) undergone back translation. The initial suggestion, that is, to have at least five times version had 29 items. It was reviewed by 13 as many observations as there are variables Mandarin practitioners and three experts in to be analysed. As there are 22 items in cognitive psychology. The practitioners and the questionnaire, the sample (1 item : 6 experts noted some problematic and vague observations) is deemed adequate based on items. In response to their comments and the general rule as suggested. suggestions, all the items were critically examined for readability and clarity. Instrument Seven items were discarded and vague The items used in the instrument of this study items were reworded. Thirty Mandarin were adapted from many previous works. students were also invited to take part in the This questionnaire Learning Motivation content validation process. The researchers for Mandarin (LLMM) consists of two discussed the items with the students to parts. Part A consists of items regarding find out if there are any ambiguous terms, the participant’s demographic description unsuitable items, problems or ambiguity such as age, sex and Mandarin level. Part B they might encounter with the items in the consists of 22 items on learning motivation questionnaire. for Mandarin.
1014 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1011 - 1023 (2016) Blended Motivation of Malay Students Learning Mandarin as a Foreign Language
Procedure iii. Factor rotation through the Varimax Data collection took place in the first week rotation method with Kaiser of the semester. The participants were normalisation to make the factor Mandarin class students who agreed to structure more interpretable, take part in the survey voluntarily. Verbal iv. Determining how many factors to instructions and explanation were given to interpret and then assigning a label to the participants before they responded to the these factors. LLMM questionnaire. The participants took 10-15 minutes to complete the questionnaire. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) Data collected was analysed using SPSS was used for analysis whereby varimax Version 20. Participant particulars were rotation was conducted to determine the obtained through descriptive statistics by construct validity of the data collected. means of frequency counts and percentages. Prior to assessing assumptions, a visual This was followed by exploratory factor inspection was carried out by examining analysis procedure on the data collected from the correlation matrix. The inspection LLMM using principal axis factoring and indicated that a considerable number of varimax rotation to extract the underlying correlations exceeded 0.3 in the output. motivational factors. Finally, the Cronbach’s The inspection of the anti-image correlation alpha coefficient was computed on each matrix revealed that most of the measures factor to determine internal consistency and of sampling adequacy were well above the reliability of the scale. acceptable level of 0.5. This shows that the items were deemed suitable for factoring as the correlation matrix and anti-image Exploratory Factor Analysis correlation fulfil the general rule (Coakes Exploratory factor analysis method was & Steeds, 2003). performed on the items in order to extract Next, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) the underlying factors characterising Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett motivation. Factor analysis is a statistical Test of Sphericity were conducted to assess procedure which is able to bring together assumptions for the correlated variables in a cluster of items bound together by one the initial solution. common underlying factor (Macaro, 2003). Factor analysis in this study involves four Table 1 major steps suggested by George and KMO and Bartlett’s Test
Mallyert (2001). KMO Measure of Sampling .867 i. Computation of the correlation matrix, Adequacy Bartlett’s Test approx. Chi-Square 2371.808 ii. Factor extraction – to determine the of Sphericity number of factors necessary to represent df 231 the data, sig. .000
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As shown in Table 1, the KMO of Two items were subsequently discarded Sampling Adequacy is .867 which is from the list as they received a loading far greater than .5, a necessary value lower than .50. These items are item for factoring (Spincer, 2005). As it is a 11, “I want to be a Mandarin speaker”( meritorious value according to Hair, et loading: 0.301); item 12, “It is good for my al., (2009), it shows that there is good personal development” (loading: 0.389). correlation among the items. The Bartlett’s The loadings, their constituent items, and Test of Sphericity is also significant and this the Cronbach’s alpha for each factor are indicates that the set of items is sufficient to displayed in Table 3. support PCA. The Cronbach’s alpha (α) values of all The above results provide evidence that the factors are between 0.79 to 0.99, and the the items are acceptable for factor analysis. total Cronbach’s alpha for all the 20 items Subsequently, factors were extracted based is 0.89 which indicates that the internal on the following criteria: consistency reliability of each identified 1.) Eigenvalue >1 (Spincer, 2005) factor met the established reliability criterion at a satisfactory value (Sekaran, 2003). 2.) The loading score for each item >0.50. There are three items (item 1, 2, 22) (Hair et al., 2009) loaded under factor 1. These three items 3.) At least three items integrating under a receive very high loadings which are .97; factor (Shur, 2009). .97 and 92 respectively. Factor 1 reveals the reason to learn Mandarin is to fulfill the RESULTS course/university academic requirement and The PCA with varimax rotation retained pass it for graduation. The alpha value of only factors with eigenvalues greater than this factor is .99 which indicates singularity 1, thus producing an initial 5-factor solution among the items. There is no doubt this for 22 items. As shown in Table 2, the factor should be labelled as Requirement 5-factor solution for 22 items obtained from Motivation. the PCA with varimax rotation accounted for Six items (item 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.) which 66.65% of the total variance. receive loadings ranging from .42 to .73 are loaded under factor 2. All these six items Table 2 demonstrate the learners’ hope to interact Total Variance Explained and to be closer with the target language Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % community as well as to understand better 1 7.94 36.12 36.12 the target language community culture. As 2 2.74 12.46 48.58 such, this factor is labelled as Interaction and 3 1.66 7.55 56.13 Better Understanding. Similar motivational 4 1.26 5.72 61.85 factors concerning interaction have been 5 1.06 4.80 66.65 identified in previous studies (Ely, 1986;
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Dörnyei, 1990; Guo, 2004; Chang & Huang, Five items (items 13, 14, 15, 20, 21) 2006; Chan & Chin, 2011). whose loadings range from .46 to .78 are Factor 3 consists of three items (items grouped under factor 4. The items concern 17, 18, 19). The items generally receive leisure and entertainment purpose such as moderate loadings which range from .55 to sing/listen to songs, watching movies and .72. These three items illustrate the features TV programmes, and learning as a hobby. of interest and pleasure such as joy, like and Therefore, this factor is labelled as Leisure proud. Thus, this factor is labelled as Interest and Entertainment. and Pleasure.
Table 3 Factor Loading of the Motivational Items
Factor α Loadings Factor 1 = Requirement Motivation .99 1. My university requires me to learn a foreign language. .97 2. I need to learn a third language as my elective course. .97 22. I must pass a third language for graduation. .92 Factor 2 = Interaction and Knowledge .81 4. It will strengthen my relationship with my Chinese friends. .73 3. It will allow me to be more at ease with my Chinese friends. .66 7. It will allow me to meet more people from different backgrounds. .57 8. It will enable me to understand better and appreciate Chinese art and .50 literature. 6. It will enable me to know Chinese culture better. .42 5. I want to be actively involved in Chinese community activities. .42 Factor 3 = Interest and Pleasure .85 17. Learning Mandarin is a joyful experience. .72 18. I really like learning Mandarin. .61 19. I feel proud when I can say something in Mandarin. .55 Factor 4 = Leisure and Entertainment .79 14. I want to sing/listen to Mandarin songs. .78 20. Learning Mandarin has become my hobby. .66 13. I like to watch Mandarin movies/drama in TV. .56 21. I feel happy when I can accomplish difficult Mandarin exercises. .50 15. I want to understand the Mandarin programmes and movies on TV. .46 Factor 5 = Future Career .83 16. I believe it will help my career in the future. .83 9. I may need it for my future career. .71 10. I think it may help me to get a good job. .61 ALL ITEMS .89
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Finally, factor 5 consists of three items Interaction and identification with (items 9, 10, 16). These three items receive the target language community are two loadings of .61; .71; and .83. They clearly components in Integrativeness. However, show that Mandarin is perceived as valuable the second factor in this study, Interaction for one’s future occupation. Therefore, this and Better Understanding, shows that only factor is labelled as Future Career. one component, interaction, exists among students. This suggests that the learners DISCUSSION only hope to foster closer friendship, to The major factor, Requirement Motivation, gain more knowledge about the Chinese explains 36.2% of the total variance community and their culture, but do not hold indicating that it provides the motivational any interest in identifying themselves with push for majority of the students to learn the target language community. This could Mandarin. It can be concluded that the be directly related to government policy to motivation of Malay students learning promote national unity by urging the people Mandarin as a foreign language is inclined to interact and to understand each other’s strongly towards fulfilling the academic culture. The government is always proud of requirement of the university. The findings its people showing unity in diversity. of this study are consistent with most The same findings showing the existence previous studies in which students requiring of Integrative-ness without identification to learn a foreign language show a strong component were found in most of the studies inclination to Requirement Motivation (Ely, on Asian motivational studies (see for 1986; Peng, 2002; Kan, 2003). example, Yashima, 2000; Irie, 2003). The Although students are required to findings of past studies show participants learn a foreign language as an elective demonstrate positive disposition towards course, they are given a choice to select native speakers and the cultures of the the language they like. Thus, the existence target language community, but little or no of other motivational factors such as the motivation to truly integrate in the original desire to interact with the target language sense. The Asians, generally, learn a foreign community, self interest and other motives language for instrumental purposes and is not surprising. The learners’ motivational intrinsic needs. types are also closely related to their social The third and fourth factors, Interest and context. Malaysia is a multi-racial country Pleasure; and Leisure and Entertainment and the Chinese make up the second largest also explain the total of variance (7.55 % ethnic group. Participants can easily meet and 5.72% respectively). These two factors Chinese people and watch Chinese movies suggest that learners are motivated to learn in the cinema, or watch Chinese dramas Mandarin because they like the language at home. Most of them also have Chinese looking at it as a joyful experience as well neighbours and friends. as for better understanding of Chinese
1018 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1011 - 1023 (2016) Blended Motivation of Malay Students Learning Mandarin as a Foreign Language entertainment. The students were given a implications for the design and methodology choice to choose a foreign language they of the present Introductory Mandarin like. Most of them usually choose a language course and future Mandarin courses in the which they think might give them enjoyment university under study. As Requirement and satisfaction via the learning process. Motivation appears as the major factor, it Furthermore, as mentioned above, Chinese is important to focus on it. This is because TV drama from Hong Kong, Taiwan and amotivation is likely to set in among learners China are easily available in Malaysia. It who learn the language for purposes of would certainly help them to appreciate fulfilling a requirement rather than as a Chinese movie entertainment if they know choice. The instructors are encouraged the language. Enjoyment and satisfaction to conduct their teaching in an attractive are two main characteristics of intrinsic manner, employing more active learning motivation. The findings are congruent with strategies as a way to align their teaching past studies which show intrinsic motivation to suit other motivational factors in order as the reason for learning the target language to boost motivation. (Chan & Chin, 2011). The absence of identification with the The findings also indicate that students target language community suggests that learn Mandarin for their future career. the learners desired to learn Mandarin for Career-related orientation is important in social contact but not to identify themselves instrumental motivation; the extraction of with the Chinese community. The findings future career factor in this study clearly suggest that the curriculum and syllabus of replicates the results of most of the past the language in this university under study studies (see for example Gonzales, 2010; should continue to use communicative Chan & Chin, 2011). Most of the local approach to conduct the course. The factories and companies are owned by communicative approach which emphasises Malaysian Chinese. Some of them require on social contact and language use for competency in Mandarin when they survival is suitable for learners who learn a advertise for job vacancies. Thus, for many foreign language for instrumental purposes. learners, their chances of getting a job or Topics on culture should be taught to the promotion are better if they know Mandarin. learners for additional information and In short, the findings reveal that to better understand the target language besides learning the language to fulfill their community. university academic requirement, students Instructors are recommended to exploit learn it because of their own interest and as a students’ intrinsic values to sustain and source of pleasure. It is also to develop new strengthen the learners’ motivation. Besides friendships through better communication textbooks and workbooks, Mandarin and understanding, and which also be of songs, movies, TV dramas, and TV use in their future career. The findings bear advertisements can also be used as media-
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1011 - 1023 (2016) 1019 Tan, T. G., Hairul Nizam Ismail and Ooi, A. E. based supplemental teaching aids in the participants. Learning a compulsory elective course. It is not only analogous to student language with no final examination as need, but also exposes students indirectly to part of requirement cannot be viewed as Chinese society and culture ‘one believe one ought to possess to meet In order to satisfy students’ future expectations and to avoid possible negative occupational needs, the university as outcomes’ (Dörnyei, 2009). Furthermore, suggested to introduce Mandarin courses it is at the introductory level where the for specific purposes such as Mandarin for syllabus is easy for students to get good Business Purposes, Mandarin for Medical grades or hardly fail the course to get Study, Mandarin for Judiciary, Mandarin for negative consequences . The results of this Banking, etc. to help students develop their study are congruent with Beatrix’s (2009), proficiency in handling communicative task and Csizér and Kormos’ (2009) findings in career-related situations. which are also partially support Dörnyei’s The findings of this study are consistent L2 Motivational Self System. with most research findings on this topic As a few sub-components of integrative- which argued that integrative-instrumental instrument motivation, intrinsic-extrinsic and intrinsic-extrinsic motivations emerged motivation and requirement motivation are concurrently among the language learners. found in this study. Thus, we can postulate (Chalak & Kassaian, 2010; Masoud & Ali, that the motivational factors of foreign 2010; Chan & Chin, 2011; Lee, 2012). It language are better viewed as blending of a also reaffirms findings of earlier studies on few motivational models or theories rather Asian language learning motivation that than one model or theory. It is contended that they (Asian learners) are strongly inclined a blended type of motivational framework towards requirement motivation (if they are may be more applicable and appropriate for required to learn the language), intrinsic language learning motivation among Asian motivation, and instrumental motivation. learners. On the other hand, since Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System has gained CONCLUSION empirical support from various national The present study has verified that the contexts (Hsu, 2013), the findings of LLMM is a reliable and valid instrument to this study were also compared with identify motivational factors among learners Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System. who learn Mandarin as a foreign language. This study partially supports Dörnyei’s L2 However, the sample for this study is limited Motivational Self System. L2 Ideal Self to Malay learners. The outcome may be definitely exists where the learners hope to different if it is applied to learners from utilise the language in their future career. other races. It is recommended that this However, L2 Ought-to Self and L2 Learning instrument be adopted by other non-Chinese Experiences were not found among the Asians to investigate their foreign language
1020 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1011 - 1023 (2016) Blended Motivation of Malay Students Learning Mandarin as a Foreign Language learning motivation, especially motivation Chalak, A. & Kassaian, Z. (2011). Motivation and for learning Mandarin as a foreign language. attitudes of Iranian undergraduate EFL students The study has identified the blended towards learning English. GEMA Online™ Journal of Language Studies, 10(2), 37-56. motivational factors of Malay students learning Mandarin at the university Chan, W. M., & Chi, S.W. (2011). Popular media level in Malaysia. Using the exploratory as a motivational factor for foreign language learning: The example of the Korean wave. factor analysis procedure, five factors E-FLT. Singapore: Centre for Language Studies, were extracted from the data provided by NUS. the students. The factors were labelled Chang, S. F., & Huang, S. C. (2006). Measuring as Requirement Motivation, Interaction students motivation for learning English as and Better Understanding, Interest and a foreign language. Proceedings of the 2nd Pleasure, Leisure and Entertainment, and CLaSIC 2004 Conference. Singapore: Centre for Future Career. As this is a pioneer study Language Studies, NUS. on Malay students’ motivational factors Coakes, S. J., & Steed, L. G. (2003). SPSS version for learning Mandarin as a foreign/third 11.0 for windows. Analysis without Anguish. language and it only involves 148 students, Australia : Wiley. future study should be conducted with larger Crookes, G. R. W., & Schmidt, R. B. (1991). sample to reaffirm the findings. As this is Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. a quantitative study, a qualitative study Language Learning, 41(4), 469-512. is encouraged to consolidate the findings Csizer, K., & Kormos, J. (2009): Learning Experiences, of the present study . As the language Selves and Motivated Learning Behaviour: A learning motivation of the students is Comparative Analysis of Structural Models for contended to blended type , it is important Hungarian Secondary and University Learners that language educators look at motivation of English. In Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (Eds.), Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self. as a multifaceted and hybrid phenomenon Multilingual Matters, Bristol, pp. 98-119. where learners can be motivated in multiple ways, besides understanding the how’s and Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. NY: why’s of learner motivation. Plenum Press.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran
Saeid Kabiri1*, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati2 and Mahmoud Sharepour1 1Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Mazandaran, Ebne Sina Square, Shahid Beheshti Blvd, Babolsar, Iran 2Faculty of Human Science, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
ABSTRACT Hostile and instrumental aggression are very popular among soccer fans, The goal of hostile aggression is just to cause harm to the target like rival fans while instrumental aggression refers to actions intended to harm another person with the goal of achieving a result, such as assisting their favourite team to win the match. The body of research on sport fans’ violence shows that this aggression emerges through various social, psychological and situational factors. Thus, a few factors such as team identification, sport identity and team’s performance are crucial but hardly considered in Iranian research. However, the purpose of this current research is to examine the impact of aforementioned factors on instrumental and hostile aggression in football stadiums. The paper uses the social identity theory and survey method for data collection. The results of Mann-Whitney U test among 356 male spectators from the Padideh football club, demonstrate that fans that have high sport and team identification, also have more willingness to commit hostile and instrumental aggression compared with those with low sport and team identification. The study also found that the fans with high sport and team identification show more hostile aggressive actions against their opponents and officials than the fans with low sport and team identification. The fans with high sport and team identification showed a greater trend to commit instrumental aggression against their opponents compared with fans who have low sport and team identification. There are no differences between high and low sport and team identification in instrumental aggressive actions toward officials. Further, the rate of hostile and ARTICLE INFO Article history: instrumental aggression in losing a game Received: 11 May 2015 is higher than winning one. Considering Accepted: 26 January 2016 the hostile and instrumental aggression, the E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Saeid Kabiri), fans with low sport and team identification [email protected] (Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati), [email protected] (Mahmoud Sharepour) don’t report any significant differences in * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour winning/losing games. However, the fans of hostile aggression is just to cause harm to with high sport and team identification the target (for example, rival fans), whereas indicate significant differences in winning the purpose of instrumental aggression or losing games with respect to hostile and extends beyond harm to additional goals instrumental aggression. (End & Natalie, 2010), Thus, in hostile aggression, harming another person is a Keywords: Iranian football fans, instrumental/ key factor while the instrumental spectator hostile aggression, sport/team identification, team’s aggression refers to actions intended to harm performance another person with the goal of achieving a result, such as assisting a favourite team INTRODUCTION to win the match (Wann et al., 2015). A Sports fandom is a kind of sports participation. good example for instrumental aggression Fans are defined as “individuals who are is when a person yells at opposing players interested in following a sport, player, and/ to increase their teams’ chances of success or team” (Wann et al., 2001). Generally, a (Wann et al., 2015). fan is viewed as an obsessed individual who In this way, researchers indicate that has a very dedicated interest in a certain there is a significant relationship between team, or athlete. When the term fan is used, team identification, sport identity and fans’ it usually refers to popular culture. Fandom aggressive behaviours. In other words, high has not always been thought of as a positive identifying fans would report higher levels phenomenon, for example, sports fans have of hostile and instrumental aggression than easily been labelled as hooligans (Crawford, low identifying fans. Research on fans 2004). In other words, sports fans have behaviour found that team identification generally not been portrayed positively, is a significant and positive predictor of a especially in social science research which variety of aggressive reactions among fans have reported aggressive actions among (Wann et al., 2015). For example, Wann et high identifying fans (Jacobson, 2003) In al. (1999) showed that high identifying fans this way, one of the most important topics compared with low identifying fans report in the area of fandom is the study of social, a higher level of hostile and instrumental psychological and situational factors’ effect aggression. In addition, aggression directed on fans’ violence and illegal activity (Wann toward the officials naturally would tend et al., 2015). Recently, social scientists to be hostile. Moreover, Wann found have become more interested in fans’ a positive relationship between a fan’s willingness to commit aggressive actions team identification/sport fan identity and during matches classified as hostile or willingness to injure an opposing player instrumental aggression (Wann et al., 1999). or coach anonymously. Fans were more These types of aggressive behaviours are aggressive only when the target was a separated by the spectator’s intent. The goal player or coach of a rival team compared
1026 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran with officials because they realise that identification did not predict physical officials are trained to be impartial in their aggression. Sports fandom has many judgments. Another research conducted by advantages and social benefits such as Wann and his colleagues (2003) showed creating feelings of camaraderie, community sizeable minority admitted to considering and solidarity or enhanced social prestige engaging in anonymous acts of instrumental or self-esteem of fans and the research aggression directed toward rival players especially in Iran has focused on this. and coaches. Dimock and Grove (2003) Aggressive behaviours such as instrumental indicated that high identifying fans felt or hostile aggression types in stadium are less control over their behaviour at games one of the crucial drawbacks of sports than moderately identifying fans and fandom, which has been neglected in the low identifying fans. Rocca and Vogl- research literature. Therefore, the main Bauer’ (2009) reported that fans who purposes of the current research are: were verbally aggressive in trait were (a) i. To observe any relationship more likely to see verbal communication between fans’ identification (sport- directed at the players and coaches during team identification) and aggressive sporting events, and (b) less likely to see behaviours (hostile-instrumental). their apparent support for their teams as ii. To observe the team’s performance an appropriate form of communication impact on fan’s aggression. at sporting events. Participants who were high in fan identification were more likely iii. To observe the differences, if any, to see the team’s obvious insignia and between high identifying fans and verbal communication toward players and low identifying fans in aggressive coaches. End and Natally (2010) measured behaviours with respect to team the impact of seat location and ticket cost performance. on sports fans’ instrumental and hostile aggression. Their finding indicates that two MATERIALS AND METHODS main factors, namely seat location and ticket Theoretical framework cost, did not predict aggressive behaviour When we study sports scientifically, relevant (instrumental or hostile aggression), though theories help us to question and gain high identifying fans reported greater intent information that enable us to see sports to be aggressive than low identifying fans. in new ways, understand communication Further, Wann and his colleagues (2015) between sport and social life and make studied the relationship between aggressive reasonable decision about sports and its actions of youth baseball spectators and precedence in our life, family and society team identification. The results showed that (Coakley, 2001). To answer the question team identification predicted a willingness to as to why high identifying fans display commit verbally aggressive acts. However,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) 1027 Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour aggressive behaviours more than low Laverie and Arnett (2000) claimed that team identifying fans, social identity theory is identification explains significantly about a good theoretical framework. The two fans’ behaviour, such as event attendance, dominant theories in social psychology are: reading their favourite team’s news, identity theory and social identity theory. discussion with friends about sport team’s Identity theory is rooted in the concept of performance and so on. Accordingly, sport roles and role-identities (Jacobson, 2003) identity in high identifying fans become and social identity refers to the ways in the main part of their social identity, so which individuals and collectives separate display of aggressive behaviours among him with others (Jenkins, 1996). Tajfel high identifying fans can be accurately (1972) stated that social identity refers to explained by this sport team identity (Wann the individual’s knowledge that s/he belongs et al, 1999). In other words, high identifying to certain social groups together with some fans display aggressive actions, when their emotional and valuable significance to favourite teams lose the match or when him/her of this group membership (Kim opposing fans, players and coaches make & Kim, 2009). The main features of social them angry. Aligned with this aspect, the identity theory are: intergroup relations, body of research, revealed significant group processes and the social self (Hogg positive relationships between identification et al., 1995). According to Tajfel and Turner and willingness to aggressive actions (Wann (1986), one way to achieve positive social et al., 2003). Thus, Onovan et al. (2005) image and self-esteem is by associating argued that the social identity theory is an oneself with successful groups. Group appropriate perspective to understand fan identification has been shown to be an behaviours (Kerr, 2009). In addition, social important aspect of one’s self-concept identity theory is a proven and appropriate (Kraszewski, 2008). framework to explore issues with regard to From the definition of team sports fan aggression. identification, the concept of social identity Thus, the main purpose of this research is gained because team identification is a was to examine the relationship between manifestation of social identity (Absten, team identification, sport identity and 2011). With this membership, fans become willingness of aggressive actions among members of their favourite team because soccer fans. However, it was assumed they believe team performance has the that high identifying individuals would same consequences for them (Kim & Kim, report higher levels of instrumental/hostile 2009). In this situation, fans who connect aggression compared with fans with low themselves with favourite teams or athletes levels of identification. In addition, it was also attain feelings of vicarious achievement assumed that there would be an interaction simply by associating with the team while involving aggression type (i.e., hostile and being fans (Kimble & Cooper, 1992). instrumental) and aggression target (i.e.,
1028 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran officials and opposing players). Moreover, examining of the impact of game outcome the impact of situational variables-team or team performance on instrumental/hostile performance or game outcome- has crucial aggression among fans. It was assumed that repercussions on fans’ reactions. Actually, high identifying fans compared with low game outcome was assumed to be one identifying fans, in losing conditions, are situational variable that should have an more willing to commit instrumental and impact on instrumental/hostile aggression. hostile aggression. It is hypothesised that, there is a significant relationship between sports identification Research Hypotheses –team identification, sport identity- and a.) There is a significant relationship team’s performance; in fact, the highest between levels of sport, team levels of aggressive acts would be reported identification and the level of hostile/ by high identifying fans who consider instrumental aggression. their reactions as a retaliation to a loss or poor performance by their favourite team. b.) There is a significant difference In this area, two supporting data indicate between high identifying fans and low that the outcome or poor performance of a identifying fans in representation of game will have an impact on willingness to hostile and instrumental aggression by aggressive actions by the fans. First, from target (against officials and opponents). the frustration theory perspective which c.) There is a significant difference between claims feeling of frustration that comes from game outcome (win or lose) and the losing or poor performance could explain level of hostile/instrumental aggression. fans’ aggressive actions (Wann et al., 2005). d.) There is a significant difference between According to aggression-frustration theory, game outcome (win or lose) and the aggressive behavior is a direct result of level of hostile/instrumental aggression frustration that occurs when goal blockage by target. and fan’s expectations fail (Vaezmousav & Shojaie, 2005); when a fan’s favourite e.) There is a significant difference between team is losing the game or displays weak game outcome (win or lose) and the level performance, aggression could be expected of hostile/instrumental aggression by as a reaction to frustrated outcomes. target (against officials and opponents) Research on sports fans’ behaviours have and fans’ identification (sport and team found that the favourite team loses the game identification). or shows poor performance, it has negative impacts on high identifying fans’ state Methodology (End & Natalie, 2010) and increasing the Survey method was used for data collection possibility of aggressive behaviours among to answer the research questions. The them. So, the third purpose of this study is population of this research was supporters
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) 1029 Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour and fans of Padideh soccer club in Mashhad psychologically harm them (Wann et al., city. Using random sampling, 356 soccer 1999). fans were selected for data gathering and completed the questionnaires. Because the Procedure distributions of samples were not normal, The first section of the questionnaire we have used non-parametric test (Mann- contained demographic items assessing Whitney U test). Sports identity which is age group, marital situation and education; commonly defined as the degree to which the second section contained the Sport a person identifies with the role of a fan Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS, Wann and categorise as private and public sport & Branscombe, 1993). This reliable and identity. Private athletic identity refers to valid 5-item scale has been used in a the extent to which the individual thinks and number of studies to assess sports fan feels like a fan, while public athletic identity identification (Wann et al., 1999). The is the extent to which an individual is known Sport Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS) and recognised by others as a fan. (Nasco & (Wann & Branscombe, 1993) contains Webb, 2006). Team identification is defined the following seven questions designed as a fan’s psychological connection to a to measure level of identification with a team, that is, the extent to which the fan specific sport team: How important to YOU views the team as an extension of him or is it that this team wins?, How strongly do herself (Wan et al., 2001; Clipert, 2010, p. 3). YOU see YOURSELF as a fan of this team?, Sport aggression is defined as: “Aggression How strongly do your FRIENDS see You is any form of behavior directed toward as fan of this team?, During the season, the goal of harming or injuring another how closely do you follow this team via living being who is motivated to avoid ANY of the following: a) in person or on such treatment.” (Baron & Richardson, television, b) on the radio, or e) television 1994). Hostile and instrumental aggression: news or a newspaper?, How important is The goal of hostile aggression is solely to being a fan of this team to YOU?, How cause harm to the target while the intent of much do YOU display this team’s name instrumental aggression extends beyond or insignia at your place of work, where harm to additional goals. Thus, an example you live, or on your clothing? Responses of instrumental aggression relevant to sports are provided on a Likert Scale where fan behaviour would be a fan verbally 5=Strongly agree and 1=Strongly disagree. abusing an opposing player hoping to Wann and Branscombe (1993) demonstrated impair her/his performance (End & Natalie, that the SSIS possesses internal consistency 2010), and in instrumental aggression type, (Cronbach’s alpha=.91). Cronbach’s alpha fans may yell obscenities or throw objects for the SSIS in the present study was.86. at players and officials because they are The Sport Fandom Questionnaire (SFQ) angry at them and want to physically or (Wann, 2003) was used for data gathering
1030 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran from participants. The SFQ consists of two items pertaining to officials and two at the following five questions designed to the opposition. The remaining four items measure an individual’s identification with measured instrumental aggression, an act of his/her role as a sport fan: I consider myself aggression motivated by reasons other than to be a soccer fan, My friends see me as a aggression (i.e. to help your team win). Two soccer fan, I believe that following soccer is instrumental aggression items pertained the most enjoyable form of entertainment, to officials and two to the opposition. The My life would be less enjoyable if I were hostile aggression items were summed not able to follow soccer, Being a soccer up to create a single hostile aggression fan is very important to me. Responses are score (Cronbach’s alpha =.82), as were the provided using a Likert Scale where 5= instrumental aggression items (Cronbach’s Strongly agree and 1=Strongly disagree. It alpha =.89). Previous research has also was found that the SFQ possessed strong shown the HIASQ to be valid and reliable internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha (Wann et al., 1993; Wann et al., 1999; End =.96 in Wann, 2003). Cronbach’s alpha & Natalie, 2010). In addition, participants for the SFQ in the present study was .83. were randomly assigned to one of two The hostile and instrumental aggression conditions. In one condition, participants of spectator’s questionnaire contained read that the team had just won a game the eight-item Hostile and Instrumental against their rival (the “won” condition). Aggression of Spectators Questionnaire In the other condition (the “lost” condition) (HIASQ) used in Wann et al. (2000). Wann participants read that their team had just et al. maintained that the scale was reliable, lost to the major rival. Then, we asked valid and contained two items assessing respondents to fill the above-mentioned each of the four combinations of aggression questionnaire that consisted of five items, target (i.e., officials and opposition) and namely demographic, team identification, aggression type (i.e., instrumental and sport fandom identity, instrumental and hostile). The question was: how likely is it hostile aggression scales. that you would have yelled at the officials because you were mad at him/her and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION wanted to express anger?” Responses are Findings of this research showed that provided using a scale where 1= not at 91.1% of the respondents are unmarried and all likely and 6= absolutely likely. Thus, only 8.9% of fans are married. Moreover, a higher score indicates a greater intent to statistics indicate that the mean age of fans aggress. Low scores indicate little or no is 25.53 years (SD=6.35 years, range=16 to intentions to aggress. Four items measured 55 years), and the level of education of most hostile aggression, aggression for purposes respondents is up to year 11 (high school). of hurting or injuring another person, with
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) 1031 Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour
Soccer Fans’ Hostile and Instrumental and instrumental aggression was 119.05 and Aggression by Sport and Team respectively 130.5 and thus p>.05]. Identification To examine the differences between high Hostile Aggression Target (Opponents identifying fans and low identifying fans and Officials) by Sport and Team in total hostile and instrumental aggression Identification scale (Table 1), mixed factor analysis of The mean rank appears in Table 2. The variance (Mann-Whitney U test) was used results indicate that the effects of sport and scores of hostile and instrumental and team identification are significant. aggression were analysed by sport and team Univariate tests show that according to identification. hostile aggression against officials and The result of Mann-Whitney U test opponents, there is a significant difference indicate that high identifying fans have between high identifying fans and low more willingness to commit hostile and identifying fans. As Table 2 shows, in sport instrumental aggression compared with low identification section, high identifying fans identifying fans based on sport identification show more hostile aggressive actions against [high identifying fans’ mean rank for opponents and officials [high identifying hostile and instrumental aggression was fans’ mean rank for hostile aggression 253.81 and 228.9 respectively and & low against opponents and officials was 251.72 identifying fans’ mean rank for hostile and and 239.66 respectively, p <.05] compared instrumental aggression was 124.92 and with low identifying fans [low identifying 146.67 respectively and thus p>.05] and team fans’ mean rank for hostile aggression identification [high identifying fans’ mean against opponents and officials was 126.74 rank for hostile and instrumental aggression and 137.28 respectively, p <.05]. was: 286.88 and 269.19 respectively and In addition, in the team identification low identifying fans’ mean rank for hostile section, these results repeat too [high
Table 1 Mann-Whitney U test for differences between high identifying soccer fans and low identifying soccer fans in total hostile and instrumental aggression by sport and team identification
N Mean Rank Mann-Whitney U Sig. (2-tailed) Total Hostile Low sport identification 197 124.92 5106.500 .000 aggression High sport identification 172 253.81 Total instrumental Low sport identification 197 146.67 9391.000 .000 aggression High sport identification 172 228.90 Total Hostile Low team identification 224 119.05 1467.500 .000 aggression High team identification 145 286.88 Total instrumental Low team identification 224 130.50 4032.500 .000 aggression High team identification 145 269.19
1032 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran identifying fans’ mean rank for hostile was 282.48, p <.05] than low identifying aggression against opponents and officials fans [low identifying fans’ mean rank for was 282.78 and 267.47 respectively and instrumental aggression against opponents low identifying fans’ mean rank for hostile was 121.90, p <.05]. aggression against opponents and officials In the team identification section, was 121.71 131.61 respectively, p <.05]. the same results were replicated [high identifying fans’ mean rank for instrumental Instrumental Aggression Target aggression against opponents was 244.69 (Opponents and Officials) by Sport and and low identifying fans’ mean rank for Team Identification instrumental aggression against opponents To examine the differences between high was 132.89, p <.05]. identifying soccer fans and low identifying Instrumental aggression against soccer fans in instrumental aggression scale officials in sport identification and team (Table 3), mixed factor analysis of variance identification section was also analysed. (Mann-Whitney U test) and scores of Univariate tests indicated that there were no instrumental aggression were analysed by differences between high identifying fans sport and team identification. and low identifying fans in instrumental Results demonstrated that in the sport aggressive actions toward officials by sport identification section, high identifying identification [high identifying fans’ mean fans have more willingness to commit rank for instrumental aggression against instrumental aggression against opponents officials was 188.11 and low identifying [high identifying fans’ mean rank for fans’ mean rank for instrumental aggression instrumental aggression against opponents against officials was 182.99, p <.05] and team
Table 2. Mann-Whitney U test for differences between high identifying soccer fans and low identifying soccer fans in hostile aggression by sport and team identification N Mean Rank Mann-Whitney U Sig. (2-tailed) Hostile aggression Low sport 197 126.74 5465.500 .000 against opponents identification High sport 172 251.72 identification Hostile aggression Low sport 197 137.28 7540.500 .000 against officials identification High sport 172 239.66 identification Hostile aggression Low team identification 224 121.71 2062.000 .000 against opponents High team 145 282.78 identification Hostile aggression Low team identification 224 131.61 4281.500 .000 against officials High team 145 267.47 identification
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) 1033 Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour identification [high identifying fans’ mean Also, in instrumental aggression type, rank for instrumental aggression against these significant differences in lose condition officials was 175.97 and low identifying [lose condition’s mean rank for instrumental fans’ mean rank for instrumental aggression aggression types, total, opponents and against officials was 192.88, p <.05]. officials, respectively were 220.62, 218.54, 198.11, p <.05] and winning condition [win Fans’ Hostile and Instrumental condition’s mean rank for instrumental Aggression Types – Total, Opponents aggression types, total, opponents and and Officials - by Game Outcome (Win officials, respectively were: 149.96, 152.01, or Loss) 172.10, p <.05] had been repeated too. We assumed that there were significant differences between a game outcome (win Fans’ Hostile and Instrumental or loss) and the level of hostile/instrumental Aggression toward Target – Opponents aggression. Univariate test (Table 4) shows and Officials - by Game Outcome (Win that, the aforementioned differences have or Loss) and Fans Identification (Sport and Team Identification) been proved. In fact, the rate of hostile aggression in loss condition [loss condition’ After splitting team and sport identification mean rank for hostile aggression types in two parts – low and high identification -total, opponents and officials- respectively: - we execute Mann-Whitney U test (Table 221.95, 215.68, 223.91, p <.05] is higher 5) for each hostile and instrumental than win condition [win condition’s mean aggression in win and loss condition. As rank for hostile aggression types, total, Univariate test shows, in the first section, opponents and officials, respectively were namely sport identification, by regarding 148.65, 154.82, 146.72, p <.05]. team performance –win or loss - there
Table 3 Mann-Whitney U test for differences between high identifying soccer fans and low identifying ones in instrumental aggression by sport and team identification N Mean Rank Mann-Whitney U Sig. (2-tailed) Instrumental Low sport identification 224 121.90 2105.000 .000 aggression against High sport identification 145 282.48 opponents Instrumental Low sport identification 224 182.99 15789.000 .646 aggression against High sport identification 145 188.11 officials Instrumental Low team identification 197 132.89 6676.000 .000 aggression against High team identification 172 244.69 opponents Instrumental Low team identification 197 192.88 15389.500 .122 aggression against High team identification 172 175.97 officials
1034 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran are significant differences between low p<.05, win/hostile aggression against identifying fans and high identifying fan. officials: 50.46, loss/hostile aggression In fact, low identifying fans don’t report against opponents: 110.07, p<.05], and any significant differences in win or loss instrumental aggression [win/instrumental condition by considering of hostile [win/ aggression against opponents:60.90, loss/ hostile aggression against opponents: 93.61, instrumental aggression against opponents: loss/hostile aggression against opponents: 103.24, p<.05, win/instrumental aggression 107.05, p>.05, win/hostile aggression against officials:70.90, loss/ instrumental against officials: 97.24, loss/hostile aggression against officials: 96.70, p<.05]. aggression against opponents: 101.63, In the second section – team identification p>.05], and instrumental aggression [win/ - by regarding team performance, win or instrumental aggression against opponents: loss, data indicated significant differences 94.62, loss/ instrumental aggression between low identifying fans and high against opponents:105.54, p>.05, win/ identifying fans and in fact, low identifying instrumental aggression against officials: fans don’t report any significant differences 96.33, loss/instrumental aggression against in win or loss condition by considering officials: 102.99, p>.05]. On the other hand, hostile [win/hostile aggression against high identifying fans indicate significant opponents:110.96, loss/hostile aggression differences in win or loss condition by against opponents: 114.75, p>.05, win/ considering hostile [win/hostile aggression hostile aggression against officials:109.46, against opponents: 65.76, loss/hostile loss/hostile aggression against opponents: aggression against opponents: 100.06, 116.95, p>.05], and instrumental aggression
Table 4 Mann-Whitney U test for differences between game outcome (win or loss) and hostile/instrumental aggression types (total, against opponents and officials)
N Mean Rank Mann-Whitney U Sig. (2-tailed) Total hostile aggression Win condition 186 148.65 10258.000 .000 Loss condition 183 221.95 Hostile aggression against Win condition 186 154.82 11405.000 .000 opponents Loss condition 183 215.68 Hostile aggression against Win condition 186 146.72 9898.000 .000 officials Loss condition 183 223.91 Total instrumental Win condition 186 149.96 10501.000 .000 aggression Loss condition 183 220.62 Instrumental aggression Win condition 186 152.01 10882.000 .000 against opponents Loss condition 183 218.54 Instrumental aggression Win condition 186 172.10 14619.500 .000 against officials Loss condition 183 198.11
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) 1035 Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour
[win/instrumental aggression against et al. (1999), Dimock and Grove (2003), opponents:108.80, loss/ instrumental Wann et al. (2003), Rocca and Vogl-Bauer’ aggression against opponents:117.91, (2009), End and Natally (2010) and Wann p>.05, win/ instrumental aggression et al. (2015). In fact, as recent studies against officials:107.50, loss/ instrumental revealed, high identifying fans reported aggression against officials: 119.81, p>.05]. more willingness to aggressive actions On the other hand, high identifying fans toward opposing players and officials than showed significant differences in win/loss low identifying fans (Wann, Carlson & condition by considering hostile [win/ Schrader, 1999) and it is best to distinguish hostile aggression against opponents: 48.69, them from low identifying fans (Wann & loss/hostile aggression against opponents: Branscombe, 1993). 87.01, p<.05, win/hostile aggression against The result of this research also indicates officials: 34.96, loss/hostile aggression that the fans with high sport and team against opponents: 94.91, p<.05], and identity have more willingness to commit instrumental aggression [win/instrumental hostile and instrumental aggression aggression against opponents: 45.36, loss/ compared with the fans with low sport instrumental aggression against opponents: and team identity. Moreover, there are 88.92, p<.05, win/ instrumental aggression significant differences between high against officials: 64.82, loss/ instrumental identifying fans and low identifying fans. aggression against officials: 77.71, p<.05]. Interestingly, this research demonstrated that high identifying fans have more willingness CONCLUSION to commit instrumental aggression against The findings of this research indicate opponents than low identifying fans. When that high identifying fans express more instrumental aggression against officials aggressive behaviour compared with low were analysed, univariate tests indicated no identifying fans in situations when their differences between high identifying fans team play poorly, lose the match or the and low identifying fans in instrumental opponents’ players are better than them. aggressive actions toward officials through Moreover, the result of this research shows sport and team identification; this is because that there are significant differences between the role of a team follower is a central part high identifying fans and low identifying of fans’ sport identity (Wann et al., 1999) fans in hostile/instrumental aggression. In and the team’s performance highly pertains other words, high identifying fans are more to self-esteem, positive self-image (Wann willing to commit aggressive action. They et al., 1998). For fans with a low level of commit hostile/instrumental aggression identification, the role of team follower to protect their sport team identity in is only a peripheral component of their comparison with low identifying fans. This self-concept (Crocker & Major, 1989). result confirms previous works of Wann As a result, the team’s performances have
1036 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer Club of Iran
Table 5 Mann-Whitney U test for soccer fans’ hostile and instrumental aggression types – total, opponents and officials - by game outcome (win or loss) and fans identification (sport and team identification)
Mann- Sig. N Mean Rank Whitney U (2-tailed) Low sport Hostile aggression Win condition 118 93.61 4025.000 .097 identification against opponents Loss condition 79 107.05 Hostile aggression Win condition 118 97.24 4453.500 .585 against officials Loss condition 79 101.63 Instrumental Win condition 118 94.62 4144.000 .178 aggression against Loss condition 79 105.54 opponents Instrumental Win condition 118 96.33 4346.000 .415 aggression against Loss condition 79 102.99 officials High sport Hostile aggression Win condition 68 65.76 2125.500 .000 identification against opponents Loss condition 104 100.06 Hostile aggression Win condition 68 50.46 1085.000 .000 against officials Loss condition 104 110.07 Instrumental Win condition 68 60.90 1795.000 .000 aggression against Loss condition 104 103.24 opponents Instrumental Win condition 68 70.90 2475.500 .001 aggression against Loss condition 104 96.70 officials Low team Hostile aggression Win condition 133 110.96 5847.000 .660 identification against opponents Loss condition 91 114.75 Hostile aggression Win condition 133 109.46 5647.000 .380 against officials Loss condition 91 116.95 Instrumental Win condition 133 108.80 5559.500 .290 aggression against Loss condition 91 117.91 opponents Instrumental Win condition 133 107.50 5386.000 .154 aggression against Loss condition 91 119.81 officials High team Hostile aggression Win condition 53 48.69 1149.500 .000 identification against opponents Loss condition 92 87.01 Hostile aggression Win condition 53 34.96 422.000 .000 against officials Loss condition 92 94.91 Instrumental Win condition 53 45.36 973.000 .000 aggression against Loss condition 92 88.92 opponents Instrumental Win condition 53 64.82 2004.500 .070 aggression against Loss condition 92 77.71 officials
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1025 - 1041 (2016) 1037 Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour little consequence for their self-image assist their team. Rather, they tend to act and therefore, they are less likely to react aggressively (hostile type) toward these aggressively. people as a reaction to poor judgment. This research also indicates that there (Wann et al., 1999). are significant differences between hostile/ Regarding the team’s performance, the instrumental aggression and aggression results of analysis variance shows that win target (officials and opposing players). or loss condition has different impact on Consistent with Wann, Carlson and Schrade’s fans reactions. For instance, when a team’s (1999) research, aggression toward rivals’ performance (loss condition) is poor, the high players, coaches and spectator was hostile identifying fans have more willingness to or instrumental, while the aggression commit hostile and instrumental aggression toward officials was more hostile than against opponents than low identifying instrumental. In addition, when aggression fans and the significant relationship failed target was analysed by sport and team between the team’ performance (win or identification, the finding showed that there loss condition) and tendency to hostile or were no differences in hostile/instrumental instrumental aggression. According to the aggression toward opponents and officials frustration theory, aggression is the direct by low identifying fans. In contrast, high result of a frustration that occurs because of identifying fans show more willingness failure or goal obstruction (Vaezmousav & to commit hostile and instrumental Shojaie, 2005). When fans couldn’t achieve aggression against opponents than officials their goal or expectation (winning the game, which are displayed only in instrumental high team performance) the likelihood of aggression toward opponents rather than negative reactions such as aggressive actions officials. Therefore, the prediction that high will increase. In fact, in their opinion, such identifying fans would report greater levels reactions could be appropriate and logical. of both hostile and instrumental aggression As this study indicates, in lose condition, was confirmed. Also, aggression directed the intent of aggressive action in high toward the officials in high identifying identifying fans will increase compared with fans was more likely to be hostile than win condition that spectators’ expectation of instrumental, while aggression directed good performance will obviate. Therefore, toward the opposition was equally likely in win condition, spectators as frustration to be hostile or instrumental. Wann et al. theory claims, have less willingness to (1999) argued that these different patterns commit aggressive action. may be a result of socialisation whereby fans learn officials are impartial in their REFERENCES judgments. Consequently, the spectators are Absten, S, L. (2011). Factors That Influence Team less likely to act aggressively (instrumental) Identification: Sport Fandom and the Need against these people in an attempt to for Affiliation. (Masters Theses and Specialist Projects). The Faculty of the Department of
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consider illegally assisting their team. Social Wann, D. L., Schrader, M. P., & Adamson. D. R. Behavior and Personality, 29(6), 531-536. (1998). The cognitive and somatic anxiety of sport spectators. Journal of Sport Behavior, Wann, D. L., Peterson, R. R., Cothran, C., & Dykes, 21(3), 322-337. M. (1999). Sport fan aggression and anonymity: The importance of team identification. Social Behavior and Personality, 27(6), 597-602.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the Stakeholder Approach
Ginta Ginting Faculty of Economy, Universitas Terbuka-Indonesia, Pondok Cabe-Tangerang Selatan, Indonesia
ABSTRACT This study applies the stakeholder theory in understanding the importance of managing good relationships between stakeholders which are useful in establishing network capital for SMEs in practising business responsibility that puts emphasis on calculative, economic, rational and professional factors. This study aims to advance our understanding of how SMEs practise business responsibility by referring to the proposed model. This study was conducted to bridge the gap between the research approach that has been widely used by social capital theory and the stakeholder approach. An exploratory case study research methodology was applied to investigate the research problem. Data was collected from 30 semi-structured open ended interviews with owner-managers of SMES in Java Island, Indonesia. Findings of this study indicated that business responsibility relies on SMEs because there is a demand from important and primary stakeholders such as buyers, suppliers and customers for economic objectives. The results of this study showed the importance of strategic and legitimacy aspects in maintaining sustainability of small and medium business.
Keywords: Business responsibility, stakeholder, SMEs
INTRODUCTION Welford, 2005; Carrol, 2006; Asongu, 2007; The concept of business responsibility Mahyuni, 2013), followed by Corporate began in 1970 with the emergence of Sustainability or CS (Katssoulakos & Yanis, Corporate Social Responsibility or CSR 2007; Munkelien et al., 2010), and today, (Elkington, 1998; Maten & Moon, 2005; it is discussed in a broader field - Global Corporate Citizen or GCC (Katsoulukos & ARTICLE INFO Article history: Yanis, 2007; Hoivik et al., 2009; Hoivik & Received: 14 May 2015 Shankar, 2011; Ning-ning, 2014). Basically, Accepted: 30 January 2016
E-mail addresses: an enterprise’ responsibility can be defined [email protected], [email protected] using the three concepts utilised to conduct (Ginta Ginting)
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ginta Ginting businesses - in an economically viable, with limited resources? Another research socially responsible, culturally acceptable question posed by Perrini (2006) and and environmentally friendly manner in Sangeetha and Pria (2011) is: which theory order to maintain sustainability by building of social capital is more appropriate for a good relationship with stakeholders. The SMEs and which stakeholder theory is business responsibility movement is still a more suitable for large companies? The mainstream issue in various organisations. latest study by Kechiche and Soparnot This movement has influenced the mind- (2012) posed another question: should the set of businesses to see the effects that implementation of CSR in SMEs be the companies have on the public and other same with the large businesses? stakeholders as the core of the company’s Business responsibility practices operations, not only in the scope of local can affect the competitiveness of SMEs and regional, but also at the global levels. through: 1) high motivation and loyal In the context of Small and Medium employees’ publicity, effective word- Enterprises (SMEs), debates focusing on of-mouth of the company’s product and the pros and cons of interest still continue to services and better position in the labour this day, especially regarding the usefulness market (Morillo & Lozano, 2006), 2) of SMEs practising business responsibility, improvement of products and production where most of them only have a small to better customer satisfaction and loyalty scope of operation in the local market and (Kechiche & Soparnot, 2012), 3) better a small capital. Among the empirical studies network with business partners, increased conducted in this field, Morillo and Lozano profits due to more efficient deployment of (2006), Perrine et al. (2007), Kechiche human resources and the use of production and Soparnot (2012) and Demuijnck and resources, as well as increased sales turnover Ngnodjom, (2013) stand out in investigating (Torugsa et al., 2012). Furthermore, Perrini how SMEs that were implementing business (2006) states that the implementation responsibility carried out an assessment of CSR in SMEs offers greater market of the application of social responsibility access, productivity, and broader social as an informal CSR, CSR minimalist, low benefits such as education and community commitment and small benefits. Studies development. More specifically, Hoivik and concerning the implementation of business Shankar (2011) proposed two important responsibility movement (see Morillo & reasons why business responsibility should Lozano, 2006; Cachet & Vo, 2012) which be taken into account by SMEs, particularly indicated the need for further empirical entrepreneurial nature and drives innovation, studies highlighted two important questions: as these can have major strategic impacts on 1) Can business responsibility of CSR- their businesses. SMEs implemented nationally be extended The stakeholder approach to to the international/global level? 2) Can understanding the practice of business business responsibility be applied by SMEs responsibility in SMEs is to look at it from
1044 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the Stakeholder Approach the perspective of economic theory (unique not feasible to offer credit, quality standards, resources and survival challenge). Several innovation, an increase in capacity of empirical studies such as those by Williamson human resources as well as the various et al., (2006), Den and James (2012), and rules imposed on the products to enter the Campin et al., (2013) investigating the world market (Wengel & Rodriguez, 2006; CSR-SMEs relationship showed that they Tambunan, 2007; OECD, 2009) are more aligned to the fundamental social Based on the earlier explanation, the capital theory, which explores building research question posed in this study was relationships and networking with a range how business responsibility is perceived of stakeholders, and not judged by their by SMEs and which stakeholders influence stake in the business but the social capital. business responsibility participation. When The research question posed by Beckman compared with previous studies, this paper et al. (2009) and Sangeetha and Pria (2011) has several differences in that it bridges the highlights that stakeholder approach needs research gap. First, larger companies have to be supported by the capabilities of SMEs already incorporated business responsibility to build capital to access network resources in their strategic plan as an essential element and knowledge owned by the stakeholders for long term sustainability, while SMEs (network capital). The network capital participating in business responsibility consists of strategic and calculative relations remain undefined (Jamali, 2008). Second, and networks held by firms (Huggins, 2009). most previous studies adopted the social Huggins (2010) emphasises that the concept capital theory and among them, Gibson of network capital can be used to access the (2000) were primarily concerned with available resources between the company significance of relationship as a resource and other parties/partners based on logical, for social action; Jamali (2008) stated that professional, strategic, and calculative organisations participate in social activities principles. with the aim of increasing social capital, In the Indonesian context, SMEs whereas this study used the stakeholder have not yet fully concerned themselves theory putting emphasis on economic about business responsibility, because aspects rather than social. In the earlier business responsibility is mostly active studies, Mitchell et al. (1997) stated the in the local/national markets. However, stakeholder salience model and ranked SMEs which are beginning to expand their business stakeholder on the basis of their markets through exports are required to power, urgency and legitimacy. Freeman meet the demand of primary stakeholders (1984) stated that stakeholders are groups such as buyers, government, suppliers, on which the organisation is dependent agents and customers. In general, the for its continued survival. Huggins (2010) demands of stakeholders are as follows: emphasised that the concept of network internationalisation, standardisation of capital can be used to access the available product, most of the SMEs financing being resources between the company and
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) 1045 Ginta Ginting other parties/partners based on logical, and each will get benefit. The network professional, strategic, and calculative modelling developed by Rowley (see Figure principles. While the previous studies had 2) looks at the aspect of networking effect used quantitative data (Perini 2006; Morillo built by stakeholders where they have a & Lozano 2006 & Campin et al., 2013) direct a relationship with one another. Yet, data in this study were analysed through an the nature of the relationship between the exploratory method which is appropriate stakeholders still affects the company. for the focus of the research area which Pederson modelling (2010) is the right model was little understood. Finally, this study to be used as a reference in balancing the proposed a conceptual model and combined interests of stakeholders (see Figure 3). This it with the empirical research. model explain that it is possible to develop The rest of the paper is organised in marketable high quality products, ensure the following manner: Section 2 provides a comfortable working environment and a conceptual model. This is followed by reduce negative environmental impacts if a discussion of the research methodology a manager implements social responsibility and empirical results in Section 3 and 4 and manages to attain good relationships respectively. with multi-stakeholders. In other words, managing external stakeholders means THE PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL “environmentally friendly” SMEs business MODEL give positive impacts on communities, In order to respond to the development customers, government and employees. of business responsibility activities, the concept of stakeholder approach is important as it has entered the global arena, whereas the one that affects the continuity of the company is a multi-stakeholder approach with extensive networking. The proposed model is built on several previous models developed by Donalson and Peterson (1995), Rowley (1997) and Pederson (2010). The stakeholder modelling developed by Donalson and Peterson (1995) is based on the argument that all individuals and groups have the legitimacy to participate in the company and the company benefits from stakeholders (see Figure 1). In this Figure 1. Stakeholder Modelling model, there is no special priority as all (Source: Donalson & Peterson,1995, p. 80) stakeholders have equal access and position
1046 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the Stakeholder Approach
SCR, Corporate Sustainability/CS and Global Corporate Citizen/GCC). This model fulfils the requirement of SMEs in Indonesia which are currently facing the phenomenon of “growing interest in entering the international/global market” (Wismiarsi et al., 2009). The proposed model takes into account important aspects, namely SMEs engaging in international/ global business start to realise the impact of applying business practices responsibly. With limited resources owned and the ability to successfully support business responsibility practices, it is necessary Figure 2. Stakeholder Networking Model to understand the importance of building (Source: Rowley,1997, p. 901) relationships with stakeholders to take full advantage of the network capital of relationship with them. Meanwhile, the aspects of centrality and density as well as the multiple stakeholders faced by owners/ managers of SMEs should be important considerations in ensuring the relationships built could provide economic, rational and investment benefits of the network resources owned by stakeholders as a partner of the business activities. The model of the business responsibility proposed is an appropriate model to be used as a reference in balancing the interests of stakeholders associated with business responsibility practices in Indonesia (see Figure 3. Pederson’s CSR Model Figure 4). (Source: Pederson, 2010, p. 155) This model could be used to explain that owners/managers internally managing Pertaining to the third model, this paper the relationships with stakeholders in proposes a conceptual model that can be implementing business responsibility applied in the context of the implementation would have developed and marketed high of business responsibility (blending the three quality products, ensured a comfortable concepts of Corporate Social Responsibility/
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) 1047 Ginta Ginting working environment, and reduced all these, managers can be convinced that the negative environmental impacts. Managing company would be a good corporate citizen. relationships with external stakeholders In a broader scope, it would be a global in the context of business responsibility corporate citizen that creates value for the involves a company to deliver products company, the community and the society. that satisfy consumers and employ disabled people, build good relationships with METHODOLOGY suppliers on the basis of a win-win solution, Further step to assess the proposed model collaborate with agencies and universities involves the application of the concept in order to encourage innovations and of business responsibility in SMEs. For build networking with the government in this purpose, data were collected using order to overcome limitations in terms of in-depth face-to-face interviews to obtain regulation, bureaucracy, and information of more complex and detailed issues required international market opportunities. By doing for this study. This study used open-ended
Figure 4. Proposed Model for Business Responsibility for SMEs (Source: Author)
Table 1 Target Population
No Industry DKI Jakarta Banten West Java Population SMEs Sample 1. Garment- Fashion 20 13 25 58 9 2. Handicraft 27 32 51 110 12 4. Agrobusiness 34 18 32 84 4 5. Furniture 15 13 35 63 5 Total 96 76 143 315 30
1048 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the Stakeholder Approach questions. Interviews were conducted 2. Sample Banten with 30 business owners/managers of the = 76/35 Small Medium Enterprises (SMEs) that are = 24% X 30 SMEs involved in international/global activities =7 SMEs (exports) in the three provinces: West Java 3. Sample West Java (Garut, Cirebon, Tasikmalaya, and Bandung = 143/315 Regency), Jakarta (Klender – East Jakarta) = 45% X 30 SMEs and Banten (Tangerang). The reason for = 14 SMEs selecting the four industrial sectors in three areas, namely Jakarta, Banten and West The minimum sample size was 30 Java is based on the consideration that the respondents as a consideration when entrepreneurs of SMEs in these industries collecting data in the field having are doing business internationally as well problems . The interview period was as being the primary national exporters. between June 20 and July 4 2014. Each Selection of the area is considered due to interview lasted for about 30 to 60 the presence of a number of export-oriented minutes. SME representatives in the group of some Samples were taken from four industries, namely handicraft, furniture, industries, namely handicraft, furniture, agrobusiness, garment and fashion. It is fashion and agribusiness: there were 12 different from SMEs in other provinces in companies from the handicraft industry, Indonesia. All three provinces constitute five companies representing the furniture the target of the Indonesian government industry, nine companies from the fashion to encourage SMEs to enter international industry and four companies representing markets (export). Based on data from the the agribusiness industry (food and drinks). Ministry of Industry (2012), the target Although the samples were taken from population of SMEs in these three areas is different industries and were different in as follows: size (number), all four of the industries are Research using judgment sampling categorised as belonging to the creative involved as many as 30 SMEs, which is industry sector. This sector has similar about 10 % of the population, and they characteristics where a large number were interviewed to obtain comprehensive of its business actors are challenged to information. Selection was done based do several things such as innovation, on proportion of the number of SMEs as international standardisation especially follows: in terms of product quality, creativity and environmental issues. 1. Sample DKI Jakarta Results of the interview were translated = 96/315 into transcripts and a matrix to summarise the = 31% X 30 SMEs questions (open-ended questionnaire). The = 9 SMEs
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) 1049 Ginta Ginting questions sought information in relation to: with business responsibility practices. 1) how business responsibility is perceived Practising business responsibility for SMEs by SMEs; 2) which stakeholders influence means that SMEs have to build good business responsibility participation. relationships with internal stakeholders such as employees, market high quality RESULTS AND DISCUSSION products and ensure a comfortable working The purpose of this study was to investigate environment. Managing good relationships the practice of business responsibility with external stakeholders can be observed among SMEs in the three selected provinces from the business interests of the consumer, (West Java, Jakarta and Banten) from the government, suppliers, agents, buyers, perspective of the owners/managers. This community and universities. study was a response to the empirical studies by Den and James (2012) and Managing internal stakeholders Campin et al., (2013), which called for more For SMEs, the engagement of business research investigating the perspective of responsibility practices with the internal the stakeholder theory. In-depth interviews stakeholders can be associated with the (open-ended questions) provided the operational aspects of management. In opportunities for researchers to understand relation to the practice of the internal the perception of the owners/managers and operation, the application of business to obtain detailed information about factors responsibility is generally undertaken by that encourage the practice of business the owners/managers of SMEs. Buyers’ responsibility in SMEs. Interviews with and consumers’ high demands in the the 30 owners/managers of SMEs were global/international market for quality and used to determine their perceptions and design of products have prompted SMEs to motivations for SMEs engagement in improve their optimum operational aspect business responsibility practices. (production). The understanding of business The model used was based on responses responsibility in the SMEs sub-sector to the research questions related to how is not uniform. Mostly, SMEs from the business responsibility is perceived by handicraft and furniture industry are aware SMEs and which stakeholders influence of their social responsibility along with the participation of business responsibility. economic and legal aspects. The SMEs Research questions were summarised in a from fashion and the agrobusiness industry model that can describe the extent to which are more aware of the short-term economic the role of stakeholders supports SMEs perspective, that is, the economic conditions practising business responsibility. Proposed that are important for SMEs to survive and modelling emphasised the importance of participate in business responsibility. internally and externally balancing the Specifically, the interviews carried out in interest of the stakeholders associated this study indicated that several SMEs agents,
1050 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the Stakeholder Approach mainly those who engage in the handicraft “...In order to survive in the and furniture industries, have begun to international market, SME agents apply environmental concepts known as should strive to produce quality eco-design in their design considerations. products with unique and attractive This is in response to international issues, design, offering competitive prices such as green design which aims to produce …”. innovative products called green products. “... For SME agents who have just At the moment, consumers in the European entered the international market, market enjoy traditional and classic furniture to be able to compete they have to and handicraft products. Products that are be innovative, creative and have a environmentally friendly and that have the good track ...” aesthetic values produced by SMEs have a competitive advantage. Based on the findings Business responsibility is said to be from the interviews, the sustainability of the implemented in SMEs if the owners/ export business activity could last more than managers consciously attempt to reduce 10 years because the business responsibility negative impacts on the environment, place practices have become an important part of emphasis on efficient utilisation of natural the daily activities of their production. resources and use friendly technology. Next, regarding the relationships with Although not all owners/managers have the employees, owners/managers of SMEs consciously complied with the business have attempted to provide a comfortable responsibility issues, the international working environment. Most SMEs’ working market that demands products which pay environments are adjacent to residences attention to the importance of environmental because human resources are generally balance has been understood and the SMEs’ recruited from the surrounding areas. To efforts receive appreciation from the buyers. improve the design of existing products, Among them is a businessman of batik there are owners/managers who have (handicraft) from Tasikmalaya who stated: recruited consultants from the Academy of Art & Design to provide training to “...Our company tries to use their employees. Thus, maintaining good technology appropriately in order relations with employees among others, by to be able to develop attractive, improving their skills and knowledge, will unique and original product bring positive impacts on the production design yet, still accommodate the of quality products and encourage creative global nuances. For example, we innovation. In relation to this matter, create global motifs using mollusk two respondents from the handicraft and motif in batik, making batik more furniture industries who have successfully attractive... In addition, we also worked on the export market stated: use natural dyes from the leaves of guava etc.”
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Managing External Stakeholders companies, and trading houses. The Managing the relationships with external support from buyers is obtained by getting stakeholders in the context of business information related to issues concerning responsibility involves SMEs producing green products, eco-design, requirements of products that satisfy consumers, employ eco-labelling, and compliance with EPTIK disabled people, and establish good (Professional Ethics of Information and relationships with their suppliers. These Communication Technology). Most owners are in addition to collaborating with of SMEs revealed that design development agencies, associations and universities was carried out together with buyers in order in order to encourage innovation and to meet the requirements of eco-labelling buildingnetwork with the government and EPTIK. Buyers from some countries to overcome the limitations in terms of in Europe and America are very concerned regulation, bureaucracy, and information with the issue of green products, so these on the international market opportunities. ideas were taken into consideration when In relation to the influence of stakeholders developing designs for the products. in practising business responsibility in Other stakeholders who support the SMEs, the majority of the respondents implementation of business responsibility rated building relationships with primary practices are partners associated with the stakeholders (customers, supplier, agent, supply chain including the suppliers of raw buyer, government) higher than that with material so that SME agents can obtain raw community stakeholders. Mostly SMEs materials at affordable prices. Some of the from the handicraft, fashion and furniture SME agents stated that building network industries stated that quality service, with suppliers of raw materials is essential buyer satisfaction, profit making are of so that the production process will not be significant value. However, SMEs from the affected. For the SMEs, accommodating agroindustry stated that taking responsibility the community interests through group for the society and environment is important gatherings and associations is important so to balance stakeholder interests. Some of the as to share knowledge and to improve skills, SMEs from the furniture industry mentioned especially in dealing with the many issues that they have limited interactions with the related to the welfare of the surrounding community as their buyers and customers community. One of the SMEs engaged are mainly business oriented. in the handicraft industry in Tangerang, In general, one of the important which has successfully been doing business stakeholders with whom good relationships internationally (export) for 10 years, should be built is buyers or agents. This is revealed: due to the fact that the majority of SMEs in “… I run this business because of Indonesia do not export directly but through the help of some colleagues who intermediaries such as traders, exporting have been formerly doing business
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in the creative industries of rattan strategic reasons. The owners/managers ... so I always try to build a business SMEs especially in the handicraft and relationship with the principle furniture industries agreed that providing of mutual support. In the present satisfaction to their customers is a situation, many entrepreneurs competitive advantage. Buyers’ perception around my area went bankrupt... of Indonesian handicraft and furniture I try to help them by utilising idle products is still positive because they employees to fulfil orders from believe in the business process that is increasing number buyers from environmental friendly. In comparison, different countries such as the products from Vietnam and China are more Netherlands, Japan, Africa and concerned with low price and low quality. Malaysia”…. The most crucial finding in this study, based on the research question, was that Hence, applying business practices SMEs are always profit driven. The economic responsibility is one reason why SMEs interest of owners as definitive stakeholders maintain legitimacy by providing support (Mitchell et al., 1997) possessing all to the programmes involving both local three attributes (power, legitimacy and government and local society. Business urgency) was found to be the priority of responsibility practices are generally the respondents. Data analysis indicated undertaken to give donations to commemorate that relationship building (primarily with Independence Day, contribute to religious customers, employees, buyers and agents) ceremonies and provide assistance for the is more crucial than being responsible supply of sports facilities. All the works to the community. From the stakeholder undertaken by business owners are not other perspective, the findings of this research than maintaining sustainability in harmony are consistent with Roloff’s (2008) and with the environment. Similarly, building Reynolds et al.’s (2006) theories. good relationships with other stakeholders is In terms of influencing stakeholders on important to provide support to government SMEs business responsibility practices, the programmes and avoid the irresponsible SMEs’ owners/managers have consistently disposal of hazardous wastes into rivers, identified their stakeholders which include and burning arbitrarily and to plant around customers, buyers, agents, government and the business environment for reforestation. employees. However, communities are not Collaboration with the government is considered as stakeholders who influence also important for SMEs to overcome business responsibility decisions. This bureaucratic and cumbersome regulations finding closely aligns with the fundamental such asEco-labelling and EPTIK. stakeholder theory (Mitchell, 1997; This study also found business Freeman, 2004) responsibility practices implemented for
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CONCLUSION the basis of the principle of relationship Based on the exploratory studies, the requires a good management in order to findings indicate that managing internal achieve success. The main stakeholders who stakeholders has been practiced, and this is can be business partners among others are associated with the company’s operational the governments, trade associations, large activities such as producing products that are companies, agents, suppliers, buyers, and safe, environmentally friendly and harmless any other parties who are interested in the using natural raw materials and empowering development of enterprises. One important employees by constantly providing them thing that owners/managers of SMEs need with the necessary training to improve to do is manage their stakeholders so as to design and quality of the products. In maintain the viability of the company in terms of managing important external international activities stakeholders, business responsibility The challenge that lies ahead is on practices have been carried out through a how the SMEs will evolve in applying the variety of activities such as maintaining concept of business responsibility. The legitimacy to build good relations with the importance of SMEs in applying this concept community and local government through is to strengthen the sustainability of the various donations/aids as well as through business so that it can turn into a large-scale providing employment opportunities to business offering global careers. Through the surrounding communities. Meanwhile, the application of the concept of business collaboration with buyers and universities responsibility, SMEs can be the economic has benefitted the SMEs in terms of sustenance of a country at the grassroots encouraging innovations and products that level, such as reducing unemployment, are environmentally friendly. Building a increasing entrepreneurship, and reducing good relationship with the government is poverty in rural areas. To be able to develop one of the key factors to provide positive SMEs that are concerned with business benefits, particularly in relation to regulatory responsibility, an effective design model compliance related to marketing of products needs to be developed so that it can be used to international markets such as eligibility as a reference for the implementation of real of Eco-labelling, Sucofindo and EPTIK that programmes. have become great obstacles for most SMEs The dynamic challenge for SMEs to go international. is to deal with international market to Based on the discussion above, two justify the importance of building good initial concepts are proposed: 1) business attitude towards business responsibility responsibility can be applied to SMEs practices. The proposed model may still from the start of the business right through be valid to some extent where SMEs its development into a large business; and have the power in terms of resources. For 2) building network with stakeholders on future research, the advanced perception
1054 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1043 - 1056 (2016) Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the Stakeholder Approach of business responsibility can be seen Freeman, R. E. (2004). The Stakeholder approach beyond the traditional model of stakeholder revisited. Zeitschrift für Wirtschafts- und theory which considers SMEs like in large Unternehmensethik 5, 3, 228-254. organizations. Gibson, K. (2000). The moral basis of stakeholder theory. Journal of Business Ethics, 26(3), 245- 257 REFERENCES Asongu, J. J. (2007). The history of corporate social Hoivik, H., & Shankar. D. (2011). How can SMEs in responsibility. Journal of Business and Public cluster respond to global demands for corporate Services, 1(3), 1-21. responsibility? Journal Business Ethics, 101(2), 75-195. Beckman, T., Colwell, K., & Cunningham, P. H. (2009). The emergence of corporate Social Hoivik, H., Weltzein, V., & Mele. D. (2009). Can responsibility in Chile: the importance of SMEs become a global corporate citizen? authenticity and social networks. Journal evidence from case study. Journal Business Business and Ethics, 86(2), 191-206. Ethics, 88(3), 551-563.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
The Role of Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia
Ahmad, M.* and Rohana, A. R. College of Law, Government and International Studies, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The courts are continuing to allow greater participation in the justice system by experts. Expert evidence is admissible in court whenever there are matters or issues which require their expertise in terms of observation, analysis, description and resolution. In medical negligence litigation, the ‘Bolam’ test is cited as the starting point. The test requires doctors to conform to a ‘responsible’ body of medical opinion. However, it has failed to define what a ‘responsible’ body of medical opinion is. The article aims to examine the role of expert evidence in medical negligence litigation cases. The scope of this article is limited to expert evidence in medical negligence litigation in Malaysia in the context of the standard of care required from doctors in the course of treatment, diagnosis and provision of information to their patients. The methodology is a legal, library-based research focusing mainly on primary and secondary sources. The findings indicate a need for reforms such as improving the quality of medical expert witness testimony by strengthening the qualifications for serving as a medical expert and providing more specific guidelines that govern the conduct of physicians throughout the legal process.
Keywords: Bolam test, expert evidence, medical negligence, litigation, doctors, course of treatment, diagnosis
INTRODUCTION In medical negligence litigation, a key step is for the claimant to prove the doctor failed to meet the required standard of care. ARTICLE INFO The traditional test in law in such cases is Article history: Received: 14 May 2015 what is known as the Bolam test to prove a Accepted: 9 November 2015 doctor is not negligent if what he/she has E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (Ahmad, M.), done is endorsed by a responsible body of [email protected] (Rohana, A. R.) medical opinion in the relevant specialty at * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R. the material time (Bolam vs Friern Hospital standard of care is in any given case and Management Committee (1957) 2 All ER that the defendant has departed from it 118). The standard has been criticised (Puteri Nemie, n.d.). It should be noted as one set by the medical profession and that the only acceptable manner of proof evidenced by expert testimony with minimal of the standard of care is another doctor’s court scrutiny, and it has been suggested testimony. This has led to a situation where that stricter evaluation of such opinion is a patient has to face the unwillingness of timely (Teff, 1998). The decision in Bolitho one doctor to provide evidence against a v City and Hackney Health Authority fellow doctor. This kind of scenario has been [(1992) PIQR P334, (1997) 39 BMLR 1, dubbed as “conspiracy of silence” (Salgo HL] suggests that the court should adopt v Leland Stanford Jr. University Board of a more interventionist stance in assessing Trustees 317 O 2d 1093 (1960)), which has expert evidence and in setting the standard effectively prevented plaintiffs of numerous of care. One such approach towards a more medical negligence cases from prevailing objective measure in determining the legal at trial and deterred others from instituting standard of care could be through the use of litigation. clinical guidelines. This article examines the role of expert In Malaysia, the tort system regulates evidence in the context of the standard of and governs medical negligence litigation. care required in the medical profession in It provides for compensation in cases where medical negligence litigation in Malaysia. a doctor or any other medical personnel The Bolam principle has long been the assisting in the treatment of a patient is criterion in Malaysia in assessing a doctor’s proved to be negligent. The element of fault level of competency (NorchayaTalib , plays a vital role in negligence cases from 2010). However, being aware of some the very beginning thus, the tort system has of the criticisms of the Bolam principle, been criticised on the grounds that burden the authors of the present study are of the of proof rests on the patient or the plaintiff opinion that the interests of the public and (in medical negligence claims) (Puteri the medical profession are best served when Nemie, n.d.). Although this is the stance of scientifically sound and unbiased expert the law, it has to be noted to prove that a evidence testimony is readily available doctor had positively breached a standard to plaintiffs and defendants in medical of care is onerous for the plaintiff due to the negligence litigation. In this article, the existence of the Bolam test. Due to the fact authors argue that although expert medical that the plaintiff has the burden of proving opinion of accepted practice is relevant, it the doctor or defendant had strayed from the should not be conclusive of the standard recognised standard of care, the profession of care. imposes upon the plaintiff the burden of establishing first what the professional
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THE BOLAM PRINCIPLE Although the statement above was only Before addressing the Bolam principle, a direction to the jury in a High Court case, it is important to briefly state the facts in it was adopted by the House of Lords with Bolam v Friern Hospital Management approval in later cases and has regularly Committee [(1957) 2 All ER 118]. In this been restated in clinical negligence cases. case, the allegation was that a doctor had The Bolam principle states that a doctor been negligent in administering electro- is not negligent if he or she has acted convulsive treatment (ECT) or therapy with a practice accepted as proper by a to a patient without a relaxant drug or responsible body of medical professionals restraining his convulsive movements. skilled in that particular art: it is immaterial There were two medical opinions about that there exists another body of opinion the treatment of patients who receive ECT. that would not have adopted the approach One recommended that relaxant drugs taken by the doctor in question. As long as should be used, and the other advised a “responsible body of medical opinion” against it because of the risk of fractures. exists that approves of the actions of the The patient, who had not been warned of doctor, then the doctor escapes liability the risks involved, had not been given the (Harpwood, 2009; Kian, 2003). What the relaxant drugs, and had not been restrained law requires from the doctor is to prove that when receiving the treatment. He suffered what he or she did is acceptable within the fractures as a result of not being properly medical profession. restrained when receiving the treatment. The It cannot be denied that the Bolam patient filed a suit on the basis of negligence principle puts a patient or a plaintiff in a against the doctor. McNair J in his direction very difficult position to prove that the to the jury at p.121stated: doctor or the defendant had breached a standard of care owed to him or her. The … A doctor is not guilty of negligence Bolam principle allows the doctor to rely on if he has acted in accordance with a body of responsible medical professionals a practice accepted as proper by or medical opinion to absolve him or her a responsible body of medical of professional medical negligence. The men skilled in that particular art. courts have always interpreted the Bolam Putting it another way round, a principle by stating that they cannot find doctor is not negligent if he is a defendant negligent as long as there is a acting in accordance with such common practice or custom that supports the a practice, merely because there defendant’s actions. However, the problem is a body of opinion that takes a with the “custom test” is that it is viewed as contrary view… purely descriptive as opposed to what ought to be done by medical practitioners (Puteri Nemie, n.d.). Hence, the most commonly
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) 1059 Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R. accepted manner of proof of professional In Mahon v Osborne [(1939) 2 KB 14], standard as per the Bolam principle is the plaintiff was admitted to the hospital another doctor’s testimony. for an abdominal operation. He later died The authors are of the opinion that the and a swab was found in his body. The Bolam principle despite being criticised plaintiff was entitled to call expert evidence has its own merits. For example, if the that the accident would not have occurred Bolam principle is not followed, there without negligence. In this case, the Court can be adverse effects to the medical of Appeal held that the standard of care is profession and society at large. Doctors will to be measured by expert evidence. Lord opt for “defensive medicine” namely the Justice Goddard at p.47 stated: treatment for their patients they consider to I would not for a moment attempt be “legally safe” even if they believe such to define in vacuo the extent of a treatment may not be strictly warranted. a surgeon’s duty in an operation This may be unnecessarily expensive and beyond saying that he must use time-consuming. Apart from that, it will reasonable care, nor can I imagine also encourage medical litigation, which anything more than disastrous to in turn will increase premiums and overall the community than to leave it to a healthcare costs. This might affect good jury or to a judge, if sitting alone, doctor/patient relationships and possibly to lay down what is proper to do dissuade young doctors from joining high in any particular case without the risk specialist fields for fear of litigations guidance of witnesses who are (Shanmugam, 2002). qualified to speak on the subject… As it is the task of the surgeon to Cases before the Advent of Bolam Principle put swabs in, so it is his task to take them out, and in that task he In the context of this article, a short analysis must use the degree of care which is of several contentious cases is important reasonable in the circumstances and as to what prompted the court to come up that must depend on the evidence. with the Bolam principle. This is relevant in understanding the Bolam principle as well as the reasons why courts have left From the above, it is important to note such an important matter in the hands of that Justice Goddard seems to be aware of the the medical profession instead of enacting fact that the medical profession has always it into a law. Before the courts established been shrouded with a lot of complications the Bolam principle, they found it difficult and technicalities, which a judge may not be to set a standard for the medical profession able to comprehend. Therefore, the message and majority of them opined that such seems to be very clear that in order to reach matters should be left to medical judgments. a just and accurate decision, medical experts should be the ones helping the court to deal
1060 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) The Role of Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia with such complex issues. Hence, a doctor it, especially in cases against cannot be said to be guilty of negligence doctors and hospitals. Medical if he or she has acted in accordance with science has conferred great benefits a practice accepted by a responsible body on mankind, but these benefits are of professional opinion. In other words, a attended by considerable risks. doctor who is in breach of his or her duty Every surgical operation is attended has to be judged by his peers and not by by risks. the court. In the case of Roe v Minister for Health Based on the statement above, Denning [(1954) 2 QB 66] the plaintiff became LJ had in mind that medicine as a profession paralysed after receiving an injection in has pros and cons in the course of treatment. hospital. Phenol had leaked into the syringe Being aware of the considerable risks in the causing the paralysis. At this time, it was medical profession, perhaps it is justified the known that phenol could get into the syringe decision taken by the courts that a doctor or through invisible cracks. The court held that defendant should be judged by his peers in the defendants were not negligent as, judged medical negligence cases. by the standard of a reasonable person at the The other relevant case to cite here time of the accident, they could not have is the case of Hunter v Hantley [(1955) avoided the accident. The court would not SLT 231, (1955) SC 200]. In this case, the condemn a defendant with ‘the benefit of plaintiff claimed the doctor treating him hindsight’. Perhaps, it is vital here to make was negligent in using a needle which was a reference to the passage from the judgment unsuitable. Lord President Clyde at p.217 of Denning LJ which indeed provides a clue stated: to the philosophy of the Bolam principle. His Lordship at p.83 said: To succeed in an action based on negligence, whether against a If the anaesthetists had foreseen doctor or anyone else, it is of course that the ampoules might get cracked necessary to establish a breach of with cracks that could not be that duty to take care which the law detected on inspection, they would requires, and the degree of want of no doubt have dyed the phenol a care which constitutes negligence deep blue; and this would expose must vary with circumstances… the contamination. But I do not But where the conduct of a doctor, think that their failure to foresee or indeed of any professional man, this was negligence. It is so easy is concerned, the circumstances to be wise after the event and to are not so precise and clear as in condemn as negligence that which the normal case. In the realm of is only a misadventure. We ought diagnosis and treatment there is always to be on our guard against
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) 1061 Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R.
ample scope for genuine difference which its outcome is rarely predictable. It of opinion and one man clearly would be a disservice to the community is not negligent merely because at large if liability were to be imposed his conclusion differs from that on hospitals and doctors for everything of other professional men, nor that happens to go wrong (Puteri Nemie, because he has displayed less n.d.). Hence, there must be a proper tool skill or knowledge than others to gauge the standard of care of a doctor in would have shown. The true test determining his or her liability in medical for establishing negligence in negligence cases” (Puteri Nemie, n.d.). diagnosis and treatment on the part of the doctor is whether he has been Challenges to the Bolam Principle proved to be guilty of such failure as The justification for the Bolam principle no doctor of ordinary skill would be was stated by Lord Scarman in Maynard v guilty of acting with ordinary care. West Midlands RHA (1985) 1 All ER at p. 635 when he said: From the above, there is no doubt that there is a heavy burden of proof on a Differences of opinion exist, and claimant in order to file a case against the continue to exist, in the medical as doctor or a professional man on the basis in other professions. There is seldom of negligence. This is due to the fact that any one answer exclusive of all the claimant would have to establish that others to problems of professional the doctor or a professional man deviated judgment. A court may prefer one from the ordinary skill that is required as body of opinion to the other; but far as the profession is concerned. In order that is no basis for a conclusion of to succeed in his or her claim, the claimant negligence. would have to establish that no professional man of ordinary skill would have followed Based on this, the authors would the course taken by the defendant i.e. in the like to point out that regardless of the course of diagnosis and treatment. Thus, justification of theBolam principle a number the usual practice of other professionals in of criticisms were expressed over the years. the same area will be a significant factor in Some of the criticisms are: first, it failed to determining this issue. draw a distinction between ‘what is done’ “Looking at the decisions of the courts and ‘what ought to be done’. The key point before the advent of the Bolam principle, it of contention is that ‘what is done’ even if is evident that the earlier cases have paved by most people, could still be considered the way for the development of the Bolam negligent if it falls below the standard of test as used in medical negligence cases. what ought to be done. Second, the Bolam Medicine is clearly an inexact science of principle is seen as unfair to claimants and
1062 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) The Role of Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia too protective of professionals. This is due to to the medical profession and society at the fact that the doctor is only considered to large. For example, doctors will opt for be negligent based on what is determined by “defensive medicine” as well as choosing a body of professionals. Third, the rule is yet the treatment for their patients they consider another example of professions protecting to be “legally safe” even if they believe one another. It is important to note that in that such treatments may not be strictly the case of medical negligence following warranted. This may be unnecessarily the Bolam principle, courts have resorted expensive and time-consuming. to doctor’s testimony for help. Fourth, the Bolam principle requires the defendant to THE DEVELOPMENT AND conform to a ‘responsible’ body of medical APPLICATION OF THE BOLAM PRINCIPLE IN MALAYSIA opinion. However, the Bolam principle has failed to address or define what is a This section will address the developments ‘responsible’ body of medical opinion? in the application of the Bolam principle The case has also failed to address the issue in Malaysia. In Malaysia, the Bolam of how many doctors would be required principle has long been the criterion in to form a ‘responsible body of medical assessing a doctor’s level of competency opinion? Moreover, we are bound to face (NorchayaTalib, 2010). In other words, the some daunting tasks in dealing with the Bolam principle has been well received issue of a ‘responsible’ body of medical by the Malaysian courts in determining opinion especially where the practice or the doctor’s standard of care in medical specialty has few registered practitioners. negligence cases. In the context of this Fifth, the Bolam principle rests on the article, the authors do not intend to highlight assertion that it is entirely up to the medical all the cases, but only a few for the sake of profession to decide how much information better understanding. The selection of these they should give to their patients. Although cases is based on two criteria. First, where this approach appears to be favourable to the Bolam principle was applied especially those in the medical profession, we ought in cases of diagnosis and treatment. Second, to remember that issues involving ethics where the Bolam principle was not applied and the fundamental rights of individuals especially in cases of seeking information or should not be disregarded at whatever cost medical opinion/advice before a treatment (Teff, 1998). could be administered by a doctor. One of Despite the challenges to the Bolam the earliest cases where the Bolam principle principle, the authors are of the opinion was applied is the case of Swamy v Mathews that the principle strikes a win-win situation [(1968) 1 MLJ 138]. In this case, the between the rights of doctors, patients and majority judgment accepted the testimony the general public. If the Bolam principle is of the defendant doctor and his explanation not followed, there can be adverse effects that the prescription and the dosage given
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) 1063 Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R. to the plaintiff, although at variance with Raja Azlan Shah J stated that a professional the manufacturer’s recommendation, were will not be deemed to be negligent if he made based on his personal experience. or has taken steps that would normally The majority decision in discounting the be taken by others who are in the same contrary evidence clearly showed the position. However, a professional who takes reliance of the court to the so-called medical a different view from another professional opinion. The reasonableness of the treatment in the same profession is not necessarily in was not examined by the court. The medical breach of his duty of care provided that his practitioner was not found to be negligent on opinion is still in accordance with what is the ground that medical practitioners need regarded as proper by a body of similarly not have the highest degree of skill. skilled professionals. Thus, applying the The development in the application Bolam principle to this issue, the court held of the Bolam principle in Malaysia can that the anaesthetist is not negligent as he also be seen from the decision of the Privy had followed the general and approved Council in Chin Keow v Government of practice. The technique that he adopted was Malaysia [(1967) 2 MLJ 45]. In this case, approved by a responsible body of medical the trial judge, Ong J., adopted the Bolam professionals since 1956. Therefore, it did test of negligence and found the doctor to not matter if there was another body of be negligent for prescribing a penicillin opinion that would have taken a contrary injection as a routine treatment for the view. patient and that he did so without asking It is also important to note that the a single perfunctory question to attempt judicial decision in Elizabeth Choo was to discover whether she was sensitive to further consolidated in the case of Kow the drug. Such is not considered a proper Nan Seng v Nagamah&Ors [(1982) 1 MLJ practice by a responsible body of medical 128]. Here, the Federal Court held that the opinion. The Federal Court, however, duty of a doctor to his or her patient is to rejected Ong J.’s findings of negligence adhere to the reasonable standard of care but on appeal, the Privy Council adopted and expertise. If there were differences in Ong J.’s decision. The basis for the Privy opinion in terms of the types of plasters Council’s adoption of Ong J’s decision was that may be used, the defendant would due to the fact that it was expressly written not be liable as long as he or she opted for on the patient’s card that she was allergic a treatment that was generally accepted to penicillin. within the profession. The court applied Another relevant case law demonstrating the Bolam test and held that in this case, the development in the application of the the defendant was liable as all doctors were Bolam principle in Malaysia is the case of aware of the fact that if a plaster was applied Elizabeth Choo v Government of Malaysia blood circulation would be affected . It is & Anor [(1970) 2 MLJ171]. In this case, important to note that in this case there were
1064 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) The Role of Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia conflicting opinions whether a complete Mr D was attended to by D2. Eight days plaster cast or a plaster slab is to be used. after the first visit to the clinic, as a result In Malaysia, being aware of the of giddiness and fits, Mr D was taken to a challenges to the Bolam principle, the hospital for emergency treatment and was courts on certain occasions have departed subsequently transferred to another hospital. from this well established principle - a He died the next day, the cause of death familiar concept to most doctors. This being stroke, which could and should have departure perhaps could best be understood been diagnosed much earlier. in the context of the existence of a different The full reception of the Whitaker test test for the medical profession in cases of (i.e. as laid down in the Australian case of provision of information. The first decision Rogers v Whitaker [(1992) HCA 58; (1992) in which the court refused to apply the 175 CLR 479] in Malaysia may be seen Bolam principle and instead adopted the in the Federal Court judgment in Foo Fio principles set forth in Rogers v Whitaker Nav vs Dr Soo Fook Mun [(2007) 1 MLJ [(1992) HCA 58; (1992) 175 CLR 479] 593]. In this case, the plaintiff was injured was in Kamalam a/p Raman &Orsv Eastern when the car she was travelling in was Plantation Agency (Johore) Sdn Bhd & Anor involved in a collision. She was taken to [(1996) 4 MLJ 674]. In Rogers vs Whitaker, the nearest hospital, the Asunta Hospital. Mrs Whitaker became almost totally blind in The plaintiff had dislocated her cervical her left eye as a result of a condition known vertebrae which caused much pain in her as sympathetic ophthalmia, after a surgery neck region. A cervical collar was placed was conducted on her right eye. The surgery around it to prevent unnecessary movement. was not conducted negligently, but the After conservative treatment for a few plaintiff’s allegation was grounded on the days, the defendant surgeon performed two defendant’s failure to advise her of the risk surgeries. After the first surgery, the plaintiff of sympathetic ophthalmia, which resulted was paralysed and when medication failed in her condition. In Kamalam a/p Raman & to improve her condition, the defendant Ors vs Eastern Plantation Agency (Johore) performed the second surgery. The plaintiff SdnBhd& Anor, the trial judge did not regard claimed that the defendant failed to explain himself as being bound to find medical the risk of paralysis arising from the first practitioners negligent if there is a body of surgery, and instead informed her that it was medical opinion that approved the doctor’s a minor procedure, on the basis of which practice. In this case, Mr D was taken to the she gave her consent. The second surgery estate clinic after complaining of giddiness was performed without her consent being and having fainted at work. The attending obtained. The plaintiff stated that had she doctor (D1), having examined Mr D, been warned of the risk of paralysis she prescribed medication and discharged him. would not have readily agreed to proceed On two subsequent occasions thereafter, with the first surgery.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) 1065 Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R.
The Federal Court held that the have materially affected the outcome. applicable test in determining the standard This view was supported by an impressive of care of a medical practitioner in relation and responsible body of medical opinion. to disclosure of information and risks is However, Lord Browne-Wilkinson rejected not the Bolam test. Instead, the medical the argument put forward. According to practitioner has a duty to warn a mentally Lord Browne-Wilkinson, the court has to competent patient of the risks of a proposed be satisfied that the exponents of the body procedure so as to enable the patient to of opinion relied upon can demonstrate that decide whether to proceed or decline it such an opinion has a logical basis. accordingly. Professional opinion and The judgment in Bolitho might impact acceptable professional practice, but its upon the principle of Bolam in that, the court reasonableness may be questioned by the is likely to take a much more interventionist courts (PuteriNemie , 2007). stand in appraising the professed standard of care (Samanta & Samanta, 2003). This is Bolitho- Reinterpretation of the Bolam due to the fact that the courts will still have Principle a say in the hearing of medical negligence Having addressed the development in the cases by looking at two stages during the application of the Bolam principle above, trial process. The first stage would be for it is important to make a reference to the the court to assess whether the decision decision of the House of Lords in Bolithov had responsible peer support, based on an City & Hackney Health Authority [(1997) approach that was structured, reasoned and 4 All ER 771] as a reinterpretation of the defensible. The professed opinion must Bolam principle. Bolitho was a clinical withstand ‘logical analysis’. This broadly negligence case that reached the House of reflects the Bolam test as it is known. The Lords. The central legal issue was whether second stage, and this is where Bolitho or not non-intervention by a doctor caused might really take effect, is to assess on a the plaintiff’s injury. The facts of the case ‘risk analysis’ basis the validity of accepting were that Patrick Bolitho, a two-year-old the treatment or course of action offered by child, suffered catastrophic brain damage as the defendant and, more importantly, the a result of cardiac arrest due to respiratory validity of rejecting competing decisions. In failure. The senior paediatric registrar did undertaking such an analysis, the court may not attend to the child, as she ascribed to a look at a number of factors, including the school of thought that medical intervention, magnitude of the risk, the comparative risks under those particular circumstances, would of alternative interventions and treatments, have made no difference to the end result. the seriousness of the consequences, the Liability was denied on the grounds that ease by which the risk might be avoided, even if she had attended to the case, she and the implications of such avoidance in could not have done anything that would terms of finances and resources of healthcare (Samanta & Samanta, 2003).
1066 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1057 - 1068 (2016) The Role of Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia
CONCLUSION AND Despite the acceptance of the Bolam RECOMMENDATIONS test in Malaysia, there is still room for The test for the standard of care in law improvement especially regarding the expected of doctors is based on the principle quality of medical expert witness testimony. laid down in Bolam’s case. Hence, a medical First, doctors need to be better educated practitioner is deemed as failing to reach and trained with necessary skills and the standard of care if a responsible body knowledge so that they could perform a of r medical peers does not supports the better job as expert witnesses in medical action in question. However, the judgment negligence cases. Second, a doctor who in Bolitho suggests that expert opinion now is called as an expert witness by the court has to withstand rigorous scrutiny from should be very familiar and well versed with the judiciary. But the Bolam principle had the medical field in question that is being not given much scope to the judiciary to heard by the court. Third, doctors should intervene and had ensured that any medical not protect their peers in the profession treatment that conforms to a body of without putting forward a solid justification professional opinion is not negligent. during the course of trial. Medical/expert The authors are of the opinion that opinions need to be scrutinised thoroughly. Bolitho has not curbed the power delegated So doctors who are summoned as experts to the medical profession by Bolam. Bolitho in medical negligence cases must act fairly, simply requires the judge to scrutinise objectively and above all impartially in the medical evidence in the same fashion as process of providing their expert opinions they would do to expert evidence in any to the court. Fourth, doctors/physicians other type of cases of negligence. The appearing as expert witnesses in court decision only allows them to scrutinise should be very familiar with the medical medical opinions. To that extent, a faithful standards required before accepting the role application of both Bolam and Bolitho of an expert witness. Fifth, it is also vital would mean that the court will accept the that doctors/physicians expert witnesses’ views of a respected body of experts. It is exercise care in assessing the relationship useful to remind ourselves that the House of between the breach in the standard of care Lords in Bolitho was careful to say that it is and the patient’s condition. only in rare cases and would “very seldom” be right for a judge to reach a conclusion that REFERENCES the views genuinely held by a competent Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee expert are unreasonable. Bolitho has still not (1957) 2 All ER 118. changed the status quo and judges have not Bolitho v City & Hackney Health Authority (1997) been made more knowledgeable in medical 4 All ER 771. matters through the outcome of the case Chin Keow v Government of Malaysia (1967) 2 (PuteriNemie, n.d., 2004, 2007). MLJ 45.
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Elizabeth Choo v Government of Malaysia & Anor PuteriNemie. (2007). Abandoning the Bolam Principle (1970) 2 MLJ171. in Doctor’s Duty to Disclose Risks in Malaysia: Are we heading in the right direction? The Law Foo Fio Na v Dr Soo Fook Mun (2007) 1 MLJ 593. Review, 1, 1-12. Harpwood, V. (2009).Modern Tort Law. (7thed.). PuteriNemie. (n.d.). Medical Negligence Litigation London & New York: Routledge Cavendish. in Malaysia: Current Trend and Proposals. Hatcher v Black (1954), The Times 2, July. Retrieved from http//mdm.org.my/downloads/ dr_puteri_nemie. Pdf Hunter v Hantley (1955) SLT 231, (1955) SC 200). Roe v Minister for Health (1954) 2 QB 66. Kamalam a/p Raman &Ors v Eastern Plantation Agency (Johore) SdnBhd& Anor (1996) 4 MLJ Rogers v Whitaker (1992) HCA 58; (1992) 175 CLR 674. 479.
Kian, C. T. S. (2002). Interpretation of the Bolam Salgo v Leland Stanford Jr. University Board of Test in the Standard of Medical Care: Impact Trustees 317 O 2d 1093 (1960). of the Gunapathy case and Beyond. Tolley’s Samanta, A., & Samanta, J. (2003). Legal Standard Professional Negligence, 19(2), 384-394. of care: a shift from the traditional Bolam test. Retrieved from http://bschool.nus.edu/ Clinical Medicine, 3(5), 443-446. departments/busspolicy/ct%20papers/bolam%20 article%20-%20tolley.pdf Shanmugam, K. (2002). Testing the Bolam Test: Consequences of Recent Developments. Kow Nan Seng v Nagamah & Ors (1982) 1 MLJ 128. Singapore Medical Journal, 43(1), 7-11. Mahon v Osborne (1939) 2 KB 14. Swamy v Mathews (1968) 1 MLJ 138. Maynard v West Midlands RHA (1985) 1 All ER 635. Teff, H. (1998). The Standard of Care in Medical NorchayaTalib. (2010). Law of Torts in Malaysia. Negligence- Moving on from Bolam? Oxford (3rded.). Petaling Jaya: Sweet & Maxwell Asia. Journal of Legal Studies, 18(3), 473-483. PuteriNemie. (2004). Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia: Whither Should We Travel. The Journal of the Malaysian BarInsaf, 33(1), 14-25.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
ESL Lecturers’ Perceptions on using i-MoL as a Mobile-Based Tool for Teaching Grammar
Ganapathy, M.1*, Shuib, M.2, Gunasegaran, T.3 and Azizan, S. N.2 1English Language Studies Section, School of Languages, Literacies and Translation, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia 2National Higher Education Research Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia 3School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT Having a good grasp of the English grammar is vital especially for students at the tertiary level as accuracy in speech and writing is highly important when engaging in academic activities. In the 21st century, also known as the digital age, pedagogical approach to teaching grammar is changing dynamically in relation to factors that encompass social, economic and technological entities. The traditional approach to teaching grammar using ‘chalk and talk’ is becoming irrelevant as technology pervades students’ learning environment. Learning grammar via mobile phone is seen as a potential solution that will enable language learners to enhance their skills as they are digitally designed, flexible and mobile. This study facilitated the development of grammar modules for the purpose of a mobile learning reinforcement tool for English grammar, known as an intelligent mobile learning tool (i-MoL). Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with five ESL lecturers in order to gain an in depth perception on the feasibility of using grammar modules via i-MoL to promote the learning of grammar. Three themes were identified through phenomenological qualitative analysis. Lecturers perceived the grammar modules as having the potential to improve student proficiency in a flexible and convenient manner. The i-MoL could be both a barrier and motivator for learning grammar. Lecturers also reported that i-MoL could be a useful supplementary tool for them to deliver effective grammar ARTICLE INFO Article history: lessons which engage students and motivate Received: 14 May 2015 them to learn in an interesting environment. Accepted: 12 August 2015 Findings suggest that grammar modules can E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Ganapathy, M.), be advocated via i-MoL for teaching and [email protected] (Shuib, M.), [email protected] (Gunasegaran, T.), reinforcing student grammar learning. [email protected] (Azizan, S. N.) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ganapathy, M., Shuib, M., Gunasegaran, T. and Azizan, S. N.
Keywords: English language, grammar, intelligent “English will be given emphasis and as mobile learning tool, teaching, learning style, announced earlier this year, it will be made technology, ESL, Malaysia a compulsory passing subject for SPM students by 2016,” Muhyiddin said today INTRODUCTION during the launch of the National Education In today’s knowledge-driven economy, it Blueprint (PPPM) 2013-2025 here. is essential to acquire good communication According to the then Deputy Prime skills in English, considered a global Minister (DPM), who was also the Education language. The rise of English as the Minister, “the ministry is currently in ‘language of opportunity’ has created the process of increasing contact hours a necessity for Malaysians to master (between teachers and students) in classes the language to survive and compete so deeper immersion in the English language in the 21st century. Scholars noted that for the students”. The DPM also said it mastering English enables Malaysia to will be compulsory for English teachers achieve a cosmopolitan identity (Dumanig undergo the Cambridge Placement Test et al., 2012). In this regard, the Ministry of (CPT) to gauge their knowledge in the Education Malaysia (MoE) is in tune with language. (http://www.freemalaysiatoday. the demand to enhance language proficiency com/category/nation/2013/09/06/english- to produce better human capital with to-be-made-compulsory-passing-subject /) necessary language knowledge, competency Nevertheless, despite efforts to raise and skills to guide a knowledge-based the level of English language proficiency, economy. The ministry is aiming to raise the standard of English among Malaysian the standard of English among students by undergraduates is still considerably imposing a ruling that from 2016, it becomes declining (Shuib et al., 2015). Even though a mandatory passing subject for all students students have been learning the language for sitting for their Malaysian Certificate of approximately 11 years in schools, studies Education (SPM) examination from 2016; reported that many still fail to achieve it is also part an initiative to raise the level a reasonable level of English literacy of knowledge among Malaysian students (Naginder, 2006; Jalaludin et al., 2008; and the community at large (Singh, 2013). Pawanchik & Kamil, 2010). This further Deputy Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin, affects their employability as reported by who is also Education Minister announced JobStreet.com, a Malaysian recruitment today. agency, in 2005. The survey by JobStreet. He said the government has placed com indicated that the main reason for emphasis on English to strengthen students’ unemployment is due to weakness in grasp of the subject, with an intention of English language (Omar et al., 2012). Thus, producing a globalised generation. there is a need to revisit the teaching and learning process, policies and curriculum
1070 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1069 - 1085 (2016) ESL Lecturers’ Perceptions on using i-MoL as a Mobile-Based Tool for Teaching Grammar to ensure future generations of Malaysians 2013). Hence, it is essential to identify the are well-versed in the language to enhance right teaching method to deliver effective their employment opportunities. In order grammar lessons in the classroom. The to communicate well, non-native English teaching approach has change from a speakers need to have a proper command traditional “teacher-centred” one to a more of English by understanding and using the collaborative and interactive style so that grammar correctly in its proper form and the learning process will be livelier and function. interesting. This would attract student In the Malaysian context, English is attention to appreciate the language. Studies considered a second language. Therefore, conducted by Bligh (1998) and Gabbin it is expected students would encounter (2002) found students fail to master language some difficulties in acquiring the language learning skills, thinking skills, problem- compared with native English speakers. solving skills and communication if that According to Md Yunus et al. (2013), approach is “lecturer-centred”. Innovative Malaysian students struggle with low levels approaches have to be incorporated into the of English literacy and that ESL (English teaching process in accordance to current as Second Language) students in particular style of learning among young learners. face cultural and linguistic challenges in Teaching languages using traditional their efforts to master the language. Studies methods will only disappoint learners who have revealed that this problem occurs due need constant motivation, inspiration, and to Bahasa Malaysia being the first language guidance to express their creativity and (Maros et al., 2007) and its “interference” innovation using technology (Eaton, 2010). in student ability to acquire good English Traditional face-to-face classroom setting grammar skills (Ghabool et al., 2012). Che alone is inadequate to help students retain Musa et al. (2012) reported that factors existing knowledge, in particular pertaining contributing towards low or limited English to mastering English grammar. In this vein, literacy achievement among Malaysian Maarof and Munusamy (2015) reiterated that learners were due to the strong “influence” Malaysia’s tertiary education is still lacking of Bahasa Malaysia when learning English in terms of critical thinking and creative and neglecting sociocultural elements of learning approach for ESL learners, and language learning. Findings from a study thus, educators needs to be versatile in their conducted by Ghabool et al. (2012) showed use of teaching strategies by incorporating that Malaysian ESL learners face writing new learning methods and materials. For problems particularly in using correct this reason, teaching a language using grammar and punctuation. mobile applications would be interesting, Learning English can be a frustrating providing enhanced motivation for learners, experience as it requires persistent effort as well as sustain their interest and focus in to master the language (Metom et al., learning. Teaching and learning of English
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1069 - 1085 (2016) 1071 Ganapathy, M., Shuib, M., Gunasegaran, T. and Azizan, S. N. grammar via mobile phone application stated that smartphone shipment worldwide would be an innovative approach due to its is expected to achieve 823 million units in unique flexibility, ubiquity, and convenience 2013 to reach 1.3 billion in 2017. Nielsen’s that allows anywhere-and-anytime learning survey (cited in Azman et al., 2014) showed experience creating a lively environment a trend in ownership of Information and for learners. Therefore, this study aimed at Communication Technology (ICT) devices gaining insights into lecturers’ perceptions in 2013 in almost all ASEAN countries with regards to the feasibility of employing whereby there was a shift to smartphones a mobile-based tool for grammar learning, and tablets from desktops and laptops. The namely the Intelligent Mobile Learning Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Tool (i-MoL). The i-MoL is a mobile Commission (MCMC) reported that the learning application developed by a mobile highest percentage of mobile phone users learning research team from Universiti those in the age range of 20 and 49 years Sains Malaysia. The application consists which make up 73.3% of all users (MCMC, of grammar learning modules which are 2012). In terms of mobile phone ownership, developed and disseminated based on the report revealed that 63.3% of users students’ identified learning styles. possess one phone, 29.6% have two, 5.0% have three and 2.1% own four or more. LITERATURE REVIEW This shows that mobile phone usage among Mobile Learning youths in Malaysia has been increasing exponentially. In 2012, there was a dramatic Effective and interesting English language increase in smartphone usage among teaching-learning approaches should be Malaysians compared with 2010 and 2011. considered in order to address the issue of This indicates preferences towards mobile low English proficiency among Malaysian applications (MCMC, 2012). students. Nowadays, traditional face-to-face Mobile learning offers several benefits classroom setting alone is inadequate to help to learners, particularly in terms of its students retain their knowledge. Today’s ubiquitous and convenient qualities for students are generally digital natives who education. Mobile learning is beneficial prefer digital motivation, flexibility and to learners for two primary reasons: it is mobility in their learning (Shuib et al., 2015) personal and it is connected (Trucano, experience. Technology has been part and 2014). It combines practices, strategies, parcel of everyday life as they are often tools, applications and resources with considered inseparable entities, particularly proven advances in technology which can among today’s younger generation. support learning at anytime and anywhere Currently, mobile devices, particularly (Wagner, 2005). Mobile learning has the mobile phones, have become the must-have potential to enhance learning with the gadget of the 21st century (Mun et al., 2011). introduction of new education strategies in A report by Smartphone Futures (2012)
1072 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1069 - 1085 (2016) ESL Lecturers’ Perceptions on using i-MoL as a Mobile-Based Tool for Teaching Grammar the context of new learning environments to learn various aspects of the English (Romero et al., 2000), particularly where the language (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2008; Miangah learning process occurs in isolated contexts. & Nezarat, 2012; Liu et al., 2014). Additionally, mobile learning can Studies have also revealed effectiveness motivate students to learn more efficiently of mobile-based approach for teaching an acquire knowledge in their field. Studies and learning of the English language. have shown that contents delivered via Başoğlu and Akdemir (2010) conducted a mobile devices can better engage students comparative study on English vocabulary to learning a meaningful, organised and learning involving two groups of learners: enjoyable way (Mockus et al., 2011; Mohd the experimental group with mobile phones Johari & Ismail, 2012). Thus, mobile and the control group with paper flash cards. devices can be an invaluable tool offering It was reported in their study that the mobile- students a conducive learning environment. based vocabulary learning programmes Realising the educational benefits of mobile improved students vocabulary more than technologies, researchers have initiated the flash cards method. Wang and Smith’s efforts to develop learning applications study (2013) lends support to this finding. through mobile learning (Thornton & The researchers studied the feasibility of an Houser, 2005; Levy & Kennedy, 2005; on-going language learning project called Stockwell, 2007; Rahimi & Miri, 2014). “Ubiquitous English” in which research involved the development and dissemination Mobile-based English Language of short English essays and grammar quizzes Learning to student mobile phones. Their study found A current technological phenomenon is that mobile phone-assisted learning is the increasing use of mobile technologies perceived positively by respondents as an evidenced by a drastic increase in the effective method for improving their reading number of mobile devices used nowadays and grammar abilities in English. However, (Hashim et al., 2010). Mobile learning Wang and Smith (2013) cautioned on the undoubtedly holds potential to improve security and privacy concerns for mobile language teaching as well as enhance learners since the application involves learning, and development. It exposes internet connectivity. learners to a flexible and convenient Mobile technologies have the potential to environment to learn the language on the go, benefit language learners in the community. especially when learners have geographical Surveys conducted by the MCMC have limitations that preclude campus-based shown that mobile phone ownership per 100 learning. The flexibility and convenience inhabitants in this country exceeds 100% of mobile learning have been supported by (MCMC, 2013) and furthermore, mobile several studies which explored the potential phone usage has grown tremendously in of mobile technologies in assisting students most states in the country (MCMC, 2008).
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In recent years, studies have been focused of research trends in this area (Mohamad on the potential of mobile learning in the & Muniandy, 2014). In fact, little is known Malaysian educational setting (Siraj, 2004; about the pedagogical effects of integrating Mohamad & Woollard, 2009; Abd Rahman mobile learning in English language courses & Mohd Hashim, 2011; Lim, et al., 2011; (Hussin et al., 2012). Ismail et al., 2013). According to Mohamad There is a dearth of studies to determine and Woollard (2009), mobile phones offer the effectiveness and feasibility of using educational benefits in developing countries mobile applications in the teaching and like Malaysia since they are relatively low in learning of English grammar (Wang & cost and accessible to all, especially in the Smith, 2013; Jin, 2014), especially in lower-income group. Siraj (2004) claimed Malaysia (Shuib et al., 2015). Grammar that Malaysia has a huge potential to determines student good proficiency in implement mobile learning in its curriculum English language. Scholars reiterate that since the approach is generally accepted and one of the most important elements in feasible for students and teachers. Therefore, mastering English is the acquisition of the use of mobile technologies could be the good grammar skills (Sawir, 2005; Zhang, next boon as new educational approaches 2009; Shuib et al., 2015). There is a need or methods in Malaysian educational to move away from traditional teaching institutions. methods to one that employs methods Despite the numerous benefits and which are fun, meaningful, and memorable potentials of mobile learning for the teaching (Wu, 2008). Yet, making grammar learning and learning of English language, there interesting and useful is always challenging are challenges that need to be overcome. for practitioners (Gunawardena, 2014). According to Liu et al. (2014), “none of the According to BaSaeed (2013), “the question hand-held mobile devices were specifically is not whether grammar should be taught to designed with education in mind and students, but rather how it should be taught” usage in an educational setting can present (p.21). difficulties” (p.5). Mohamad et al. (2012) In addition to that, Malaysian ESL reported challenges in implementing mobile learners face challenges that might deter learning include device misuse, existing their efforts in enhancing their English prohibitive policy, issues of management language proficiency level. A study by and maintenance, stakeholder attitude, Zare and Othman (2013) revealed that digital divide and personal space invasion. Malaysian ESL learners are high-strategy Moreover, researchers have agreed that users who would resort to a frequent use Malaysia is still in its embryonic stage in of strategies in order to learn the language terms of employing mobile approaches for effectively. A study by Hiew (2012) noted English language learning and there is still ESL learners’ perceptions pertaining to their more space to accommodate for diversity experience in learning English language
1074 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1069 - 1085 (2016) ESL Lecturers’ Perceptions on using i-MoL as a Mobile-Based Tool for Teaching Grammar in secondary schools, colleges and local 1.) To what extent is the use of i-MoL universities. The author highlighted that one feasible in the learning of grammar? of the reasons that led to students’ negative 2.) What are ESL lecturers’ perceptions of perceptions towards learning English is using i-MoL to promote the learning of due to the teaching approaches that are grammar? less interactive and more textbook-based. Respondents suggested that ESL teachers METHODOLOGY and lecturers incorporate more creative, Research Design fun and interactive teaching approaches in their lessons, rather than merely using the The design is an exploratory study which conventional ‘chalk-and-talk’, PowerPoint employed in-depth semi-structured presentation, and relying on the textbook. interviews to provide reliable, detailed A study by Maarof and Munusamy (2015) and accurate observation of the feasibility identified why ESL undergraduates face of using i-MoL to enhance the learning difficulties in the classroom. Findings of grammar and gain insights into ESL suggested that ESL learners face challenges lecturers’ perceptions of using i-MoL to in terms of the learning environment promote the learning of grammar. which needs improvement, the quality of education, the role of educators and the Research Sample teaching approach. The research sample was five ESL lecturers Therefore, the above studies point to from a research university in Malaysia. As a the need for innovations in ESL teaching measure of safeguarding the privacy of the approaches as well as the environment lecturers involved in this study, their names in which new and interactive learning will not be revealed. Instead, they will be methods and materials are a must. Taking named Lecturer A, Lecturer B, Lecturer C this into consideration, mobile learning Lecturer D and Lecturer E respectively. The could be a potential approach to enhance lecturers were chosen based on purposive English grammar teaching and learning for sampling where their teaching experience Malaysian ESL learners. This study seeks (10 years above) was taken into account. to present ESL lecturers’ perceptions on One lecturer was selected from the School the feasibility of employing a mobile-based of Humanities, two from the School of tool, namely i-MoL, to promote the teaching Education and another two from the School and learning of grammar for undergraduate of Languages, Literacies and Translation students in the ESL programme. at the said university. The interviews were conducted for one hour at the respective RESEARCH QUESTIONS lecturer’s office and this venue was the The study was guided by the following preferred choice by all respondents. research questions:
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Research Instrument interview sessions; this approach taken was The research instrument used in this study to ensure that they had sufficient time to was a semi-structured interview adapted review the content. The grammar modules from Shuib et al. (2012). An interview encompassed Tenses, Interrogatives, Verbs schedule was designed to enable the and Sentences. formulation of appropriate questions to Figure 1 shows the i-MoL’s architecture facilitate data collection; this will allow as an intelligent mobile learning application the research questions to be answered. The which is supported through low-end to high- construction of interview questions for the end mobile platforms including Android, ESL lecturers was given due consideration in iPhone and even basic mobile phones with regards to the research questions, objectives SMS and MMS capabilities. The i-MoL and VARK’s theoretical framework of this tool is equipped with several mobile- study. This procedure involved segregating based applications for grammar learning themes and issues in relation to the area of including notes, quizzes, enrichment, and study which is closely aligned to the teaching forum. The i-MoL tool is available in the and learning of grammar using modules via form of web-based portals and mobile the i-MoL approach. A phenomenological learning applications providing ready-to-use qualitative method was used to analyse data templates for lecturers to help and reinforce gathered from interviews. This emergent grammar learning among students. The strategy; was vital to allow the method of intelligent part of the application provides analysis based on the type of data. The interfaces for lecturers to automatically responses provided by the lecturers were send the reinforced contents according to transcribed and analysed deductively. students’ identified learning styles and the interface of the learning style mechanism is Procedure available for all visual, kinaesthetic, reading, writing and auditory learners, which relate to This study is part of a larger scale study that the VARK’s learning style model (Fleming, focused on the feasibility of using i-MoL 1992). This study was grounded on VARK’s to promote the learning of grammar. It was (Visual, Aural, Reading or Write and vital that lecturers were informed of related Kinesthetic) model to ensure that when information pertaining to the development i-MoL is used to teach grammar, lecturers of i-MoL tool before they were interviewed. are able effectively promote diverse learning They were also briefed on features and styles in the teaching of grammar. application of i-MoL. The grammar modules The following features (Figure 1) were developed by five experienced senior of the i-MoL tool were also conveyed to Malaysian TESL lecturers specialising the lecturers where various elements of in grammar and were distributed among VARK’s model were embedded in each of the five lecturers one month prior to the the features:
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•• Reinforces content: ready-to-use a.) Learning style identifier: SMS- notes dissemination template with based and mobile application that scheduling, header and footer, grouping can automatically identify students’ and reinforcement setting interface. learning style through a series of •• Game-based application: a selection of questions interactive game-like mobile modules b.) Query: a student-centred mobile that incorporate quiz, enrichment, application that helps students to get inquiry-based and ranking games. instant feedback from their lecturer •• Discussion room: forum application to regarding the subjects. facilitate group-based learning RESULTS •• Alert and reminder: a reinforcement tool to help students obtain instant The majority of the respondents perceived information on grammar learning i-MoL as having the potential to promote the content that include:- learning of grammar via various grammar modules. Three themes were identified
Figure 1. i-MoL System Architecture (source: Shuib et al., 2015)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1069 - 1085 (2016) 1077 Ganapathy, M., Shuib, M., Gunasegaran, T. and Azizan, S. N. using a phenomenological approach that pivotal in reinforcing students’ grammar articulates the influence of i-MoL in the understanding where the three levels ranging learning of grammar. The themes are: (a) from easy, average and difficult are deemed the perceived potential of grammar modules “excellent” in catering for the different to improve students’ proficiency, (b) i-MoL proficiency levels. Lecturer C said, “I bet as a barrier and motivator for learning students will improve on these four main grammar, (c) the perceived potential of grammar components as the modules are i-MoL as a supplementary tool to deliver user-friendly.” effective grammar lessons. All lecturers shared the same perception that the enrichment exercises The Perceived Potential of Grammar will promote student understanding of the Modules to Improve Students’ various grammar components and build Proficiency student confidence in terms of engaging in Results from the semi-structured interview reinforcement exercises. Lecturer C pointed revealed that grammar is an “important out: aspect” of language to be taught but a “great hurdle to teach”. Lecturer A and lecturer B The modules systematically explained that: represent the important grammar components. Using the modules It’s frustrating to teach and so much independently by students will not so that I am on the brink of giving be an issue as it is well laid out up as students don’t understand clearly. their mistakes. Even after lengthy explanation, students repeat their Lecturer B added, “I am confident that mistakes. These modules that the modules can help students build their range from Modals, Sentences, proficiency and at the same time improve Tenses and Verbs will serve as tremendously if well utilised through their effective reinforcement exercises mobile devices. Majority of the lecturers for students which they can do at suggested that language games should be their convenience. I’m sure these incorporated in the modules as “it will have modules will have the ability to the potential to engage students in a fun and improve students’ proficiency. exciting way using their mobile devices.”
Lecturers D and E shared the same i-MoL as a Barrier and Motivator for perspective where they stressed that the Learning Grammar modules are very thorough delving into The majority of participants explained intensive exercises for each sub-section that mobile learning, like every other of grammar component. They added technological devices, has pros and cons. that the quiz section in the modules is
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Participants perceived that learning grammar Students will surely be motivated to via i-MoL could be both a motivator and a reinforce their learning of grammar barrier. experience and this will promote the Lecturers A, C and D indicated that achievement of learning objectives. mobile learning could serve as a barrier (Lecturer B) to learning in terms of displacing learning Over the years, my students have time, being distracted during learning perpetually bugged me to integrate and dependent on the answer key when learning through mobile phones completing exercises. Lecturer A described which I have resisted due to time how students who have no discipline “will constrain. Now when I look at these have the tendency to go on social media very structured grammar modules, and get carried away and procrastinate on I look at it in a positive light as attempting the modules through i-MoL.” to cater to students’ interest and Lecturers C and D agreed in unison that motivation to learn grammar via i-MoL could “distract students from i-MoL. concentrating on their tasks as they may (Lecturer E) rather choose to indulge in their social media platforms while engaging on their tasks.” Lecturer A had also pointed out that, Perceptions of i-MoL as a Supplementary “there may be a high tendency for students Tool to Deliver Effective Grammar Lessons to rely on the answer key without attempting the exercises on their accord.” The lecturers believed that majority of However, all lecturers acknowledged university students are likely to own a that i-MoL will serve as a motivator in smartphone nowadays and in this way, spurring students to learn grammar in an mobile learning can complement the “exciting and interesting manner.” The traditional teaching and learning method. following are extracts of the lecturers’ Lecturer D conveyed that “the content responses: structure of the modules are excellent to be used in the classroom via i-MoL I am very certain that mobile phones as each grammar component and sub- will play a role in helping students sections encompass definitions, forms and to learn grammar effectively functions and activities. The sections on because I’m very sure that they quiz and enrichment can be administered will be interested and excited to use as reinforcement tasks that can be done at their smart phones to learn during students’ flexible phase of learning.” their classroom activity. Lecturers A and E pointed out that (Lecturer C) i-MoL is an “effective tool to engage students in learning grammar based on their
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1069 - 1085 (2016) 1079 Ganapathy, M., Shuib, M., Gunasegaran, T. and Azizan, S. N. own interest.” Mobile learning is perceived materials and this finding is consistent with as flexible and convenient for students to other studies (Cavus & Ibrahim, 2008; use in the classroom to engage in the various Miangah & Nezarat, 2012; Liu et al., 2014) activities of the grammar modules while where the quality of pedagogical design having the opportunity for reinforcement is more important than the medium of at their own pace (Lecturers B, D and E). communication being used. As such, mobile According to Lecturer C. “I am confident learning needs to be properly planned based that by using the modules in the i-MoL, on a pedagogical outline so that the system my grammar lessons will be interesting would benefit both learners and instructors. and effective. Learning outcomes will be The finding related to the lecturers’ achieved as targetted”. However, they concerns about mobile learning being a stressed that the barriers of using mobile barrier to student learning is pertinent. phones have to be “kept in mind” in order They pointed out the barriers when using to ensure that they “don’t pose challenges” mobile technology in the classroom such in the teaching and learning process. as student displacing learning time, being distracted during learning and depending on DISCUSSION the answer key when attempting exercises. Technology connotes a fluid notion, and any This finding further strengthens the claim attempts of understanding this notion, at its that in the classroom, the lecturer’s role very best, vary across different contexts of is a facilitator and thus, students must be discussion, both in academic, professional guided, monitored and closely supervised and personal practices. With the advent of when engaged in mobile learning (Wang & rapid digital technological development Smith, 2013). especially in the educational landscape, Interestingly, even though not entirely there are bound to be varying degrees in unanticipated, the findings also corroborated the manner in which a lecturer perceives with other studies where mobile learning is and interacts with technological tools in the perceived as having the potential to promote teaching of grammar. effective learning of grammar where This study discussed ESL lecturers’ students are motivated to learn in a different perceptions of using modules via i-MoL way when they use their favourite gadgets to promote the learning of grammar. (Siraj, 2004; Mohamad & Woollard, 2009; The lecturers perceived grammar as an Lim et al., 2011; Abd Rahman & Mohd “important aspect” to be taught in the ESL Hashim, 2011). In general, the findings classroom and the grammar modules via reflected positive perception of lecturers i-MoL “will serve as effective reinforcement in using grammar modules via i-MoL, to exercises for students which they can do engage their students in enrichment and at their convenience”. In this regard, the reinforcement activities respectively where modules are deemed feasible as supporting students are able to effectively utilise
1080 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1069 - 1085 (2016) ESL Lecturers’ Perceptions on using i-MoL as a Mobile-Based Tool for Teaching Grammar technology in a meaningful and comfortable indicated positive perceptions of using manner to enhance their learning process. grammar modules via i-MoL as a learning To this effect, the lecturers pointed out that tool to engage students in the ESL teaching “students will be motivated to learn grammar environment. This suggests lecturers are based on their own interest of using mobile enthusiastic in utilising technology to gadgets” and this is in line with Wang and enhance their second language teaching and Smith’s study (2013) where mobile phone- learning process. assisted learning is perceived positively as The results indicate that students will be an effective method for improving students’ motivated to learn grammar in a manner that grammar abilities. interests them which will facilitate positive Lecturers A and E pointed out that learning outcomes. However, concerns i-MoL was an “effective tool to engage were raised for mobile technology being students in learning grammar based a barrier to student learning in terms of on their own interest” and this finding displacing learning time, being distracted supports the VARKS’s model as being during learning and depending on the the underlying theoretical framework of answer key when attempting exercises. i-MoL.” Mobile learning is perceived as Findings however, show grammar modules flexible and convenient for students to use can be advocated via i-MoL specifically, to in the classroom to engage in the various teach and reinforce grammar learning and activities of the grammar modules while which has been proven by several studies having the opportunity for reinforcement which explored the potential of mobile at their own pace of time (comments from technologies in assisting students’ learning lecturers B, D and E) in various areas of English language (Cavus The findings are consistent with other & Ibrahim, 2008; Miangah & Nezarat, 2012; studies where mobile learning is deemed Liu et al., 2014). a useful complement to the traditional This study was not without limitations. teaching and learning method. Thus, ESL As an exploratory study, a small purposive lecturers have to diversify their approaches sampling procedure was appropriate, but in teaching to address challenges especially this limits the generalisation of the results. in higher learning institutions (Shuib et al., First, the reported study involved five 2012; Tayebinik & Puteh, 2012; Mohamad ESL lecturers from one public research & Muniandy, 2014; Shuib et al., 2015). university in Malaysia only. Future research should attempt to involve a bigger number CONCLUSION of interview participants which could be This study investigated ESL lecturers’ purposively selected from a number of perceptions of using i-MoL to promote the other universities in order to present a learning of grammar and the feasibility of clearer picture about the feasibility of using using i-MoL to teach it. Interview findings mobile-based application for Malaysian ESL
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Washback Effect of School-based English Language Assessment: A Case-Study on Students’ Perceptions
Alla Baksh, M. A.1*, Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A.2, Tayeb, Y. A.2 and Norhaslinda, H.3 1School of Languages, Literacies and Translation, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia 2School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia 3Akademi of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Pulau Pinang, 13500 Permatang Pauh, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This paper reports on the preliminary findings of an on-going study on the washback effect of the newly introduced school-based assessment (SBA) at the lower-secondary level in Malaysia. This study specifically investigates how the school-based assessment has affected the perceptions of students in relation to learning English as a second language. In addition, the study attempts to explore the students’ responses to a call for change from a purely testing culture into a learning culture at the beginning of its implementation. The objectives of the study are therefore twofold: to gauge the washback effect on students’ overall perceptions of SBA and external examinations and challenges of implementing School-based Assessment (SBA). Drawing on the data collected by means of questionnaires, it was found that the sampled students were equally pessimistic about external examinations and SBA. In addition, some barriers in implementing SBA as perceived by the students in the given context are reported. It is hoped that the findings of this small-scale study which was carried out after two years into the implementation of SBA, would contribute to a better understanding of the complex phenomenon of “washback” in relation to SBA in Malaysia.
Keywords: Washback effect, school-based assessment, students’ perceptions, English language, lower- ARTICLE INFO Article history: secondary level, low-stakes, Malaysia Received: 14 May 2015 Accepted: 18 May 2016
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Alla Baksh, M. A.), [email protected] (Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A.), [email protected] (Tayeb, Y. A.), [email protected] (Norhaslinda, H.) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H.
INTRODUCTION Council (MEC) on the other hand, exercises Malaysia as one of the British colonies has similar jurisdiction over the Malaysian adopted many of its administrative systems Higher School Certificate or the STPM which includes its education system (Saw, (Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia) and 2010). Students in Malaysia undergo 11 MUET (Malaysian University English years of compulsory schooling which Test) which are sat by sixth-form or the pre- requires them to sit for three major public university (year 12 and 13) students who examinations. The first public examination are in their final stage of school education i.e., Primary School Assessment or the before gaining entry into higher learning UPSR (Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah) institutions either at local or international is carried out in the sixth year (end) of institutions acknowledged by the Malaysian the primary level. The lower secondary government (Saw, 2010). assessment i.e., the focus of the study, was Considering the overarching initially known as *PMR (Peperiksaan examination oriented-culture which had Menengah Rendah) before it was named been in practice for over 30 years, the as Pentaksiran Tingkatan 3 (PT3) or Form Malaysian government embarked on a major 3 assessment in the year of 2014, was the assessment reform at both primary and next public examination conducted at the lower-secondary levels of education in 2011 end of lower-secondary level (year 9) till and 2012 respectively. An entirely school- 2013 and the third public examination is based assessment shifting the paradigm of the Malaysian Certificate of Education or teaching duties of teachers from ‘teaching the SPM (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) which only’ into a ‘teaching and assessing their is carried out in the fifth year of secondary own students’ at both levels were introduced. level (year 11). Hence, there are various implications for The assessments at the national the students from such a transition in the schools till the mid-nineties were assessment system whereof they may need centralised as they were entirely handled to make necessary adjustments in ‘what’ and by two central bodies namely the Malaysian ‘how’ they prepare for the newly-introduced Examinations Syndicate (MES) and the assessment system. Malaysian Examinations Council (MEC). School-based assessment was The aforementioned standardised public introduced at both primary and secondary examinations at the primary (UPSR), lower- levels. However, considering the years and secondary (PMR/PT3*) and upper-secondary levels they were introduced, the researchers (SPM) levels in schools fall within the had to investigate the lower-secondary level jurisdiction of the Malaysian Examinations assessment as the first batch of students Syndicate (MES) in ensuring their validity at this level were about to experience the and objectivity (Chan et al., 2009; Baidzawi new assessment system (PT3) compared & Abu, 2013). The Malaysian Examinations with their counterparts at the primary level
1088 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) Washback Effect of SBA on Students’ Perceptions who will experience a revised assessment on language assessment reveals that system in 2016. Thus, the scope of this traditional assessment systems in which paper is on the English language assessment the policymakers (stakeholders at the macro reform at the lower-secondary level only. level) judging the efficacy of language Specifically, it attempts to gauge the teaching and learning in classrooms by consequences of the newly-introduced means of student achievement in one-off English language assessment system on the standardised summative tests do not always ultimate stakeholders (of any assessment) have a beneficial impact. In this regard, as claimed by Bailey (1996) - the students. Alderson and Wall (1993) have clearly These consequences of assessment affecting disputed the claim made by scholars like teaching and learning at the micro level Morrow (1986) that ‘a test is valid when (classroom) is referred to as ‘washback’ or it has good washback and it is invalid ‘backwash’ by language testing scholars. when it has negative washback’. In today’s Hence, this study looks into the washback reality, many education systems have the effect of a school-based English assessment examination questions constructed by on the perceptions of a group of students policymakers who do not teach the subject at the lower-secondary level in one of the and teachers who teach the subject, not schools in Penang. being directly involved in constructing First, this paper briefly introduces the exam questions. Notwithstanding, the the construct of school-based assessment stakeholders at both macro (policymakers) and discusses the type of school-based and micro (teachers and students) levels assessment practised at the lower-secondary should make every effort to harmonise level in Malaysia. The language testing the relationship between the curriculum, construct “washback” is then introduced teaching and learning activities and the and is linked with the newly-introduced assessments which may lead the stakeholders school-based assessment in Malaysia. Next, in achieving positive washback (Shohamy methods and instruments employed for the et al., 1996). Unfortunately, this does study are discussed followed by significant not happen as has been proven by many results and discussion. Finally, conclusions empirical studies carried out in various and some recommendations are drawn along contexts to date. Hence, systems of this with the limitations of this study. kind have mostly pressured the students in choosing between either to pass the test or SCHOOL-BASED ASSESSMENT IN improve their language proficiency (Wall, MALAYSIA 1996; Qi, 2005). Standardised public examinations at Therefore, education specialists around different stages of education are prevalent the world in realising the shortcomings in many education systems around the of such one-off standardised tests have globe. However, a review of literature gradually begun looking into the gaps
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) 1089 Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H. identified in the approaches of assessments agencies is minimised but the teachers’ role employed in the 20th and addressing them in as assessors is increased. 21st century. “While the former pursued the On the other hand, Malaysia has evidence at the end of the learning process actively been participating in international (summative), the international agenda for assessments like PISA (Program for twenty first century is the recognition of International Student Assessment) and using assessment for learning purposes TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics (formative)” (Berry, 2011). and Science Study). A below-average In line with this global shift in assessment performance by 15 year old Malaysian practices, the Malaysian government students in such international assessments introduced standards-referenced school- was another factor that led the government to based assessment into its education system consider and embark on assessment reforms. at the primary and lower secondary levels in It was discovered by means of recent PISA 2011 and 2012 respectively. The rationales results that the Malaysian students were and stages of implementation were discussed not able to deal with items which required in the Blueprint (2013). higher-order thinking skills. Therefore, the Shohamy (1991) argued that the use of Malaysian government has set a target of tests for power and control is a very common being ranked top-third in such international practice in countries which the educational assessments by 2025 (MES, 2014). systems are centralised: the curriculum is Comparatively, implementing an controlled by central agencies. Malaysia entirely school-based assessment system is one of these countries which controls with a minimal involvement of central its curriculum, teaching and learning, and agencies in a high-stakes test like SPM assessment through MES and MEC. The may not be accepted by society due to the government’s intention of implementing impact the tests have on students’ future: SBA is to promote real learning of the scholarships and other perks are awarded subject matters among the students instead based on the test results. However, in its of rote-learning and memorisation (MES, effort to promote assessment for learning at 2014). However, given the stakes attached to this level, the government has implemented assessments at different levels along with the school-based oral assessment (SBOA) society’s (macro-level stakeholders) faith in since 2002. Thus, considering the stakes/ teachers grading their own students without consequences of assessments on students’ fear and favour, the Malaysian government lives along with the formative stage of had to choose the lower levels of education learning of the students, SBA began with namely primary and lower-secondary levels the primary and lower-secondary levels of in implementing an entirely school-based education (low-stakes) (MES, 2014). assessment in which the role of central
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The assessment reform undertaken The school assessment on the other hand by Malaysia is a synergistic school-based is a combination of formative and summative assessment at the lower-secondary level components. Three aspects are contained (MES, 2014) in which four assessment within the school assessment: assessment components are contained within the new for learning, assessment of learning and Form 3 assessment system. assessment as learning. Researchers (Black They are: et al., 2003, as cited in Yu, 2010) have opined that while raising students’ achievement is i. Form 3 (central) assessment the first priority of assessmentfor learning, ii. School assessment it also involves teachers in multiple formal iii. Physical Activities, sports and co- and informal assessment methods such curriculum, and; as unit tests, quizzes, oral presentations, listening activities and homework to judge iv. Psychometric assessment the quality of their students’ learning against The first two assessments are categorised a set criteria or standards. In this regard, the under the academic component whereas the MES has provided the teachers with a band other two are non-academic ones. At the end scale of 1 to 6 in which 1 indicates weak of the lower-secondary level, students now and 6 indicates advanced learners. Students are provided with four different forms of are required to achieve the highest bands results representing each component of the possible over the year. Black et al. (2003, broad school-based assessment. The non- as cited in Yu, 2010) also highlighted that academic component of the school-based an assessment activity should, ideally, be assessment is, however, beyond the scope able to provide feedback to both teachers of this paper. and students which may assist them in The Form 3 (central) assessment is a assessing each other and also adapting summative paper-and-pencil test which their teaching and learning activities. The involves an evaluation of all four language school assessment as stated in the official skills. Hence, it is assessment of learning documents of the ministry (moe.gov. as it comes at the end of the term. The my), requires the teachers to identify their MES provides the schools nationwide with students’ actual performance and their sets of question papers to choose from desired performance as required by the (comparative standards). Teachers grade ministry (intended washback) and provide the exam scripts of their own students by their students with necessary feedback strictly adhering to the guidelines provided with an aim to bridge the gap. Besides, by the ministry. It is, however, worth noting students also have the opportunity to be here that the previous assessment (PMR) assessed by their peers (peer-assessment) focused mainly on the reading and writing and themselves (self-assessment). skills only.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) 1091 Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H.
As mentioned earlier, Malaysia in the assessment literature are reported here has implemented a one-off summative and the definition identified for the study is examination system at the lower-secondary then stated. Some scholars have argued that level for about 30 years. Considering the examinations may affect stakeholders at the recent shift in policies and practices in micro level; classroom at the macro level; relation to the assessment at the lower- schools (administration), education systems secondary level and the students who are and society at large. Bachman and Palmer one of the most affected key stakeholders, (1996), Wall (1997), Andrews (2004) and studies investigating their perceptions of McNamara (2010) refer to this phenomenon such an assessment reform are deemed as ‘test impact’. necessary. Frederikson and Collins (1989) on the other hand introduced the term ‘systemic A PANORAMIC VIEW OF validity’ which means effects of instructional WASHBACK changes brought about by the introduction Learners’ achievement in standardised of tests into the educational systems. examinations has been widely used as a tool Messick’s (1996) consequential validity to measure the performance of stakeholders revolves around concepts ranging from the at the micro level (classrooms), schools uses of tests, the potential misuse, abuse, and educational systems (administration) and unintended usage of tests, the impacts for accountability purposes. Alderson and of testing on test takers, teachers and the Wall’s (1993, p.4) remark that ‘tests are decision makers. Popham (1987) introduced held to be powerful determiners of what the term measurement-driven instruction, happens in classroom’ clearly supports Shohamy et al. (1996) defined curriculum this statement. The phenomenon of alignment as altering the curriculum in line examinations influencing the teaching and with the examination results and Morrow learning activities is defined as washback (1986) introduced washback validity which in the area of language testing (Alderson & refers to the value of the relationship Wall, 1993). This phenomenon sparked an between the test and any associated teaching. interest among scholars in both general and This family of terms have all one language education. thing in common: curriculum, teaching However, scholars, in exploring this and learning are controlled by means of phenomenon, have been divided in their either introducing new or altering existing definition. Though their definitions broadly examinations within the education systems. deal with examinations influencing teaching Washback or backwash is broadly defined as and learning, there are some differences in the effects of tests on teaching and also on relation to the scope of stakeholders affected learning (Cheng & Curtis, 2004). According by the examinations. Some significant to Alderson and Wall (1993), the term definitions which have widely been reported washback is widely used in British Applied
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Linguistics but backwash is prevalent in by tests. The ‘whats’ according to them educational literature. After reviewing are teaching - rate, sequence, degree and the existing literature on the available depth of teaching, and, learning - rate, definitions and taking into account the sequence, degree and depth of learning context in which a different assessment and the ‘whos’ are teachers and learners. system has just been introduced, the present Hughes (1993) in his attempt to enhance researchers adopted the term ‘washback’ the understanding of backwash (as he propagated by Alderson and Wall (1993) referred to it), broke the consequences down at the micro level, classroom, to gauge the into three broad categories: participants, kind of washback on a group of learners’ processes and product. Bailey (1996), perceptions at the beginning of implementing combining both Alderson and Wall’s (1993) a new assessment system in the current and Hughes’ (1993) insights, presented the context. Therefore, this study uses the term ideas with an addition of ‘researchers’ into washback to be used throughout as it deals the participants’ category in the form of a with language education. diagram (see figure 1) Bailey (1996) propagated Hughes’ THEORETICAL DISCUSSION (1993) message in her diagram that Scholars (Morrow, 1986; Frederikson & learning is the ultimate goal (product) of Collins, 1989; Khaniya, 1990) from both any assessment introduced into education general and language education have systems. Hence, beginning anywhere in the widely asserted the existence of washback diagram would eventually lead us to the without any empirical evidence. Washback ‘learning’ construct. The straight arrows in in language testing domain came into her diagram refer to the intended washback prominence in early 1990s when Alderson as required by policymakers and other & Wall (1993) disputed the assertions made beneficial consequences (research results). by other scholars over the years that a good On the other hand, the dotted arrows refer test will produce beneficial teaching and to the washback effect observed within learning (positive washback) and vice versa. specific territories (teachers, learners, etc.) They argued that a test alone may not be the in relation to their perceptions, attitudes, reason for the kind of teaching and learning teaching methods, learning strategies and observed in a language classroom but there so on. Finally, the product of the assessment might be other factors within classrooms, system as claimed by Hughes and Bailey is schools, educational systems and society at the learning of the language. large at work which hinder washback from The present study adopted Bailey’s happening. They subsequently proposed (1996) model to look into the washback 15 washback hypotheses in their seminal effect of a school-based English language paper “Does washback exist?” which assessment on a group of learners’ deal with ‘what’ and ‘who’ are affected perceptions in one of the schools in a
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) 1093 Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H. northern state of Malaysia. In reference to the washback effect of the school-based Bailey’s model, the participants involved in oral assessment reported that the students this study are the students and the processes had little knowledge of school-based of the students are as stated below: assessment and they did not perceive any I. Students’ overall perceptions of school- benefits that SBA claims to bring to learning based assessment (SBA) and external (teacher feedback and peer-assessment). Examinations. Considering the standards-referenced school-based assessment recently introduced II. Challenges of Implementing School- by the Malaysian government at the lower- based Assessment (SBA). secondary level to promote learning, an investigation into the perceptions and Washback on Students’ Perceptions attitudes of students in relation to the new It was argued in empirical washback studies assessment system is therefore necessary. that the perceptions of the key stakeholders The paucity of students’ perspectives on the (teachers and students) were among the washback effect as reported in the literature significant factors which greatly influenced internationally (Hamp-Lyons, 2000; the teaching and learning activities in Stoneman, 2006; Shih, 2009) and the need classrooms. Yu (2010) in her study on to know what is intended by the ministry
Figure 1. A basic model of washback (Bailey, 1996, p.264).
1094 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) Washback Effect of SBA on Students’ Perceptions and what is happening in reality within of Penang and the district of Seberang classrooms warrants an investigation into Perai Tengah were chosen for convenience the washback effect of the newly introduced purposes. The sampled school had requested school-based assessment on learners at the anonymity. The researchers were able to beginning of its implementation. sample a balanced number of both genders, As the previous studies on school-based 17 males and 17 females (n=34) from this assessment in Malaysia have been centred school. Schools in Malaysia are ranked by on concerns among teachers with regards to bands: band 1 being the highest and band 6 its implementation (Faizah, 2011; Baidzawi the lowest. As this study was conducted at & Abu, 2013; Nair et al., 2014), it is deemed the very beginning of the implementation of significant and timely to carry out a study SBA in Malaysia, the researchers employed on the washback effect of school-based purposive sampling by identifying a middle- assessment on students’ perceptions as they band (band 4) school. are one of the direct stakeholders of any Choosing a school of middle assessment reforms. banding to some extent minimises Shih (2009) in her study on ‘how students’ ability as a factor in tests change teaching?’ highlighted that making reference of the school’s research on washback to date has been experiences to other contexts, as centred on washback of tests on teaching compared to the other two scenarios or they investigated the impact of teachers’ of either choosing a high-banding or educational backgrounds or beliefs on their a low-banding school. Experiences teaching. However, scant attention has been of a middle-banding school allow a paid to the role played by student factors wider range of readers to recognise in affecting teaching within the washback similarities of issues in their own mechanism, and the researchers believe this context (Yu, 2010, p.79). is particularly so in Malaysia. According to Shih (2009), some of the potential areas of washback in relation to student factors Instruments are like ‘how do students’ feedback affect This study looks into the washback effect teaching?’ and ‘how do students’ learning of a newly introduced language assessment. motivation influence teaching?’ Therefore, the researchers had to rely on official documents (booklets, press METHOD release, etc.) issued by the ministry to Participants gauge the positive/intended washback. After reviewing all the available documents, the The participants of this study were from researchers then triangulated the students’ the lower-secondary level i.e., PT3 of a responses by means of their self-reported co-education national secondary school in questionnaires. Therefore, this study Seberang Perai Tengah, Penang. The state
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) 1095 Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H. includes document analysis and survey as Data Collection and Analysis its research instruments. The questionnaires were distributed by A validated questionnaire by Yu (2010), one of the teachers in the sampled school. who conducted a mixed-methods case study They were completed by the students on the washback effects of school-based under the teacher’s supervision with a performance assessment in a Hong Kong return rate of 94%. Some questionnaires secondary school, was adapted by this were not returned due to the absence of study. As the context for the present study students on the day when the instrument is Malaysia, necessary amendments were was administered and some students failed made to suit the context. After thoroughly to return their questionnaires. The Software analysing the instrument, some items deemed Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, V21) not relevant were removed and where was used to analyse this study data. An necessary, some new items were added. In independent-samples t-test and the measure addition, as the researchers’ aims were to of central tendency were carried out to gauge whether the new assessment system see the differences among the sampled has positively or negatively affected the respondents. students’ language learning, the researchers in their attempt to avoid fence sitters had RESULTS to transform the questionnaire originally This study only reports the findings from designed on a 6-point Likert scale into a sections I (Students’ overall perceptions 4-point Likert scale. The respondents were of school-based assessment (SBA) and required to respond on a 4-point Likert scale external examinations) and V (Students’ ranging from 1 which indicates strongly preference between external exams and disagree to a score of 4 which indicates SBA). Findings from section I is presented strongly agree for section II, IV and V by means of independent-samples t-test to whereas they were required to respond to a grasp the differences among the male and 4-point Likert scale ranging from a scale of female students’ self-reported responses. 1 which indicates never to a scale of 4 which On the other hand, findings from section V indicates always/all the time for section is presented by means of measure of central III. Only the results of section I and V are tendency. The following tables statistically discussed in this paper. illustrate the students’ responses: The adapted questionnaire was revalidated by two local experts in the area I. Students’ preference between external of language testing and a reliability test exams and SBA was run for each item and for the entire An independent-samples t-test was run instrument. An internal consistency test of to compare the gender differences on the questionnaire revealed that its cronbach the students’ views of SBA and external alpha value was at .88. examination. Next, effect size was calculated
1096 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) Washback Effect of SBA on Students’ Perceptions to provide an indication of the magnitude of is considered large, with eta squared=0.133. the differences between the groups (not just With regards to External examinations force whether the difference could have occurred students to study harder, there is a significant by chance). difference in the students’ views, i.e., male Data revealed that some of the items (M: 1.29), female (M: 1.76) with a t-value listed in Table 1 and Table 2 had significant of 3.024 and p=0.005. The female students differences between the two genders in in this school appear to have the urge to the sampled school. The items which had study harder for external examinations in significant differences are first presented comparison to the males. The magnitude of followed by the insignificant ones. the differences in the means is large, too, There is a significant difference in the with eta squared=0.22. In relation to SBA students’ views about Taking external exam forces students to study harder, there is a is a valuable experience for male (Mean: significant difference too, i.e., male (M: 1.00) and female (M: 1.24), with a t-value of 1.24), female (M: 1.65) with a t-value of 2.219 and p=0. 041. The result also indicates 2.578 and p=0.015. The findings indicate that taking external examinations is a more that the female students have the disposition valuable experience for the sampled female to study harder due to the existence of SBA students than to their male counterparts. The compared with their male counterparts. The magnitude of the differences in the means magnitude of the differences in the means
Table 1 Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Taking external exam is a valuable Male 17 1.00 .000 .000 experience Female 17 1.24 .437 .106 External examinations force students to Male 17 1.29 .470 .114 study harder Female 17 1.76 .437 .106 SBA forces students to study harder Male 17 1.24 .437 .106 Female 17 1.65 .493 .119 A student's score on external examination Male 17 1.24 .437 .106 is a good indication of how well he/ Female 17 1.65 .493 .119 she will be able to apply what has been learned A student's score on SBA is a good Male 17 1.00 .000 .000 indication of how well he/she will be able Female 17 1.59 .507 .123 to apply what has been learned All students work hard to achieve their Male 17 1.47 .514 .125 best in external examinations Female 17 1.76 .437 .106 All students work hard to achieve their Male 17 1.35 .493 .119 best in SBA Female 17 1.65 .493 .119 a. t cannot be computed because the standard deviations of both groups are 0.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) 1097 Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H. Std. Error Std. Error Difference .106 .106 .156 .156 .160 .160 .160 .160 .123 .123 .164 .164 .169 .169 Mean Mean Difference -.235 -.235 -.471 -.471 -.412 -.412 -.412 -.412 -.588 -.588 -.294 -.294 -.294 -.294 Sig. Sig. (2-tailed) .034 .041 .005 .005 .015 .015 .015 .015 .000 .000 .082 .082 .091 .091 32 16.000 32 31.838 32 31.556 32 31.556 32 16.000 32 31.189 32 32.000 df t -2.219 -2.219 -3.024 -3.024 -2.578 -2.578 -2.578 -2.578 -4.781 -4.781 -1.796 -1.796 -1.741 -1.741 Sig. .000 .455 .153 .153 .000 .020 1.000 41.086 .573 2.140 2.140 497.778 5.976 .000 F Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed
Taking external exam is a valuable external exam is a valuable Taking experience External examinations force students to study harder forces students to study harder SBA student's score on external A examination is a good indication of how well he/she will be able to apply what has been learned is a good student's score on SBA A indication of how well he/she will be able to apply what has been learned All students work hard to achieve their best in external examinations All students work hard to achieve their best in SBA Table 2 Table for Equality of Variances Levene's Test
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is large, with eta squared=0.172. As for A p=0.091. This may imply that both female student’s score on external examination is a and male students felt that they work equally good indication of how well he/she will be hard to achieve their best in SBA
Std. Error Std. Error Difference .106 .106 .156 .156 .160 .160 .160 .160 .123 .123 .164 .164 .169 .169 able to apply what has been learned, there is a significant difference, i.e., male (M:1.24), II. Challenges of Implementing School- female (M:1.65) with a t-value of 2.578 and based Assessment (SBA)
Mean Mean Difference -.235 -.235 -.471 -.471 -.412 -.412 -.412 -.412 -.588 -.588 -.294 -.294 -.294 -.294 p=0.015. Female students here see their Measure of central tendency and standard score in their external examination as a good deviation were computed to summarise data indication of how well they will be able to for students’ perceived challenges of SBA.
Sig. Sig. (2-tailed) .034 .041 .005 .005 .015 .015 .015 .015 .000 .000 .082 .082 .091 .091 apply what has been learned compared with As shown in Table 3, the mean value the male students. The magnitude of the represents the average score of how the differences in the means is large, with eta respondents perceived the challenges of 32 16.000 32 31.838 32 31.556 32 31.556 32 16.000 32 31.189 32 32.000 df squared=0.172. The last item which had a implementing SBA in their school whereas significant differenceis A student’s score on the mode indicates the number of frequently SBA is a good indication of how well he/she chosen responses by the students. The five t -2.219 -2.219 -3.024 -3.024 -2.578 -2.578 -2.578 -2.578 -4.781 -4.781 -1.796 -1.796 -1.741 -1.741 will be able to apply what has been learned, items (challenges) as shown in Table 3 i.e., male (M:1.00), female (M:1.59) with a are ranked from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4
Sig. .000 .455 .153 .153 .000 .020 1.000 t-value of 4.781 and p=0.000. This indicates (strongly agree). that the female students see their score in The mean value for “Our school does not SBA as a good indication of how well they have sufficient books on SBA” is 2.94, which 41.086 .573 2.140 2.140 497.778 5.976 .000 F will be able to apply what has been learned indicates that students on average agreed compared with the male students. The that the school does not have sufficient magnitude of the differences in the means materials on SBA which seem to hinder is large, with eta squared=0.417. the implementation of SBA in their school. Two items from the tables above had On the other hand, the mean value for “We insignificant differences. For the item, All find it difficult to understand the content students work hard to achieve their best of the SBA books” is 3.24, which signifies in external examinations, no significant that the students on average think that it is Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed difference is found in the students’ self- very difficult to understand the content of reported responses with a t-value of 1.796 the SBA materials. The mean value for the and p=0.082. This may imply that both item “Teachers have the knowledge and female and male students felt that they work skills to implement SBA” is 1.56, which equally hard to achieve their best in external shows that the students on average slightly examinations. Finally, the last item which disagreed that their teachers have the had insignificant difference is All students knowledge and skills to carry out SBA tasks. work hard to achieve their best in SBA. The mean value for the item, “Students
There is no significant difference in the may not trust teachers’ assessment in SBA” students’ views with a t-value of 1.741 and is 3.06, which shows that on average, Taking external exam is a valuable external exam is a valuable Taking experience External examinations force students to study harder forces students to study harder SBA student's score on external A examination is a good indication of how well he/she will be able to apply what has been learned is a good student's score on SBA A indication of how well he/she will be able to apply what has been learned All students work hard to achieve their best in external examinations All students work hard to achieve their best in SBA Table 2 Table for Equality of Variances Levene's Test
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) 1099 Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H. respondents agreed that they may not trust the knowledge and skills to implement the grades given by their own teachers in SBA” is 0.894, standard deviation for relation to SBA. The mode for this item item “Students and teachers may not trust is 4, which indicates that majority of the teachers’ assessment in SBA” is 0.919 and respondents strongly agreed with this standard deviation for item “We do not have statement. adequate class time for carrying out SBA The mean value for item “We do not tasks” is 0.666. have adequate class time for carrying out SBA tasks” is 3.26, which shows that DISCUSSION respondents agreed and strongly agreed The analysis of items for the first construct that they do not have adequate class time revealed that overall, ambivalent attitude for carrying out SBA tasks. The mode was evident among male and female value is 3, which indicates that majority of students in the sampled school. They the respondents agreed that the class time were uncertain of which assessment allocated for SBA tasks is insufficient. method was more valuable for learning As shown in Table 3, the standard purposes. Moreover, some of them provided deviation of the item “Our school does not contradictory responses when asked about have sufficient books on SBA” is 1.071, the two different assessment methods which means data points are spread out over namely external examination and school- a wider range of values. Since the mean is based assessment. Given such a reaction 2.94 and the standard deviation is 1.071, among this group of students and the MOE’s it is estimated that approximately 95% of predilections for a ‘synergistic assessment the scores will fall in the range of 2.94- system’ which combines both school (2*1.071) to 2.94+ (2*1.071), or between assessment (formative and summative) 0.798 and 5.082. The standard deviation and central assessment (summative), the of item “We find it difficult to understand question of which particular component has the content of the SBA books” is 0.955, drawn serious attention among the student standard deviation for item “Teachers have population in other schools and by extension,
Table 3 Challenges of Implementing School-based Assessment in our school
Our school We find it Teachers have Students We do not does not have difficult to the knowledge may not trust have adequate sufficient books understand the and skills to teachers’ class time for on SBA content of the implement SBA assessment in carrying out SBA books SBA SBA tasks Mean 2.94 3.24 1.56 3.06 3.26 Std. 1.071 .955 .894 .919 .666 Deviation Mode 4 4 1 4 3
1100 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) Washback Effect of SBA on Students’ Perceptions states, then arises. Ideally, both components there were barriers (materials, teachers’ should be equally favoured by teachers and assessment literacy and time-constraint) in students alike as they complement each other implementing SBA at the national schools (intended washback). Also, do the ministry around the country. officials macro-level( stakeholders) and the Overall, the students’ ambivalence students (micro-level stakeholders) think towards SBA has led the researchers to along the same lines is one big question that conclude that respondents of the study has yet to be answered. By means of the might not be very clear of the purposes, quantitative data analysis of this study, it is requirements and the potential benefits safe to assume that the intended washback of of the newly introduced school-based the SBA on students was not fully achieved assessment. Moreover, the background of as there was a mismatch between what the respondents may have had an impact was required by the policy makers and the on their perceptions. Different language concept of SBA being operationalised by medium and academic achievement of this group of students who participated in students may also have impacted the way this study. In this circumstance, it is rather of learning and students’ perceptions on difficult to say that the SBA has negatively assessment. Hence, the intended washback at affected their knowledge and readiness as this point in time was still at the surface level the researchers could not tell if the students due to many uncertainties. The overarching were indifferent to the implementation of examination-orientedness could inevitably SBA or other factors contributed to their be one of them. actions. As can be seen in Table 3, students at the CONCLUSION sampled school provided negative responses For accurate interpretations of the results in relation to the items under the second derived from this study, it is obligatory construct. These students’ account indicate on the researchers’ part to acknowledge that their schools were devoid of resources its limitations. The first limitation of this (materials) and those at their disposal were study lies in the instrumentation employed not helpful. One interesting dimension of to collect data from the participants. When the new assessment system is the teachers this study was carried out, the teachers and are now empowered to teach and assess other administrative officials in schools their own students. However, judging the were not approachable due to various students’ responses in this school, they uncertainties with regards to the newly- appear to be quite pessimistic about this introduced school-based assessment. Hence, idea. Also, time constraint as a barrier to students, who are one of the mostly affected carry out SBA activities was perceived by stakeholders, were approached instead. these students. The students’ responses for The researchers could only employ the second construct overall indicate that quantitative method i.e., the questionnaire
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1087 - 1104 (2016) 1101 Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H. and therefore, no methodological to produce a minimal washback effect triangulation (interviews and classroom (positive) among the sampled population. observations) and data triangulation The researchers deemed that it is significant (teachers’, policymakers’ and parents’ that the policymakers at national level perspectives) could be done to triangulate should make every effort to ensure that all the responses provided by the students in the necessary information in relation to the their self-reported questionnaires. Most new assessment reaches the students without importantly, classroom observation which failure. Thus, this small scale study, if not is one of the most important elements clearly, has at least provided some insights which has been advocated by Alderson on what kind of washback was observed in & Wall (1993) in washback studies to the selected school. Therefore, it can be used triangulate the claims made, unfortunately, as a baseline study for further investigations could not be included in this study. Given of the impact of SBA on a bigger scale in the worldwide movement to combine Malaysia. assessment of learning with assessment for learning, a more comprehensive study REFERENCES which considers both teachers’ and students’ Alderson, J. C., & Wall, D., (1993). Does washback perspectives at possibly one of the regions exist? Applied linguistics, 14(2), 115-129. or even nationwide in Malaysia may provide Andrews, S. (2004). Washback and curriculum a holistic picture of the degree of impact innovation. In Cheng, L., Watanabe, Y., & observed. Second, the size of the sampled Curtis, A. (Eds.), Washback in language testing: population is small in which the respondents Research contexts and methods (pp.37-50). New were from one middle-banding school in Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. one of the 14 states in Malaysia. Hence, Bailey, K. M. (1996). Working for washback: A review generalising the findings to other contexts of the washback concept in language testing. should be done with caution. Language testing, 13(3), 257-279. Notwithstanding the limitations, this Bailey, K. M. (1999). Washback in language study is possibly the first ever undertaken to testing. TOEFL Monograph 15. Princeton, NJ gauge the students’ perspectives of SBA in Educational Testing Service. Malaysia. However, considering the fact that Baidzawi, A. M., & Abu. A. G. (2013). A comparative the sampled population of this study was analysis of primary and secondary school the first batch of students to experience this teachers in the implementation of school-based assessment. Malaysian Journal of Research, new assessment and their perceptions and 1(1), 28-36. attitudes being shaped by other stakeholders at micro level (teachers and peers) and Berry, R. (2011). Assessment Reforms Around the World. In Berry, R. & Adamson, B. (Eds.), macro level (parents, policymakers and other Assessment Reform in Education (Vol. 14, pp. stakeholders), the SBA has only managed 89-102): Springer Netherlands.
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Black, P., Harrison, C., & Lee, C. (2003). Assessment Messick, S. (1996). Validity and washback in language for learning: Putting it into practice. McGraw- testing. Language Testing, 13(3) 241-256. Hill Education: the United Kingdom. MES (2014). Information on School-based Blueprint, M. E. Blueprint 2013-2025. (2013). Assessment: Introduction to the school-based Preliminary Report. Preschool to Post-Secondary assessment. Malaysia: Malaysian Examinations Education. Ministry of Education Malaysia. Syndicate, Ministry of Education.
Chan, Y. F., Gurnam, K.S., & Rizal, Y., (2009). Nair, G. K. S., Setia, R., Samad, N. Z. A., Zahri, R. N. School-Based Assessment Enhancing Knowledge H. B. R., Luqman, A., Vadeveloo, T., & Ngah, H. and Best Practices. Shah Alam: University C. (2014). Teachers’ Knowledge and Issues in the Publication Centre (UPENA). Implementation of School-Based Assessment: A Case of Schools in Terengganu. Asian Social Cheng, L., Watanabe, Y. & Curtis, A. (2004). Science, 10(3), 186. Washback in language testing: Research contexts and methods. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Popham, W. J. (1987). The merits of measurement- Associates. driven instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 68(9), 679-682. Cohen, J. (1988). The t test for means. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, Qi, L. (2005). Stakeholders’ conflicting aims pp.19-74. undermine the washback function of a high stakes test. Language Testing, 22(2), 142–173. Faizah, A. M. (2011). School-Based Assessment in Malaysian Schools: The Concerns of the English Saw, L. O. (2010). Assessment profile of Malaysia: Teachers. Online Submission. high-stakes external examinations dominate. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Fredriksen, J., & Collins, A. (1989). A system Practice, 17(1), 91-103. approach to educational testing. Educational Researcher, 18(9), 27-32. Shih, C-M. (2009). How Tests Change Teaching: A Model for Reference. English Teaching: Practice Hamp-Lyons, L. (2000). Social, Professional and and Critique, 8(2), 188-206. Individual Responsibility in Language Testing. System, 28(4), 579-591. Shohamy, E. (1991). International Perspectives of Foreign Language Testing Systems and Policy. Hughes, A. (1993). Backwash and TOEFL 2000. In Ervin, G. (Ed.), International perspectives (Unpublished manuscript). University of on Foreign Language Teaching, pp. 91-107. Reading. Lincolnwood, Ill.: National Textbook Company. Khaniya, T. R. (1990). Examinations as instruments Shohamy, E., Donitsa-Schmidt, S. & Ferman, I. for educational change: Investigating the (1996). Test impact revisited: Washback effect washback effect of the Nepalese English exams. over time. Language Testing, 13(3), 298–317. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Edinburgh. Stoneman, B. W. H. (2006). The impact of an exit English test on Hong Kong undergraduates: McNamara, T. (2010). Language Testing, Oxford: a study investigating the effects of test status Oxford University Press. on students’ test preparation behaviours. Morrow, K. (1986). The evaluation of tests on (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation). The Hong communicative performance. Portal (Ed). Kong Polytechnic University. Windsor, Berkshire: NFER/Nelson.
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Wall, D. (1996). Introducing new tests into traditional Yu, Ying. (2010). The washback effects of school- systems: Insights from general education and based assessment on teaching and learning: A from innovation theory. Language Testing, 13(3), case study. (Unpublished PhD dissertation). The 334-354. University of Hong Kong.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
A Comparative Analysis of Pakistani English Newspaper Editorials: The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai
Hayat, N.* and Juliana, A. W. School of Communication, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This study analyse the portrayal of Malala Yousafzai after her attempt of assassination by Taliban in the editorials of four Pakistani English newspapers, The News, Dawn, The Nation and Daily Times from October 10, 2012 to November 10, 2012. It also investigates how newspapers framed Taliban after attacking Malala. The study is theoretically linked with framing theory and conducts the comparative analysis of the editorials of four Pakistani leading newspapers. A total of 29 editorials (five in The News, six in Dawn, nine in Daily Times and nine in The Nation) were analysed. The findings depict that Malala was portrayed as a courageous girl who opposed the Taliban and their mindset against the girl’s education in Swat valley. The findings also show that Taliban have a negative image in the Pakistani newspapers after their attack on Malala Yousafzai.
Keywords: Malala Yousafzai, Taliban, Portrayal, Pakistan, Editorial
INTRODUCTION principle Malala daringly advocated (Lodhi, The day of October 9, 2012 attack on 2012). Gunned down by the Pakistani Malala Yousafzai by Taliban was marked Taliban, Malala has become an international as a potential turning point in the life of icon for her courage and determination Pakistani nation. It not only shook the entire to advocate her beliefs and disobey the country but also became a binding force to environment of fear and terrorisation that condemn the act of violence and reaffirm the radical militants contrive and thrive on. In the aftermath of this incident, national and international press faced many challenges ARTICLE INFO in reporting and helping to set the agenda Article history: Received: 14 May 2015 for worldwide public discussion of the issue Accepted: 9 July 2015 (Sayah & Mullen, 2012). E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Hayat, N.), Mass media in Pakistan play an [email protected] (Juliana, A. W.) important role not only in shaping public * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Hayat, N. and Juliana, A. W. opinion, but also in influencing the decisions an international language and in Pakistan, of top government and military executives. mostly well qualified people and policy For this exclusive coverage, Pakistani makers read an English newspaper and and international media groups were also this why it is also called elite newspapers. threatened by Taliban. The swift, impulsive English press is considered as comparatively and unsurpassed reaction to her attempt more responsible. As such, decision makers of assassination from across the religious rely on the English Press for in-depth and political spectrum, military leadership understanding of different pertinent issues and every section of society reflected both with the help of editorials which form the anger and the outpouring of emotion that essence of any newspaper and act as a such violent acts can no longer be tolerated reflection of its policy. The rationale for (Yousafzai, 2007). selecting The News, Dawn, The Nation and The objectives of this research are to Daily Times is their status as the leading study the portrayal of Malala Yousafzai English language newspapers in Pakistan after her attempt of assassination in four due to circulation, readership and popularity Pakistani English newspapers, Dawn, Daily among the readers and these newspapers, by Times, The News and The Nation, in the and large, remain serious and responsible light of media framing theory. This study on the issues of national and international also investigated how the Taliban were importance. All four are considered as elite framed by these newspapers after the attack newspapers and belong to the prominent on Malala Yousafzai. The editorials of four media groups in Pakistan, ranking first, leading Pakistani English newspapers, The second, third and fourth respectively in News, Dawn, The Nation and Daily Times, terms of circulation size. They have different were selected from October 10, 2012 to approaches, perspectives and ideologies November 10, 2012 because in this time in dealing with national and international period, this incident was given exclusive news. Their influence on policy and decision coverage. The sample was taken from the makers in the country is far more than any online editions of these newspapers. A other local publication. In the same way, total of 29 editorials (five in The News, all the newspapers give special coverage of six in Dawn, nine in Daily Times and nine local and international events which award in The Nation) were analysed. The unit of them a top place among other newspapers. analysis of this study included all editorials The rationale for selecting editorial was containing the word “Malala” in the because it is a presentation of important, paragraphs or headlines in the newspapers contemporary events, interpretation and during the said time frame. critical evaluation in such a way as to In Pakistan, English Press is considered educate, inform, entertain and influence the more credible than electronic media and readers. Editorials shed more light on the enjoys good status and repute. English is contemporary issues and suggest solutions.
1106 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai
The posture of an editorial is influenced by made by opposition politicians and their the ownership structure, philosophy and editorials reflect a wide range of views. The policy of the newspaper and the political effort to ensure that newspapers carry their environment in which the certain newspaper statements or press releases sometimes leads is operating. to undue pressure by local police, political parties, ethnic, sectarian, and religious Print Media in Pakistan groups, militant student organisations, and Pakistan has a vibrant media landscape occasionally commercial interests. Such among the most dynamic in South Asia. pressure is a common feature of journalism Despite the political pressure and direct and can include physical violence, sacking bans that are sometimes administered by of offices, intimidation and beating of political stakeholders, the media enjoy journalists, and interference with distribution the freedom of speech. The print media of newspapers (Rana, 2008). The press industry experienced a media boom after in Pakistan holds significant power and the liberalisation in 2002. In the competitive has suffered much under various political environment that followed commercial leaders, only to emerge resilient and more interests became paramount and quality committed to freedom of speech. In Pakistan, journalism gave way to sensationalism most newspapers are privately owned and (Azam, 2008). Print media publish in 11 enjoy freedom of speech. There are three languages with Urdu, English and some major players on the print media market and regional languages. The divide between in the media market in general. Urdu and English media also goes for the print media. Urdu newspapers are the The News leading media in the rural areas. They are Jang Group of publications launched an conservative, folkloristic, religious and English newspaper with the name, “The sensational and are by far the most read News”, on February 11, 1991, from Karachi, and influential among the general public. Lahore, Rawalpindi and London at the same The English print media is urban, elitist, time. “The News” is said be neutral and more liberal and professional than Urdu unbiased and is believed to present both journalism. English print media has an sides of the picture. The News is following impact among opinion makers, politicians, the policy of “no policy”. Sometimes, it the business community and the upper seems as pro leftist or moderate is given strata of society in general (Mezzera & more importance by this newspaper. Sial, 2010). However, this newspaper never opposes Privately owned newspapers freely the government and tries to give a balance discuss public policies and keep a critical view while covering sensitive issues. eye on the government. They report remarks
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Dawn Daily Times Dawn is Pakistan’s oldest and most widely The Daily Times was launched on April 9, read English-language newspaper. It 2002. Daily Times, which is simultaneously is the flagship of the Dawn Group of published from Lahore, Islamabad and Newspapers, published by Pakistan Herald Karachi, is edited by Rashed Rahman. The Publications, which also owns the Herald, paper was owned by Governor of Punjab and a magazine, and Spider, an information Pakistan People’s Party stalwart Salmaan technology magazine. Dawn is famous for Taseer. The Daily Times is recognised as its controversial leftist social agenda. It was a newspaper that advocates liberal and founded by Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali secular ideas. It has gained popularity and Jinnah in Delhi, India, on 26 October 1941, notoriety due to some of its editorials, which as a mouthpiece for the Muslim League. are considered controversial in some parts The first issue was printed at Latifi Press of Pakistan, but lauded in the international on 12 October 1942. The newspaper has press. offices in Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad and representatives abroad. As of 2014, it has a Background of Malala Yousafzai weekday circulation of over 109,000. The Malala Yousafzai is an 18-year-old Pakistani CEO of Dawn group is Hameed Haroon, and Pashtun school girl and the youngest ever the current editor of Dawn is Zaffar Abbas. Noble Prize laureate. She is recognised for her education and women’s rights activism The Nation in the Swat Valley, where the Taliban had at The Nation was started by the Nawa-i-Waqt times not only banned girls from attending group of publications on October 1, 1986, school but also burned and blown up more from Lahore. Majeed Nizami is the Chief than hundred girl’s schools (Lodhi, 2010). Editor of The Nation. This newspaper, In 2009, Malala started writing blog for like his sister paper, Daily Nawaiwaqt, BBC Urdu Service when her parents were is more like an ideological newspaper. approached by a local BBC reporter in the Though it is much liberal than Nawaiwaqt, Swat valley to write about the life under it is the most conservative among the other the Taliban. Due to the fear of Taliban, no English newspapers. This newspaper is one agreed upon to raise their voice against mostly supportive of Muslim League, and it the Taliban; however, Malala Yousafzai, a strongly believes in the ideology of Pakistan, seventh-grade student, showed her interest therefore, caters readership of the right and to write the post for BBC Urdu Service criticism against the West can be traced from (Peer, 2012). the editorial policy of The Nation. As the father of Malala Yousafzai was extremely concerned about her daughter’s safety and security, the local BBC editors advised her to use a pen name as “Gul
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Makai” (corn flower). On 3 January 2009, (AFIC) in Rawalpindi. Several hospitals BBC Urdu posted her first blog that later around the globe offered to provide best made her famous (Ali, 2012). After the medical treatment to Malala. On 15 October blogs, Malala got fame, gave few interviews 2012, she was shifted to Queen Elizabeth to newspapers and on television channels. Hospital in Birmingham for further medical She was given Pakistan’s first National treatment (Yousafzai, 2012). Peace Award for Youth, which now has the award named after her. She was also Pakistani Taliban and their Ideology nominated for the International Children’s Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) is called Peace Prize by Archbishop, Desmond Tutu the ‘Pakistani Taliban’ which is the largest (Khan, 2011). militant group in Pakistan. It is an umbrella On 9 October 2012, Malala was attacked organisation of different extremist militant by Taliban and received three bullets in her groups based in Federally Administered neck and head by the Taliban gunmen Tribal Areas (FATA) beside the Pak-Afghan while returning home after taking an exam border. Most Pakistani radical Islamic on a school bus in Mingora. Her friends, factions are united under the flag of TTP Shazia Ramzan and Kainat Riaz, also got (Abbas, 2008). In December 2007, around injured in the attack. Tehreek-e-Taliban forty leading militants throughout Pakistan Pakistan (TTP) spokesman, Ehsanullah and few tribal elders organised a meeting Ehsan, claimed that his group was behind and selected Baitullah Mehsud as the soul her attempt of assignation. Speaking by leader of TTP. At the time of its formation, telephone from an undisclosed location, the overall strength of TTP was about he said “We carried out this attack and if 40,000-50,000. The main objectives of TTP anybody who speaks against us will be were to fight against the Pakistani state and attacked in the same way”. The militants put maximum pressure to enforce their own said that they had attacked Malala because ideology of religion in Pakistan (Yousafzai, she was having anti-Taliban mindset and 2008). American President Barak Obama was In an interview, Baitullah Mehsud her favorite personality. Furthermore, they confessed that Al Qaeda played a pivotal claimed that Malala was giving projection to role in the formation of TTP indirectly. the Western culture among innocent people According to him, development of TTP (Malik, 2012). was postponed due to some disputes in Soon after the attack, she was airlifted uniting the local militants, and the financial to a military hospital in Peshawar. After a assistance needed from Uzbek and Arabs long operation, bullets were successfully rebels. Al Qaeda not only provides funds to removed from the shoulder near her spinal TTP but also helps in training and planning cord and doctors decided to shift her to how to attack in the groups (Khan, 2010). Armed Forces Institute of Cardiology
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The government of Pakistan blamed TTP He threatened barbers not to shave their for their involvement in the assassination customers’ beards and also warned against of Benazir Bhutto. American intelligence girls attending schools (Athar, 2007). agency (CIA) also established the allegations Fazlullah opposed polio vaccination with certain evidence and blaimed Baitullah campaign and claimed that it is a scheme Mehsud but TTP contradicted about their of the Christians and Jews to keep Muslims involvement (Laura, 2009). In 2009, TTP impotent. They made Hijab compulsory leader, Baitullah Mehsud, was killed in an for women and banned male tailors of American drone strike. Hakimullah Mehsud, taking measurements of female bodies and the first cousin of Baitullah Mehsud, was even sewing their clothes. Women must named as his successor. Hakimullah Mehsud be accompanied by men while going out became prominent in the early 2008 when of their home, otherwise will be punished he was commanding Sunni militants to (Yousafzai, 2007). fight against Shia militants in Hangu district In May 2009, Pakistan Army launched and Kurram agency. In October 2008, he an operation known as Operation Rah-e- masterminded a suicide attack on a jirga Rast in the Swat valley to control the Swat that resulted in the killing of over fifty district and eradicate the insurgency of TTP tribal leaders. In the beginning of December in the area. The first battle of Swat known 2008, he started launching raids and burning as Operation Rahe-e-Nijat ended with a many trucks containing food items and arms peace agreement, generally criticised in supplies for the NATO forces in Afghanistan the western countries, which the Pakistani (Walsh, 2009). government had signed with the Taliban In 2007, after the Lal Masjid siege, TTP in February 2009. However, at the end of formed an alliance with Maulana Fazlullah’s April 2009, the Pakistani government started Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi a military operation against the Taliban, (TNSM), a banned Islamic militant group and Maulana Fazlullah, along with other allied to the Pakistani Taliban. Maulana militants, fled from the Swat valley and Fazlullah is the son-in-law of the TNSM’s hid in the areas of Nuristan and Kunar in founder, Sufi Muhammad and famous as Afghanistan (Abbas, 2008; Ansari, 2011). “Mullah Radio” (Roggio, 2009). Maulana Fazlullah, with the help of LITERATURE REVIEW Taliban and his followers, got controlled The media have the power to provide change over Swat and his followers quickly set up in perceptions through empowering the the Sharia Courts as the primary judicial masses with knowledge and information courts and denied the Pakistani National (Razi, 2014). The media have the power Judicial Courts. He banned music, dancing to alter the world and viewpoints and lay and forcefully closed music and computer the societal concepts and its every aspect; shops and called it major sources of sin. thus, media’s arguments are essential (Hall,
1110 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai
1975). The emphasis is on performing all (Reath, 2002). The Pakistani print media the necessary media functions morally, with covered some major issues in the past. functions such as informing, educating, The question is, “Are these presentations entertaining and influencing the masses ethical?” In order to grab readers’ attention, morally towards the media (Yousafzai, the print media in Pakistan are seen to adopt 2007). Press is generally considered as the a model “Hedonism model” which says “Do most accountable and authentic source of what feels good whatever cost might be” the media of mass communication, and is (Hassam et al., 2013). The newspapers are even considered more authentic than the influenced commercially with newspaper other mass media such as the electronic, policies according to the government and while press has an important function of financiers. The News, Dawn, The Nation highlighting critical or burning issues both and Daily Times have private ownership national and international (Hassam et al., and are influenced by the government as 2013). The organisation of the editorials they are dependent on the government for revolves around three parts. First is the advertisements to an extent (Tawab, 2000). definition of the situation, followed by the According to Bernard Cohen (1963), the summary of the issue and evaluation of the idea of the agenda setting and media framing entire situation, and finally offering realistic, is a means of producing a lasting effect on logical and practical conclusions, solutions, the masses which is simply a list of issues to suggestions and recommendations (Van give priority causing the public to recognise Dijk, 1992). In this context, the English the issues being selected by the media as press in Pakistan has been considered as important and critical for the knowledge of effective in performing their functions, the public (Kosicki, 1993). transmission of messages, information, The media not only give the masses the views, perceptions, etc., all over the country knowledge and information about issues since long (Rafiq, 2007). but also the masses get the idea of the There can not be two opinions about amount of worth to place on any issue due the importance of editorials. The editorials to the exposure given by the media to that help in forming and shaping the ideology particular issue. Op-eds are the sections for and perception of readers (Hall, 1996). The supporting ideas and supporting debating central role of editorials is to express and on important issues. Currently, Pakistani persuade through communicating of opinion editorials function in the manner that they (Van Dijk, 1996). Editorials form the greater are the places where newspapers speak out ideological stand of any newspaper’s their viewpoints on the most pertinent issues owners and managers (Henry & Tator, the nation encounters while performing their 2002). Through editorials, the newspapers functions to influence the public and the have the chance to communicate with the government who have the knowledge of the readers by commenting on different issues issue and the viewpoint and understand the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) 1111 Hayat, N. and Juliana, A. W. viewpoint as realistic (Rafiq, 2007; Hassam THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK et al., 2013). This study utilised media framing as a Editorials force the readers to means of assessing the results taken from the understand that the suggestions made data. In social sciences, framing comprises a must be heeded upon and implemented. A set of concepts and theoretical perspectives number of anonymous editorial writers write on how individuals, groups and societies the editorials and these editorials depict perceive, organise and communicate about steady viewpoints about each subject, thus the reality. Framing involves the social predicting to the readers the stand of the construction of a social phenomenon by newspaper towards any subject (Shoeb, mass media sources, political or social 2008). Pakistani press today holds a big movements, political leaders, or other actors media scene in terms of mushrooming and and organisations. It is an inevitable process growth (Hijab, 2010). The readers have of selective influence over the individual’s restricted ways to witness events as they perception of the meanings attributed to happen naturally, amd they depend on words or phrases. It is generally considered the media for their source of knowledge. in one of two ways: as frames in thought, Thus, catering to their needs and desires consisting of the mental representations, of the knowledge of affairs of the globe interpretations, and simplifications of out of reach of the human eye, the media’s reality, and frames in communication, function in this regard becomes crucial consisting of the communication of frames in providing news and information to the between different actors (Druckman, 2001). audience, as well as in influencing and Historically, news media have persuading them through media framing in gathered and disseminated news for public term of what to reveal to the audience. After consumption. Tuchman (1978) wrote that the introduction of cable TV, newspapers “the news aims to tell us what we want to developed a competition with the TV and know, need to know, and should know” (p. in order to maintain and attract readership, 1). Framing is the act of highlighting certain adopted television’s belligerent and bold aspects of a story to allow for interpretation style without giving heed to the ethical and context, thus making an event or story standards and code of conduct, thus ignoring more understandable for the audience the earlier concepts of ethical and objective (Entman, 2004; McQuail, 2005). Framing ways. This gives birth to the antagonistic, is the act defining issues typically by elites brittle and popular style of representation, for public consumption and disseminating making news as opinionated with the media these definitions through the use of mass professionals instead of objective adopt media (Berinsky & Kinder, 2006). subjective means in portraying events (Jan While a vast body of framing literature et al., 2013). exists, Entman’s (1993) definition of framing is used as the groundwork for
1112 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai this study. Entman wrote, “to frame is logically equivalent alternatives portrayed to select some aspects of a perceived in different ways, or as emphasis frames, reality and make them more salient in a which simplify reality by focusing on a communicating text, in such a way as to subset of relevant aspects of a situation or promote a particular problem, definition, issue. In the case of “equivalence frames”, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/ the information being presented is based or treatment recommendation for the item on the same facts, but the “frame” in which described” (p. 52). it is presented changes, thus creating a People perceive and select certain reference-dependent perception (Gamson, aspects of those perceived reality to focus 1989; Edelman, 1993; Entman & Rojecki, on different issues and events. The concept 1993; Pan & Kosicki, 1993). of Entman is very much appropriate in analysing the editorials of newspapers METHODOLOGY because they define and highlight the issue, This study is a comparative analysis of the diagnose causes, make moral judgmemts, four leading Pakistani English language and at the end suggest some remidies and newspapers, The News, Dawn, The Nation also predict their likely effects. In this way, and Daily Times, to examine the portrayal framing makes an issue very important and of Malala Yousafzai after her attempt of provides different aspects which people can assassination and anti-Taliban feeling in easily understand and digest. Pakistan after the incident. The editorials Salience also refers to the act of making of the four English newspapers, The Nation, one piece of information more memorable or The News, Daily Times and Dawn published meaningful (Entman, 1993). By focusing the between 10 October 2012 and 10 November audience on salient pieces of information, it 2012, were selected to examine the frames is therefore easier to apply an overarching of the portrayal of Malala Yousafzai and theme to the entire story. The news’ frame Taliban. This period was considered to helps to organise information as it applies to be the peak time of the issue, particularly everyday reality (Tuchman, 1978). when debate over brutality of Taliban and A seminal work by Goffman (1974) sympathies with Malala was taking enough identified the primary framework as the space in all media outlets. The sample was act of taking seemingly meaningless selected from the online editions of the information and making it into something respective newspaper’s archives. The unit of meaningful. One can view framing in analysis of this study included all editorials communication as positive or negative containing word “Malala” in the paragraphs depending on the audience and what kind or headlines in newspapers. Thus, a total of information is being presented. Framing of 29 editorials (five in The News, six in might also be understood as being either Dawn, nine in Daily Times and nine in The equivalence frames, which represent Nation, were analysed. For the data analysis,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) 1113 Hayat, N. and Juliana, A. W. a coding sheet was developed giving Courageous in their editorials. The findings three categories (Innocent girl, Activist showed that Malala Yousafzai, referred to and Courageous) for Malala and three as innocent girl (58.3%) who fought and categories (Terrorists, Anti-Development opposed the Taliban for the girl’s education, and Fanatics) for Taliban. After reading all was framed more than courageous (25.3%) the 29 editorials, these categories for Malala and activist (17.4%). The researcher used and Taliban were selected on the base of multiple frames for each category. For multiple frames found in the text. Under instance, different frames like brave, Activist, for instance, there were different outspoken, fighter, anti-Taliban and symbol frames like child activist, social activist, of resistance were used under the category girl’s education activist and human right of Courageous. The Nation and Daily Times activist. These newspapers also presented published 9 editorials each during the Taliban with different frames like they selected time period and presented Malala were written fanatics, bigoted, extremists, more aggressively than The News and Dawn. opposed progress and development and The editorial policy of The News and Dawn defy all laws of humanity and religion. was found restrained towards appreciating After selecting the categories for Malala and the bravery of Malala and the brutality Taliban, the researcher counted the frames of the Taliban. The reason why she was which were appeared in the text of editorials portrayed as courageous was that Malala to represent the above said categories. is the only girl who opposed the Taliban and openly resisted and criticised their FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION mindset regarding the girl’s education and Figure 1 shows that for Malala Yousafzai, development in the Swat valley. The overall the mainstream Pakistani newspapers findings showed that she was portrayed illustrated multiple frames under three positively in the selected newspapers. Due categories of Innocent girl, Activist and to her courage and social activism, President
Figure1. The overall frames for Malala Yousafzai in The News, Dawn, Daily Times and The Nation (Oct.10, 2012 to Nov. 10, 2012)
1114 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai
Asif Ali Zardari called Malala Yousafzai endorsing a military operation in NW. “Daughter of Pakistan” who stood tall as a While arguing, PML-N questioned that if symbol of girls’ education and a symbol of the fugitives had come from Afghanistan, defiance against those who wish to enforce there was no logic in sending troops into their rigid agenda behind the facade of the North Waziristan area. However, the religion. American Special Envoy for Pakistan and Despite the positive framing, some Afghanistan Marc Grossman flatly stated conspiracy theories also abounded since that America is in no way pushing Pakistan Malala was attacked, with the rumors that to take any decision on North Waziristan. He this girl who spoke against the Taliban is an reiterated that the topic of NW was not even American agent and is being used by the US under discussion between US and Pakistan. to suit its own purposes. Some voices, even Figure 2 shows that for Taliban, in the parliament, tried to link this incident the Pakistani English newspapers also to the American role in Pakistan or implied illustrated multiple frames under three that it was Malala’s own fault. Jamiat-e- categories of Terrorists, Anti-development Ulema-i-Islam (JUI) leader, Maulana Fazlur and Fanatics in their editorials. The findings Rehman, painted this incident as a deception revealed that the Taliban were portrayed to get support for an army operation in North Fanatics (48.2%) more than terrorists Waziristan (NW). He clearly claimed that (38.5%) and anti-development (14.3%). such a military operation in NW would The findings showed that the selected not be allowed under any circumstances. newspapers presented and framed Taliban The PML-N in the shape of Leader of negatively. According to Entman’s concept the Opposition in the National Assembly, of framing, the perceived social reality of the Chaudhry Nisar Ali Khan, clearly denied Taliban being hardliners towards girl’s right the notion to support any resolution move to be educated, was very much highlited by the government and its allies regarding and discussed in the editorials. There were
Figure 2. The overall frames for the Taliban in The News, Dawn, Daily Times and The Nation (Oct.10, 2012 to Nov. 10, 2012)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) 1115 Hayat, N. and Juliana, A. W. different viewpoints and interpretations of a key political leaders of country who about the religious ideology of the Taliban condemned the Taliban’s anti-development in Pakistan and they used to be discussed activities against girl’s schools and branding in the media. Now, however, the people in them as un-Islamic. Dawn considers them Pakistan feel that they are a group of people as a threat, particularly to the safety of the who call themselves Muslims and want to people in the Swat valley and people of impose the Shariah law in the country; in other areas of Pakistan in general. Daily reality, they defy all the laws of humanity Times considers Taliban as a threat to the and religion. They do not favour girls’ right social and political system and not a danger to be educated as well. The Nation was having potential of crossing Pakistan’s found more critical than other newspapers borders. All the selected newspapers raised pertaining to the brutality of the Taliban. apprehensions that the troops deployed in It used negative frames for the Taliban’s the Swat valley since 2007 have been unable anti-social activities as it had to maintain to close the banned communication channels its posture being politically active and like radio station used very efficiently by radicalised media in the system. the local militant leaders like Maulana Daily Times had somehow contradictory Fazalullah to spread his twisted ideology of stance from The Nation that was not in the religion in the region. different direction from that followed by The On the other hand, TTP released a News. The perceived status and positions of statement by using Shariah to support and the newspapers, however, played an active defend their attack on Malala. They claimed role in helping them to maintain their stance that although Islam does not permit attacks in the issue. The selected frames of both the on women, whoever initiates campaign newspapers were not very different from against Shariah and Islam is ordered to be each other but the overall construction and killed by Shariah. It is a very clear command context of course was at extreme poles. of Shariah that any female playing a role in Although The News and Dawn are said to “war against mujahedeen” should be killed. be very open and critical about the Taliban We are against co-education education and their mindset, in the case of Malala system and Shariah orders us to be against Yousafzai, both the newspaper’s editorial it. The Taliban further justified with a threat policy was found indisposed to criticise and that if anyone thinks that Malala is targeted condemn. due to her education, that is completely While analysing the editorial contents incorrect and is a propaganda by the media. of all the selected national dailies, it can She is attacked because of her pioneer be calculated that The News, Daily Times, role in preaching secularism and so-called Dawn and The Nation presented the Taliban enlightened moderation. And, whoever will negatively and in different contexts. The commit so in the future too will be targeted News and The Nation appreciated the stand again by the TTP (Ron, 2012).
1116 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1105 - 1119 (2016) The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai
CONCLUSION such brutality has nothing to do with the This article has presented a comparative religion of Islam but the acts of terrorism analysis of 29 editorials regarding the attack by certain fanatics using the name of Islam. on Malala Yousafzai by the Taliban which This incident not only presented the Taliban appeared in four leading Pakistani English negatively but also earned a bad name for newspapers; The News, Dawn, Daily Times Pakistan as well. and The Nation. The purpose for this study was to investigate the portrayal of Malala REFERENCES Yousafzai after her attempt of assassination Abbas, H. (2008). A profile of Tehrik-I-Taliban by the Taliban in Swat. The study also Pakistan. CTC Sentinel, 1(2), 1–4. Retrieved examined how the Taliban were presented from http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/ CTC%20Sentinel%20-%20Profile%20of%20 in the selected newspapers after the incident. Tehrik-i-Taliban%20Pakistan.pdf The findings revealed that after her attempt of assignation, Malala Yousafzai was framed Ali, M. (2012). Where it all started: A diary that highlighted Swat’s human tragedy. The Express and presented more as an innocent girl Tribune. Retrieved from http://tribune.com.pk/ who opposed the Taliban and their mindset story/450515/where-it-all-started-a-diary-that- against the girl’s education in the Swat highlighted-swats-human-tragedy/ valley. She was called the “daughter of Ansari, M. (2011). Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan: Pakistan” by President Asif Ali Zardari and Reaction or revolution? Retrieved from http:// due to her bravery, November 10, 2012 was www.academia.edu/803760/Tehrik-i-Taliban_ celebrated as the Malala Day throughout Pakistan_Reaction_or_Revolution the world. Some negative framing was also Atar, S. (2007). Mohmand Taliban behead 6 observed as she was called an American ‘criminals’. Daily Times. Retrieved from http:// agent, who was being used by the US to suit www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=200 its own interests in Pakistan. The findings 7%5C10%5C13%5Cstory_13-10-2007_pg1_3 also illustrated that the attack on Malala Azam, M. (2008). Radicalization and media. Conflict Yousafzai made the Taliban unpopular and Peace Studies, vol.1. Retrieved from http:// in Pakistan. They were presented as a www.san-pips.com/download.php?f=01.pdf group of people who are against progress, Bryant, J. & Miron, D. (2004). Theory and development and modernisation in the research in mass communication. Journal of region and disobey all the laws of humanity Communication, 54(4), 662–704. Retrieved and religion. They were portrayed as fanatics from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02650.x/pdf more than terrorists and anti-development. The killing of innocent people in series Cohen, B. C. (1963). The Press and Foreign Policy. of suicide bombing across the country Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. and bombing of girl’s schools in the Swat Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: toward clarification of valley by Taliban have created a change of a fractured paradigm. Journal of communication, mind among the people who believe that 43(4). Retrieved from http://sotomo-ve.geo.uzh. ch/sotomo/pps/lit/entman_93.pdf
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1121 - 1137 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Online Shopping Preference and M-Payment Acceptance: A Case Study among Klang Valley Online Shoppers
Penny, L.1*, Chew, W. L.1, Raja, R.1 and Lim, H. A.2 1Faculty of Creative Media, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Lot PT 21144, Jalan Sungai Long, Bandar Sungai Long, Cheras 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia 2Faculty of Applied Science and Foundation Studies, Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur, Jalan Ikram-Uniten, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The main purpose of this paper is to determine mobile device ownership and online shopping preferences among shoppers in the Klang Valley, Selangor, Malaysia. Additionally, it seeks to investigate the awareness and acceptance of Near Field Communication (NFC) Technology as a preferred payment platform or method among online shoppers. This quantitative research is carried out via survey questionnaire on a sample size of 200 respondents who have shopped online with majority residing in the Klang Valley. The findings indicate online shoppers still prefer to conduct their online shopping transactions using a desktop Personal Computer. Respondents, regardless of race and academic qualifications, use the English language medium when shopping online and majority prefer to shop at an individual e-commerce website rather than a single website comprising many e-commerce websites such as deals.bigsale.com.my. Awareness on NFC technology for payment solutions is still at the infancy stage among many online shoppers in Malaysia with a low acceptance level mainly due to security concerns. This finding has implications on the communications strategies of mobile network operators, banks, Android and Apple-device manufacturers, online retailers and other key players in the telecommunications and technology industry. The latter need to play an active role in educating the public about NFC-enabled payment devices and convincing online shoppers on the security features of such mobile payment devices. In other words, more than just touting the benefits of NFC and explaining the technology, the communications strategy of ARTICLE INFO Article history: all relevant players must focus on persuading Received: 25 June 2015 and convincing their target audience on Accepted: 28 September 2015 the security features for diffusion and E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (Penny, L.), adoption of the technology online shoppers [email protected] (Chew, W. L.), [email protected] (Raja, R.), in Malaysia. [email protected] (Lim, H. A.) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Penny, L., Chew, W. L., Raja, R. and Lim, H. A.
Keywords: Online shopping preference, M-payment, compared with e-commerce which only Near Field Communications (NFC) grew 9%, from RM1.8 billion in 2010 to RM1.97 billion in 2011. “If you’re a INTRODUCTION merchant and do not have an online presence Many businesses offer online shopping [specifically a mobile-optimised website], experience in addition to their brick and you’re losing out because mobile is the mortar outlets in response to consumers’ new device connection between the buyer increasing demand for convenience and and seller,” says Elias Ghanem, managing time-saving practicalities in today’s digital director of PayPal Southeast Asia and India. world. Indeed, statistics show exponential (Yapp, 2012) growth for online businesses. Globally, At the same time, payment systems internet retail sales increased from about have evolved over the years from traditional USD$105 billion in 2004 to approximately payment through cash and cheque payment USD$248 billion in 2009 (Euromonitor, to online payment via credit and debit cards 2010). to M-payment through mobile devices Two main factors for the rapid growth including wireless handsets, personal in e-commerce in Malaysia are cheaper digital assistants, radio frequency devices, and faster Internet access and technological laptops and more recently, Near Field advances in payment systems. The number Communication-based devices (Dewan & of Internet users in Malaysia has increased Chen, 2005). Near Field Communication from 2 million in March 2002 (Nua, 2003) (NFC) is a short range, high frequency, low to approximately 16 million in 2010 (World bandwidth and wireless communication Bank Report 2012). The implementation technology between two NFC-enabled of wireless application protocol (WAP) devices. Currently, most mobile phone services has enabled many Malaysians to manufacturers have integrated NFC directly access the Internet via their mobile technology into their mobile phone product, phones prompting the Prime Minister, thus making them into potential payment Najib Razak to name them the ‘upwardly platforms. mobile’. It was reported that expenditures However, are Malaysians aware of this on smart phones and tablets rose from $32.7 new mode of payment system and if they million in 2010 to $151.2 million in 2011 are, are they ready to adopt such a payment in Malaysia (The Star Online, October 25, system? 2011). There is a dearth of academic research Closer to home, Malaysia’s payment on the preferences of online shoppers and provider has revealed that m-commerce their awareness and acceptance of Near spending in Malaysia has increased 370% Field Communication (NFC) technology from RM101 million (US$31.7 million) as a payment platform; yet, this is a major to RM467 million (US$146.6 million) issue as swift changes are being made in the
1122 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1121 - 1137 (2016) Online Shopping Preference and M-Payment online business landscape. The present study since tablet usage is still in its infancy stage. fills this gap and provides valuable insight (Board, 2011) to policy makers, telecommunications Punj (2011) found demographical service providers, financial institutions and characteristics such as income, education retailers on online consumer preferences and generational age play an important role and perceptions as end-users a - these are in influencing online shopping behaviour. the important factors for m-commerce to Corselli (2015) mentioned that media succeed. device adoption nevertheless is on the In the current study, researchers first rise. However, it is interesting to note that aim to determine mobile device ownership desktop and laptop computers are still the among online shoppers. Second, researchers most owned devices by online shoppers in are determined to understand online the United States of America. There was shoppers’ preferences when shopping online. a split in preferred device among the age Third, researchers aimed to investigate group. Online shoppers aged below 40 the awareness and acceptance of NFC generally prefer shopping via smart phones Technology as a payment platform among and those who aged between 40 and 65 opt online shoppers for tablet, followed by desktop. Those aged above 65 prefer shopping online using the LITERATURE REVIEW desktops while laptops are preferred by According to Board, T. (2011), Ipsos OTX shoppers aged below 65. When it comes to MediaCT had conducted a survey on online shopping, 61% of the respondents behalf of PayPal in August, 2011 among prefer mobile web browsers to mobile apps. the Americans aged 18 and above who own William (2014) found out that many smart phones and/or tablet PCs, and who business owners are not in favour of having otherwise have completed or attempted a their e-commerce websites translated into purchase via mobile device, or intend to in their native language believing that this the future. The sample size for the survey is an investment with very little returns. was 1,283 respondents. Many of them prefer to use English to reach The study revealed that smart phone out to their clients or prospects. However, and tablet (dual) owners have above average interestingly, the finding in this study reveals spending on mobile phones namely, 63% that approximately 70% of all Internet users among dual owners versus 29% smart do not speak English as their first language; phone owners. Owners with larger screen for instance, the Internet users hail from device tend to be more enticed by mobile non-English speaking countries such as shopping activity compared with those France, Germany, Japan, Korea and China. who have smaller screen devices. However, It was found that almost 75% of Internet there is scarcity of academic studies of dual users prefer to purchase a product or service owners looking at their profiles and habits if the information pertaining to the latter
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1121 - 1137 (2016) 1123 Penny, L., Chew, W. L., Raja, R. and Lim, H. A. is presented in their native language. It is region with 54.5% of the total respondents evidently critical to translate a website into using their smart phones to shop in the last foreign languages since it can significantly three months followed by China at 54.1% increase revenue in foreign markets. It can and Thailand with 51%. also help to minimise language barriers in However, only 25% of the respondents international transactions. Hence, there is a had the lowest awareness on Near Field need for translation and localisation among Communication technology although many online shoppers. of them shop heavily using mobile devices. According to Gordon (2007), Yahoo! Interestingly, 70.3% of the respondents and OMD discovered nearly three-quarters who are aware or slightly familiar with of the people surveyed use trusted, familiar NFC technology would likely try and websites when purchasing online. adopt it in the first year of its introduction. Based on the recent MasterCard Online Respondents across Asia Pacific prefer Shopping Survey carried out by Digital buying their products locally instead of a News Asia (2013), the present questionnaire foreign website due to security issues. They survey aims to measure consumers’ were afraid of scams. (Digital News Asia, propensity to shop online. Findings revealed 2013). that the online shoppers in Asia Pacific According to Omnisecure (2014) region have shifted from the desktop to in Timetric report, e-commerce and smart phone generally. The chart below m-payments act as a catalyst for the sums up the survey. Indonesians top the Malaysian cards and payment industry.
Figure 1. MasterCard Online Shopping Survey (Source: Digital News Asia, 2013)
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To-date, the average Malaysian owned 1.6 Numerous researchers have since used mobile phones in 2014 and is expected to Roger’s theory to investigate perceptions rise to 1.8 by 2018. Hence, m-commerce and decision making in various areas of has great potential to be developed due innovation adoption. to the proliferation of mobile devices and Guided by the explanations in the above rising consumer demand for convenient theory, this study applies the Enhanced payments. Although the term M-payment is Adoption Process Model, as discussed in still very new to many Malaysians, yet it is Schiffman & Kanuk (2007), to investigate nevertheless expanding rapidly. The overall whether the adoption factors and diffusion m-payment value in Malaysia is forecasted of m-commerce in Malaysia are dependent to increase from RM1.8 billion (US$572.8 on the current experience of online shoppers million) in 2013 to rm7.1 billion (US$2.3 in terms of their familiarity with the type of billion) by 2018. devices they use, languages, websites and Given that this study focuses on online their online shopping frequency and habitual shoppers’ preferences and its m-payment practices. (Refer to Figure 2 and Figure 3) acceptance, it is most appropriate to consider The theory would also be used to study the “Diffusion of Innovation” theory. This online shoppers’ acceptance of Near Field study seeks to investigate adoption of Communication as a new technology for technology in M-Payment using Near Filed online shopping through an understanding Communication (NFC) among online of the existing key adoption determinants of shoppers. The theory is particularly relevant online shoppers. because a number of studies have focused on the acceptance, adoption and usage THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK behaviour of consumers (e.g. Rogers, 2003; In Figure 3, in addition to studying the Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). online shopping preferences among online Rogers (2003) defines diffusion as shoppers in Klang Valley, particularly on “the process in which an innovation is the types of devices they use, the websites communicated through certain channels they browse and the language they prefer over time among the members of a social to use when shopping online ; this research system”. The constituent elements of also aims to investigate the level of adopting an innovation in this theory are awareness and acceptance among online innovation, communication, a social system, shoppers, particularly in Klang Valley on and time. Rogers also illustrates five stages m-commerce and their behavioural intent of innovation adoption and categorises the for the acceptance and use of Near Field adopters into five groups: innovators, early Communication (NFC) payment initiatives adopters, early majority, late majority, and in m-commerce. laggards. He posits that attitude is a crucial factor for acceptance of any innovation.
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RESEARCH FRAMEWORK H1. There is a correlation between the choice The following hypotheses have been of devices used by online shoppers and developed based on past studies of Board, the reasons given. T. (2011), Corselli, A. (2015), William, S. H2. Language usage plays a significant role (2014), Gordon, K.T. (2007), Digital News among online shoppers. Asia (2013) and Omnisecure (2014). These H3. Website familiarity is important in are the hypotheses outlined in this study. online shopping H4. There is a correlation between the age group and online shopping preferences
Figure 2. An Enhanced Adoption Process Model
Figure 3. Online Shopping Preferences and M-Payment Acceptance
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H5. There is a correlation between races Section A focused on “Respondent’s towards unfamiliar websites Profile” which contained questions related H6. Education level reacts differently to demographical profiles such as gender, towards online shopping age, marital status, income among others. H7. There is a correlation between the Respondents were also asked whether awareness and acceptance of NFC he or she owns a smart phone and/or H8. There is a correlation between the tablet. According to Board (2011) and education level and the trust upon NFC. Corselli (2015), media device ownership affects the preference of online shopping, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY especially among age group. Punj (2011) Sampling method also mentioned that demographical characteristics played an essential role in This research is based on a quantitative study. enhancing the effects of online shopping A total of 200 sets of questionnaires have behaviour. been distributed to the respondents aged 21 Section B asked questions on and above based on convenience sampling. respondents’ preferences towards online The criteria for selecting respondents have shopping. In this section, respondents been outlined. They must be working and were also asked if language and familiarity have had some online shopping experience of the website play an important role in in order to participate in this survey. Most online shopping. This corresponds to the of the respondents reside in Klang Valley. study done by William (2014) and Gordon Some questionnaires were distributed to (2007) where their findings supported the the working people in Klang Valley with the importance of both language and website permission from their employers while for familiarity in online shopping. the rest, the researchers met up with them In the last section, questions were after office hours to participate in this short asked to investigate the awareness and survey. Incomplete questionnaires were acceptance of Near Field Communication eliminated from this survey and replaced (NFC) Technology as a payment platform with new respondents until 200 sample size among online shoppers. Researchers refer of the study is achieved. to the studies carried out by Digital News Asia (2013) and Omnisecure (2014) when Questionnaire Design preparing questions for this section. Although this is not a replication study, Upon completing the data collection, each section of the questionnaire has been data was analysed using Statistical Package designed based on some references of the for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0. The past studies. All questions were asked in a findings were based on Cross Tabulation closed-ended format. The questionnaire has analysis, Chi-Square correlation test and been segmented into three main sections in also ANOVA test. order to achieve its research objectives.
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Reliability test owned by the respondents [x2 (6, N = 200) Reliability of data obtained was tested using = 20.221, p < 0.05]. Table 1 shows that those Cronbach’s Alpha which gives a reading who do not own a smart phone, usually of 0.905. This indicates that data has an possess a tablet. However, for those who excellent internal consistency overall. have at least one smart phone, they would most unlikely have a tablet; especially for FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS those who possess 3 smart phones. According to Board, T. (2011), dual From the demographical profiles, 200 owners have indicated a higher spending on respondents were selected to answer survey the average due to their mobile purchasing questionnaires where 119 of them are female activities. From the finding above, we see and 93% of the respondents were aged that there is still room for m-commerce between 21-40 years old. The researchers to grow here, especially on encouraging interviewed 63.5% Chinese, 24% Malays the “dual ownership” of media devices for and 6.5% Indians. It is noted that 82.5% online shoppers in Klang Valley. Majority of of the total respondents have obtained at the respondents in this study prefer having least an Advance Diploma/Bachelor degree either a smart phone or a tablet. while 84% of them are currently working for others and 63.5% of them earn a salary Device Preference When Shopping between RM2000-5000 per month. Online Based on the Enhanced Adoption Even though all the respondents owned Process Model discussed in Figure 2, at least a smart phone or a tablet, it is majority of online shoppers have adopted interesting to note from Table 2 that 145 the new technology based on their positive or 72.5% of the respondents prefer to shop experience surfing online. They will continue online using desktop. to evaluate the process from awareness to Interestingly, as mentioned in the trial stage and during these stages; the hypothesis 1 earlier, there is indeed users can either reject/discontinue or adopt significant correlation between devices the technology, products or services. Hence, used by online shoppers and reasons given a successful online shopping experience is [x2 (4, N = 200) = 147.041, p < 0.05]. heavily influenced by a few determining Respondents generally feel more secure factors such as internet users’ media shopping using their desktop Personal preference and familiarity with the type of Computer (PC) / laptop whereby they are devices they use. able to print out their purchase vouchers when shopping. Besides feeling secure, Ownership of a Smart phone or Tablet according to Corselli, A. (2015), shopping It is interesting to note that there is a online using desktop/laptop over mobile significance correlation between the number devices could also be due to the preference of smart phones and the number of tablets
1128 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1121 - 1137 (2016) Online Shopping Preference and M-Payment for the web browser instead of mobile apps. It is interesting to note that there is a Although 93% of respondents are aged significant correlation between race and between 21 and 40, yet we find respondents language used in the shopping websites in this study still prefer desktop/laptop over [x2 (3, N = 200) = 11.775, p < 0.05]. It can mobile devices. be clearly seen from Table 3 that majority Those who shopped online find it more of the Malay and Indian shoppers will still convenient using their smart phone or tablet shop online although it is not their preferred since they are able to print screen all their language. However, majority of the Chinese purchases. respondents said they will only shop if the website uses their preferred language. The Does Language of the Website Matter reasons cited by the respondents for not When Shopping Online? shopping online if it is not their preferred English is the preferred language by language is that they ‘feel uncomfortable’ respondents when shopping online, (47.7%); followed by ‘cannot understand regardless of race and academic qualification. well’ (31.8%) and ‘insecure feeling’ (16.8%).
Table 1 Ownership of Smart phone or Tablet
No._of_Tab Total 0 1 2 Count 0 7 0 7 0 % with No. of Tab 0.0% 10.3% 0.0% 3.5% Count 99 53 2 154 1 % with No. of Tab 77.3% 77.9% 50.0% 77.0% No. of_Smart phones Count 25 8 2 35 2 % with No. of Tab 19.5% 11.8% 50.0% 17.5% Count 4 0 0 4 3 % with No. of Tab 3.1% 0.0% 0.0% 2.0% Count 128 68 4 200 Total % with No. of Tab 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Table 2 Device Preference When Shopping Online
Why do you have such preference? Secure: Able to Convenient: able Total others print vouchers to print screen Desktop Personal 128 7 10 145 Prefer to shop Computer (PC) / laptop via which device? Smart phones 1 29 1 31 Tablet 1 19 4 24 Total 130 55 15 200
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According to William, S. (2014), there is a significant correlation between translating the web’s e-commerce content races and whether they would usually shop back to native language will encourage at the websites they are familiar with [x2 (3, business owners to secure better revenue. N = 200) = 17.380, p < 0.05]. Compared At the same time, looking into the language with other races, more than half of the Malay needs will also allow shoppers to feel secure, online shoppers will not only shop at the thus, granting them a better online shopping websites they are familiar with, they will experience. Translation and localisation are also shop at unfamiliar websites as long as indeed essential if business owners plan to the deal is attractive. penetrate the foreign markets who know From this finding, we see that security only their native language. remains a top concern. Majority of the respondents in this study prefer shopping Online Shopping Preference in terms of at the websites which they trust and are Websites familiar with and this outweighs the deal Majority or 80% of online shoppers in packages offered. this study revealed they prefer to shop at individual e-commerce website (for Online Shopping Preference example, Groupon, Ensogo (formerly (Convenience) known as Living Social), Mydeal, Myimart, Figure 4 shows a significance difference etc) rather than a single website comprising between different age groups of the many e-commerce websites (for example, respondents on the convenience factor. deals.bigsales.com.my) Majority of respondents from the 41- 50 Table 4 shows that shoppers would only year-old age group indicate convenience as shop in the websites that they are familiar an important in their decision to shop online with. However, it is interesting to know if (4.5000). This is followed by respondents
Table 3 Does Language of the Website Matter When Shopping Online? Will you shop online if it does not use the language you prefer? Total Yes No Count 31 17 48 Malay % with Race 64.6% 35.4% 100.0% Count 51 76 127 Chinese % with Race 40.2% 59.8% 100.0% Race Count 8 5 13 Indian % with Race 61.5% 38.5% 100.0% Count 3 9 12 Others % with Race 25.0% 75.0% 100.0% Count 93 107 200 Total % with Race 46.5% 53.5% 100.0%
1130 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1121 - 1137 (2016) Online Shopping Preference and M-Payment from the 31-40 year-old age group (4.3478), more Chinese respondents compared with followed by 51-60 year-old age group Malay and Indian respondents are hesitant to (4.2500) and lastly the 21-30 year-old age shop online. The average rating for Chinese group (3.9829). respondents on this is 4.1181 but for Malay and Indian respondents is only 3.6458 and Online Shopping Preference 3.6154 respectively. (Unfamiliar websites) The ANOVA in Table 5 shows that race has Shoppers Preference vs. Academic a varying impact on respondents’ decision Qualification to use unknown resellers or having little The ANOVA in Table 6 shows academic knowledge of retailers’ background; that qualification has varying impact on the effect might discourage them to shop online. of better deals/discount offered for online Figure 5 shows that when it comes to purchases. Figure 6 shows that majority of unknown resellers or retailers’ background, the respondents who possess Postgraduate
Table 4 Types of Websites Preferred
Race Total Malay Chinese Indian Others Count 23 100 10 10 143 Yes Only shop at website % with Race 47.9% 78.7% 76.9% 83.3% 71.5% that you are familiar Count 25 27 3 2 57 with. No % with Race 52.1% 21.3% 23.1% 16.7% 28.5% Count 48 127 13 12 200 Total % with Race 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Figure 4. Mean of Convenient According to Age Group
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1121 - 1137 (2016) 1131 Penny, L., Chew, W. L., Raja, R. and Lim, H. A. degree agree that better deals/discounts only 1% of the total respondents have made offered for online purchases encourage their payment using NFC. The respondents them to shop online (4.1833). It is then can be categorised as laggard users in term followed by those who possess Advance of adopting new payment alternatives. This Diploma/Bachelor Degree (4.1714), SPM/ fits the Enhanced Diffusion of Innovation Diploma (4.0000) and STPM/A-Level/ theory which explains that majority of Pre-U (3.3333). people are reluctant to adopt new technology and will only do so after the innovators Awareness and Perceptions on Near and early adopters have forged the way Field Communications (NFC) ahead (Straubhaar et al., 2010). A total Only 16% of the respondents have heard of of 16% of the respondents have heard of Near Field Communications (NFC). This NFC but have not made any payment via could be attributed to the unwillingness NFC. Table 7 indicates very clearly that of respondents to try out the new payment when given a choice, the majority of the technology. It is interesting to find out that respondents would not choose to pay using
Table 5 ANOVA Table of RACE
ANOVA RACE Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 11.779 3 3.926 4.178 .007 Within Groups 184.201 196 .940 Total 195.980 199
Figure 5. Mean of Unknown Buyer Back Group According to Race
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NFC regardless of the gender. companies. Chi-Square test indicates a significance The ANOVA in Table 8 shows that correlation between the choices of paying respondents with different education levels using NFC with it reasons [x2 (4, N = would have different degrees of agreement 200) = 115.039, p < 0.05. Convenience is on security issues when considering payment the main factor which attracts people to platforms using NFC. Figure 4.4 shows that pay using NFC. However, security issue majority of the respondents with Advance is the main drawback for those who are Diploma/Bachelor Degree agree security reluctant to pay using NFC. The level of is an issue when considering using NFC awareness of NFC among respondents in (4.1429). This is followed by respondents a survey on Mastercard usage carried out with Post-Graduate Degree (4.0333), SMP/ by Digital News Asia (2013) is also low, Diploma (3.5600) and lastly STPM/A- about 25%, and this is because NFC has Level/Pre-U (3.5000). not been introduced aggressively by the business operators and telecommunication
Table 6 ANOVA Table of Education Level
ANOVA EDUCATION LEVEL Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 5.222 4 1.306 1.654 .162 Within Groups 153.898 195 .789 Total 159.120 199
Figure 6. Mean of Better Deals or Discount According to Education Level
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Table 7 Awareness and Acceptance of NFC Technology as Payment Platform
Reasons for saying so… Control Limited Total Convenient Insecure Others expenses Infrastructure Count 44 11 7 1 5 68 Would Yes % of Would you you choose to pay 22.0% 5.5% 3.5% 0.5% 2.5% 34.0% choose using NFC? to pay Count 2 13 83 21 13 132 using % of Would you NFC? No choose to pay 1.0% 6.5% 41.5% 10.5% 6.5% 66.0% using NFC? Count 46 24 90 22 18 200 Total % of Would you choose to pay 23.0% 12.0% 45.0% 11.0 % 9.0% 100.0% using NFC?
Table 8 ANOVA Table of Education Level ANOVA EDUCATION LEVEL Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 11.550 4 2.887 2.740 .030 Within Groups 204.450 194 1.054 Total 216.000 198
Figure 7. Mean of Security According to Education Level
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CONCLUSION IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY The results of this study augurs well for the It is clear that the findings have implications telecommunications industry in Malaysia for all players involved, from mobile network as the penetration rate of smart phones operators, banks, Android and Apple-device and tablets among online shoppers is high manufacturers and online retailers to key with all respondents owning at least one players in the telecommunications and smart phone or a tablet. Yet, majority of technology industry. They must ensure the respondents still prefer to conduct their their communications strategy focus on online shopping transactions using desktop addressing the security concerns of online Personal Computers (PCs)/laptop. shoppers before m-commerce can take off Retailers would also want to take note in a big way. In other words, publicity and that respondents, regardless of race and marketing activities would not suffice. academic qualification, prefer the English Instead, these players would have to play language when shopping online. Majority an active role in educating the public on the of respondents from the age group of security features available in NFC-enabled 41-50 year-old indicate convenience as payment devices and in convincing online the main factor that encourages them to shoppers that it is secure to perform payment shop online while 80% of the respondents via mobile payment devices. It is only when prefer to shop at individual e-commerce the communications strategy of all relevant websites (for example Groupon, Living players focus on persuading and convincing Social, Mydeal and Myimart among others) their target audience on the reliability rather than a single website comprising of security features, that acceptance and many e-commerce websites (such as deals. adoption of the NFC payment system will bigsales.com.my) due to familiarity with take place among online shoppers. the particular websites. More specifically, Chinese respondents prefer shopping at LIMITATION AND familiar websites compared with the Malay RECOMMENDATION OF THE RESEARCH and Indian respondents. Based on the study’s findings, awareness The main limitation of this study is the of Near Field Communications (NFC) unavailability of sampling frame. It is technology for payment solutions is still at difficult to obtain a full list of online the infancy stage among online shoppers in shoppers in the country. If the sampling Malaysia. In addition, the acceptance level frame is available, probability sampling of respondents is very low as they are very such as Simple Random Sampling (SRS) sceptical about security related to making or Stratified Sampling could be employed payments via NFC-enabled mobile devices. to get a better representation of the online shoppers over the country.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1139 - 1163 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Cultures of Teaching: Mapping the Teacher Professional Development Terrain
Chantarath Hongboontri1* and Mananya Jantayasakorn2 1Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand 2Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
ABSTRACT Given the relationship between cultures of teaching and teacher professional development, this mixed methods research project documents and depicts a Thai university’s teaching cultures and the extent to which cultures of teaching determine teacher professional development. An analysis of data collected demonstrates a lack of teacher collaboration within this particular workplace. The participating teachers rarely have opportunities to share and learn from colleagues. Indeed, teachers’ practices of balkanisation, individualism, and contrived collegiality temper collaboration among these teachers. Further, relationship between cultures of teaching and teacher professional development in this workplace is evident. Notwithstanding a lack of collaboration, the participating teachers have abundant opportunities for professional development. Most of these opportunities are, however, administratively mediated. Despite such opportunities, these participating teachers do little to develop themselves.
Keywords: Cultures of teaching, Teacher professional development, Collaboration, Contrived collegiality, Balkanisation, Individualism
INTRODUCTION the field of teacher education. Literally what Interplay between cultures of teaching and scholars and researchers in the field have teacher professional development has long agreed upon is the way in which teachers’ been extensively evidenced in literature in relationship with one another determines not only teachers’ instructional practices
ARTICLE INFO but also their professional development Article history: (Hargreaves, 1995, 1994; Kirkpatrick, 2009; Received: 2 July 2015 Accepted: 18 April 2016 Leonard & Leonard, 2010; Mawhinney, E-mail addresses: 2010; Musanti & Pence, 2010; Avalos, 2011; [email protected] (Chantarath Hongboontri), [email protected] (Mananya Jantayasakorn) Pawan & Ortloff, 2011; Butler & Schnellert, * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Chantarath Hongboontri and Mananya Jantayasakorn
2012; Shah & Abualrob, 2012; Kuusisaari, only within their groups, professional 2014; Park & Lee, 2015; Willemse et al., development is marginalised as well 2015). restricted. Individualism refers to isolation Teacher relationship could be and insulation among teachers. In most cases, categorised into four different types: (1) teachers individualise to give themselves a collaboration, (2) contrived collegiality; sense of privacy. However, some teachers (3) balkanisation, and (4) individualism occasionally practise individualism to shield (Hargreaves, 1994). Each type has different themselves from criticisms from other effects on teachers’ teaching practices colleagues. Overall, individualism shuns and their professional development. For teachers from working with other teachers example, under collaboration, teachers and, in turn, reduces their opportunities to spontaneously and voluntarily work together. develop themselves. They exchange assistance and share teaching A relationship between cultures materials and problems related to teaching. of teaching and teacher professional In doing so, teachers learn from one another development is timely and worth and help each other develop. Contrived documenting, particularly in Thailand, in collegiality refers to schools’ organised which such a relationship is underexplored and regulated collaboration. School (Hongboontri & Chaokongjakra, 2011; administrators recognise the significances of Hongboontri & Keawkhong, 2014). teacher collaboration and, in turn, obligate Equipped with Hargreaves’ (1994) four teachers to work together. As a consequence, patterns of teacher relationship, the administrators prepare special budgets, offer researchers of the present study ventured rewards, and arrange time and space for into one faculty in one Thai university (the teachers to meet. Teacher collaboration here Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mystique University is ephemeral and illusive. It leads to fruitless [a pseudonym]) to examine the patterns professional development as teachers are of relationship among foreign language unwilling to work together. Balkanisation (FL) teachers and the extent to which this represents the division among teachers. relationship determined teacher professional Teachers form groups in terms of their development in such a context. Two research personal relationship and identification, questions helped frame the study. (1) What fields of disciplines, educational background types of cultures of teaching are practised and gender, among others. This particular among FL teachers at the Faculty of Liberal type of relationship often fosters and Arts, Mystique University? (2) To what promotes greed and grievance within extent do cultures of teaching determine teachers as benefits and resources (which these teachers’ opportunities for teacher are, more often than not, limited) are shared professional development? only among teachers within their own groups. As teacher collaboration is limited
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METHODOLOGY Lauren MA English Data collection and analysis of this research Pam MA TEFL project were framed under the theoretical Peter MA TEFL Rachel MA Translation notions of a mixed-methods paradigm Sabrina MA Chinese (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Desimore, Samantha MA Language and 2009; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010) and Communication triangulation (Mathison, 1988; Merriam, Sandy MA Applied 1988; Metz, 2000). Hence, the present Linguistics researchers employed three quantitative Santana MA TEFL Smith MA English and qualitative data collection tools (a Tess MA Applied questionnaire, interviews, and written Linguistics documents) to gather data. This data set, Timothy MA TEFL once analysed, could, at its best, capture Tracy MA Education the complex and multifaceted aspects of the Uma MA Japanese existence of cultures of teaching as well as Vicky MA Japanese the relationship between cultures of teaching Wade PhD Instructional Design and teacher professional development at the Wanda MA Applied research site. Linguistics Wayne MA TEFL Participants Yvette MA Education Note: All names were pseudonyms. All foreign language (FL) teachers in Mystique University (a pseudonym) A Questionnaire were invited to participate in the study. Altogether, 27 teachers volunteered to The researchers used the five-Likert scale complete and return a questionnaire. Of questionnaire adapted from Hongboontri these, 23 consented to interviews. (See Table (2003, 2005, 2008), Kleinsasser (1993), I for further details.) and Rosenholtz (1991) to measure the teacher participants’ perceptions toward the Table 1 cultures of teaching within their workplace Participants at the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mystique and the availability of teacher professional University development in such the workplace. The Name* Study Degree Major five-Likert scale measures the degree of Benny MA Linguistics agreement or disagreement ranging from: Cindy MA Language and 5 = “strongly agree,” 4 = “agree,” 3 = Communication “sometimes agree/sometimes disagree,” 2 Christine PhD Linguistics = “disagree,” and 1 = “strongly disagree.” Katherine MA TEFL Karen PhD Curriculum The questionnaire had 33 items and 21 Development items in particular were used to measure
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1139 - 1163 (2016) 1141 Chantarath Hongboontri and Mananya Jantayasakorn the teacher participants’ perceptions of Department? Other Departments? What do collaboration within their workplace (2, you do together? How do you develop your 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, language teaching skills? If you want to 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, and 33) and improve your teaching, how do you think the 12 items were employed to quantify the Faculty could help? With permission from participants’ learning opportunities (1, 3, the research participants, all interviews were 4, 6, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, and 21). audio-recorded for further transcription and Before its actual use, the questionnaire was analyses. piloted on 10 university EFL teachers (who taught English as a foreign language). The Written Documents completed and returned questionnaires were Written documents, as Punch (2005) argued, tallied and calculated with SPSS to measure provide rich data that could under certain the questionnaire’s alpha coefficient. The circumstances be difficult to obtain using questionnaire had alpha coefficient of 0.911. other research instruments. In essence, they What this meant was the questionnaire had help create contexts as well as establish a high level of reliability and hence, could a solid ground to support a researcher’s be used to measure the research participants’ inquiry of a certain issue (Atkinson & perceptions of their cultures of teaching Coffey, 1997; Marshall & Rossman, 1999 and their behavioural practices within their Hodder, 2000). Mindful of this, the present workplace (Bryman & Cramer, 1990). researchers collected various pieces of written documents throughout the process Interviews of data collection. The written documents Semi-structured interviews were conducted collected included, for example, university to promote an exchange of information policies, course syllabi, and language between the researchers and the participants teaching materials, among many others. (Bernard & Ryan, 2010). Such an exchange would offer the researchers better insights Ethical Concerns into the participants’ beliefs (Merriam, 2009, Mindful of research ethical requirements, 1988) and actions (Fontana & Frey, 2008). the researchers adapted several precautions To conduct interviews, the researchers to protect the identity and well-being of the followed the notions of ethnographic research participants. First, the researchers interview (Spradley, 1979) and developed applied for institutional review board (IRB) a list of open-ended questions. Of total, approval. After approval, the researchers 22 questions were used for the interviews. sent a letter to debrief the research project These questions included, for example, how to the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mystique would you describe your relationship with University asking for permission to conduct teachers in the Department? How often the research. When permission was granted, do you work with teachers from the same letters along with informed consent forms
1142 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1139 - 1163 (2016) Cultures of Teaching: Mapping the Teacher Professional Development Terrain were sent to all FL teachers in the Faculty of For example, the majority of the teacher Liberal Arts, Mystique University. Not only participants admitted that not only did did these letters contain brief information of they rarely receive informal evaluation the project and inform the teachers of the of their teaching performance from their project’s requirements (Bogdan & Biklen, colleagues ( = 1.8077) but they also had 2003), they also ensured the teachers of little chance of observing the teaching confidentiality and privacy and of their of other good teachers ( = 1.3846) and right to withdraw from the project at any foreign language teachers ( = 2.3462). time (Christians, 2011; Kamberelis & Though the Dean of the Faculty, as these Dimitriadis, 2011). teacher participants commonly agreed, did little encouraged the teachers to discuss Data Analysis instructional skills ( = 1.4231), responses Responses of the completed and returned from these teachers indicated that they questionnaires were tallied, tabulated, and every now and then they discussed ideas entered into SPSS for calculation. Interview obtained from attending in-service trainings data were transcribed and analysed with organised by the Faculty ( = 3.0385). They Strauss and Corbin’s (1990) open and axial also shared instructional problems with coding techniques. Additionally, data from other teachers in the Faculty ( = 3.000) all three different sources were woven and helped one another solve the problems in terms of their similarities, differences, ( = 2.8846). However, they admitted that and inconsistencies to better depict the the teachers in their Faculty seldom worked cultures of teaching at the Faculty of together to develop appropriate teaching Liberal Arts, Mystique University and the methods and techniques ( = 1.6784). These relationship between such cultures and participants agreed that their context (both teacher professional development. the Faculty and the University had offered them adequate opportunities to improve FINDINGS their instructional skills ( = 2.6154 and 2.5000 respectively). (See Table 2 for Results obtained from the calculation further details.) Statistical data indicated of the completed and returned the researchers should look further into questionnaires demonstrated little (or the qualitative data to better depict the almost no) collaboration among the research cultures of teaching practised by research participants at the Faculty of Liberal Arts, participants. What also emerged from the Mystique University. Overall, statistical data qualitative data set included the participants’ showed the participants’ rare collaboration opportunities for professional development with other teachers in their workplace and available within their workplace and the little support from both the administrators relationship between the cultures of teaching and colleagues in improving teaching. and teacher professional development.
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Cultures of Teaching at Mystique Uma’s responses to the interview University’s Faculty of Liberal Arts questions stressed the collaboration among Ubiquitously practised by the research these three Japanese language teachers. She participants were three of Hargreaves’ explained how the other two teachers helped (1994) four types of cultures of teaching: her improve her teaching. (1) balkanisation, (2) individualism, and (3) My class is boring. Students walk contrived collegiality. in and out of my classroom because of my teaching. I want to improve Balkanisation myself. I ask my colleagues about The majority of the research participants how they teach. I then try their admitted to the division among the teachers methods. If it works, I keep it. If it within their workplace into several sub- doesn’t work, I don’t use it. I often groups. Such division was mainly generated ask to borrow their flashcards or by the differences in their subject disciplines pictures and use them in my class. and their personal relationships. The two teachers of the Japanese Similarly, they both admitted that they language (Vicky and Uma) with another had little (or almost no) collaboration with Japanese language teacher formed their own other teachers in the workplace. Their group. Within their group, they developed daily interactions with other teachers were a curriculum, made decisions regarding minimal and limited to “formal greetings their teaching, exchanged teaching tips and like ‘Hi, how are you?,’” said Vicky. shared each other’s workload. In her own This type of culture was also evident words, Vicky explained; among a group of Chinese language teachers. We are developing a programme However, unlike the Japanese language together; we choose course books teachers, these Chinese language teachers together. We make a decision by cooperated under certain circumstances. looking at contents and price. These Together, they organised special events books are good for the beginner related to Chinese cultures, shared problems, level students. We are like sisters. and assisted each other and exchanged We help one another. For example, information. One Chinese language teacher, if the other teachers are teaching, Sabrina, described; the one who doesn’t have class will We work together at the beginning get lunch for the other two. We also of the semester and the end of the swap class schedules. I usually semester to see if anybody has any would take the afternoon session as problem. We work together for Uma needs to leave early to pick up special events like Chinese New her kids from schools. Year or Chinese Moon Festival.
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Table 2 Teacher Collaboration and Opportunities for Professional Development: Their Means and Standard Deviation
Items mean S.D. 1. In this Institute/Faculty, I have many opportunities to learn things about 2.8462 1.48842 instruction. 2. When I think the Director/the Dean of my Institute/Faculty needs some 2.9231 1.44009 advice or information, I share it with him or her. 3. The Director/The Dean of my Institute/Faculty provides suggestions or 2.4231 1.47440 support to help me become the best possible teacher. 4. In this University, I have many opportunities to learn things about 2.6538 1.39945 instruction. 5. I work with other teachers in my Institute/Faculty in designing or evaluating 3.0385 1.22142 materials, curriculum units, and other teaching activities. 6. When teachers in my Institute/Faculty are not doing a good job, the 2.3846 1.47179 Director/the Dean of my Institute/Faculty works with them to improve instruction. 7. Other teachers in this Institute/Faculty seek my advice about professional 3.1923 .98058 issues and problems. 8. Other teachers in my University seek my advice about professional issues 3.0385 .99923 and problems. 9. In this Institute/Faculty, I do not offer advice to others about their teaching 2.6538 1.32491 unless I am asked. 10. If another teacher asks me for advice, it implies that I am more competent 3.3846 .94136 than he or she is. 11. In this University, I do not offer advice to others about their teaching unless 3.0769 1.35420 I am asked. 12. Other teachers in my Institute/Faculty encourage me to try out new teaching 2.3077 1.34964 ideas. 13. The Director/The Dean of my Institute/Faculty encourages me to try out 2.2308 1.39449 new teaching ideas. 14. I receive informal evaluation of my teaching performance from other 1.8077 1.09615 teachers in my Institute/Faculty. 15. In this Institute/Faculty, there are opportunities to increase teachers’ 2.6154 1.29852 instructional skills. 16. Other teachers in this University encourage me to try out new teaching 2.6538 1.23101 ideas. 17. Ideas presented at in-service are discussed afterwards by teachers in this 3.0385 1.24838 Institute/Faculty. 18. In this University, there are opportunities to increase teachers’ instructional 2.5000 1.50333 skills. 19. The Director/The Dean of my Institute/Faculty encourages teachers to talk 1.4231 .70274 about instructional skills. 20. I get a chance to observe other excellent teachers teaching. 1.3846 .69275 21. I get a chance to observe other excellent foreign language teachers teaching. 2.3462 1.41258 22. Other teachers at my Institute/Faculty come to me for help or advice when 3.3462 .89184 they need it.
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Table 2 (continue) Items mean S.D. 23. I give help and support to other teachers in my Institute/Faculty when they 2.7308 1.11562 are having problems in their teaching. 24. I give help and support to other teachers in my University when they are 2.3462 1.29437 having problems in their teaching. 25. When I am uncertain about how best to proceed in teaching, I go to other 3.1840 1.17353 teachers in my Institute/Faculty for assistance. 26. Other teachers in this University come to me for help or advice when they 2.6154 1.02282 need it. 27. Teachers in my Institute/Faculty participate in developing appropriate 1.6784 .80298 instructional methods and techniques in foreign language teaching. 28. I can get good help or advice from other teachers in my Institute/Faculty 3.3077 .97033 when I have a teaching problem. 29. I can get good help or advice from other teachers in my University when I 2.8077 1.26552 have a teaching problem. 30. I regularly share teaching problems in my Institute/Faculty with: (a) four or 3.0000 1.60000 more teachers, (b) three other teachers, (c) two other teachers, (d) one other teacher, (e) no other teachers. 31. I regularly share teaching problems in my University with: (a) four or more 2.8846 1.58308 teachers, (b) three other teachers, (c) two other teachers, (d) one other teacher, (e) no other teachers. 32. I regularly do instructional problem solving in my Institute/Faculty with: 2.8846 1.53172 (a) four or more teachers, (b) three other teachers, (c) two other teachers, (d) one other teacher, (e) no other teachers. 33. I regularly do instructional problem solving in my University with: (a) four 2.5769 1.62906 or more teachers, (b) three other teachers, (c) two other teachers, (d) one other teacher, (e) no other teachers.
Normally, we try not to interfere something like teaching materials, with each other’s work. We focus I just ask my colleagues. They are on our own task. Unless we have always ready to help. problems, we then work together in order to fix them. We don’t have Dominant too among the English formal meetings; we don’t need language teachers was the balkanisation to set up a formal appointment or culture. Unlike the Japanese and Chinese anything like that. language teachers, the group of the English language teachers was further divided The same teacher went on. into several sub-groups. This division was largely based on years of teaching We share almost everything. We experiences in this workplace. Karen share what we teach. When we hear had been teaching English at Mystique about a conference, we encourage University for almost three decades; she each other to attend. If I need
1146 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1139 - 1163 (2016) Cultures of Teaching: Mapping the Teacher Professional Development Terrain admitted to her association only with the Pam asserted: English teachers whom she knew since In the meetings or the Faculty’s she started working there. Karen and these events, I work with every teacher teachers “are like friends. Whenever I run in the Faculty. But apart from this, into problems, I go to them to complain.” I have very little contact with them. Karen’s interactions with the newly-hired Normally, I have my own group of English teachers were minimal. She said, teachers. We have been teaching “New teachers are just acquaintances. I do here for quite some time. I am not have much personal contact with them very close with them. We eat lunch except during the departmental meetings together; we share things; and we or the Faculty social functions in which we always help each other. talk.” Responses from the other four English teachers resonated with Karen. Benny, a native English speaking teacher, noted: Santana maintained, “There used to be eight teachers in my group. We were sort I often share things with my office of recruited at the same time. Now there mate. We both are foreign teachers are only six of us. Two are doing their and we joined the Department at the PhDs abroad. Together, we share teaching same time. He has been teaching in materials, problems, and even complaints.” Thailand for quite some time and The newly hired and the less he had more teaching experiences. experienced English teachers formed their I have been asking him for advices own teacher groups. Within their groups, especially on how to deal with they cooperated, shared and exchanged students. He has been very helpful. teaching materials. Further, they confided their problems to the teachers in the groups Wanda added: and asked each other for advice or solutions. The following excerpts taken from the When I have any problem with my researchers’ interviews with both the newly teaching or I want any suggestion hired and the less experienced English which may not involve teaching, teachers depicted such a practice. I always go to a group of three teachers whom I am closed with. When I have problems with my We have known each other for teaching, I ask three or four quite some time now. We joined the teachers in my group. We all are Department at the same time. And new teachers. I ask for teaching this really makes us close to one advice or for activities I could use another. I would say I could really in my teaching to make the lesson trust them. much more interesting. (Sandy)
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There are about four or five new teachers at the Faculty of Liberal Arts, teachers here and we often work Mystique University was individualism. together. With these teachers, I Six English language teachers admitted to share everything. We exchange the researchers during the interview of their teaching materials. We complain practice of individualism. These teachers about tests, contents, and students. confessed of their minimal interactions with (Cindy) other teachers in the same Department. They rarely shared information or assisted other With the five new teachers in my English language teachers; their interactions group, we are pretty close. This is with other English language teachers were not only because we are new here. meticulously confined to social purposes. But also we have more or less Factors influencing individualism were the same perspectives on things. personality, workload, and the growth of We share teaching tips, teaching the workforce. materials, activities, and, of course, Three of these six teachers blamed their problems with both students and personality for their lack of interactions with other teachers. (Smith) other teachers. Rachel explained, “This is The teachers here including me are just my personality. I basically am not a big separated into groups. I choose fan of socialisation.” Another teacher, Tess, to share my problems with only a noted that being independent minimised her couple of teachers in my group. interactions with other English language Also I often ask them for advice teachers. “I had no personal contact with or assistance. With other senior any teachers in the Department. I come in; teachers, I just said ‘Hi’ whenever I teach; and I go home.” Yvette maintained, I meet them. (Katherine) “Because of my own personality, I socialise very little with any teacher in the Faculty.” There are four or five teachers I In addition, teachers’ workload, usually work with. We have been according to Wade and Samantha, robbed teaching here for a couple of years. the teachers of their opportunities to interact Among us, we share the work. From with one another. As a result, it accelerated time to time, we share what we do teacher individualism. Bitterly, Wade in our classrooms, exchange ideas, complained: and, of course, comfort one another. (Peter) I usually go out to lunch with a couple of teachers that I am close with. Working with other Individualism teachers, I would say very rarely. Another type of culture of teaching found A couple of years ago, I conducted particularly among the English language research with one teacher in the
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Department. And that’s it. The well, some of them not so well. teachers here seem to be busy all And I worked pretty much with the time. There’s no room for any everybody. Now the Department is informal interaction that would bigger. Some of the teachers I know allow people to share and exchange are on the ground floor. I go for ideas. If this continues, I don’t think weeks without seeing them. I come we can ever get together as a group. up here; they go down there. Even people I know, I see them less often Samantha explained how workload than in the past years. disbanded the teacher group that she had previously formed with other six English Contrived Collegiality language teachers. The researchers’ analysis of data When I first joined the Department, documented another type of culture of I worked with a group of seven teaching existed in the Faculty of Liberal teachers. We were quite close. But Arts, Mystique University, i.e., contrived now we sort of are on our own as collegiality. Responses from the majority of we’ve become very busy with our the research participants similarly pointed work. Several teachers chose to towards Faculty’s administration as the main isolate themselves from the group accelerator of contrived collegiality. Though as they needed to spend time to the teachers here were divided into groups get their job done. We no longer or individuals, written documents indicated socialise. that they sometimes worked together under the mandate of the Faculty’s administration cooptation. For example, the Faculty usually One lone native English speaking assigned its teachers different tasks and teacher, Wayne, associated the existence duties for the projects the Faculty organised. of teacher individualism in his Department Under such circumstances, the teachers were with the growth of the Department. Such obligated to work together. The following development not only forced Wayne to quotations excerpted from the interviews isolate himself from the teachers whom with the research participants demonstrated he had known and worked with but also the ubiquity of contrived collegiality within fostered and encouraged solitude in him. this particular workplace. Wayne lamented: There are events of Faculty’s When I first joined the Department, activities that require involvement the office space was small and from teachers from different we saw each other frequently. departments. The administration Back then, I knew everybody in would assign teachers to be the Department, some of them
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responsible for specific tasks. cultures of teaching here prompted the (Karen) researchers to further investigate the extent to which teacher professional development The only time that I work with other was available to the teachers in this particular teachers in the Faculty is when I workplace and in what form. am being appointed to do so. This might happen once or twice a year. Teacher Professional Development The Faculty might initiate some at Mystique University’s Faculty of projects which require involvement Liberal Arts from every teacher. Then each The researchers’ analysis of the written teacher would be assigned different documents (e.g., the Faculty’s policies tasks and duties. (Peter) and minutes of the Faculty’s meetings) Last year I organised the Chinese indicated that the teachers in this particular New Year activity and the Faculty workplace had abundant opportunities to assigned teachers from other attain professional development. These departments to help me out. We opportunities were available in various forms had meetings to plan this activity such as research grants, financial supports together. When the project ended, to attend conferences, PhD scholarships, our working together sort of and in-house trainings/workshops, among finished. (Sabrina) many others. Responses from the majority of the research participants affirmed such Last year I was appointed to be opportunities. Pam described at length what on the committee for the Faculty’s opportunities the Faculty’s administration annual meeting. A few teachers had offered to the teachers in the Faculty. including me were assigned to organise this meeting. Among us, The Faculty wants all its teachers we had several meetings to plan this to have a PhD so it encourages annual meeting. That was the only those with just an MA to go abroad time I worked with these teachers to further their studies. Not only from several departments. (Sandy) that, it urges the teachers to improve themselves by attending I am on the Faculty’s Board of workshops and conferences. For the Academic Affairs. Teachers from workshops, the Faculty, from time several departments also serve on to time, invites people with different this Board. We have meeting every expertise to give lectures on different month. And that’s the only time I see topics relating to either research, them. (Timothy) language teaching, or programme evaluation. If the teachers want to The existence of the three types of go abroad to present their papers,
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the Faculty also encourages this. Sabrina and Katherine shared with the The teachers could apply for some researchers one of the in-house trainings grants that the Faculty sets asides. and workshops that they both had attended. These grants basically cover the Sabrina noted; “The Faculty has organised registration fees, accommodation, several in-house trainings and workshops travelling expenses, and some on issues that the Faculty thinks important. personal expenses. Last month, for example, there was a series of trainings and workshops on language Wade’s responses reiterated this, noting; assessment and evaluation. It was quite “The Faculty recognises the need for useful. I listened to some new ideas on teachers to conduct research to improve assessment and evaluation.” Satisfied with themselves and has set aside some sort of the same training and workshop, Katherine research funding to support this. Those added; “It was a five-day workshop. The interested in conducting research could Faculty invited a couple of experts to apply for this funding.” Similarly, Timothy teach us some techniques on how to design insisted; “The Faculty strongly supports and to write a test. The workshop is quite research. It provides research funding; it interesting. I learned about new concepts and tries to create an environment for research.” new techniques on testing and evaluation Not only did the Faculty offer financial from the workshop.” support, it also organised several in-house In addition, the Faculty encouraged trainings and workshops on research for its its teachers to attend conferences and teachers. Uma explained: workshops both inside and outside of Thailand. Hence, the Faculty often promotes The Faculty offers some financial conferences and workshops to its teachers. assistance to the teachers for In addition, it offers financial supports to conducting research. However, the teachers attending conferences and for those who are not good in workshops. Samantha’s responses revealed research like me, for example, her satisfaction of such opportunities. the Faculty invites some experts to come in to give us lectures on The Faculty very much encourages various topics relating to research. us to attend both conferences and They include, for example, how to workshops to improve ourselves. conduct research, how to select a They circulate information related topic, or how to write an academic to these conferences and workshops article. through our emails. If we want to attend, the Faculty will give us some financial support. We could also These in-house trainings and workshops take a day off to attend conferences also focused on other topics that the Faculty and workshops. deemed important. During their interviews,
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Similarly, Wanda uttered; “The Faculty week; she was as well assigned other tasks. usually lets us know about conferences This heavy workload, hence, did not allow and workshops. We could choose to attend her to apply for the Faculty’s research grant. any conferences and workshops and the University teachers need to conduct Faculty will pay for our registration and research. Research obviously helps also accommodation and transportation if teachers boost their teaching. the conferences and workshops are not in However, with the amount of Bangkok.” Sabrina added; “Information workload being assigned to me, about conferences and workshops is usually I simply have no time to write a circulated. We all know about these. The research proposal and apply for Faculty will also pay for us to attend these a research grant. I am teaching conferences and workshops.” Concurring sixteen hours. I am running the with both teachers, Smith added, “Finance Faculty’s Language Learning is not a problem here. We could go to Center and there are a couple of conferences and workshops either to present more things that I am also involved our research papers or just to attend.” with. I basically have no time. Despite such abundant opportunities, several participants were sceptical of the practicality of these opportunities. Wade added further. Four research participants criticised the Teachers need to conduct research. inconsistencies between the Faculty’s It is one of our main responsibilities. research policies and teachers’ workload. Also it is a career movement. The These teachers acknowledged the Faculty also recognises this and availability of research grants. However, sets up research grants for all the due to the heavy workload within the teachers. All the teachers could Faculty, the majority of the teachers were apply for these research grants. unable to apply for these research grants. Even though it is not a big one Hypocritically, Karen asked; “Where else compared to other types of grants. do they expect me to find time for research? It is, however, enough to help How many projects am I working on now? the teachers get started. But the Take some classes from me. I then could problem is time. We need time to go conduct research.” Timothy complained; “I to the library to search for books. don’t have time for research. I am teaching We need time to sit and chat with sixteen hours a week and in different one another to exchange ideas. campuses too. I don’t have time to go to the But we all have heavy teaching library to sit down and read for information schedules oftentimes conflict with to develop a proposal.” Christine also had one another. Hardly could we find heavy workload. She taught sixteen hours a time to sit and talk about research.
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In analysing the interview data focusing DISCUSSION on teacher professional development in Adhering to Wolcott (1990, 2001, 2002), this particular context, responses from the researcher summarised the findings three research participants (Katherine, to answer the two research questions Sandy, and Santana) showed they doubted posted and to help construct queries for the benefits of the Faculty’s in-house future research. In Wolcott’s own words, trainings and workshops. Similarly, they a conclusion and discussion succinctly found that many of these trainings and described, “what has been attempted, what workshops were uninteresting as their has been learned, and what new questions topics repetitively focused on a few issues have been raised” (1990, p. 56). that the Faculty’s administrators considered important. Katherine said: What Types of Cultures of Teaching are Practised among FL Teachers at Most trainings and workshops here the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mystique do focus on a couple of topics such University? as testing, teaching methodologies, At the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mystique and technologies in a language University, three types of Hargreaves’ classroom. The first one, all the (1994) cultures of teaching were found; i.e., teachers did go. But when the balkanisation, individualism, and contrived same topics were repeated, only collegiality. few, usually the administrators, did The FL teachers in this particular show up. workplace were balkanised into groups. These teachers were divided into three Santana opined; “The topics for the groups in terms of their subject disciplines: in-house trainings and workshops were Japanese, Chinese, and English. In addition, repeated over and over again. Last year, there was a further division among the for example, there were five workshops on teachers of the English language into how to write a test alone. These workshops smaller sub-groups on the basis of personal and trainings are such a waste.” Sandy relationships and identification and years confessed that she hardly attended any of the of teaching experiences within the Faculty. Faculty’s in-house trainings and workshops. These groups of teachers were strongly “I wouldn’t normally attend any of the insulated from each other. Assistance and Faculty’s in-house trainings and workshops sharing and exchanging of ideas regarding unless I am compelled to. The topics of these teaching and teaching materials occurred trainings and workshops are not interesting restrictively within their own groups. In and they are usually repeated.” other words, it was within their groups that the teachers developed their relationships with one another, attitudes toward their
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1139 - 1163 (2016) 1153 Chantarath Hongboontri and Mananya Jantayasakorn colleagues and teaching, and norms of participants, under the Faculty’s cooptation, teaching practices. In the educational occasionally worked together. At the surface context where balkanisation flourishes, level, contrived collegiality could offer such a context is hence “poorly equipped teachers, administrators, and onlookers to harness the human resources necessary delusive illusion of teachers working to create flexible learning for students, together. Conscientious scrutiny, however, continuous professional growth for staff would reveal otherwise. Contrived and responsiveness to changing client needs collegiality is in fact, as Fielding (1999) in the community” (Hargreaves, 1994, p. coined, a tool for “managerialism” (p. 8). 235). (See also Nias et al., 1989; Johnson, This is because it “reconstitutes teacher 1990; Lee et al., 1993; McLaughlin, 1993; relations in the administrators’ own image Grossman & Stodolsky, 1995; Hargreaves – regulating and reconstructing teachers’ & MacMillan, 1995; Siskin, 1997; lives so that they support the predictable Kelchtermans, 2006; Hargreaves & Fullan, implementation of administrative plans 2012) and purposes, rather than creating the Data also showed the existence of predictable development of teachers’ own” individualism. Three factors underlying (Hargreaves, 1992, p. 24). Further, Levine the research participants’ practices of and Marcus (2010) remarked: individualism were found: personality, Professional and school reform workload, and the workplace’s physical organizations call for collaboration setting. These factors were compatible in the abstract, and some schools with Hargreaves’ (1994) three determinants are creating time for teachers to of individualism; i.e., (1) elective collaborate without specifying individualism, (2) strategic individualism, structures and aims. When it and (3) constrained individualism. Under comes to professional community elective individualism, teachers personally and collaboration, this mode of favour working alone. In contrast, operating may reflect the unstated strategic individualism refers to a unique belief that “if you build it, they will situation which obligates teachers to create learn.” (p. 397) individualistic patterns of working to respond to such a situation. Constrained individualism happens under certain Moreover, several researchers have circumstances in which schools’ physical gone thus far to predict the shortcomings environments are created as a tool to ensure of contrived collegiality. Similarly, they the practice of individuality thrives. agreed that contrived collegiality could The culture of contrived collegiality jeopardise the creation of collaborative was dominant in this particular workplace. culture within a school. As a consequence, Despite their being divided into groups they recommend less administrative or individually isolated, these research imposition but more teacher involvement
1154 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1139 - 1163 (2016) Cultures of Teaching: Mapping the Teacher Professional Development Terrain in creating collaborative culture. (See, for and collegiality among teachers. (See example, Lam, Yim, & Lam, 2002; Leonard also Smylie & Perry, 1998; Hawley & & Leonard, 2010; Beatty, 2011; Datnow, Valli, 1999; Garet et al., 2001; Lieberman 2011; Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012for more & Miller, 2001; Imants, 2002; Webb et details.) In their own words, Leonard and al., 2005; Little, 2006; Kleinsasser & Leonard (2010) opined: Sato. 2007; Dufour et al., 2008; Sturko & Gregson, 2009; Waldron & Mcleskey, 2011; Scheduled meetings and specified Voot et al., 2015) groupings are both desirable and At the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mystique necessary for school functioning, University, data affirmed the association but they are not the only means between cultures of teaching and teachers’ of effective collaboration. In opportunities for professional development. the enthusiasm to proceed with Startlingly, notwithstanding meager reinventing how one views school collaboration and collegiality among the progress, one might do well to leave teachers, the teachers here had countless sufficient room and opportunity opportunities for professional development. for teachers to demonstrate With attempts to develop and improve its professionalism and commitment teachers, the Faculty’s administrators drew as they perceive it and not as it policies (e.g., research grants and grants is necessarily perceived by those for attending conferences and workshops) further removed from the classroom and planned and organised several in-house and the school. (p. 241) trainings and workshops. Surprisingly, these administratively orchestrated policies and To What Extent do Cultures of Teaching plans did little to trigger teacher professional Determine Teacher Opportunities for development within this particular workplace Professional Development in the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Mystique University? as they had anticipated. This was because many of these policies and plans collided Literature in the field of teacher professional with either teachers’ job responsibilities or development has documented extensively their interests. Shortcomings of schools’ the correlation between cultures of teaching, organised plans for teacher professional collaboration in particular, and successful development has been extensive in the teacher professional development. Harwell literature. For example, Grossman, Winebug, (2003), for example, argued that “[p] and Woolworth (2001) warned that schools’ rofessional development can succeed only endorsement of their policies and plans for in settings, or contexts that support it” (p. teacher professional development could, at 2). Necessarily, such settings or contexts, as its worst, annihilate teachers’ desires for Darling-Hammond and Richardson (2009) professional development. In their own further observed, can promote collaboration words,
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The most common form of school- an “institute,” often far away, to based teacher learning – the district work and learn with others. While inservice day – does not help the these institutes can be collegial situation much (cf. Miller & Lord, experiences, teachers do not learn 1995). The episodic and piecemeal with the people they rub shoulders nature of typical professional within the workplace. And although development dooms any attempt summer learning experiences to sustain intellectual community. can be rewarding to those who By their very structure, scattered participate, they pose problems inservice days are confined to as well. On a structural level, they technical and immediate issues suggest that learning is a “summer such as learning new assessment activity” accomplished during schemes, translating test results teachers’ free time rather than an into lesson plans, implementing new ongoing part of professional life. curriculum or textbook series, and On a practical level, these learning so on. (p. 948) opportunities are often viewed as optional (it is the rare school Grossman et al. (2001) went further that requires teachers to attend an to criticise schools’ traditional practice NEH institute), and they attract of enrolling their teachers in teacher a particular kind of volunteer; professional development courses organised individuals passionate about their by an outsider. Such a practice had more own learning who can afford the than a few drawbacks. For example, teachers time and tuition. Most important, the could misconceive teacher professional voluntary nature of such institutes development as a short-lived process. means that there is already a match Ideas that might seem promising during between the programs offered and conferences, trainings, or workshops could those who volunteer – a fact that be of little use to teachers in their classrooms. raises questions about teachers who Despite its length, Grossman et al.’s quote is choose not to participate. In many worth mentioning here. cases, the teachers most in need of such an intellectual broadening are Efforts to build intellectual the least likely to volunteer. (p. 948) community have historically taken place outside school walls, thus In addition, Fang (2013) doubted the removing teacher learning from quality of the trainings and workshops in the temporal and spatial milieu particular those organised by publishers or of the workplace. Teachers leave so-called experts. Neither of these trainings the school building to travel to nor workshops are of great significance
1156 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1139 - 1163 (2016) Cultures of Teaching: Mapping the Teacher Professional Development Terrain to teachers as they are organised either to 2001; Wenger et al., 2002; Erickson et al., serve publishers’ commercial purposes or 2005; Broad & Evans, 2006; Halverson, to publicise oftentimes the self-proclaimed 2007; Dooner et al., 2008; Vescio et al., experts, rather than to help teachers improve 2008; Stanley, 2011). Through working themselves. together, teachers could help each other improve. At their best, Grossman, Wineburg, Professional development for and Woolworth (2001) emphasised the teachers, if any, is often done relationship between a teacher community haphazardly through training and teacher professional development. workshops conducted by publishers whose primary interest Communities are microcosms of is in promoting their commercial larger social collectives in that programs or by “experts” who they pivot on the tension between claim to help schools improve the rights and the responsibilities student scores in high stake tests. of membership. For a community These workshops often do not to be sustained, members must provide the kind of professional believe in their right to express knowledge and support that themselves honestly without fear teachers need to initiate and sustain of censure or ridicule. But genuine qualitative changes in teaching also make demands on their practices. (p. 249) members – membership comes tied to responsibilities. In a professional CONCLUSION community of teachers, a core responsibility is to the learning of Teaching is hard work (Fang, 2013) and other teachers. This responsibility complicated (Little, 1999). No teaching might entail contributing to group programmes could fully prepare teachers discussions, pressing others to for what happens in the classroom. Hence, clarify their thoughts, engaging in continuous support for professional intellectual midwifery for the ideas development are undoubtedly essential to of others, and providing resources help teachers better face (unanticipated) for others’ learning. If a feature of challenges they would encounter during pseudo community is withdrawal their teaching practices. Such support, as from the public space when conflict myriad researchers have argued, could erupts, then a feature of a mature happen within a teacher community in community is the willingness to which teachers work (Little, 1987, 2002, engage in critique in order to 2003; Darling-Hammond, 1999; de Lima, further collective understanding. 2001; Grossman et al., 2001; McCotter, (p. 980)
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Studying a Television Audience in Malaysia: A Practice of Audience Ethnography in Kampung Papitusulem, Sabak Bernam, Selangor
Rofil, L. E. F.*, Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A. Department of Media Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
ABSTRACT This article discusses the ethnographic nature of audience studies and the practices of audience ethnography in Kampung Papitusulem, Sabak Bernam. Although ethnography has been adopted in the studies of media reception worldwide, it is not a popular methodological tradition among the media and communication researchers in Malaysia. However, considering the multicultural nature of the Malaysian population and media, audience ethnography should be considered as one of the practical methodologies in media and communication research in the country. Based on the empirical ethnographic research involving a group of Malay-Javanese women in Kampung Papitusulem, Sabak Bernam, this article presents the methodological issues of an ethnographic approach in studying Malaysian television audiences. The practice of audience ethnography in the kampung indicates that the methodology would likely be applicable in media audience research in rural Malaysia by considering practical data collection techniques including partial immersion of fieldwork, conversational interviews, and selected participant observation.
Keywords: Audience ethnography, qualitative research, identity, television, Malaysia
INTRODUCTION The purpose of this article is to discuss the methodological issues in conducting ARTICLE INFO audience ethnography and shed light on Article history: Received: 2 July 2015 understanding this research approach using Accepted: 12 May 2016 an empirical example from an ethnographic E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] fieldwork in Kampung Papitusulem, district (Rofil, L. E. F.), [email protected] (Syed, M. A. M.), of Sabak Bernam, Selangor, Malaysia. The [email protected] (Hamzah, A.) * Corresponding author growing popularity of audience ethnography
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Rofil, L. E. F., Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A. captivates global anthropologists to shift watching imported television serials gives their research interest from traditional culture a plausible explanation about the audience to popular culture —which has become the interpretive engagement of transnational key subjects in media research — and move modernity in Malaysia. Similar to Syed the study locus from the North Atlantic (2011) who studies the Malay audience in heartland to the global South (Peterson, rural and urban settings, Thompson (2000) 2003). At the same time, ethnographic captures communal television viewing approach to audience research has come to between kampung Sungai Siputeh and existence among the researchers in the field Kuala Lumpur. While both Syed (2011) of media and cultural studies since the 1980s and Thompson (2000) focus on television (Gray, 2003; Seiter, 2004; Hermes, 2010). audiences in Malaysian Peninsula, John The tradition of the anthropology-inspired Postill (2008) searches for the audience methodological approach which started interpretation of collective identities in in Europe and North America is popular East Malaysia. Investigating the negotiation among media anthropologists and reception of ethnic and national identities among researchers in non-Western countries. For the Ibanese, Postill (2008) discovers that example, they adopt this approach to study media, especially television, plays primary television consumption and identity politics roles in modernising them through “cultural (Abu-Lughod, 1995; Mankekar, 1999; standardisation under conditions of rapid Scrase, 2002; Shetty, 2008), media and economic growth” (p. 5). nation building (Postill, 2008; Blondheim & As Malaysian television audiences Liebes, 2009), and soap opera reception and become more fragmented, casual and at some modernity (Thompson, 2000; La Pastina, point inattentive, audience ethnography 2004; Idah, 2006; Machado-Borges, 2007; should be seen as an optional methodology. Syed, 2011). Yet, audience ethnography has Radway (1988) argues that researchers not been developed as a popular intellectual should seek to explore “the endlessly tradition in Malaysia because most of the shifting, ever-evolving kaleidoscope of local researchers focus on quantitative- daily life and the way in which the media based phenomenological research topics (for are integrated and implicated within it” (p. example Wang, 2004; Firdaus, 2006; Abdul 366). Therefore, an ethnographic approach Wahab, Wang, & Baharuddin, 2013). to audience research should be considered Very few audience ethnographies have as one of the alternative ways to study been conducted in Malaysia. However, multicultural audiences especially in there are some ethnographic studies of Malaysia. At the same time, the resistance Malaysian media audiences that can be to conduct audience ethnography is perhaps considered as significant contributions caused by some methodological issues. to the current literature. For example, The present article addresses some issues Syed’s (2011) exploration of Malay women pertaining to the ethnographic approach
1166 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1165 - 1179 (2016) Studying a Television Audience in Malaysia to studying television audiences and researchers in the Centre for Contemporary contributes to the understanding of audience Cultural Studies (CCCS) at the University ethnography. of Birmingham and the rest of the world. Some of the notable pioneers in television THE ETHNOGRAPHIC audience ethnographies include Dorothy TRADITIONS OF AUDIENCE Hobson’s study of British Soap Opera RESEARCH (1982), Ien Ang’s Dutch Dallas study Ethnography is a qualitative research (1985), David Morley’s Family Television methodology that requires a researcher to (1986), Charlotte Brunsdon’s study of spend a period of time with the community woman television audience (1986), and Ann under study, observing and recording their Gray’s study of feminine Video Cassette lives in natural settings (Hamersley & Recorder (1987). However, these studies Atkinson, 2007; Gobo, 2008; Fetterman, explore the audience’s decoding of certain 2010). This methodological mechanism television programmes simply through has long been adopted in the study of qualitative interviews and textual analysis. media audiences. According to Moores The lack of time that media researchers (1996), audience ethnography refers to a spend in the field is an issue for some methodological practice for “investigating anthropologists (Spitulnik, 1993; Gray, the social world of actual audiences, using 2003; Seiter, 2004). Spitulnik (1993) notes qualitative techniques—most notably the that critics raise the important points missing extended period of participant observation ‘in in ethnography of media audience such as the field’ and the unstructured conversational detailed participant observation and actual interview with informants” (p. 3). The main immersion in audience’s life. objective of audience ethnography is to Despite these critiques, media audience understand the media consumption “from researchers continue to use the term the virtual standpoint of actual audiences” ethnography to label their study even (Ang, 2005, p. 136). In addition, it serves as though the procedures do not necessarily an instrumental purpose for understanding meet the nature of traditional ethnography. “the media practices, and meanings people For example, Marie Gillespie’s study of attach to media, and as a way to document British Punjabi youth’s television culture everyday media practices in detail” (Perala, (1995) and Chris Barker’s exploration of Helle, & Johnson, 2012, p. 12). soap talks among the British Asian girls The anthropological based approach (1997) combine participant observation emerged in the early 1980s within the with qualitative surveys and focus group British Cultural Studies (BCS) community discussion respectively. However, the (Hermes, 2010). It started with Stuart Hall’s ethnography of media audience has been “Encoding/Decoding” thesis (1980) which expanded to the study of online culture and significantly inspired a number of other communities, such as “CMC (Computer-
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Mediated Communication) ethnography” research and shed light upon understanding or “virtual ethnography” (Lindlof & of television audiences and politics of Shatzer, 1998; Hine, 2000), “netnography” identity. (Kozinets, 2002; Langer & Becham, 2005) Essentially, audience ethnography is and “network ethnography” (Howard, 2002). the salient trend in the second and third These new forms of ethnography allow generation of media reception research, media researchers to conduct observation underlying the studies of the relationships of textual discourse that arise from virtual between media, culture and communities communities’ activities, in non-territorial (Alasuutari, 1999). While the earlier field site. generation embraces the critical inquiries In point of fact, there are some excellent of identity politics, the contextual use of contemporary media research studies media and the role of media in everyday that are conducted in accordance with life; the latter suggests to “bring the media the proper practices of ethnography. For back to media studies”, by which both example, Vicki Mayer’s two-year fieldwork content and audience interpretation are in San Antonio (2003) explores the Mexican critically analysed (Alasuutari, 1999, American’s reception of telenovela through p.7). In the beginning, ethnography interviews and participant observation offers an instrumental mechanism which that includes field notes and television co- enables media researchers to “overcome watching. Similarly, Thais Machado-Borges the artificiality of mass communication (2007) adds complementary methods such research based on naturally occurring data” as structured conversation and essays (Ruddock, 2001, p. 128). along with the other primary approach to The importance of ethnography as understand Brazilian youth’s telenovelas a methodology in media and cultural consumption. Another telenovela study that researches lies in its core principle that can be considered as proper ethnography acknowledges audiences as active consumers is La Pastina’s study of audiences in of media texts. David Morley (1992) argues rural Brazil (2004). Through a year-long that media audience research needs to be study in the field, Antonio C. La Pastina diverted from the “pessimistic mass society (2004) carries out triangulation of in-depth thesis” to shifting between “optimistic” interviews, surveys, focus group discussion, and “pessimistic” paradigms. Furthermore, archival readings and participant observation Morley (1992) suggests that communication to explore rural Brazilians’ engagement in researchers should consider “the dimensions popular telenovelas. Notwithstanding the of power and influence through which the disciplines, some anthropologists such as powerful (leader and communicators) were Abu-Lughod (1997), Mankekar (1999), connected to the powerless (ordinary people, and Shetty (2008) apply ethnographic audiences)” (pp. 50-51). In this way, both approaches in their television audience content of messages that have effects on
1168 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1165 - 1179 (2016) Studying a Television Audience in Malaysia audience and the social meanings which The researchers’ first arrival in the audiences produce from the negotiation with kampung was in 2011 when they joined the message can be analysed in symmetrical a homestay programme and encountered and simultaneous manners. Likewise, a group of women who claimed to enjoy contemporary audience ethnography offers Sinetron (Indonesian soap operas) as part the best of both worlds, encompassing the of their everyday culture. From this short media-based and audience-based research visit the researchers developed relationships through which media programmes are with the societal elements of the community, analysed and discussed by both audiences especially their host family. For example, and researchers, while experiencing them they assisted access to the community mainly live in the field. in terms of identifying the subjects for the study. The housewife from the host family LIVING FIELDWORK was selected to be the initial informant in The fieldwork on which this study is based the study’s snowballing sampling procedure. took place at Kampung Papitusulem in This method of sampling allows selection the district of Sabak Bernam, Selangor. of informants within their network and it According to the headman, some ninety is convenient particularly when studying percent of the residents in the kampung sub-cultures that have “certain attributes are the descendants of Javanese migrants in common” (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011, who established the kampung in 1935. As p.114). The initial informant subsequently of 2010, the kampung had a population of introduced the researchers to the other 1,440 dispersed into some 288 households. twenty informants who were selected by The fieldwork began in April 2013 for using the “judgmental sampling” technique three months followed by the secondary (Fetterman, 2010). This sampling technique fieldwork between March and September refers to a way of selecting informants in 2014. During the fieldwork, the researchers which “ethnographers rely on their judgment engaged in “partial immersion” (Delamont, to select the most appropriate members of 2004) in which time was allotted between the subculture or unit based on the research the research site and university due to some question” (Fetterman, 2010, p. 35). academic and professional requirements. Gaining access to the field and This time constraint is among several community is an integral part of ethnographic challenges that audience ethnographers fieldwork. However, positioning the encounter during their study (Abu-Lughod, researchers in the community is quite 2000; Fetterman, 2010). Therefore, audience crucial too. Alasuutari (1999) points out ethnography allows non-continuous, short- that audience ethnographers can act as term contact with the community under an “insider” because they study their study (Alasuutari, 1999; Seiter, 2004). own culture and have already acquired what Geertz (1983) refers to as “local
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1165 - 1179 (2016) 1169 Rofil, L. E. F., Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A. knowledge”. Nevertheless, it is not as Interviews in ethnography are divided simple as it is in practice. The experience in into several types. Fetterman (2010) suggests Kampung Papitusulem provides a different that an ethnographer can choose to deliver scenario. Although the researchers are a structured or semi-structured interview culturally and politically proximate to if he or she wishes to gain comprehensive the Javanese community, their academic information about the community being and professional backgrounds create a researched from the insider’s point of boundary to the informants. Syed (2011) view. However, a couple of sessions of mentioned that his education background informal interviews seems to be technically makes the informants feel uncomfortable feasible because it allows a healthy rapport and awkward. This educational gap also to be established through “a mixture of generates the discourse of “us versus conversation and embedded question” others” (Mankekar, 2002; Gaines, 2005), (Fatterman, 2010, p.41). Moreover, separating the world between the researcher conversational interviews in a less formal and the researched. Therefore, building a ambience enable the ethnographer to share healthy rapport with the components of reflective insights with the interviewees the community under study is important in (Gray, 2003; Murphy, 2008). order to gain their trust. In the present case, Most audience ethnographers employ the researchers presented themselves as in-depth interviews which are followed “clausal acquaintances” to the community with thorough analysis. Alasuutari (1999) members and this presence appears to suggests that audience ethnography usually be instrumentally helpful in conducting involves qualitative interviews with not interviews with the informants. more than twenty informants for its deep and extensive investigation. For example, INTERVIEWING LAY AUDIENCE Katz and Liebes’ report on interview with Interview is the most effective data collection Dallas audience represents their “analytical tool in audience ethnography. Giampietro procedure as a whole” that gives readers Gobo (2008) argues that ethnographic more comprehensive insights (Alasuutari, interviews “… reveal the cultural meanings 1999, p.52). Some notable audience used by actors, and to investigate aspects researchers who also employ qualitative of the culture observed” that can provide interviewing techniques include Radway a clearer picture for the researcher’s (1984), Katz and Liebes (1984, 1990) Ang observation (p. 191). Most of the time, (1985), Morley (1986) and Gray (1987, interview is instrumental to “break the ice” 1992). Although they do not purposely between the researcher and the researched conduct an ethnographic study, their work in the beginning of fieldwork (Gobo, 2008; is generally conceived of as prominent Fetterman, 2010). examples of audience ethnography due to the insightful cultural meanings they
1170 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1165 - 1179 (2016) Studying a Television Audience in Malaysia generate from the audience’s interpretation questions from any one of the section, of media use (Seiter, 2004). depending on the informants’ awareness In the present study, ten informants of the current issues. For example, in the were interviewed during the preliminary aftermath of the MH370 incident1, one fieldwork and twenty informants (including informant sympathetically asked how the previous ten) in the next fieldwork. many Indonesians were missing with The majority of the informants were non- the rest of passengers on board, right professional rural women, aged between 44 after inviting the interviewers to sit. She and 72 years old, whose main daily activities was completely aware of the incident in were centred on the domestic sphere. They particular and even expressed her sympathy were divided into two categories: the second to the Indonesian fellow researcher. This generation and the third generation of scenario depicts the view that it is more Javanese migrants. Nearly all informants effective to encourage informants to express from the former category speak Javanese an honest opinion on any issues discussed while the latter generation shifts between without being influenced by the sentiment Bahasa Malaysia and Javanese in their daily in the interview questions. Other than conversations. In fact, almost half of the semi-structured interviews, interviewers informants chose to answer in Javanese, but also engaged in conversational interviews it was decided to interview them in Bahasa with the informants during participant Malaysia and allow them to respond in observation. For example, when joining Javanese. This is more practical because the with the informants during their television Javanese spoken in Kampung Papitusulem viewing, the interviewers asked several is Ngoko language. It is the colloquial questions pertaining to the respondents’ language which serves as the basic level interpretation of the television programmes in the Javanese language system. Although they were viewing. Ngoko language is acceptable in Malaysian It is suggested that as an ethnographer, Javanese society (Mohamed, 2001), the one should also drop his or her status as researchers preferred to converse in Bahasa an interviewer and present themselves as a Malaysia during the interview sessions casual acquaintance. As Maria Bakardjieva because it is not polite to speak Ngoko (2005) suggests, researchers can play a language to older people in Javanese society. role as a “welcome visitor” in order to The interviews were conducted be accepted in the private lives of the informally within two to three hours in the research subjects (p.79). It is believed informants’ house for their convenience. that this method allows the informants to A set of questions were prepared that act naturally and give genuine responses comprised three sections: television viewing on their own accord. For example, in an patterns, life history, and civic engagement. interview with a 72-year-old living-alone In practice, the interview began with informant, the researchers deliberately acted
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1165 - 1179 (2016) 1171 Rofil, L. E. F., Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A. as the respondent’s TV-watching companion humanistic approaches to enhance the level and strategically embedded the interview of mutual respect between interviewers questions in casual, friendly conversations. and interviewees. This process, according As a result, she could openly respond with to Seiter (2013), can be achieved by being unaffected and reflexive information. This cognisant of at least two process issues. was different to the preliminary interview The first is to be aware that rigid control where the respondent seemed to make up over the interview can discourage sincere answers to meet her perceptions of the feedback. The second is the need to be researchers’ expectations while humbly aware that intimate proximity can result regarded herself as an illiterate. in the researchers becoming too deeply Interview in research is always involved in the informants’ private lives. conceived of as a formal engagement In certain communities, gender can also between interviewers and interviewees, contribute to the gap between researchers especially if the interview uses structured and the respondents. For example, as a male questions (Fetterman, 2010). Usually, both researcher, Syed (2011) faced challenges parties tend to show standard attitudes of interviewing middle-aged Malay women decency and respect towards each other, regarding their consumption of non-Western probably due to the difference of age, social soap operas without the assistance from a status and academic backgrounds. In many mutual acquaintance. In addition, the gender societies, it is a mark of moral standards difference also restricts Malay women from for younger persons to look up to the older discussing sensitive issues especially on ones for their longer life experiences . televised romance. Therefore, it is essential Even though the interviewer may have a to provide a gender-friendly atmosphere higher level of education, he or she should by considering the cultural and social exhibit good manners to interviewees who norms pertaining to man-women physical are older than them. Visual appearance also proximity. At the same time, genuine contributes to creating formal ambience audience ethnography should combine in interviews. An interviewer wearing interviews and participant observation that an attractive urban outfit may alienate enable researcher immersion in the research the interviewees and lead to an awkward setting in order to overcome limitations and situation about which the respondent may difficulties (Alasuutari, 1999; Ritson and not be comfortable. Most commonly, Elliott, 1999). educational background may become a dividing line between the interviewers and THE IMPORTANCE OF the interviewees because the ones with PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION lower educational qualifications may be Participant observation is the key method of hesitant about what they should be saying. ethnography that complements interviews. In general, interviewing lay members Hamersley and Atkinson (2007) point out of audiences requires fundamental that the feedback given by the interviewee
1172 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1165 - 1179 (2016) Studying a Television Audience in Malaysia may depict basic descriptions that lead to and rapport between the researchers and observations. As Morley (1989) contends: the subject. Participant observation involves Should you wish to understand what collecting field notes, tallies, drawings, I am doing, it would probably be as photographs and other forms of material well to ask me. I may well, of course, evidence (Crang & Cook, 2007). In lie to you or otherwise misrepresent Kampung Papitusulem, the current study my thoughts or feelings, for any used a voice recorder to record every number of purposes, but at least, encounter and participated in the community through my verbal responses, you events such as rewang (mutual cooperation), will begin to get some access to ngaji Jumaat (Friday congregations) and the kind of language, the criteria also the informants’ television viewing. of distinction and the types of Sometimes photos and films were taken and categorizations, through which I field notes were written using smartphones construct my (conscious) world when the time and place was appropriate. (p. 25). Using photography devices or jotting down notes on a notebook to capture the everyday Morley’s argument shows the life of the informants can create an awkward importance of participant observation as situation and violate the informants’ privacy. part of the audience ethnography approach It can also encourage them to act in a to studying media audiences. Gray (2003,) certain way that does not represent their indicates that participant observation may actual concerns and feelings. Therefore, the bring media and cultural studies closer to ethnographer must show common courtesy “proper ethnographies” as touted by critics to deal with the ethical issues in every (p. 16). The application of this approach situation encountered in the field. can be seen in many studies such as Marie Basically, participant observation allows Gillespie’s study of Punjabi youth in Southall an ethnographer to discover additional (1995), Ritson and Elliott’s investigation of information that cannot be provided by adolescent advertising audiences (1999), the informants in interviews. During the Abu-Lughod’s ethnographic study of fieldwork, researchers happened to be Arab-speaking women’s television use involved in rewang several times in which (2000), and La Pastina’s case study of it was learned that the Javanese-styled media engagement in rural Brazil (2005). cultural practice of mutual cooperation La Pastina (2005) argues that audience nourishes the sense of belonging to the ethnography should return to its traditional community among the society members, practice that includes fieldwork and in-depth including the informants. In the rewang, immersion with the data in order to establish people casually speak Javanese and mark thorough understanding, self-reflexivity, their social circle as to have only Javanese
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1165 - 1179 (2016) 1173 Rofil, L. E. F., Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A. descendants or other kampung residents expressing her thoughts in the interviews, who marry into a Javanese family. It shows she was able to converse effectively during that the cultural tradition which they inherit everyday television viewing by commenting from their Javanese migrant ancestors on particular issues. For example, when plays a significant role in maintaining observed watching a documentary that their Javanese identity. While rewang depicted the life of Indonesia’s Sasak2 tribal allows the informants to gather and meet community, she mistakenly identified the their fellow communions to exchange the women who dressed up in kain batik3 on current updates on their family and personal television as Javanese due to the similarity matters, it also serves as an engaging of the traditional clothes. This situation platform for the informants to discuss their gives the researchers the idea that this experiences with television programmes. particular informant’s interactions with In one occasion of rewang which the television images reinforced her identity and researchers participated, informants were belonging. In fact, participant observation observed joining a group of women to assisted the researchers to discover that casually talk about the episodes of a Sinetron some community gatherings appear to be that they were currently following. They a “public sphere” (Habermas, 1962) for also shared some knowledge they acquired television conversations among the Malay- from watching Ustaz Kazim Ilyas’ Kalau Javanese women in this study. Dah Jodoh, an Astro channel’s television While previous audience ethnographic format of an Islamic sermon. studies only conduct in-depth interviews Certainly, participant observation has (for example Katz & Liebes, 1984, 1990; provided comprehensive information that Radway, 1984; Ang, 1985; Morley, 1986; enriches and strengthens the feedback Gray, 1987, 1992), the current audience from interviews. As mentioned earlier, ethnographies embrace the traditional informants who may not be able to speak practice that obligates the researchers to live openly during the interview due to its with the community. Selected participant formal nature (Hamersley & Atkinson, observation can help the ethnographer 2007; Fetterman, 2010; Seiter et al., 2013), to capture certain aspects of culture that would probably be more outspoken in their audiences deal with in their everyday private domain. In the present investigation, lives. The ethnographer may select to one informant was deliberately chosen participate in particular events in the society to be the “key actor” (Fetterman, 2010) under study, depending on their research in the research setting mainly in terms of questions and aims. It is different from accompanying researchers for interview traditional ethnography which encourages sessions and helping to convince the other the fieldworker to actively join practically potential informant to speak up. Although every occurrence and build a grounded this particular informant had difficulties theory from every encounter in the field.
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Precisely, participant observation can Indonesian soaps and hold on to the political also serve to justify the “ethnographic allegiance and religious morality through validity” (Roldan, 2002) and it can be the interpretation of local television news achieved by employing several procedures, and realities respectively. They acquaint including triangulation (Maxwell & Miller, themselves with the indoctrination of 2000; Maxwell, 2012; Hamersly, 2014). UMNO4 about the national and economic In this way, this study has addressed a security as well as the religious freedom very fundamental methodological issue which they conceive of as the fundamental of audience ethnography through in-depth constituents of Malaysian pride. As members interview and participant observation in of the Malay society, they comply with partially immersed long-term fieldwork. the Malay cultural norms and values as prescribed by the UMNO leaders through ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAYSIAN television. At the same time, they search for JAVANESE DIASPORA IDENTITY the “narrative of us” that represents them AND TELEVISION as Javanese/Malay and Muslim in the local The ethnography in Kampung Papitusulem, dramas, realities, and more importantly, as presented in this article, is the exploration the imported Indonesian soaps. Through of television-based interpretive identity lifetime social cognitive experiences, their practices among the diaspora of Javanese efforts of experiential verification and women in rural Malaysia. According to evaluative self-consciousness convince Umi M. Khattab (2010), the Indonesian them to embrace the “interpretive identity migrants, including Javanese, and their practices” of their existence. descendants are considered as diaspora that Adopted from Gerson’s identity constitute Malay cultural hybrid identities. practices (2001), this notion of interpretive As Malaysian citizens of the Malay racial identity practices refers to the routine group and of Indonesian descent, these actions and ways of thinking, interpreted women are exposed to various images from the representative images and texts of identity practices that represent both on television, which enable members of a Malaysian and Indonesian culture on a community to project collective identities. regular basis. The early observation that The actuation of this conceptual framework leads to this study shows that the Kampung certainly requires a detailed investigation in Papitusulem women enjoy Indonesian which interviewing the television audience soap operas that serve as reminiscent of seems to be insufficient. Participant homeland. They are proud of their Javanese observation and actual immersion in the roots and retain that pride by sustaining the field must be undertaken to understand how Javanese cultural customs and traditions. television influences on identities are really This study has so far discovered that exercised by the audience members in their the Javanese women of Papitusulem natural settings. identify reflective images of identity in the
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CONCLUSION rural audiences in Malaysia. The methods This article has discussed the include partial immersion of fieldwork, methodological issues pertaining to the conversational interviews, and selected practices of ethnography in audiences and participant observation which particularly media reception studies with an example befit the social and cultural characteristics of of ethnographic practices in Kampung the Malay-Javanese women in the kampung. Papitusulem, Malaysia. Critics have This is due to the idea that they deal identified important questions about how with both textual and contextual cultural media and communication researchers use identities through social experiences and the term to designate a study that depends television images. mainly on qualitative interviews in order From ethnographic experiences in to collect data. Some issues that are raised the kampung, it can be concluded that by the critics include lack of time spent television narratives play a substantial in the field and the absence of participant role in reinforcing cultural and political observation (Spitulnik, 1993; Gray, 2003; identity among Malay Javanese women. Seiter, 2004). However, media scholars While cultural and social representatives argue that audience ethnographers require in local and imported Indonesian soap less time to conduct their research because operas influence their understanding of most of them study their own society and self-narrative as a member of the Javanese focus their research questions on an aspect community, political discourses in of culture partially, not entirely (Morley, mainstream news substantially reinforces 1992; Alasuutari, 1999; Seiter, 2004). their political identity as part of Malay Although classic ethnographic studies society under UMNO hegemony. More of audience and media reception (Hobson, importantly, these identifications with 1982; Ang, 1985; Morley, 1986; Brunsdon, different kinds of identities appear in 1986; Gray, 1987) did not totally adopt their everyday negotiation with social the nature of traditional ethnography, and cultural structures that define them contemporary audience ethnographies apply as citizens of Malaysia. To understand at least two basic ethnographic techniques television consumption and its influences of data collection: in-depth interview and on the construction of identity among a participant observation. Drawing upon the certain cultural community, one definitely current audience ethnography literature needs to experience and live with them. (Mayer, 2003; La Pastina, 2004; Machado- Therefore, ethnography appears to be an Borges, 2007) and the empirical fieldwork in appropriate research methodology for Kampung Papitusulem, this article suggests studying television audiences mainly in three key methods of ethnographic data relation to the subject of identity. collection needed in the understanding of
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Controversies in Stylistics: Leading to the Culmination of New Approaches
Norhaslinda, H. Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Pulau Pinang, 13500 Permatang Pauh, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
ABSTRACT The tremendous development of stylistics over the last four decades has brought about the growth of different approaches. As the essence of stylistics is integrating linguistics with literature, it has become a controversial subject particularly among literary critics and linguists. The dissension among scholars is a product of their own research in and therefore grounded in solid empirical study. Thus, the article discusses various approaches as reported in the stylistics literature along with their respective strengths and weaknesses. Thus, the paper attempts to shed some light on the controversies of stylistics in general as well as the various approaches.
Keywords: Stylistics, literary critics, linguistic, controversies
INTRODUCTION discourse from a linguistic orientation while The field of Stylistics has evolved Simpson (1993) and Verdonk (2002) state tremendously over the past four decades that Stylistics seeks to interpret literary texts primarily due to parallel developments in through linguistic analysis. linguistic theories. Essentially, Stylistics is Weber (1996) and Carter and Simpson an attempt to bridge literature and linguistics. (1989) detailed various developments This allows readers to comprehend, interpret in Stylistics pointing out that these and thus appreciate literature through transformations are generally attributable linguistic analysis. According to Widdowson to the criticism Stylistics faced over the last (1975), Stylistics is the study of literary five decades. These criticisms contribute to the teleological metamorphosis of Stylistics
ARTICLE INFO through postulation of various approaches Article history: in efforts address them (criticisms). This Received: 7 July 2015 Accepted: 9 November 2015 paper discusses the rationales that underpin E-mail address: the development of diverse approaches [email protected] (Norhaslinda, H.)
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Norhaslinda, H. in Stylistics. It also intends to elucidate the actual interpretative process failed to the critics’ perspectives by means of the establish linkages between the analytical researcher’s perspective in relation to their and interpretative aspects. Attridge (1987) statements concerning Stylistics. argues there is relatively a greater degree This paper will first highlight the of paucity in relation to the reasoning interrelationship between the prevailing dimension in Jabokson’s approach. He constructs and the emergence of new further argued that the analysis of Formalist approaches as the shortcomings of the Stylistics approach is linguistically too former led to the emergence of the latter as formal on the one hand and it may not be evidenced in the literature. Next, polemics relevant to literary analysis on the other. In within the field of Stylistics will be reviewed his attempt to bridge this dichotomy as well in relation to their impact on stylistics as a as address the interpretative weaknesses whole along with their role in mediating the in Formalist Stylistics, Halliday (1971) evolution of new approaches in particular. propounded the Functional Stylistics Finally, the paper concludes with a brief approach. Notwithstanding its merit of summation on the net effect of these highlighting how meaning could be inferred polemics on the Stylistics paradigm. by means of systematic choices of words, Essentially, the advent of new in direct contrast to previous approaches, approaches to stylistics was a direct result the functionalist approach was nevertheless of perceived weaknesses in Jakobson’s criticised for creating a certain ‘world-view’ Formalist Stylistics which he first postulated in stylistic analysis. Fish (1969) critiques in his seminal paper, at the Indiana Style Jakobson’s formula that the stylistics Conference in 1958. While scholars found analysis, namely the analysis of style, this approach provided a framework for a produces an effect on readers in reading thorough and systematic analysis of texts, a particular text. He also contends that
Figure 1. The Approaches to Stylistics.
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Functional Stylistics cannot validate critical and non-native speakers of the language. interpretations since it is an ‘interpretive act’ They went on to say that the approach also (Weber, 1996, p.2). augmented the development of reading The perceived weaknesses of both and writing skills while also sensitising its Formalist and Functionalist approaches analysis to different uses of the language prompted Fish (1979) to propose Affective . Another feature of this approach was its Stylistics to complement the two previous focus on contextualisation with a wide approaches. Relatively speaking, the acknowledgment from stylisticians that the affective approach was a reader-centred former was an essential feature in textual version of stylistics as the fundamental analysis and interpretation. principles underpinning the approach In contrast, Pragmatic Stylistics emphasised the need to focus on the readers’ emphasises contexts to draw attention assumptions, expectations and interpretive to the fact that it (context) had a crucial processes. Nevertheless, considering the role in stylistics analysis. This approach fact that readers’ response is a dynamic and further posited that style was neither totally evolving process, this was seen by scholars inherent in texts (the formalist view) nor as a flaw, therefore, leading them to question totally resident in the readers’ mind (the the basic assumptions of the Affective Affective view). Short and Pratt (1986) in approach. advocating Pragmatic Stylistics nevertheless Despite their underlying and obvious had different areas of foci. For instance, limitations, the formal, functional and Pratt focused on speech act stylistics, which affective approaches still reign supreme is concerned with what speakers say and in modern stylistics, as these long- their associated actions while speaking. standing approaches are employed as core In contrast, Short was more interested frameworks and act as guiding principles for in pragmatics, for instance in the use of new approaches. The limitations of Fish’s presupposition and inferences. Affective Stylistics led in the emergence of Critical Stylistics is a brainchild of two diverse approaches, namely Pedagogical Fowler (1986) and Birch (1989), founded Stylistics and Pragmatic Stylistics. These on the principles of discourse analysis to two approaches emphasise the fact that demonstrate how language is used in social stylistics analysis was centred on the content contexts. Drawing largely from Halliday’s of a text. Functional Stylistics, this approach utilised Pedagogical Stylistics emerged in analytical tools derived from systemic- the 1980s. It accentuated that stylistic functional grammar. Like Halliday, Fowler analysis constituted a method of textual and Birch viewed language as a resource reading. Proponents of this approach such for meaning making; a social semiotic as Widdowson (1973) and Carter (1986) that constituted the ‘reality’ of the culture. highlighted its suitability for both native However, diverging from their functionalist
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) 1183 Norhaslinda, H. heritage, they also emphasised the inherent advocated Bidirectional Stylistics i.e., complexities subsuming the relationship the opposite of unidirectional approach between language and ideology . As ideology of ‘classic stylistics’ for the analysis of is considered to be an essential textual literary text. In advocating this stylistics, component, social, historical, cultural as he highlighted some strengths of it, such well as intertextual factors are taken into as its contribution to a better understanding account in the meaning making process. of how literary works can be fully utilised The concern of Critical Stylistics in to strengthen and further enhance our ideology and representation culminated understanding of how particular linguistic in the emergence of Feminist Stylistics, a structures function in various discourses. In prominent proponent being Mills (1992). this regard, he made specific reference to the As its name suggests, Feminist Stylistics pragmatics of pseudo-cleft in the fiction of is interested in unmasking patriarchal Flannery O’Connor and convincingly argues ideologies and denaturalising patriarchal the interrelationship between the analysis of assumptions. Halliday’s transitivity is literary texts and non-literary texts. often used in the analysis. Basically, the In addition, stylistics has also been analysis aims to critically examine the accepted in the legal fraternity with the representations of women in literature and advent of Forensic Stylistics. Also known popular cultures. as ‘stylometry’, Forensic Stylistics deals Another approach which is dependent with the examination of style in legal cases on Critical Stylistics for its foundational particularly the authorship. In contrast to antecedents was Cognitive Stylistics. ‘forensic linguistics’ which examines all Sharing an affinity with the fundamental forms of language namely speech, choice of principles of Halliday’s linguistics, words among others, ‘Forensic Stylistics’ is Cognitive Stylistics is founded on explicitly mostly concerned with the written language constructivist assumptions. In fact, Cognitive of a given author. Specifically, ‘Forensic Stylistics proponents like Freeman advocate Stylistics’ determine identity of the author of a fixed correlation between form and a document in the legal profession. Kingston meaning of texts. Meaning is perceived to and Kate (2006) explicate that in ‘Forensic be a relativistic ally inferential process that Stylistics’, there are three types of style generates different interpretations, because being analysed, namely formatting (error different readers use different assumptions in spelling, punctuation, syntax), rhetoric whilst deconstructing the text. (choice of words, poetic style, idioms, A marked shift from literary texts into etc.) and subject matter. The ultimate goal non-literary texts has been seen in recent of ‘Forensic Stylistics’ is to determine the years. In response to Leech and Short’s identity of a document’s author. For instance, (2007) call for utilising literary text to the case of ‘Succession of Killingsworth’ in better understand a discourse, Gugin (2008) 1973, where a will was found to be invalid
1184 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) Controversies in Stylistics as the notary did not write the will. Instead, of impressing or affecting others emotionally it was his secretary who reportedly wrote is known as Rhetorical Stylistics. Finally, the will and this was evidenced by means Corpus Stylistics deals with the interface of an inappropriate vocabulary used in the between corpus linguistic and literary document: ‘revenue’ instead of ‘residue’, a stylistics. mistake that an experienced lawyer would The various approaches to stylistics, not make but a new employee receiving their inherent strengths and deficiencies and dictation would. their relevant critics are presented in Tables There are three other approaches in 1, 2 and 3. relation to the analysis of non-literary texts namely Discourse Stylistics, Rhetorical CONTROVERSIES Stylistics and Corpus Stylistics. Discourse Generally, controversies pertaining to Stylistics serves the purpose of drawing stylistics surround stylistics (in general) and specifically on techniques and methods of the various approaches to stylistics. Polemics discourse analysis. On the other hand, an aligned with stylistics as a discipline stem analysis being carried out with the purpose from the fact that linguists in general are Table 1 The Fundamentals
Approaches Strengths Weaknesses Critics Formalist Facilitates readers to Devoid of Its weaknesses of interpretative (Jakobson) analyse literary texts interpretative aspect. dimension was criticised by Fish. systematically. Functionalist Facilitates both analysis The absence of Its complicated approach and the (Halliday) and interpretation of consideration for absence of readers’ response was literary texts by means readers’ response. criticised by Fish. of systematic analysis. Affective Readers’ response Readers’ response The perceived ambiguity of readers’ (Fish) is inherent in texts was perceivably response was criticised by Toolan analysis. inconsistent. and others.
Table 2 Modern Stylistics.
Approach Strengths Pedagogical Useful in learning and teaching process (classroom); 1st or 2nd language contexts. Pragmatic Context is an important component in interpretation; analysis goes beyond the sentence level. Critical Ideology and representation is revealed through the analysis. The relationship between language and ideology is complex and indirect. Feminist Unmasking patriarchal ideology through critical examinations of the representation of women in literature and popular cultures. Cognitive Different readers make different assumptions in their processing of the texts because meaning is an inferential process, which leads to different interpretations.
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) 1185 Norhaslinda, H.
Table 3 Non-literary Stylistics
Approach Strengths Bidirectional Informs and illuminates linguistics and literature. Forensic Useful in resolving litigated questions relating to disputed authorship or meaning which has been used as an evidence on a wide range of legal cases. Discourse Focuses on the techniques and methods of discourse analysis. Rhetorical Persuasive to audience. Corpus The interface between corpus linguistics and literary stylistics. unable to fathom the relevancy of utilising contemporary ‘literary criticism’ as ‘it needs linguistics in the field of literary analysis. to be considerably modified if there is to be In contrast, polemics regarding the a successful interface between linguistics various approaches are attributable to the and literature’ (1975; in Birch, 1989 ). He different perspectives of different proponents further expounds that since the systems in stylistics who hold divergent views in of literary knowledge are encoded in the relation to the theoretical underpinnings of structure of language, such a reappraisal the principles associated with a particular and realignment are mandatory in order to approach. Hence, the notion of ‘objectivity’ mediate theoretical dichotomies that may and ‘scientific’ as propagated by Carter, arise with the advent of stylistics. Short, Simpson, Van Peer and Freeman Unsurprisingly, literary critics often colour these polemics in an attempt chastised Fowler’s bold statement. Vendler, to accentuate empiricism and logic while in reviewing Fowler’s ‘Essays on Style downplaying subjectivism. In these erudite and Language’ (1966), expressed her exchanges, the functionalist approach is disagreement with Fowler’s statement often subject to intense scrutiny and critique, that systematic linguistic analysis would as it is the most dominant and influential inevitably redefine prevailing literary approach in the field of stylistics. criticism frameworks:
If linguistics can add to our POLEMICS ON STYLISTICS AS A DISCIPLINE comprehension of literature, someone trained in linguistics Although the arguments raised by Fowler- should be able to point out to Bateson are somewhat obsolete, it is us, in poems we already know nevertheless important to explore and be well, significant features we have acquainted with its contents as it constitutes missed because of our amateurish an important element of linguistic criticism. ignorance of the workings of Fowler posits that the emergence of stylistics language. (Vendler, 1966) compels the need for a reappraisal of
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Vendler’s response towards Fowler’s This provocative statement prompted proposition is born of a weltanschauung that Fowler to question the rationale for the views Fowler’s proposition as something utilisation of the word ‘humane’; for the heretical and inimical to the field of literary deliberate insertion of the word was rightly criticism. As further evidence of this construed to infer that the ‘scientificness’ resistance to change, Vendlers denigrates ‘.... of linguistic analysis is not ‘humane’ and most linguists are-beginning students’ (1966, hence, irrelevant for application within p.458). This vehemence is underpinned by the field of literary criticism. As a rebuttal, the presumption that since linguistics has Fowler and other stylisticians reiterated that only recently entered the world of literary the scientific and systematic method adopted analysis, the superficial analytical and in their analysis did not constrain linguists interpretative endeavours of linguists are from critically interpreting texts, as it did insufficient for linguists to be regarded as literary critics. experts and on par with established literary Bateson entered the fray by concluding critics (Simpson, 2004). Vendler’s invective that the study of language was not a requisite however does not account for the fact that ancillary to the study of literature. This linguistic criticism was not designed to contradicted his earlier assertion that supplant the role of literary criticism but literature was fundamentally a successful rather complement the existing paradigm. work of linguistics. It thus, provided In other words, it is merely an effort to offer ammunition for stylisticians to respond that an alternative method in the critical reading they had sufficient grounds for analysing and interpretation of literary texts utilising literature by means of linguistic analysis. linguistic ‘toolkits’. Fowler and other stylisticians use Bateson, a contemporary of Vendler, linguistic approach to literature to also entered the fray by appending a understand and appreciate literature. Fowler postscript to the review in which he questions asserted that not everyone can ‘catch’ the usefulness of linguistics in literary critical thinking. It is through experience interpretation. In providing a definition of that someone can understand and interpret literature in response to Fowler’s ‘linguistic literary texts thus can be a literary critic. Not criticism’, he avers that: everyone can understand literature when encountering a text for the first time (Carter A work of literature is successful (Ed.), 1982). linguistically, the best words in Reading literature is different from the best order, when appropriate reading other discourses especially reading stylistics devices co-operate to unify it in a second or foreign language. For native humane value judgments, implicit speakers especially literature students, are or explicit, on some aspect of life as “sensible” speakers and do not need much it is lived in the writer’s own society. linguistic assistance. Reading literature (Bateson, 1966)
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) 1187 Norhaslinda, H. requires a lot of components to be examined: Stylistics may not be very helpful in the style, points of view, theme, plot, and the first language contexts. Nevertheless, historical background, to name a few. Style it is proven that stylistics is very much is an important component of literature. accommodating in ESL contexts. Scholars Fowler and other stylisticians believe that claim that stylistics enables ESL students style is not “caught”, but rather has to be to understand literary texts (Short learnt and taught. Moreover, style is not (1989), Mackay (1986), Wallace (2003), exclusively literary. This is because, one Carter& Long (1991), Shakila (2004) and employs one’s own style of writing. The Ganakumaran (2007). In comparison with word “choices” convey one’s style. Style native speakers, literary texts may pose a is something that we can see and study real challenge to ESL students because of in other discourses as well. The concern their relatively weaker knowledge base of stylistics in the study of style brings of literature components. Hence, their into manifestation Discourse Analysis in literary competence may not be sufficient stylistics where Critical Discourse Analysis to comprehend literary texts as opposed to emerges (Weber, 1996). Their concerns are native speakers. similar to stylistics namely analysing texts However, ESL students are equipped linguistically. The difference however, lies with the knowledge of grammar. This on the texts analysed. While stylistics seeks gives them an edge as well as advantage in to analyse literary texts, Critical Discourse understanding literary texts through stylistic Analysis analyses other discourses such as analysis. This knowledge can be tapped into media texts. understanding literary text at a satisfactory There is on-going debate between level, even the difficult ones. Short (1989, literary critics and linguists as one believes p.6) stated that stylistic analysis has been of a person is born a natural grammarian particular concern to the foreign-language or literary critics and there is nothing in learners (non-native speakers) as it has been between. Therefore, they view linguistic seen as a device by which the understanding criticism or stylistics as something of relatively complex texts can be achieved. impossible. This is due to the inability of Even though there have been many literary critics to comprehend linguistic supportive statements on stylistics, the analysis. Literary critics fall short of 20th century still witnesses arguments and grappling the linguistic competence that is critiques on stylistics. In 1993, Jean-Jacques required in understanding and appreciating Lecercle criticised the aims, methods and literary works. They fail to see the significant rationale of stylistics. He suggested that role played by stylistics in helping shape the stylistics is not relevant, the discipline is understanding and interpretation of texts, ‘ailing’ and the 20th century would see the especially for students. disappearance of stylistics in academic world. He added; ‘no one has ever really
1188 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) Controversies in Stylistics known what the term stylistics means and CONTROVERSIES IN THE hardly anyone seems to care’ (1993, p.14). APPROACH His denunciation of stylistics reveals that Functional Stylistics received its fair share he is in total disagreement with stylistics. of criticism and yet it is the most influential However, considering the works being approach in stylistics. Stanley E. Fish (1981) carried out within this domain along with in his paper ‘What is Stylistics and why they the exponential pace at which this construct are saying such terrible things about it?’ has been growing at the 21st century, one criticised Jakobson’s Formalist Stylistics wonders if Jean-Jacques Lecercle was able and Halliday’s Functional Stylistics in to see the significance of stylistics. Simpson particular. He asserted that Functional (2004) puts forward that in the 21st century, Stylistics failed to include the readers’ stylistics is much alive and well. Modern response in interpreting literary texts. He stylistics is flourishing and witnessed by opined this was because readers’ response the proliferation of sub disciplines where is an important element in understanding stylistic methods are enriched and enabled literary texts. by theories of discourse, culture and society. He posits Halliday’s functional For example, Feminist Stylistics emerged grammar as complicated and involves a due to the manifestation of Feminist Theory lot of functions and categories resulting in in stylistics. Cognitive Stylistics emerged meaningless analysis. Halliday develops from Cognitive Psychology and Discourse three principal language functions, namely Stylistics from Discourse Analysis (2004, ideational, interpersonal and textual. p.2). These three principals are interrelated. Furthermore, stylistics is taught and Ideational is the expression of content researched at departments of language, while interpersonal is the expression of literature as well as linguistics at various interaction and textual is the expression of universities all over the world. It is a valued situation through coherent texts. Halliday method in language learning and teaching regards ‘language as social semiotic’. especially second language learners as the Language is an entity that is concerned latter are exposed to the formal knowledge from a sociological perspective; language of language. Therefore, linguistic orientation is a social entity. He further explicates that is something that is applicable to second communication is carried out from the texts. language learners. Stylistics is a discipline Therefore, social systems motivate the that is not only helpful in understanding language code and not the mind (Halliday, literature, it also assists in developing one’s 1978; Birch, 1989; Weber, 1996). critical skills; in particular, the systematic Fish (1981) then clarified that Halliday analysis of stylistic enhances learners’ succeeded in putting the words into critical thinking. categories and functions, but failed in interpreting the texts. He believed the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) 1189 Norhaslinda, H. explanation of the meaning is not the out through this functional approach. capacity of syntax to express it, but the According to Simpson (2004), over the ability of a reader to confer it. Therefore, years, stylisticians have returned regularly to readers’ response is of great significance in the transitivity model in their analysis of text understanding a text. Thus, he called for a and especially in their analyses of narrative new approach - Affective Stylistics. texts. Halliday’s study is important owing to Toolan (Weber,1996), in his paper a number of reasons. Simpson then suggests ‘Stylistics and its discontents’ and in efforts that Halliday should have illustrated well to get off the Fish ‘hook’, elaborated and on the usefulness of stylistic analysis in discussed the Functional Stylistics with the exploring literature and language. Halliday’s aim to unwind Fish’s argument. He posits approach also successfully shows how that Fish’s Affective Stylistics is unreliable intuitions about a text can be explored as Fish put forth that all competent users systematically and with rigour using a of language share a remarkably complex retrievable procedure of analysis. interrelated and interdependent set of Recently, O’Halloran (2007) in her interpretative conventions for expressing paper ‘The Subconscious in James Joyce’s and constituting their shared world. Toolan ‘Eveline’: a Corpus Stylistic Analysis that argues that this is the grammar that no chews on the ‘Fish hook’ intended to counter grammar or linguistics book has ever Fish’s argument on the arbitrariness and the adequately captured. Essentially, Fish is circular analysis of stylistics. She studied aware of the weaknesses of his argument the ‘subconscious’ in ‘Eveline’ using a (related to readers’ response) since he corpus-informed stylistic analysis. The later proposed a notion of ‘interpretive method used is a combination of Halliday’s community’. However, Toolan vehemently transitivity analysis with corpus-informed contested his notion of ‘interpretive formal analysis by Stubbs (2001). The study community’, calling it ambiguous because shows that stylistic analysis is neither as he failed to explain on ‘…what these circular nor arbitrary as claimed by Fish. “interpretive communities” are, where they Corpus-informed stylistics is proven to are, how they are constituted, influenced reduce the arbitrary as well as circular and changed’ (Toolan in Weber, 1996, attributes of stylistic analysis. The rebuttals p.126).Fish’s proposition is much more from stylisticians on Fish’s attack has complicated. This is because not all proved important in helping shape the way competent users of language share the same stylisticians think about the connections language constraints as fluency varies from between analysis and interpretation. one learner to the other. Another argument on the approach Halliday’s functional approach has been of stylistics is conceived in 1996, where used widely in the modern stylistics. A lot Mackay critiques the ‘objective’ and of new approaches to stylistics branched ‘scientific’ approach of stylistics in his
1190 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) Controversies in Stylistics article ‘Mything the Point: A Critique of purpose is to explicate on the ‘objective’ Objective Stylistics’. He criticises the and ‘scientific’ term that is used in stylistics. ‘objectivity’ and ‘scientificness’ of stylistics The objectivity and scientificness of a proposed by Carter, Simpson, Van Peer and stylistic analysis can be seen through the Freeman. Like other stylistic analysis, the retrievable and systematic model and aims of its model and framework are to be framework. Therefore, there is no doubt that retrievable and systematic. Mackay argues the stylisticians’ approach is not an accident that the terms ‘objective’ and ‘scientific’ as claimed by Mackay but design. are not useful in stylistic analysis. The These stylisticians also suggest that ‘scientific’ method of stylistics, which he Mackay has misconstrued what stylisticians refers to the frequencies, is unreliable for had originally said about ‘objectivity’ and it is not liable in interpreting literary texts. ‘scientificness’. They explain that Mackay Mackay explains that ‘word count by believes ‘objective’ must mean something itself would prove nothing because words like ‘true for all the time’. However, his are not definable in numerical terms’ (1996, notion of ‘objective’ is something that no p.3). Therefore, he posits that the style of an scientist and stylisticians would agree upon. author is not the frequencies of the words For stylisticians, ‘being objective means used. Stylisticians cannot draw a conclusion to be detailed, systematic and explicit in on the frequencies of words used in a text. analysis’. This does not mean that the The frequencies are just the word choice, analysis should be true for all the time. and can never be foregrounded as the style Stylisticians aim to transmit explicit and of the writer. It should be seen the other way empirical analyses ‘which open for all to around. This is because the writer’s words see and find fault with’. They believe that choice marks his or her style of writing. ‘understanding is always provisional, and Therefore, frequencies are accountable in can always in principle be revised and interpreting literary texts. Mackay (1996) improved’ (1998, p.5). also suggests that the approach that is In addition, Mackay’s critique is not proposed by the stylisticians is by accident really new, but ‘merely one in a tradition can be viewed as ‘objective’ and ‘scientific’. of ill-considered complaints’. Stylisticians He suggests that their approach is not even have been subjected to various arguments a design. and critiques on the objectivity and In order to respond and particularly scientificness of stylistics over the last to counter Mackay’s arguments, Short, 40 years or so. Mackay is continuing Freeman, Van Peer and Simpson published the tradition of literary critics such as an article entitled ‘Stylistics, Criticism Vendler, Bateson and Lecercle to name and Myth representation Again: Squaring a few, in criticising the objectivity and the Circle with Ray Mackay’s Subjective scientificness of stylistics approach. The Solution for All Problems’ in 1998. Their critiques and arguments on the objectivity
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1181 - 1193 (2016) 1191 Norhaslinda, H. and scientificness of stylistics analysis can linguistic analysis in literary studies. This be considered dated. could be perhaps due to their lack of formal knowledge of language or their refusal CONCLUSION to admit that a new rival has emerged. Based on the foregoing discussion, it appears Stylistics, in fact, has opened the world of that these controversies play an important literature to anyone and everyone in reading, role in the development of stylistics. The teaching, analysing and thus appreciating critiques and arguments warrant stylisticians literature. to continuously explore and consistently improve their approaches. As any other REFERENCES discipline, be it linguistics or others, it is Birch, D. (1989). Language, literature and critical through constructive advice, arguments practice: ways of analysing text. London: Routledge. and critiques by scholars at either within or across disciplines that help it to reach Carter, R. (Ed). (1982). Language and literature: an what it is presently. Similarly, stylistics too introductory reader in Stylistics. London: George Allen & Unwin. is subject to such conventions. As can be seen, the controversies within each style Carter, R & Simpson, P. (Eds.). (1989) Language, and approach have sparked the advent discourse and literature: An introductory reader in Discourse Stylistics. London: Unwin Hyman. of improvised stylistics such as Critical, Feminist, Cognitive, Discourse, Corpus, Carter, R., & Long, M. N. (1991). Teaching literature. Rhetorical, Forensic and Bidirectional. England: Longman Group UK Limited. Thus, the success of stylistics in infiltrating Fish, S. E. (1981). What is stylistics and why are other fields and in contact with other they saying such terrible things about it? In research paradigm is proven. Weber, J. J (1996) (Ed.). The stylistics reader: from Roman Jakobson to the present. pp.94-116. The flourishing development of London: Arnold. stylistics from the 20th century through the present shows that stylistics is a subject Fish, S. (1979). The Problems of Reading in Contemporary American Criticism: A Symposium and field that had attracted the attention (Autumn, 1979), 8(1) 129-146 of many academicians (Simpson, 2004). Therefore, stylistics remains liable, practical Fowler, R. (Ed.). (1966). Essays on style and language. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. and essential in understanding texts, literary In Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A resource book ones in particular. It should be noted that for students. London: Routledge. the long-standing dispute as evidenced in Fowler, R. (Ed.) (1975). Style and structure in the controversy between literary criticism literature. Essays in the New Stylistics. Oxford: and linguistic criticism would not just Basil Blackwell. In Birch, D. (1989). Language, stop here. Literary critics, with experience literature and critical practice: ways of analysing and vast knowledge on literary criticism text. London: Routledge. will not be able to see the usefulness of
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Fowler, R. (1986). Linguistic criticism. Oxford: Shakila Abdul Manan. (2004). Developing critical Oxford University Press. skills in the ESL classroom: A Stylistic Approach. Journal of Humanities, 11. Ganakumaran (2007). Teaching literature: exploring theory and practice. In Ganakumaran Short, M., Freeman, C. D, Van Peer, W., & Simpson, Subramaniam (ed). Approaches to teaching P. (1998). Stylistics, criticism and myth literature: theory and practice. Petaling Jaya: representation again: squaring the circle with Ray Sasbadi. Mackay’s subjective solution for all problems. Language and Literature, 7, 39. Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic. London: Edward Arnold. Short, M. H. (Ed). (1989). Reading, analysing and teaching literature. London: Longman. Halliday, M. A. K. (1996). Linguistic function and literary style: an inquiry into the language of Simpson, P. (1993). Language, Ideology and Point of William Golding’s The inheritors. In Weber, J.J. View. London: Routledge. (ed). The stylistics reader: from Roman Jakobson Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A resource book for to the present. pp.56-85. London: Arnold. students. London: Routledge. Kingston, J., & Stalker, K. (2006). Forensic stylistics Toolan, M. (1996). Stylistics and its discontents or, in an online world. International Review of Law getting off the Fish “hook”. In Weber, J.J (Ed). Computers & Technology, March-July, 2006. The stylistics reader: from Roman Jakobson to Vol. 20, 95-103. the present. pp 117-135. London: Arnold. Lecercle, J-J. (1993). The current state of stylistics. In Vendler, H. (1966). Review of essays on style and Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A resource book language by Roger Fowler. Essays in Criticism, for students. London: Routledge. 16, 458-60. In Simpson, P. (2004). Stylistics: A Mackay, R. (1996). Mything the point: A critique resource book for students. London: Routledge. of Objective Stylistics. Language and Verdonk, P. (2002). Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford Communication, 16(1), 81-93. University Press. Mackay, S. (1986). Literature in the ESL classroom. In Wallace, C. (2003). Critical reading in language Brumfit, C. & Carter, J.,Literature and language education. London: Palgrave Macmillan. teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Weber, J. J. (Ed.). (1996). The stylistic reader: from O’Halloran, K. (2007).The subconscious in James Jakobson to the Present. London: Arnold. Joyce’s ‘Eveline’: a Corpus Stylistic analysis that chews on the ‘Fish hook’. Language and Widdowson, H. G. (1975). Stylistics and the teaching Literature, 16, 227. of Literature. England: Longman.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Factors Contributing to the Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World: An Exploratory Study
Al-Mahrooqi, R.1*, Denman, C. J.,1 and Sultana, T.2 1Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor for Postgraduate Studies and Research, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, PO Box 50, Postal Code 123, Al Khodh, Oman 2Language Center, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, PO Box 43, Postal Code 123, Al Khodh, Oman
ABSTRACT In recent years, a number of scholars have raised concerns about the possible negative consequences of globalisation including the threat posed by its spread and the subsequent spread of English to native languages (Eckert et al., 2004; Mufwene, 2005). Within the Arab world this has been an increasing matter of concern since at least the post-2001 era, with the place of English in Arab societies a cause of popular and academic concern (Karmani, 2005; Azuri, 2006). Debate over threats to Standard Arabic however, are also informed by a number of additional factors including the language’s diglossic nature and the deteriorating quality of Arabic education in schools. This paper explores the factors that both support and challenge the continued survival of Standard Arabic in the region. In order to examine this in an exploratory manner, 35 teacher and student native speakers of Arabic at Oman’s only public university were administered a four-question questionnaire while 50 participants maintained a reflective journal. Results indicate that participants rarely used Standard Arabic in their daily lives although they believed the language would continue to survive in the foreseeable future. Potential challenges to Standard Arabic’s survival were identified as including the increasing pace of globalisation and English’s importance in both the international context and in Arab societies, while factors supporting its survival were mostly associated with Arabic’s strong associations with Islam and Arab heritage. Implications of these findings for the language’s survival are discussed.
Keywords: Modern Standard Arabic, dialect, diglossia, ARTICLE INFO globalisation, language replacement, language death Article history: Received: 7 July 2015 Accepted: 24 September 2015
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Al-Mahrooqi, R.), [email protected] (Denman, C. J.), [email protected] (Sultana, T.) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J. and Sultana, T.
INTRODUCTION dialects instead employed in almost every In recent years, a number of warnings have informal situation in which Arabic is used. been raised against the possible negative Within this context, the exploratory consequences of globalisation and the research sought to examine native Arabic threat posed by English to native languages speakers’ beliefs about the potential survival (Eckert et al., 2004; Mufwene, 2005). These of Standard Arabic in the Arab world. In order warnings have certainly been heard in the to achieve this, Arabic-speaking student and Arab world, although concern over the teacher participants from Oman’s only survival of Standard Arabic has also been public university were administered two aggravated in the region by other factors data collection instruments – a questionnaire including Arabic’s diglossic nature and the featuring four items and a reflective journal deteriorating quality of Arabic education activity. These instruments focused on both in schools. Although a number of scholars the factors that support and threaten the have argued that the intimate links between continued existence of Standard Arabic. Arabic, religion, and cultural identity mean that English only offers a muted threat to LITERATURE REVIEW the language’s continued survival (Mazrui, Threats to Standard Arabic 2008), this is a supposition that is only Due to its links to globalisation, English now starting to receive direct investigative has become the world’s dominant language attention. This is especially true in the Arab of communication (Sinno, 2008). It is the nation of Oman. language of science, commerce, technology, Like every other member-nation of the politics, education and communication. In Arab league, Oman uses Standard Arabic addition, it is the dominant language on the as the official language. However, there Internet, and is used in a variety of contexts also exists a number of other languages for communication between people whose and dialects used by Omanis in different native language is not English. With the regions of the sultanate (Baker & Jones, widespread use of English around the globe 1998; Peterson, 2004a, 2004b). Despite the and its frequent use in communication prevalence of languages such as Baluch, has come a fear that local cultures and Kiswahili, Persian, the languages of the languages may be endangered by this subcontinent, and English as an unofficial “killer” language (Skutnab-Kangas, 2000). but widely-used lingua franca (Al-Issa, Warschauer, El-Said and Zohry (2006), 2007; Altbach, 2010), Standard Arabic is discussing English’s dominance as the taught in all schools and the language is a global communication tool of the Internet, significant part of Omani identity (Valeri, state that a widely-held fear during the 2009). However, Standard Arabic is not used earlier days of Internet expansion was that in daily speech in the country, with Omani other languages would be “crowded out” of
1196 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016) Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World global communication exchange. This is a an important societal issue in many parts concern commonly associated with almost of the Arab world with, for example, all forms of communications technologies Magin (2010, p. 8) reporting illiteracy rates and one that has led to predictions of of between 10% and 60% among adult increasing rates of language death as the populations of Arab countries, it follows pace of globalisation increases. While that illiterate populations are unable to English’s links with globalisation and the speak the Standard Arabic that is not used spread of technology are often discussed in in everyday interactions but that is largely outer and expanding circles such as those confined to the classroom. In addition to of the Arab world, within Arab countries, this concern, the increasingly centralised Standard Arabic also faces a number of role that English plays in education systems, additional challenges. media, private enterprises, hospitals, and Primary among these is Arabic’s even the ministries of many nations of diglossic nature. Diglossia is the linguistic the Arab world (Charise, 2007; Randall phenomenon of a sociolinguistic situation & Samimi, 2010), means that Standard where there is normal use of two separate Arabic’s links to academic, professional, and varieties of the same language, usually in social success may be weakening. This is a different social situations. Across the Arab contention supported by Findlow’s (2006) world, Colloquial Arabic, or the dialect, is description of the linguistic landscape used in homes or other informal situations, in the UAE, with Arabic in the country while Modern Standard Arabic is used in associated with tradition and religion, and formal situations or formal functions such English with internationalism, enrichment, as politics, government, the media, and and material prestige. For these reasons, at educational institutions (Al-Mamari, English has become a dominant language 2011). Adding a layer of complexity to in communication among the educated and this situation, Classical Arabic is used as the elite in many Arab countries and even the language of the Qur’an and of Islamic acts as an unofficial second language and/ worship. Therefore, while colloquial Arabic or dominant lingua franca in a number of may not be intelligible to speakers of nations across the region (see Charise, 2007; different regions or nationalities, Standard Randall & Samimi, 2010) including Oman Arabic will be and educated Arabs of any (Al-Issa, 2007; Altbach, 2010). nationality may be assumed to speak both Exacerbating the issues of English’s their local dialect and Standard Arabic learnt dominance and wide scale adult illiteracy at school. (Magin, 2010), the school systems in many The threat that comes from this is Arab countries do not seem to be doing a related to the fact that Standard Arabic is good job with teaching Standard Arabic not often used in everyday communication (Guttenplan, 2012; Bani-Khaled, 2014; across the region. Since illiteracy remains Hamzaoui, 2014). Standard Arabic is the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016) 1197 Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J. and Sultana, T. language of schoolbooks and the official a written language that is at large variance language of instruction in Arab schools. with its spoken variety” (p. 2). However, the leap from the colloquial use To illustrate this point, Warschauer et al. of Arabic at home and in wider society (2002) report that Classical Arabic - what to Standard Arabic at school results in a has been termed as Standard Arabic in the situation in which, according to Hamzaoui current paper - was seldom used in Internet (2014), “Arab pupils are required to suppress communication; this is based on a research most of their habitual speech while trying to survey of 43 Egyptian professionals. acquire a new set of rules once in contact In fact, 82.5% of the formal electronic with school” (p. 13). As a result of the communication performed by respondents struggles, these students often face with the was exclusively in English. An interview transition to formal education, Hamzaoui with four participants revealed that their claims that teachers usually adopt one of dominant use of English was a result of two conflicting practices – intentionally the demands at their workplaces. The neglecting all colloquial forms of the authors also reported that respondents’ language, or using these colloquial forms informal e-mails featured code switching to ease communication and instruction. This between Egyptian Arabic and English while can lead to confusion among learners about participants reported using Romanised the different varieties of Arabic and can Egyptian Arabic - that is, Egyptian Arabic result in the lack of demarcation between written in English letters - in those few cases them and their subsequent misuse. where Arabic was used. Moreover, the fact that classical and As the above illustrates, there are a standard varieties of Arabic are not widely number of potential threats to the continued spoken in everyday situations can make them survival of Standard Arabic. However, sound like foreign languages that are taught despite the threats posed by globalisation, in schools and used for religious observance English, illiteracy, diglossia, and poor Arabic but are not present in the community or in teaching standards, there are, nonetheless, learners’ surroundings. Such a situation has several factors that are commonly held contributed to the difficulty many pupils as supporting the continued existence of face in mastering Standard Arabic in both Standard Arabic. its spoken and written forms (Maamouri, 1998). For example, writing about the Support for Standard Arabic language situation in Egypt, Warschauer et Arabic is the largest member of the Semitic al. (2002) contend that “the country’s low language family and, according to some rate of adult literacy - 52.7% according to estimates, it is spoken by around 280 the United Nations’ Development Program million people as a mother tongue in the (2000) - stems in part from the difficulty Middle East and North Africa with 250 that Egyptian children have in mastering million speaking it as a second language –
1198 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016) Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World even if these figures have been challenged on the person who recites and commits by authors such as Salameh (2011) on the it to memory, has provided a very strong basis of difficulties with defining what an motivation to devout Muslims to keep the “Arabic speaker” actually is. The three language alive. main variants of Arabic, as discussed above, The Holy Qur’an, no doubt, has a very are Classical Arabic, Modern Standard important impact on the survival of Arabic in Arabic, and colloquial or dialectal Arabic. both its classical and standard forms. Omran Arabic has a rich tradition, and Classical (1988) describes the relationship between Arabic was the language used during the Islam and Arabic as “unique” as, when Islam period spanning from the pre-Islamic era spread through different countries of Arabia (Jahiliyah) to the times of the Umayyad and Africa, it helped the spread of Arabic dynasty rule. Classical Arabic is very rich as well. Muslims believe that God has and expressive and is well known for the promised to protect the Qur’an from change. beauty of its expressions and sounds. It is the This implies the protection of the language language of poetry and prose of that period, in which it is written – Classical Arabic. and the Arabs of that time were known Since Classical Arabic bears a great deal of for their eloquence, verbosity and vibrant similarity to Standard Modern Arabic, it can oral culture (Ashour, Berrada, Ghazoul, & be argued that the latter also stands a better Rachid, 2009). Their stories, storytelling chance of survival. The study of the Qur’an and poetic verses spread by word of mouth and the sayings of the Prophet have yielded and were committed to memory and people many religious sciences such as “tafseer” memorised thousands of verses and related (exegesis or commentaries), “fiqh” (Islamic them in their gatherings and in royal courts. jurisdiction), and “seerah” (the recording of Arabic is the language of the Qur’an the Prophet and His companions’ lives). The and has subsequently acquired a strong Muslim library is rich with books on these association with Muslims and the Islamic and many other subjects and this heritage religion. All recitations of the Qur’an are can be argued to help protect the Arabic done in Classical Arabic irrespective of the language from loss and attrition. worshipper’s nationality. Though not all In the heyday of the Muslim civilisation Muslims speak Arabic, they nonetheless and during the Umayyad Caliphate in learn to read the script and recite the religious particular, the ruling caliphs turned their text. The belief that no translation can really attention to the sciences, philosophy, and do justice to the meaning conveyed in the literature of countries that came under the Qur’an through Classical Arabic has Muslim rule. To avail themselves of the encouraged Muslims around the globe to knowledge stored in the ancient books of study the language. The virtue of reciting the Greeks, a translation movement began the Qur’an and knowing it by heart, and in the 8th century (Al-Khouri, 2009). The the blessings that God promised to bestow Bayt al-Hikmah, or the House of Wisdom,
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016) 1199 Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J. and Sultana, T. was established by Caliph Al-Ma’mun in the identities of the people belonging to Baghdad for research and translation (Ofek, them. According to the authors: 2011). This movement lasted for more Physical characteristics, styles than two centuries during which science of dress and behavior, language and scholarship were made available in and communicative accents, and Arabic. People from all over the Islamic numerous other distinguishing world, including non-Muslims, participated phenomena, act as symbolic in the translation process. Not only did triggers in practices of cultural they translate, but they also added new interpretation that attribute knowledge and corrected errors of the collective characteristics to the original authors. Scholars around the world members of a particular community studied science, medicine, mathematics, and in a way that locates them within physics through the Arabic medium. relationships of class, gender, However, Arabic lost its pre-eminence ethnicity and so forth (p. 153). as the language of science after the Mongol sacking of Baghdad in 1258 (Maziak, 2008). The Mongols destroyed the great libraries To illustrate this point, Heaven and of Baghdad and brought about the end of Tubridy (2003) state that a specific accent the translation effort that had done so much of an individual can identify them as coming to store the knowledge of the ancients. In from a certain region and as thus having addition, the Reconquista of the Iberian the characteristics associated with others Peninsula and the European taking of the from that region. Although cultures and libraries of Toledo and Cordoba meant that identities are not prone to quick change, much Arabic knowledge was also entering they are not static either. They evolve as the West. Over the coming centuries, Arabs a result of interaction with other cultures, were largely to turn their backs on science identities, and languages. It is because and European countries and languages of their dynamic nature that the threat of gradually again came to the forefront of cultural deracination – or of losing one scientific developments (Lewis, 2002; Ofek, culture due to the influence of another – is 2011). born (Phillipson, 1992). As discussed above, this may especially be a cause for concern Culture, Language and Identity in the Arab world, with Arabic described by Findlow (2006) as the “culturally weaker” Heaven and Tubridy (2003) define culture partner in the English-Arabic dual-language as “the ensemble of practices -linguistic, infrastructures that exist across the region. stylistic, religious, etc. that together form a As this suggests, language is not just way of being for a given social community” a linguistic system of signs, symbols, and (p. 153). Ethnic and national cultures colour a means of communication, it is also an
1200 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016) Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World identity marker for the users. A language The Arabic language therefore, has is rooted in the social and cultural milieu faced many challenges in its long history of its speakers and reflects their identities and has despite these, remained remarkably as individuals and as members of a group resilient. The language’s links to culture (Byram, 2006). As highlighted above, the and religion, its suitability for storytelling Arabic language is essential to Arab identity. and other verbal arts, and its ability to mark In addition to connecting Arabs all across Arabs as one “nation” despite geographic the world, it also sets Arabs apart from the dispersal and frequent civil and international non-Arabic-speaking world. Therefore, discords, all contribute to the language’s Standard Arabic is an important contributor survival. However, it could be argued that to the pan-Arab ideal of “internal cohesion” many of the challenges facing the language among Arabs and the external distinction today are of much greater complexity than of them as one “nation” apart from others. those encountered in the past. For these Arabic dialects, moreover, act as important reasons, the current research attempted to identity markers among nationals of the examine native Arabic speakers’ opinions same country and also help to establish about the factors that support and challenge external distinctions from people belonging Standard Arabic’s continued survival. to other countries - including other Arab countries. THE STUDY: DESCRIPTION Thus, Standard Arabic could be argued AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS to cut across national boundaries and serve as both the language of communication As the above demonstrates, many Arabs and as an important identity marker among appear to be increasingly concerned about the Arabs the world over. The connection survival of Standard Arabic. They fear that between Standard Arabic and Arab identity globalisation, English’s increasingly central was perhaps most prominent during the role in Arab societies, the detachment of struggle for independence that many Arab both the elite and the illiterate from Standard countries experienced against their European Arabic, poor educational standards, and the colonisers. Standard Arabic was often weakening of Arab nationalist ties, might associated during this time with President combine to reduce the language’s chances Nasser’s call for pan-Arabism (Danielson, for survival. Given this level of concern, 2007), while pride in Arab national identity the current research aimed to explore the was in evidence in the way mosques, social opinions of native Arabic speakers about and civil societies and associations operated the factors that both support and challenge to taught in Arabic the different branches of the continued survival of Standard Arabic. religion in the face of often adverse colonial The paper attempts to answer the following language and educational policies (Saadi, questions: 2009).
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1. What are participants’ attitudes to the approached through visits to their offices at use of Standard Arabic? the research site to request their participation 2. What factors do participants believe while students were recruited over two may influence the potential survival of consecutive semesters (Fall semester, 2014 Standard Arabic? and Spring semester, 2015) during regular class time for both research phases. Fifty 3. What influence, if any, does English students and 15 faculty members agreed to have on the survival of Standard Arabic? take part in the questionnaire phase. After a To address these questions, two data two-week data collection window for this collection techniques were employed. phase, 35 native speakers of Arabic (20 The first was a questionnaire featuring students and 15 instructors) from nations two closed and two open-ended questions. across the Arab world had completed and The closed questions asked participants returned the questionnaire. Fifty students whether they used Standard Arabic in their volunteered to take part in the second daily lives and whether they believed the research phase with all participants who language would survive in the foreseeable agreed to keep reflective journals as part future. These binary choice questions of their course work submitting these at were complemented by two open-ended the end of the semester. Thematic analysis, questions. The first asked participants about with a focus on frequency of responses and the factors they believed support Standard the relationship between response themes Arabic’s continued survival and the second and those highlighted in the literature, was inquired about the factors that may threaten employed to analyse data. its survival. The second data collection technique was a reflective journal entry FINDINGS activity asking participants to reflect on how, The questionnaire’s first closed question if at all, English impacts on Standard Arabic. asked participants whether they used The questionnaire was distributed to a Standard Arabic in their daily lives. 82.9% sample of students and faculty members at of respondents indicated that they never used Oman’s only public university. Although Standard Arabic in their daily lives, while students and teachers represent only one of the remaining 17.1% claimed they only used the groups in Oman society that are likely the language in formal situations. Despite to use Standard Arabic for professional and/ this limited use of Standard Arabic in daily or academic purposes, these participants interactions, participants nonetheless, formed a convenience sample for the remained optimistic about the language’s researchers that was deemed appropriate future. That is, around 88.5% indicated in for fulfilling the exploratory purpose reply to the second closed question that they of the research. Faculty members were believed Standard Arabic would continue
1202 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016) Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World to survive in the foreseeable future, while the use of Standard Arabic in mass media, the rest expressed doubt that this would be including in newspapers and magazines the case. (49%), and its position as often the only The questionnaire’s open-ended officially recognised language across Arab questions inquired into the factors that nations (31%). Other responses included the might contribute to Standard Arabic’s status of Standard Arabic as a sign of Arab survival and those that may hinder it. Table identity (17%), and its use as a facilitator 1 features factors participants identified as of communication between Arabs (17%). contributing to the language’s continued Other factors that were mentioned only existence (percentages indicate the number one time (3%) concerned Arab history of participants identifying each factor). and creative endeavours. These included Participants identified 11 factors they Standard Arabic’s reflection of the glories of believed would support Standard Arabic’s past Arab civilisations, and the language’s survival, with three of these mentioned in aesthetic and poetic qualities that have more than half of all responses. As may be resulted in a rich literary tradition and expected from the intricate links between achievements in creative writing and arts. Arabic and Islam, the two most frequently Table 2 features participant responses cited factors were related to religion. That to the open-ended question inquiring about is, participants believed the links between factors that may threaten Standard Arabic’s Arabic and the Qur’an (94%) and Standard survival. Unlike responses featured in Arabic being the language of Islam (82%), the first table, only one factor here was would support the language’s survival. mentioned by more than half of participants. The third factor cited by more than half of This was, perhaps not surprisingly given respondents was concerned with formal fears of its potentially negative effects in the education – Standard Arabic is taught in Arab world, globalisation (85%). Closely- schools and at the departments of Arabic linked with this, though only mentioned in almost all Arab universities in Arab by around 46% of participants, was the countries (71%) – which was perhaps not potential threat of English’s dominance both surprising given both the university-bound within Arab nations and internationally. The nature of the sample and Standard Arabic’s two next most frequently cited factors were official status as a language of education in mass media’s abandonment of Standard almost all Arab countries. Arabic in favour of local dialects and code The four next most frequently offered switching (40%) and the multiculturalism factors participants believed would support (37%) of many Arab societies as perhaps Standard Arabic’s survival were related to most readily evident nowadays in the its function as an official language both culturally-diverse nature of the Arab Gulf’s across and within Arab countries and as largest cities. a marker of identity. Responses included
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Fourteen per cent of respondents also Arabic may also threaten it (11%), while 6% identified code switching between Standard stated that the lack of strict rules prescribing Arabic and dialects, or between Arabic and the use of the language in official Arab other languages including English, as a organisations could also be a potential potential threat to its continued survival, threat. Finally, one participant believed while the same number also maintained that that Western stereotypes linking Arabs the younger generation’s lack of pride in and, by association, Arabic, to terrorism Arabic was a potential concern. Following and violence may be a threat to Standard closely from this stance, participants claimed Arabic’s survival. that a lack of effort to develop Standard
Table 1 Factors supporting Standard Arabic’s survival
No. Factors Percentage 1. The Holy Qur’an 94% 2 Standard Arabic being the language of Islam 82% 3 Standard Arabic is taught in schools and at the departments of Arabic in almost all 71% Arab universities in the Arab countries 4 The use of Standard Arabic in mass media and in the newspapers and magazines 49% 5 Standard Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries 31% 6 Standard Arabic as a sign of Arab identity 17% 7 Standard Arabic is used to facilitate communication among Arabs 17% 8 Standard Arabic is a language that has a glorious history and represents a great 3% civilisation 9 Standard Arabic is an aesthetic and poetic language 3% 10 Standard Arabic has a rich literary tradition 3% 11 Standard Arabic is the language of creative writing and arts 3%
Table 2 Factors threatening Standard Arabic’s survival
No. Factors Percentage 1 Globalisation 85% 2 The dominance of English 46% 3 When mass media stops using Standard Arabic and instead encourages the use of 40% dialects and code switching 4 Multiculturalism 37% 5 Code switching 14% 6 Lack of pride in their mother language by the new generation 14% 7 Arabs do not work hard to develop their language 11% 8 There are no strict rules of using Standard Arabic in official organisations 6% 9 Western attitudes about Arabs and their association of anything Arabic with 3% terrorism and violence
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Reflective journal entries were next purpose or even to show off until it analysed to explore what influence, if become language mix that people any, participants in this research phase cannot control. believed English had on the potential survival of Standard Arabic. Fifty per cent In addition, participants also identified of respondents maintained that English the impact of English on code switching as had a negative impact on Standard Arabic. having potentially negative effects on the A number of participants identified how survival of Standard Arabic. One respondent English threatened not only the survival of even offered the example of Arabizi – or Standard Arabic, but of many languages an English-Arab mix in both writing and that it came into contact with. Responses speaking – as being of especial concern. here included, “I think English naturally Despite this, around 32.6% of threatens Arabic and even other languages participants did not believe that English since it has a predominant hand in different had a negative influence on Standard Arabic. aspects of life in commerce, politics, science Responses here were almost universally and otherwise”, and, “English is a threat for concerned with the strong links between many languages especially the languages in Arabic, Islam, and Arab heritage. Journal multilingual societies. Arabic is one of the entries that highlight this stance included, languages that is being threaten by English”. “I believe that there is not any power on Reasons for this potential threat captured Earth can take away my language or even in the reflective journals largely overlapped my identity, and what I am convince is that with findings from the questionnaire. For sticking to traditions and keep using Arabic example, several participants identified are one way to secure my language”, and, globalisation as contributing to the marked “Arabic language is the strongest language presence of English in Arab societies while in the world because it is the language of the language’s role as a gatekeeper of social Quran. Therefore, no language can destroy it success was also featured. These themes are or be a threat to it”. In addition to this focus highlighted in the following journal entries: on religion and culture, one respondent “Globalisation and the new modernised highlighted how they used English for small town are the main reasons why the instrumental purposes, thereby limiting new Arabian nations shift to speak English”, the potential for cultural deracination – and: “English language is a tool not a purpose. We learn it to obtain and get something as Nowadays, English is one of the a high education, a job etc.” The Muslim most important languages in the use of English for achieving instrumental world besides being a sign of purposes while limiting the possible effects education and kind of prestigious of exposure to its “normative baggage” is and high state. As a result, many one that has been widely reported in the start to switch to English for a literature (Dan et al., 1996; Kim, 2003).
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The remaining 17.4% of respondents relationships, and private enterprises, believed that English could potentially have of the language’s use across the region, a negative and/or positive effect on Standard and Standard Arabic is often confined to Arabic depending on the situation. These formal educational settings (Magin, 2010). respondents focused on English as only Moreover, even though participants were a threat in those situations where people drawn from a formal educational setting, it chose, either deliberately or without active should be noted that many of the colleges at consideration, to use it rather than Arabic. this institution offer instruction in English Responses here included, “When I am not only. For this reason, these participants aware of the dangerous of making English who have left school – where Standard my favourite language in speaking, reading Arabic may or may not be used by their or writing and use it most of the time. It teachers despite the requirements of national will affect me from inside and change my curricula – may mean that exposure to those attitude towards Arabic language”, and, “I formal situations where Standard Arabic think English can be a threat to the Arabic is used may be very limited. Despite this language if the person keeps using and limited use of Standard Arabic in their replacing his conversation with English everyday lives, it should be reiterated that for no particular and practical purpose and almost all participants (88.5%) believed the stops reading or speaking in the mother language would continue to survive in the language”. Finally, a handful of respondents foreseeable future. These findings, therefore, maintained that the degree of value people suggest quite mixed attitudes towards assign to Arabic will also determine whether Standard Arabic’s survival. That is, on the English can be a threat to the language’s one hand, participants saw limited utility for survival: “Those groups who value the the language in their daily lives, while, on Arabic language will keep the status of this the other, they believed it would continue to code high, yet those who do not appreciate survive due mostly to its links to Islam and Arabic language will be easy to them to Arab cultural identity. switch for another language”. When asked to describe the factors that influence the potential survival of Standard DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Arabic, participants focused not only on The current exploratory research examined the intricate ties between the language, issues associated with the continued survival religion, and heritage, but also on its official of Standard Arabic in the Arab world. The status in Arab countries and their education vast majority of participants (82.9%) did systems – even if Bani-Khaled (2014) not use Standard Arabic in their everyday reports that Standard Arabic may have a lives. This finding may not appear surprising much looser grip on education in the Arab as Arabic dialects dominate almost every world than officially prescribed. The two domain, including the home, interpersonal most important factors that threaten the
1206 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1195 - 1209 (2016) Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World survival of the language, however, were and that students and instructors from other identified as the spread of globalisation tertiary-level institutions within Oman or and English’s dominance. The spread of across the Arab world would be likely to globalisation and English’s increasingly offer different results. For these reasons, dominant world role have been assumed by further research could be conducted on many to go hand-in-hand, while English, larger student and teacher samples from despite not enjoying an official status in a variety of tertiary institutions and/or on most Arab countries, acts as either a second non-university bound populations across language or lingua franca across many parts the Arab world while also seeking to of the Arab world (Charise, 2007). This use more extensive data collection and concern was expressed in responses in both analysis techniques. By taking such an the questionnaire and the reflective journals, approach, future researchers could build with half of all participants in the latter on the current research by offering findings research phase maintaining that English did, that policymakers, academics and other in fact, represent a threat to the survival of concerned stakeholders could use to inform Standard Arabic. decisions related to the preservation of Although these findings offer a Standard Arabic across the Arab world. fascinating glimpse into native Arabic However, despite these potential speakers’ beliefs about the factors impacting limitations, it is perhaps fair to claim that on Standard Arabic’s potential survival, participants in the current study believed it should be noted that this research was Standard Arabic would continue to survive exploratory in nature and that the relatively due to its links to religion and cultural small sample size and somewhat limited heritage, even if they remained unlikely to nature of the data collection techniques use the language in their daily lives. This means that more research in the area, and finding, therefore, implies that English and/ especially research in Oman, remains or other languages will continue to expand essential. Moreover, the current research their already prominent roles in many Arab focused exclusively on students and their nations, thus adding to the already diverse instructors and did not seek input from nature of the linguistic landscape in the other groups who use Standard Arabic in region. their professional lives, such as certain government officials and those involved in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS the media. We would like to acknowledge with thanks Adding to these concerns, the fact that the efforts of the student Faheema Al- participants in the current research were all Khamisi from Sultan Qaboos University associated with a single public university who helped in data collection process of the means that institutional culture may have first research phase. had an important influence on findings,
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies and Gender Effect
Moazen, M.1, Kafipour, R.2* and Soori, A.3 1Department of English Language and Literature, Ahar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahar, Iran 2Department of English, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran 3Department of English Language, Larestan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Larestan, Iran
ABSTRACT One of the main factors which enhance learning and teaching a foreign or second language is communication strategies applied by learners in the learning process and instructors in the teaching process. This study investigated the perception of Iranian EFL (English as a foreign language) learners regarding the use of communication strategies in their English learning efforts. The study was also aimed at finding out if gender had an effect on the perception of learners regarding use of communication strategies. To do so, the researchers sampled 60 students and divided them into two groups, control and experimental group. Each group consisted of 30 students (15 males and 15 females). The researcher used Dornyei and Scott’s (1997) inventory of CSs, which was a self-report questionnaire, as a data collection method. After analysing data by running a T-test statistical procedure, it was found that teaching communication strategies had significantly affected perception of the learners who reported more frequent use of communication strategies (mean for control group = 15.69; mean for experimental group = 19.93). Moreover, data analysed using a chi- square depicted that females outperformed males in the application of the communication strategies regardless of the treatment they received. The study indicated that teaching communication strategies to language learners, especially to males, is necessary. In fact, it can help the male learners to communicate more efficiently with their classmates and instructors and enhance their learning.
Keywords: Gender effect, English as a Foreign ARTICLE INFO Language (EFL), Communication strategies, Article history: Received: 21 July 2015 perception Accepted: 30 January 2016
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Moazen, M.), [email protected] (Kafipour, R.), [email protected] (Soori, A.) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Moazen, M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A.
INTRODUCTION component. Communication strategies Nowadays, people have to learn English are those strategies that are employed speaking abilities to communicate with by learners when there is insufficient interlocutors who speak in a foreign knowledge about a language which is learnt. language or to conduct international Communication strategies help learners to trade, diplomatic exchanges and the use have a better understanding of themselves. of new technology. Since the Islamic To offset any inadequacies in grammatical Republic of Iran is playing an active role ability especially in vocabulary, learners internationally, the ability to communicate try to use communication strategies. The in English clearly and efficiently could quality of communication is determined, lead to the learner’s success not only in the maintained and improved through the classroom but also in every phase of his or aid of communication strategies. Thus, her life. In order to communicate in English, communication strategies create some learning just basic skills in grammar and opportunities for using the target language vocabulary does not contribute to a proper and also create a chance to test the learners’ and effective communication. Learners assumptions about L2 (what is L2? Is it also need communication strategies which “Second Language) to receive feedback. enable them to communicate successfully It seems that the learners are not able to and effectively in real life situations. take communications risks without such Therefore, “speaking in a foreign language strategies. The current study attempted to is very difficult and competence in speaking answer the following research questions: takes a long time to develop” (Alderson & 1. Does instruction of communication Bachman, 2004, p. ix). “This is because strategies affect the learners’ perception speaking includes a variety of processes. on the use of communication strategies? Speaking involves acquiring knowledge 2. Does gender have any impact on of vocabulary and grammar, negotiating the perception of Iranian EFL effectively and adapting to different contexts learners regarding the application of within cultural and social rules of the communication strategies? communication setting” (Wells, 1985, p.22). Researchers have tried their best to find LITERATURE REVIEW a solution for a successful language learning. In teaching and learning communication Among them, educational researchers have strategies, early research involved the pointed out that those learners who take definition and the classification of CSs. advantage of their learning are successful Selinker (1972) introduced the notion of learners. One method for autonomous communication strategies in his paper learning is the use of language learning titled “Inter-language”. “He included these strategy taxonomies among which strategies as one of the five central processes communication strategies are an important involved in second language learning” (p.
1212 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies and Gender Effect
229). He suggested that inter-language in the identified four types of CSs commonly found second language learners’ speech production in inter-language: phonology, morphology, is acceptable and supportable. However, syntax and lexicon (p.5 ). By drawing on the he did not explain in detail the nature of inter-language system of foreign language these strategies used by learners in their learners, Varadi, Tarone, Cohen and Dumas communication. In the same year, Savignon developed the framework and terminology (1972) emphasised the effectiveness of of CSs which have been used as a starting “coping strategies” applied in teaching point for later research in CSs. However, and testing a second language. She used the first empirical and systematic study the term “coping strategies” in her study of CS was undertaken by Tarone (1977). to refer to CSs. The articles of Selinker She examined the CSs used in the speech and Savignon provided the background for production of adult language learners. Her much of the following studies on CSs. An study attempted to examine CSs of oral early example of CS was provided by Varadi production completely by employing the (1973). At a minor European conference, terminological framework developed by he mentioned “message adjustment” as Tarone, Cohen and Dumas (1976:p. 194). a strategy used by language learners. She proposed five basic CSs: “avoidance, However, this article was not published paraphrase, conscious transfer, appeal for at that time. In 1980, Varadi conducted a assistance and mime” (p.197). She also small-scale experimental research with a provided a definition and features of CSs group of Hungarian learners of English to as “Conscious communication strategies examine the strategies, especially message are used by an individual to overcome adjustment the learners used, when they had the crisis which occurs when language a gap in their communication. The results structures are inadequate to convey the of Varadi’s study indicated that in the target individual’s thought” (p.195). Tarone’s language, learners adjusted their messages framework has been considered the most based on the available communicative important and influential in the literature resources. His study therefore, was the first and subsequent studies of CSs. It has been systematic analysis of strategic behaviours used for defining and classifying CSs found of second language learners. in second language learners’ speech. In the The concept of CS was further early 1980s, the role of CSs was widely developed by Tarone, Cohen and Dumas acknowledged in second language learning (1976) in their paper titled “A framework for due to the seminal works of Canale and communication strategies”. They provided Swain (1980) and Faerch and Kasper (1983). a framework in which the terminology of According to communicative competence the learners’ inter-language was described by Canale and Swain (1980), to overcome in order to represent categories of types communication problems that have occurred of inter-language phenomena (p.4). They as a result of shortage of knowledge in any
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) 1213 Moazen, M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A. of the other sub-competencies, strategic Analysis of Second Language Use. In this competence use problem-solving devices. book, the definitions and theories of CSs In fact, communication strategies are the proposed by Poulisse (1987), Faerch and problem-solving devices. In addition, they Kasper (1983), Corder (1977) and other suggested teaching CSs in classroom and scholars in the field of CSs were discussed. providing students the chance to use these The latter parts of this book explored strategies. empirical evidence of CSs used by children Another important work in the field or adults in the first or second language in of CSs is described in Strategies of inter- relation to language processing. In the last language and communication (Faerch & part, the issue of learning and teaching CSs Kasper, 1983). In this book, many studies are discussed. and papers on CS are collected and divided The most important point Bialystok into three main parts: CSs definitions, suggested was that the psychological empirical studies of CSs and problems in process of speech production should be analysing CSs. This collection, therefore, regarded as a basis for the study of CSs. provides a valuable contribution to the She argued that language learners should research in CSs. Following these two seminal be taught and practise language structure works, many researchers in the 1980s rather than strategies. Following the seminal published papers on the identification and work of Bialystok, researchers in the 1990s classification of CSs, the issue of teaching investigated CS application in relation to CSs in the second language classroom and different proficiency level and teaching the factors that influenced learners’ use of pedagogy of CSs. Their works have shed CSs. In 1980s, a group of researchers at light on CS studies and provided theoretical Nijmegen University in the Netherlands contributions to the field at that time. also conducted a large-scale research on Since then, the issue of CS instruction has CSs. At that time, the Netherlands were the received increasing attention from a variety centre for research on CSs. Their studies of researchers. shed light on various aspects of CSs such Despite the controversy about CS as definitions, classifications and theories instruction, many researchers have of CSs. defined CSs, promoted CS application and Researchers in the 1980s had attempted supported CS instruction (e.g., Lam, 2004; to define, identify and classify CSs more Wen, 2004; Nakatani, 2005). Wen (2004) systematically. They proposed various CS conducted empirical studies to investigate taxonomies based on their conceptual papers the impacts of strategy instruction among and research that they had carried out. In the the learners who used communication 1990s, several important books and papers strategies. Lam (2004) argued that it is were published. One of the most important possible and desirable to teach and raise and influential works is Bialystok’s book learners’ awareness of using CSs in oral Communication Strategies: A Psychological communication. Nakatani (2005) also
1214 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies and Gender Effect supported the idea that language learners (p.198). Interactional strategies include a should be made aware of how to use CSs in third approach, “by means of which the their communication. As has been noted, a participants perform trouble-shooting large number of researchers have recently exchanges cooperatively (e.g., appeal paid more attention to the teachability for and grant help, or request for and issue of CSs as well as promoting strategy provide clarification), and therefore mutual instruction. They have attempted to explore understanding is a function of the successful the effect of CS instruction on learners’ execution of both pair parts of the exchange” strategic behaviour and competence. (Dornyei & Scott, 1997, pp. 198-199). Based on the argument in favour of Several researchers emphasised the teachability of CSs, the current study teaching of communicative strategies in attempts to address this issue to provide L2 instruction. Faerch & Kasper (1986, new knowledge for this research area. p.186) mentioned three activities in teaching Dornyei and Scott (1997) summarised communicative strategies. “These are (1) the taxonomies and definitions of CSs communication games with full visual suggested by researchers. The researchers contact between the participants and full had a classification of CSs in the extended possibilities for immediate feedback, (2) taxonomy of problem-solving strategies communication games with no visual which were based on the manner of problem- contact between the participants but still full management that was related to the issue of possibilities for immediate feedback (e.g., how CSs help resolve conflicts and achieve simulating a telephone conversation) and (3) mutual understanding (Dornyei & Scott). monologue with limited or no possibilities Direct, indirect and interactional strategies for obtaining immediate feedback” (e.g., were three basic categories which were “two-minute talk ”). separated by researchers. Manchon (2000) suggested a two- According to Dornyei and Scott (1997), step training scheme which summarises direct strategies contain “an alternative, the instruction of CSs in second language manageable, and self-contained means including instruction and practice step. of getting the meaning across, like The instruction stage aims to enhance the circumlocution compensating for the lack learners’ familiarity with communicative of a word” (p.198). Indirect strategies can’t strategies in addition to showing how they be considered exactly as problem-solving can be used to eliminate the problems in devices. “They facilitate the conveyance communication. She believes that learners of meaning indirectly by establishing may become aware of these strategies in two the conditions for achieving mutual different ways, inductively or deductively. A understanding: preventing breakdowns deductive way refers to direct explanation and keeping the communication channel and modelling of strategies in the classroom open or indicating less-than perfect forms while an inductive way refers to classroom that require extra effort to understand” activities and exercises or observing what
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) 1215 Moazen, M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A. other learners do in communication and how MATERIALS AND METHODS other learners use these strategies to solve The population for the current study was their problem in communication. Manchon Iranian EFL learners. However, selection of (2000) noted that communicative strategies participants involved a two-step sampling instruction will increase the learners’ self- procedure. First, based on a sample of confidence when they try to resort to their convenience, Shiraz University was selected first language in order to communicate in since there are many universities that the second language. offer EFL courses and it was not possible A remarkable number of studies have to take samples from each one of them. found that females use more communicative Second, purposive sampling was applied strategies than males. For example, Holmes and all advanced level learners (senior (1995) reported that females are more students) from both genders were selected. polite than males and that females use Advanced learners were selected to ensure more communicative skills in verbal they had an appropriate level of English communication. Holmes made a connection and sufficient learning experiences to between a greater use of communicative enable them to present their perceptions skills and politeness as using communication of communicative strategies. The students skills implies politeness. In another study, selected had three years of formal English Holmes (1995) and Coates (1987) found learning. Then, based on their final exam that females outperform males in using tag score in the previous semester, 60 learners questions as another communication skill. whose scores were +1/-1 SD from the mean Moreover, females changed statements to were selected as our samples to ensure questions more than males (Mills, 1995; their homogeneity. The sample comprised Lemmer, 1996; Coates, 1996) because equal numbers of males and females and questions tend to generate a response. was divided randomly into two groups of Furthermore, disclaimers, qualifiers and 30 students (15 males and 15 females). fillers were used more frequently by females One group acted as the control group and (Lemmer, 1996). All these studies reveal the other as the experimental group. Fish that females use communicative strategies and Ball’s technique was used to assign more than males. However, in an another males and females to control and treatment study which investigated the application groups. Pre-testing, as will be explained of communication strategies in email later, was used to ensure the homogeneity communication with male instructors found of the sample. that male students used more communicative This approach allowed us to determine strategies (Abbasi et al, 2014). the effect of gender on the use of CSs in an EFL context among a homogeneous and gender-balanced sample. To collect
1216 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies and Gender Effect data from participants in pre- and post- its regular university curriculum (namely testing phases, the self-report inventory studying their course book) received a of CSs developed by Dörnyei and Scott 15 session treatment of CSs while the (1997) was used. This inventory is a 33 control group continued with their ordinary item questionnaire (for 16 CSs), to which weekly schedule without any additional students are required to indicate the extent programme. According to the university to which they applied CSs by responding weekly schedule, three sessions would be on a five point Likert-scale where 1=never, held weekly, each lasting for 90 minutes. 2=rarely, 3=sometimes, 4= often and 5=most It is necessary to mention that everything often. The inventory’s internal consistency (except the treatment for experimental value is 0.78 which is within the acceptable group) for the two groups including range (0.8 > α ≥ 0.7). course book, time of the classes, materials, This study was conducted in three equipment and the teacher were the same phases. In the first phase, a pre-test was to minimise the external factors which administered to ensure equality and might affect the result. After the students homogeneity of both groups. The treatment in the experimental group had received was given to the experimental group in the treatment, the researcher asked the the second phase and finally a post-test participants of both groups to answer the was administered in the third phase to self-report questionnaire again. The results determine if the treatment had made any obtained were statistically analysed using difference in the report of CSs between SPSS software by running a T-test and a the two groups. The procedure of how the chi-square. treatment is presented is described below. Various models of teaching communication RESULTS AND DISCUSSION strategies have been proposed. In one model, In order to answer the first research question, an explicit style is preferred; in a second “does instruction of communication model, strategies are defined and taught strategies affect the learners’ perception separately; and in a third model, strategies on the use of communication strategies?”, are used in integrity. Other models try to it was necessary to ensure homogeneity integrate the communication strategies with of the perceptions of participants of the language tasks without any preface. application of communication strategies in Generally, the model of teaching both the control and experimental group. strategies separately is much more preferable Therefore, the self-report questionnaire for the start than the model which teaches was administered to both groups before the strategies in integrity. The approach treatment. Table 1 shows the results obtained. which was used here is based on Dornyei As depicted in Table 1, the mean score and Scott’s (1997) inventory of CS’s. In this for the control group before treatment stage, the experimental group in addition to was 15.83 whereas it was 15.73 for the
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) 1217 Moazen, M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A. experimental group. Although the mean students in the beginning of semester to score for the control group is a little higher make them aware of these strategies. There than that of experimental group, the t-test should be a justification of how and how showed this difference is not significant much of these strategies may improve as p value is higher than 0.05 (P= .0907> their learning. If implemented well, it may 0.05). Thus, it can be concluded that increase the students’ motivation to learn both groups are homogenous based on better and more thoroughly. This point was their perception of the application of also highlighted in the study conducted by communication strategies. It means that Kafipour, Nooreen and Pezeshkian (2010), both groups had similar perception of the Yazdi and Kafipour (2014), and Kafipour, application of communicative strategies. Yazdi and Shokrpour (2011). Additionally, Therefore, if any difference is found on the curriculum developers and book designers perception of learners after treatment, it can should pay more attention to these strategies be safely attributed to the treatment. On the in their material development to enhance other hand, since the researchers tried to learning and teaching. These strategies may control everything that may affect the results be practised through adding some exercises except the treatment, lack of difference to the work books used by EFL learners. To between the experimental and control groups do so, EFL textbook evaluation process may before treatment and significant difference be followed as suggested by Soori, Kafipour, between the groups after treatment will Soury (2011). show the effect of treatment in changing To answer the second research the perception of participants in experiment question, “does gender have any impact group. After teaching communication on the perception of Iranian EFL learners strategies to the learners, the self-report regarding the application of communication questionnaire was again administered to the strategies?”, and to find out if the difference students. The results are reflected in Table 2. between the males’ use of CSs and females’ As depicted in Table 2, the experimental application of these strategies is statistically group (Mean=19.93) outperformed the significant, the researcher employed control group (Mean=15.60) after treatment. descriptive statistics and the Chi-Square As P< 0.05 (.000<.05), this difference tests and the outcome is shown in the is significant. It confirms that teaching following table. communication strategies to the learners As shown in Table 3, the mean for made them aware of these strategies and male students (Mean=13.15) in the pre- helped them report the strategies more test is lower than that of female learners frequently and subsequently use them more (Mean=17.79). This is true in the case of the frequently in communication. Therefore, post-test in which the mean score for male teaching these strategies was positively learners is 14.38 while it is 20.35 for female effective. The study confirms the belief learners. In both cases, the P value is smaller that the strategies should be taught to the than .05 (.000< .05). It shows that females
1218 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies and Gender Effect employed more communication strategies encourage them to work on communicative than males regardless of treatment. Thus, strategies and which will ultimately benefit the application of communication strategies in their English learning. One reason female was gender-influenced. It depicts that students use more communicative strategies females use these strategies more frequently may be due to cultural issues. In the Islamic than males. This is an important finding Republic of Iran, females need to consider which highlights that male students need more ethical issues and more techniques more attention regarding communicative to be able to establish a successful and strategies. Therefore, if sex segregation has effective communication. This may be why been applied to the classes, the teachers’ job they employ more communicative strategies may not be very difficult. They can work compared with their male peers. more on communicative strategies in male- only classes. However, if classes are mixed, CONCLUSION the teachers’ job may be a bit more difficult. The results of the current study supported They should decide how to work on these the teachability of CSs. It was an approval strategies as male students are more in need of previous statements that were in favour of them compared with female students. of CS instruction regarding CSs as cognitive One of the solutions may be by assigning processes (Dornyei, 1995; Manchon, more homework to the male students to 2000; Lam, 2004; Wen, 2004; Nakatani,
Table 1 T-test for mean differences before treatment (pre-test)
Groups Mean SD F T DF Sig. Control 15.83 3.14 .287 .117 58 .907 Experiment 15.73 3.46
Table 2 T-test for mean differences after treatment (post-test)
Groups Mean SD F T DF Sig. Control 15.60 3.24 6.34 6.04 58 .000 Experiment 19.93 2.21
Table 3 Chi-square for mean differences between male and female learners
Test Gender Mean SD Sig. Pre-test Male 13.15 2.01 0.000 Female 17.79 2.55 Post-test Male 14.38 2.15 0.000 Female 20.35 1.63
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) 1219 Moazen, M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A.
2005). As Oxford (1990) had reported, students with sufficient target language making the learners aware of the strategies models. It can be achieved through listening will help them apply the strategies more to movie or audio files or even videos in consciously and more frequently. The which these strategies are frequently used current study confirmed this claim as the and then try to determine, analyse and learners reported the application of more classify CSs used by native speakers in strategies after treatment. More frequent use these materials (Yang & Gai, 2010). Besides of communication strategies by females is watching movies, students can make short consistent with the outcome of other studies. videos because student-generated videos In the previous studies, the impact of gender cause them to be actively involved in on strategy use was investigated along with producing the language they are learning different variables (Green & Oxford, 1995; (Khojasteh et al., 2013). We are still at the Ghadesi, 1998). start point and more research should be done The findings of the majority of studies in the case of communication strategies. showed females took more advantage of However, this study has a number of learning strategies than males (Politzer, limitations which should be considered 1983; Sy, 1994; Wharton, 2000). However, when generalising the findings. First, a study by Moazen (2012) showed that the study applied a convenient sampling gender did not affect the application of method and the subjects were selected communication strategies. The reason may from one university within a large number be due to the learners’ level of education of universities that offer EFL programmes and setting in which they were learning whether undergraduate or post graduate. English as Moazen had conducted the study Moreover, the researcher focused only in an English institute where all the learners on advanced English learners who had a were high school students. It appears the good knowledge of English and sufficient setting (high school, university) affects experience of English learning. Therefore, the frequency of strategy use. It may be a the results cannot be generalised to all good topic for further studies to identify EFL learners with any level of English the reason why setting affects the role of proficiency and exposure to English. gender in the application of communicative Based on the stated limitations, it is strategies. Communicative strategies are recommended that other researchers try interpreted as social events and are used for to investigate communicative strategies more than just the exchange of information. for other EFL learners such as freshers, In introducing a variety of functions of post graduate students and even high communication strategies, teachers can help school students to see the differences in the their students to take risks and to use CSs application of communicative strategies in their conversation, that is, using all their among students with different level of available resources to communicate in the English knowledge. The current study target language. One way is by providing had tried to investigate perceptions of the
1220 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1211 - 1222 (2016) Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies and Gender Effect students which may be different from the Dornyei, Z. & Scott, M. (1997). Communication application of communicative strategies strategies in a second language: definitions in the real world. So, it is recommended and taxonomies. Language Learning, 47(1), 173-210. that other data collection methods are used such as interviews, journal writing, Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (1983). Plans and and observations. Moreover, the current strategies in inter-language communication. In C, Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies study had only considered gender. Other In inter-language Communication. New York: researchers may try to investigate the Longman, pp. 20-60. relationship between CSs and other variables Faerch, C. & Kasper, G. (1986). Strategic such as personality type, motivation and competence in foreign language teaching, attitude which may have a significant In G. Kasper (Ed.), Learning, teaching and relationship with CSs. communication in the foreign language classroom, Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, REFERENCES pp.179-193 Abbasi, A., Motallebzadeh, K., Ashraf, H. (2014). Ghadesi, M. (1998). Language learning strategies of Iranian EFL learners’ communication strategies: some university students in Hong Kong. The 9th Emails to instructors. International Journal Conference of English in Southeast Asia. Brunei. of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, Green, J. M., & Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at 3(2), 64-74. learning strategies, L2 proficiency and gender. Alderson, J., & Bachman, L. (2004).Series editors’ TESOL Quarterly, 29, 261-297. preface to assessing speaking, In J. Alderson Holmes, J. (1995). Women, men and politeness. & L. Bachman (Eds.), Assessing Speaking. London: Longman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ix-xi. Kafipour, R., Noordin, N., & Pezeshkian, F. (2010). Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980).Theoretical bases Effects of motivation and gender on the choice of communication approaches to second of language learning strategies by Iranian language teaching and testing. Applied postgraduate students. Pertanika Journal of Linguistics, 1, 1-47. Social Sciences and Humanities, 19(1), 159-171. Coates, J. (1987). Women, men and language. Kafipour, R., Yazdi, M., & Shokrpour, N. (2011). Second edition. London: Longman. Learning styles and vocabulary levels of Iranian Coates, J. (1996). Women talk: Conversation EFL learners. European Journal of Social between women friends. London: Blackwell. Sciences, 25(3), 305-315.
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SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
The Dynamics of Makean Ethnic Identity in North Maluku, Indonesia: A Possible Collaboration of Competing Approaches
Amin, S.1* and Syamsiar2 1Department of Social Anthropology, Khairun University, Ternate – Indonesia, Jl. Gambesi, Kampus II, 97719, Ternate, Maluku Utara – Indonesia 2Department of Geography, Khairun University, Ternate – Indonesia, Jl. Bandara, Akehuda Ternate, 97728, Maluku Utara – Indonesia
ABSTRACT In studying ethnic identity, researchers frequently have to choose one among the three main approaches seen as competing in social sciences and ethnicity studies, namely primordialist approach, constructivist approach, and instrumentalist approach. This article attempts to examine whether the three competing approaches should be treated as mutually exclusive or on the contrary, be jointly used to contribute to our understanding of the phenomenon of ethnic identity. By using an ethnographic method with a phenomenological style and the relevant documents, in the context of the dynamics of Makeanese ethnic identity, the three approaches were found to support each other instead of competing. In this article, the elements of ethnic identity are shown to be partly primordial or given in a socio-cultural sense while others are socially constructed in accordance with the social transformation experienced by the Makeanese. The others - although based on primordial attributes and socially constructed processes - are made politically significant by the elite in the context of political competition. The theoretical implication of this finding is that all the three approaches - primordialist, constructivist and instrumentalist - should not be seen as competing or mutually exclusive approaches. In contrast, all the three approaches can jointly contribute to uncover the complex dynamics of Makean ethnic identity. This fieldwork supports the conclusion made by Chin and Lee (2010) that various theories of race and ethnicity should be seen as complementing instead of competing or substituting one another.
Keywords: Collaboration, constructivist, ethnicity, ARTICLE INFO identity, instrumentalist, Makeanese, primordialist Article history: Received: 30 September 2015 Accepted: 30 January 2016
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Amin, S.), [email protected] (Syamsiar) * Corresponding author
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Amin, S. and Syamsiar
INTRODUCTION used to depict the increasing number of Following the so-called “reformation Makeanese taking over and dominating key movement” in Indonesia which overthrew positions in local government bureaucracy) president Soeharto in 1998, state and in North Maluku and pleas not to choose provincial authorities throughout the country a Makeanese as a governor. During the suddenly became weak and unstable. As a conflict, crowds from the Gafur camp result, primordial-based conflicts flared up stoned houses belonging to Makeanese. in many provinces (Tadjoeddin, 2001). In The crowd also once burned down a house October 1999, a new province of North that belonged to a Makeanese bureaucrat. Maluku, where 29 ethnic groups live, was This fact clearly concerns a broad issue of established by the central government of ethnic identity. In dealing with ethnic-based Indonesia. In the same year, ethno-religious contests and conflicts, particularly in the violence broke out between the Muslim post-Soeharto era, many researchers have and Christian communities which lasted concluded that the contests or conflicts, to until June 2000 (Wilson, 2005). Following a significant extent, were engineered by the incident, another ethnic conflict broke the elite (Aragon, 2007; Mietzner, 2009; out,as a result of the local gubernatorial Klinken, 2010). The same instrumentalist election, which lasted from 2007 to 2009. view, to various degrees, was also used to This appeared to be the longest governor investigate the election-based conflicts in election-related conflict in Indonesia. North Maluku (Smith, 2009; Ahmad, 2012). Initially, the conflict in the gubernatorial It seems that the instrumentalists as well as election involved the supporters of two the constructivists dominate the discourse candidates, namely the Thaib Armain on ethnicity studies. Both approaches, called camp and Abdul Gafur camp. Armain, the situational approach, often criticise the the incumbent, was seen as representing primordial approach for not being able to Makeanese while Gafur was seen as explain the dynamics of ethnic identity and representing Patanese, Tidorese, Ternatens therefore, the primordial approach is treated and others. The conflict later involved as inadequate in ethnicity studies. wider public sentiment from different However, apart from some flaws ethnic backgrounds and took the form inherently in primordialist assumptions, of non-Makeanese versus Makeanese. we believe this particular approach in some Anti-Makeanese sentiment spread among points remains important in contributing to non-Makeanese communities who saw our understanding of ethnicity, in addition Makeanese as a common enemy. It was a to the insights contributed by the two battle between all fights against one or one situational approaches. By taking all the fight against all. There were accusations of three perspectives into consideration, we Makeanisasi (a local ethno-political term will not only locate the position of the primordialist’s contribution, but also show
1224 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) Collaboration of Competing Approaches in Ethnicity Studies the possible collaboration of the competing ethnic identity and the use of the identity by approaches. the elite to serve their pragmatic purposes for political and economic gains (Cohen, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 1969; Brass, 1996). The central concept in this conceptual The ontological differences between the framework is ethnic identity. The issues three above approaches on ethnic identity concerning ethnic identity have long been do not hinder the possible collaboration discussed and debated in the academic among them in this study. The only possible domain. There are three main approaches problem in bringing together the different in the study of ethnicity: primordialist, theoretical perspectives appears to be on constructivist and instrumentalist. Each how to reconcile the priomordialist view approach has its own ontological view on that treats identity as a given social reality, ethnic identity. The primordial approach with the two close perspectives, namely treats the attributes of an ethnic identity as constructivist and instrumentalist which a given social reality, and which essentially believe that identity is a socially constructed continues to shape the behaviour of reality. To reconcile the three different members of an ethnic group (Shils, 1957, approaches, it is important to highlight 1960; Che Man, 1990; Lewis, 1998). Some here of certain misunderstandings toward researchers have rejected the primordial the primordialist stance. Although the standpoint because the outcome revealed primordialists range from those who that ethnic identity is not given, but is treat identity as a biological and genetic socially constructed (Barth, 1969; Poyer, phenomena (van den Berghe, 1981; Shaw & 1988; Prelic, 2011), and constantly changes Wong, 1989; Thompson, 1989, pp. 21-48) (Barth, 1969; Salamone, 1975 pp. 22- to those who treat identity as a product of 24; Schultz, 1984; Beckerleg, 2010, pp. cultural phenomena (Shils, 1960; Geertz, 139-159). Basically, this constructivist 1963; 1973, p. 89; Huntington, 1996), most approach considers the social reality of the critics treat the primordialist as a of ethnicity as fluid and context-based single, rigid biological-biased people. In reality and emphasises more on the social this article, we define those who adopt the mechanisms that form and maintain the primordialist approach as those who consider boundaries between “us” and “them”, ethnicity as a sociocultural phenomenon and not something that is essential in the with some given attributes rather than contents of ethnic groups (Barth, 1969). purely a biological one. This sociocultural Several other researchers who adopt the phenomenon, certainly includes a sense instrumentalist approach although admitting of identity, in the Geertzian sense, and that ethnic identity is socially constructed is historically transmitted and inherited like the constructivist approach, emphasise through symbols (1973, p. 89), and it forms the intention of elites in the construction of primordial attachments to the community who own these symbols (Geertz, 1996).
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By treating the primordial approach in of other groups (Schultz, 1984, p. 46), or this way, we can bring the three perspectives it needs internal awareness and expression together into considering ethnic identity as and external validation (Barth, 1969). This a socio-cultural phenomenon. At this point, definition clearly shows that an ethnic the three perspectives can collaborate in our identity is a product of an inter-subjective effort to understand the dynamics of Makean process. ethnic identity. Each perspective contributes Since the boundary between the to our understanding of ethnicity. The concept of ethnic identity and some related primordialist perspective contributes to our concepts (ethnic prejudice and ethnic understanding of some given ‘objective’ stereotype, among others) are very thin, indicators of ethnic attributes such as place overlapping and intertwining, to ascertain of origin and uniqueness in language and folk the differences, we highlight some points arts. The constructivist approach contributes here. Both stereotypes and prejudices are to our understanding of the construction of a matter of judging the other groups and identity in daily social interactions among they therefore, mostly contain negative people from different backgrounds, and judgement towards the others (Berghe, the instrumentalist approach contributes 2004, pp. 414-415; Cashmore, 2004, pp. to our understanding of how ethnic 329-330; ) and are not inter-subjective. On identities become politically important in the contrary, ethnic identity is not a one a contesting environment. Since the unique direction judgement of one group of the contribution from each perspective deals other, but rather, a socio-cultural consensus with different aspects of ethnic identity, between internal and external perceptions bringing them together can, indeed, result in on the attributes of an ethnic group. In an a more comprehensive understanding of the ethnic identity, perceptions held by members dynamics of ethnic identity, while relying of an ethnic group on their ethnic attributes on any single perspective can lead to partial are along the lines of the perceptions held and misleading conclusion on the dynamics by outsiders towards them (Barth, 1969; of ethnic identity. Schultz, 1984, p. 46). The important point that needs to be In conclusion, the central concept highlighted here is the concept of ethnic of this theoretical framework is ethnic identity, as it has some implications on identity. Three different perspectives, the method used in this study. In general, which emphasise different aspects of ethnicity is seen as a group’s consciousness ethnic identity, have been discussed and of the uniqueness of its culture which makes brought into the socio-cultural domain it different from the cultures of other groups. through which they can support each other. Ethnic identity arises from the awareness Ethnic identity in this study is treated as of the uniqueness of the group and this socio-cultural consensus between internal uniqueness is also recognised by members and external perceptions of the attributes,
1226 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) Collaboration of Competing Approaches in Ethnicity Studies both objectives and perceived, of an ethnic on these actors’ subjective interpretation. group. The consensus, arrived at following This approach seeks to uncover the inter- ethnographic fieldwork, could be based on subjective meaning. some objective attributes such as uniqueness Instead of stirring the differences of place of origin and language or some between the primordialist and the other perceived attributes such as education. As two approaches, by untying the primordialist an inter-subjective phenomenon, ethnic approach from its biological-biased and identity is taken as a qualitative entity which endorsing its sociocultural dimension, this relies heavily on the shared views expressed approach not only can work smoothly along by Makeanese and non-Makeanese of the the lines of constructivist and instrumentalist Makeanese based on both objective and but also contribute to addressing a more perceived attributes. objective attribute such as uniqueness in language or place of origin, something MATERIAL AND METHODS treated by other two approaches as merely In the previous section, we have argued a subjective phenomenon. In this sense, that ontologically, the primordialists ethnic identity is based on both the objective consider ethnic identity as a given, and perceived attributes of a group of relatively unchanged, and a solid social people. By defining ethnic identity as a reality. Apart from the differences consensus between internal awareness and between the constructivist daily social external recognition of the attributes (both process in identity formation and the objective and perceived) of an ethnic group, instrumentalist’s emphasise on political it demonstrates that awareness of ethnic motives and intentionality of elites in identity is in the realm of inter-subjectivity constructing and using the identity for between people from different ethnic their pragmatic purposes, ontologically, backgrounds. both the constructivist and instrumentalist The methodological implication of the share the idea that ethnic identity is a above stand point is the need for a qualitative constructed, not given, and a fluid social method with a phenomenological approach to reality. This implies that the primordialists uncover the inter-subjective world between work in objectivist epistemology in the different social actors from different ethnic sense that the researcher considers an backgrounds. In brief, this study used a ethnic group has its objective and unique descriptive qualitative ethnography method characteristics, whereas the constructivist with a phenomenological approach that is and instrumentalist work in subjectivist- supported by document analysis. The key interpretivist epistemology in the sense that informants were chosen through purposive reality (ethnic identity) is constructed and sampling based on preliminary information interpreted subjectively by the social actors, about their knowledge on the identity of and the researcher’s interpretation is based Makeanese, and followed by snowball-
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) 1227 Amin, S. and Syamsiar sampling to trace relevant information. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The supporting informants were chosen As a result of the use of ethnographic method randomly. The total number of informants with a phenomenological approach, we is 33 people. They are from different found a number of variations or differences ethnic backgrounds (Makeanese and non- in the views of non-Makeanese as well as Makeanese), different socioeconomic the Makeanese about the characteristics classes, and different profession among of the Makeanese ethnic identity. We also others government bureaucrats, politicians, found the same set of views between the university lecturers, housewife, and different Makeanese and non-Makeanese about social position such as local elites and the characteristics of the Makean identity. ordinary people. The differences, which mostly containing Data is collected through interviews and negative judgements, are categorised as observation. Document analysis is employed part of ethnic prejudice and stereotypes, not to support this data. Interview questions ethnic identity; hence, these are not taken were centred on: Who is a Makeanese? into account as part of the Makean ethnic What makes someone a Makeanese? What identity. In contrast, the shared opinion on are the prime attributes of Makeanese in the attributes of the Makean identity was the past and in the present? What are the taken as part of the Makean ethnic identity achievements made by the Makeanese? as they were born through a process of How has their lives changed (using life- inter-subjectivity between the Makeanese history mode of interview)? How do the and non-Makeanese. Some aspects of the elite portray the Makeanese majority among shared opinion on the characteristics of the government bureaucrats? What issues the Makean people by both the Makeanese appear to be involved in the resistance to and non-Makeanese are elaborated in the Makeanese? How do the Makeanese elite subsequent section. interpret the resistance? Observation is In the early stages of our research, conducted of their agriculture activities, we easily obtained the elements which the condition of their home land in Makean are considered as the Makeanese identity Island, their conversation in their own markers including the elements of language, social situations in which they geography, language and art. These elements are involved, and others. Document analysis show that the Makeanese originate from is used to gather data from government the Makean Island, speak the Makean offices on the number of Makeanese in key language and have Togal as their folk art. bureaucratic posts as well as the articles Geographical element becomes a clear and books written on Makeanese in the past identification in the imagination of the and present. Data analysis was conducted local community since the Makean Island through data reduction, data display and is geographically separated by sea from verification (Miles & Huberman, 1994). other islands. Uniqueness in language is
1228 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) Collaboration of Competing Approaches in Ethnicity Studies also an important feature of identity marker a very high fluidity and are very much since their language called taba is different dependent on the social development of from other local languages. Although the Makeanese in North Maluku. These the language consists of two different attributes, together with the three basic linguistic groups, both are considered the elements previously discussed, are held in Makeanese language (Watuseke, 1976; the consciousness of the Makeanese and the Collins, 1982). Similarly, the art element, local non-Makeanese. the Togal, is unique and commonly viewed as a distinctive art due to the fact that only From Backward to Educated People the Makean people have it. One of the important Makean identity The above features - the place of markers is that the Makeanese see origin, language, and art - are the most themselves and are being seen by others as fundamental elements that mark the Makean the most educated people in North Maluku ethnic identity. They are described as the nowadays. This was expressed during the most fundamental elements because these interviews and in written materials. In the elements are the basic points of identity past, however, the Makeanese were cultural, reference and are relatively sustained. Even geographical and political periphery of the descendants of Makeanese who were not the Sultanate of Ternate (Andaya, 1993). born in the Makean Island will identify or Therefore, when many Makeanese started are identified by others as the Makeanese coming to Ternate since the mid-20th because their parents or grandparents came century, and after Indonesian independence, from the Makean Island. Even if they do they were considered as backward and hick not speak Makean or are no longer involved by the people in the town of Ternate. We in the togal art but when listening to them, can trace some of the mockeries widely they realise that those are the language and circulated among the Ternatenese in 1960s art belonging to their ethnic group. to 1980s depicting the Makeanese as Unlike the three elements that are backward when they came to the town of relatively durable and more objective in the Ternate. sense that their existence and uniqueness can These backward attributes were then be seen and heard directly, other attributes amplified by the inferior status of the that form the Makean identity as discussed Makeanese child migrants who came in below are more flexible in nature. They great numbers to the Ternate city to continue grow, evolve, disappear and are being with their studies in the 1940s onward. As replaced in accordance with the development they generally did not have relatives and of the Makeanese social transformation. houses in the city of Ternate, the Makean These are the attributes the Makeanese child migrants struggled to find Ternate see and are being seen as educated people citizens of any ethnic background who and as bureaucrats. These elements have could accept them to stay in their houses
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) 1229 Amin, S. and Syamsiar in exchange for doing any housework that teachers and Islamic school teachers since would not be paid by the families to them. and prior to 1960s, many have become The children are locally called anapiara teachers and preachers since the 1970s. while the family who own the house is Since then, the Makeanese have become known as pengampung. prominent in the education sector in North The relationship built between Maluku. This development has improved pengampung-anapiara is asymmetrical the general image of the Makeanese as where a pengampung is very powerful educated people. When answering the while the anapiara only follow the will question on which ethnic group is the most of the pengampung; thus, the anapiara are committed to education and therefore the powerless. A lot of Makean children who most educated one, the answer given by had just graduated from elementary school in both the Makeanese and non-Makeanese their villages migrated to the city of Ternate would be the Makeanese. Sahjad, a lecturer, to enter junior high school in Ternate. At a Ternatenese, said: the age of around 12 years old, they had to “The Makeanese have been the most work hard serving the pengampung family committed to education since long by doing their housework such as cooking, time ago, that’s why they become a gardening, taking water from the well for leading group in education, whereas the entire water needs in the pengampung we, Ternatenese, just began to house. They also had to wash the clothes, seriously continue our school to clean the house and yard, sell fish in the higher degree since around 1980s, market, work as child labour, sell cakes that’s why we are left behind in this for the pengampung and perform many sector”. other chores besides attending school. Although school-going children who came to Ternate and became anapiara were from Wahdah, a Makeanese politician, different ethnic backgrounds, the interviews confidently said, “Today, we the Makean conducted with both the Makeanese and people are the most educated in North non-Makeanese in this study showed that Maluku. We reach it through uneasy the Makeanese was prominent in number. efforts…”. Smith also captures the same The Makeanese anapiara were known to public image of the Makeanese when he be diligent and obedient so the pengampung writes, “By the 1990s, the Makian were in Ternate generally favoured the Makean reportedly the most educated and successful children coming as their anapiara. ethnic group in North Maluku” (2009, p. The result of the development mentioned 96). Many other informants, both elite above is the emergence of a new group of and lay people, share the same subjective educated Makeanese since the 1970s. Given perception as Sahjad and Wahdah. These the fact that many had enrolled as school subjective perceptions from different people
1230 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) Collaboration of Competing Approaches in Ethnicity Studies with different ethnic backgrounds reach until Indonesian independence in the mid- inter-subjectivity when they share the same 20th century (Clercq, 1890; Fraassen, opinion about an issue. The attribute of 1994). The change took place soon after being an educated people is an additional the independence. Since the 1940s, the element for the identity of the Makeanese Makeanese had migrated to the town of ethnic group. However, this does not Ternate to attend schools and Islamic necessarily mean that other local groups schools. Since the 1970s, many of them are not educated. In the eyes of the local have become teachers. However, with people, the Makeanese are more prominent the broadening of education orientation in this regard. since the 1970s, many Makeanese have The above description demonstrates attended non-teacher training schools and the fluidity of an element of ethnic identity. non-Islamic schools. This has spawned By fluidity, we mean a flexibility of an many circles of educated Makeanese who element of ethnic identity to change. In this are not teachers or preachers. They pursue sense, fluidity is a result of social processes other professions outside the religious which involves both the Makeanese with domain such as clinical doctors, lecturers, their social mobility and non-Makeanese engineers and government bureaucrats. in socially constructing the identity. As These originally subordinated and lowly evidences of the fluidity, between 1950s educated people are now educated and hold and 1970s, the Makean people considered key positions in various government offices. themselves and were being regarded by As there are many Makeanese holding Ternate residents as inferior and hick in key positions in provincial governments, sociocultural and political senses. Since both the Makeanese and non-Makeanese the 1970s, as a result of sociocultural attach this attribute to the Makean identity. transformation undergone through education This further adds attributes to the Makeanese by the Makean people, the inferiority and ethnic identity as bureaucrats. It is true that hick attributes of the Makean identity began many key positions in the local government to change and have been replaced with are held by the Makean bureaucrats while more superior elements and the education there are many Makeanese who are teachers, attributes. This is an element of identity peasants, as well as labourers. However, that has recently emerged to replace the old this is the local people’s perception of the element - the backwardness. Makeanese. They often show the success of the Makeanese by pointing to the fact that, at From Subordinate to Leading least until mid-2014 when we finished this Government Bureaucrats research, majority of the key positions in the In the pre-colonial and during the colonial North Maluku government are held by the period, Makeans were subordinate and Makeanese. From 2002 until 2014, Thaib under the control of the Ternate kingdom Armain, a Makeanese, was the governor of
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) 1231 Amin, S. and Syamsiar the North Maluku Province. The regional “we have to admit the fact that secretary was also a Makeanese. Makeanese Makeanese are majority in top rank also had the highest percentage in heading of local government bureaucrats. local government departments (dinas). From We shouldn’t get offensive with that 2002 to 2007, although Makeanese only because they deserve to get it. They comprised 9% of the total North Maluku have better human resources due to population, they represented 33.33% of their great effort on education and heads of departments whereas other main their active involvement in Golkar ethnic groups (Ternate, Tidore, Sanana, and (government political party during Tobelo-Galela) represented only 10-20%. the president Suharto’s New Order) From 2009 to 2013 the percentage increased which bring them to the present to 57.15% whereas other ethnic groups positions”. each represented below 10%. In September 2014 the representation of Makeanese still The same view is also widely held by the stood at 40%, the highest. After September people from different ethnic backgrounds in 2014, however, the new governor and his the region. Smith also found the same views vice-governor, themselves non-Makeanese, expressed when an informant told her that replaced many Makeanese from their top if you want to meet a Makeanese, all you positions mostly with Tidorese and Tobelo- need to do is to go to the governor’s office, Galela bureaucrats. and if you want to meet a Ternatenese just When we asked about the characteristics go to the Gamalama traditional market, and of Makeanese, Ibu Ani, an ordinary if you want to meet a Tidorese just go to the Ternatenese, replied “Makeanese are Bastiong traditional market (2009, p. 95). hard-working farmers who send their Our Ternatenese informant, Sahjad, told children to higher education, these children us that in Ternatenese’s imagination, “the [later] become important people in local place of the Makeanese is in the government government offices... many Makeanese are office, whereas the place of the Ternatenese heads of the local government departments”. is in traditional markets”. Due to the public Bibi Mima, a Makeanese housewife, said image that the government employees “Makeanese usually become bureaucrats”. are better than the vendors in traditional Syahril, a Makeanese lecturer, said “in markets, the above expressions portray how the past we were anapiara, today we are the Makeanese are identified as having a educated and holding key positions in [local] better life as government bureaucrats than government, that’s because we successfully the Ternatenese. went through difficult times in the past”. In the context of political contestation, Similarly, a local famous Golkar politician, ethnic identity becomes very important. Hamid Usman, a Tidorese, stated: When there was a local political election for governorship from 2007 to 2009 between
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Thaib Armain and Abdul Gafur, identity Makeanese as the governor. They also became highly politicised. The element of use symbols such as a canary tree, which ethnic identity as a bureaucrat is closely mainly grows in the Makean island, to related to local political contestation in symbolise Makeanese in their resistance. the name of the ethnic groups. During Amran, a Makeanese, told us “during the the political contestation, there was an political competition between Armain and allegation of Makianisasi of the bureaucracy Gafur, the Gafur’s supporters frequently (a local term used to depicts the increasing expressed statements like “cutting all canary number of Makeanese holding key positions trees in North Maluku” meaning remove all in local government bureaucracy), whereby Makeanese bureaucrats from their positions. the Makean people who were already A previous research also found expressions dominant in bureaucracy made efforts to such as “pull up canary tress until the roots” take over all key positions in provincial (Ahmad, 2012, p.122). Because Armain bureaucracy. was seen as representing Makeanese, these It is important to note that the expressions were not only meant to attack “bureaucrat” component of the Makean him (the incumbent governor) and other identity, as expressed by ibu Ani, bibi Mima, Makeanese holding key positions in local Sahjad and others, is a new phenomenon government but also strike at the Makean that has become apparent since 1990s identity, strengthening the boundaries of and strengthened since the early 2000s the ethnicity between the Makeanese and following the establishment of the North other locals. These phrases depart from the Maluku Province. This image was widely subjective perception that the Makeanese held by different people from different dominate the local government bureaucracy, ethnic backgrounds, and therefore indicating and therefore need to be removed from the an inter-subjectivity among different existing bureaucratic structure. people. This element of identity is socially On the other hand, Armain, the constructed that appears to follow the incumbent governor at that time, considered achievements of the Makeanese in education the attack against the dominant Makeanese and followed by their success in taking up bureaucrats in provincial government local top bureaucratic positions. during the high political conflict from 2007 In a political contest, however, this to 2009 in governorship candidacy as an bureaucrat element of identity is generated, attack on Makean ethnic self-esteem (harga strengthened and manipulated by elites diri) (Ahmad, 2012, p.122). By doing for their political interests. Non-Makean so, he interpreted the attack on Makean groups frequently resisted the Makeanese bureaucrats as an attack on Makean ethnic majority positions in bureaucracy by using identity. During the second half of 2014, a acronyms like ABOM (Asal Bukan Orang new governor, Kasuba, a Tobelo, and his Makean), which means not to choose a vice-governor, Thaib, a Tidorese, replaced
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) 1233 Amin, S. and Syamsiar many Makeanese top bureaucrats with non- of consciousness of objective characteristics Makeanese, mostly Tidorese and Tobelo- such as geographical origin and uniqueness Galela backgrounds. This was seen by of language and art. The three elements Makeanese as an attack on Makean ethnic are the most basic markers of Makean group. A local informal leader of Makean ethnic identity. They are deposited deeper group, Kasim, said “we as an ethnic group in the consciousness of the Makeanese as lost our power because we did not unite well as other local people and therefore, during the governor campaign, now we relatively more stable. Although many must watch how we are kicked out from top Makeanese have migrated to other areas bureaucratic positions”. (Lucardie, 1980), their descendants who In short, bureaucrat as the element of were not born in Makean Island, no longer ethnic identity is socially constructed in line understand the Makean language, favour with the development of vertical mobility of pop songs than togal, their awareness of Makeanese from subordinate to government the three elements of identity is still strong. bureaucrats. The social actors involved in the All the three elements are primordial in construction of that element are Makeanese a cultural sense, but not in biological and other local people, who, in daily social sense. It is important to note that the basis interaction with Makeanse can see, talk, of this consciousness is not a product of narrate, and experience the Makeanese manipulation by the elite, as stressed by the social mobility. Due to the commonly instrumentalists (Sokolovskii & Tishkov, shared knowledge and information, they 2010, pp. 241-241). Even without any elite share an inter-subjective meaning on this contestation, this awareness has been there. attribute of Makean identity. It is the inter- Elite involvements in political contestations subjective meaning that facilitates people simply manipulate the already existing from different ethnic backgrounds to awareness of identity, and not producing it, communicate about the attribute by referring to a level that has a politically significant to the same understanding. This attribute, effect on pursuing their interests. By doing however, in a political contestation, is that, they also strengthen awareness of the strengthened and used by elites to promote existing ethnic boundaries, not create it. their political interests. Although the elite The second layer of the Makean identity have a shared inter-subjective meaning on consists of attributes such as Makeanese the attribute, they tend to use it in such a way being the most educated people and hold top that can support their own political interests. government bureaucratic posts. Although these attributes of identity are shaped Layers of Identity and Collaboration of and maintained through sociocultural Perspectives construction in the interaction between Data indicate that Makean ethnic identity Makeanese and other local people, as has different layers. The first layer consists emphasised by the constructionists (Barth,
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1969), this consciousness actually departs positions. However, when the elite started from combination between the achievements their contestation, the fact of Makeanese’s made by Makeanese in social mobility and “majority” in the key government positions raw materials that are socio-culturally was changed by the anti-Makean camp to “given” or have already existed in the mind Makeanese’s “domination”, which was a of the people such as the place of origin, shift from a neutral term to political one to uniqueness of language and distinctive art magnify the anti-Makean sentiments from as well as. The notion that treats ethnic various non-Makean groups. At the same identity as “a concept which does not refer time, Makean elite interpreted the resistance to actual situation, but to a subjective, and to their majority in top bureaucrats as also contextual and historical, symbolic an attack on Makean self-esteem. Both process of distinction between us and Makeanese and anti-Makeanese elite others” (Prelic, 2011, p. 241) entails risky manipulate the same element of identity, assumption that ethnic identity could be namely, Makeanese is always bureaucrat or constructed instantly without any primordial bureaucrat is always Makeanese, in such a root on the existing objective socio-cultural way that serve their political interests. reality. The socio-cultural construction The foregoing has illustrated the three of an identity, however, requires a basis layers of Makeanese ethnic identity and of objective reality, at least in the mind their relationships. The first layer is the and experience of the people involved. basis for the second layer. Makeanese Therefore, the expression of identity does achievements through social mobility such not take place in a vacuum, as argued by as being seen as educated or bureaucrat the cultural primordialists (Che Man, 1990; cannot be socially constructed as part of Geertz, 1996; Lewis, 1998). Makean identity without linking this group In the third layer, the Makean identity of people to their objective attributes such contains an aspect of identity that appears to as their geographical origin from Makean be prone to political use by the elite. It is a Island or their unique language. social reality that many Makeanese occupy The second layer is the basis for the key positions in the provincial government third layer. In an environment of political body. Therefore, bureaucrat has been competition, any particular element in socially constructed as an element in the the second layer of identity could be identity of the Makeanese. This attribute has intentionally chosen by the elite to attract emerged since 1990s as a result of the long sentiment and support for their political involvement of Makeanese in education, interests. Since the element of identity in this and it has been intensified since the early layer can be easily manipulated for political 2000s due to the installation of the new purposes, it is very fluid and could change province which needed many educated easily. Makeanese frequently become people for the newly formed bureaucrat an important group in the North Maluku
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Figure 1. The three layers of Makeanese ethnic identity and their relationships political contestations. For that reason, in elements of identity in each layer. This studying Makeanese ethnic identity, we results in the development of a more will not be able to comprehend its dynamics comprehensive picture of the dynamics of unless we take all layers of identity into ethnic identity which cover all layers of account. ethnic identity. Since each layer is traditionally studied using different theoretical approaches, CONCLUSION taking all layers into one study needs some It appears that the first layer of identity is steps to collaborate these perspectives. First, more to do with primordial ties to socio- to some extent, we ease the ontological culturally “given” elements that are more differences by bringing all theoretical sustainable. They become the basis or the approaches into dealing with a purely “raw materials” for the second and the third socio-cultural, not biological, domain. layers of ethnic identity. The second layer Second, at the epistemological level, consists of social construction based on we present the different epistemologies the transformation undergone by Makean (objectivist in primordialist approach and people. Therefore, the attributes in this subjectivist-interpretivist in constructivist layer can change, grow, or even disappear in and instrumentalist approaches) in order to accordance with the dynamic development show that they, along with each perspective, of Makeanese. In this layer, we found a shift are dealing with different layers of ethnic in attributes of identity from being backward identity, therefore employing any single migrants and helpless anapiara who initially perspective with its epistemology will not be depended on the Ternate residents to a able to comprehend all layers and dynamics high-status class of educated ethnic group. of ethnic identity. Methodologically, we In relation to this, we also found a shift employ qualitative with a phenomenological in identity as mass-subject, subordinate style which allows us to collect data on
1236 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1223 - 1239 (2016) Collaboration of Competing Approaches in Ethnicity Studies people under the Ternate sultanate during shifted gradually to become an educated pre-independence to leading government group of people who lead the bureaucrats. bureaucrats today. An instrumentalist approach can be used to The third layer contains elements that, uncover how the elite change the neutral although based on the perceptions of social social reality, whereby the “majority” of local reality that the majority of the government government bureaucrats are Makeanese, officials are Makeanese, the reality is to be more political , and the Makeanese uplifted becomes politically importance. “dominate” the local government bureaucrat In this case, the neutral demographic positions. The shift of discourse from term “majority” is changed to a more “majority’ to “dominate” is not simply a political term “domination”, which has an shift from a noun to a verb but more than implication on the political image of all that, it is a shift from a non-political and non-Makeanese about the threat posed by more neutral sense to a more politically Makeanese to their ethnic group. In this threatening sense for the non-Makeanese. context, the elite manipulate the identity The main objective of this study was to markers as a political instrument, not create examine the possibility of collaborating the them. Depending on the political context, traditionally-seen competing approaches in this element is very easy to change. It is clear the field of ethnic identity studies. This study that some attributes of identity are culturally demonstrates that all three approaches in the more primordial in a Geertzian “primordial study of ethnicity – cultural primordialist, ties” sense, and therefore are relatively more constructivist and instrumentalist – should stable, while some are constructed based on not to be applied separately from each other, the social transformation undergone by the let alone treated as competing approaches. Makeanese, although others can suddenly Since each perspective has its unique change according to the elites interests in contribution, to understand the whole the political contestation context. dynamics of ethnic identity, relying on any Finally, this study also reveals that each single perspective can lead to partial and approach has its domain to explore. In the misleading conclusions about the dynamics case of the Makean identity, the cultural of ethnic identity. When one studies primordialist can investigate elements dynamics of ethnic identity in a situation that are deeply rooted in the primordial of political contestation among different attachment of the Makeanese. Nonetheless, ethnic-based groups, it is recommended that it is not fruitful to use constructivist or one should take all layers of identity into instrumentalist approaches to understand account. In the case of Makeanese identity, this area. A constructivist approach is this study indicates the three approaches are more appropriately applied to uncover the complementary to each other in elucidating construction of identity attributes such as the dynamics of Makean ethnic identity in the Makeanese who were originally seen North Maluku. as subordinates and backward and who
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REFERENCES Collins, J. T. (1982). Linguistic Research in Maluku: A Report of Recent Field Work. Oceanic Ahmad, S. (2012). Politik dan Etnik: Studi Kasus Linguistics, 21(1/2), 78-79. Konflik Politik dalam Pemilihan Gubernur- Wakil Gubernur Provinsi Maluku Utara Tahun Fraassen, C. H. F. (1994). Ternate and Its Dependences. 2007 (Unpublished Doctoral thesis). Jakarta, In L.E. Visser (Ed.), Halmahera and Beyond: Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Universitas Social Sciences Research in the Maluccas. Indonesia. Leiden: KITLV Press.
Andaya, L. Y. (1993). The World of Maluku. Honolulu: Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures. New University of Hawaii Press. York: Bacic Books, Inc.
Aragon, L. V. (2007). Persaingan Elit di Sulawesi Geertz, C. (1996). Primordial Ties. In J.Hutchinson Tengah. In Henk, S. N., & Gerry, van-K. (Eds.), and A. D. Smith (Eds.), Ethnicity. Oxford: Politik Lokal di Indonesia. Jakarta: KITLV-YOI. Oxford University Press.
Barth, Fredrik. (1969). Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Huntington, S. P. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations Boston: Little, Brown. and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Chuster. Beckerleg, S. (2010). Ethnic Identity and Development: Khat and Social Change in Africa. Klinken, G. V. (2010). Return of the sultans: The USA: Palgrave Macmillan. communitarian turn in local politics. In J. S. Davidson and D. Henley (Eds.), The Revival of Brass, P. R. (1996). Ethnic Groups and Ethnic Identity Tradition in Indonesian Politics (pp. 149-169). Formation. In J.Hutchinson and A. D. Smith London and New York: Routledge. (Eds.), Ethnicity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lewis, I. M. (1998). Doing Violence to Ethnography: A Response to Catherine Besteman’s Cashmore, E. (2004). Encyclopedia of Race and Ethnic Representating Violence and ‘Othering’ Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Somalia’. Cultural Anthropology, 13(1), 100- Che Man, W. K. (1990). Muslims Separatism: The 108. Moro of Southern Philippines and the Malays Lucardie, G. R. E. (1980). The Makeanese Preliminary of Southern Thailand. Manila: Ateneo de Manila Remarks on the Anthropological Study of a University Press. Migration-Oriented People in the Moluccas. Chin, Y. M., & Lee, Y. F. (2010). Sociological Theories In E.K.M Masinambow (Ed.), Halmahera dan of Race and Ethnicity: Contesting, Substituting Raja Ampat: Konsep dan Strategi Penelitian (pp. or Complementing? Pertanika Journal of Social 347-373). Jakarta: Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Sciences and Humanities, 18(2), 357 – 365. Indonesia.
Clercq, F. S. A. de. (1890). Bijdragen tot de kennis der Mietzner, M. (2009). Autonomy, Democracy, and Residentie Ternate. E. J. Brill: Leiden. Translated Internal Conflict: The 2006 Gubernatorial from the Dutch by Paul Michael Taylor and Elections in Papua. In Maribeth Erb dan Marie N. Richards, 1999. Ternate: The Residency Priyambudi Sulistiyanto (Eds.), Deepening and Its Sultanate. Washington, D.C: Smithsonian Democracy in Indonesia? Singapore: ISEAS. Institution Libraries Digital Edition. Miles, M. B., & Humerman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Cohen, A. (1969). Custom and Politics in Urban Data Analysis. Newbury Park. CA: Sage. Africa. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
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Poyer, L. (1988). Maintaining ‘Otherness’: Sapwuahfik Smith, C. Q. (2009). The Contested State and Politics Cultural Identity. American Ethnologist, 15(3), of Elite Continuity in North Maluku, Indonesia 472-485. (1998-2008). (Unpublished doctoral thesis), London, LSE and Political Science. Prelic, M. (2011). Conceptualization and Symbolization of Ethnic Identity: Serbs in Sokolovski, S., & Tishkov, V. (2002). Ethnicity. In A. Hungary. Cesky Lid, 98(3), 239-260. Barnard and J. Spencer (Eds.), Encyclopesia of Social and Cultural Anthropology. London dan Salamone, F. A. (1975). Becoming Hausa: Ethnic New York: Routledge. Identity Change and Its Implications for the Study of Ethnic Pluralism and Stratification. Tadjoeddin, Mohammad Zulfan. (2001). Database Africa: Journal of the International African on Social Violence in Indonesia, 1990-2001. Institute, 45(4), 410-424. Jakarta: United Nations Support Facility for Indonesian Recovery. Schultz, E. A. (1984). From Pagan to Pullo: Ethnic Identity Change in Northern Cameroon. Africa: Thompson, R. H. (1989). Theories of Ethnicity. New Journal of the International African Institute, York: Greenwood Press. 54(1), 46-64. Van den Berghe, P.L. (1981). The Ethnic Phenomenon. Shaw, P., & Wong, Y. (1989). Genetic Seeds of New York: Elsevier. Warfare: Evolution, Nationalism and Patriotism. Watuseke, F. S. (1976). West Makian, a Language of Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman. the North-Halmahera Group of the West-Irian Shils, E. (1960). Political Development in the New Phylum. Anthropological Linguistics, 18(6), State. Comparative Studies in Society and 274-285. History, 2(3), 265-292. Wilson, C. (2005). The ethnic origins of religious Shils, E. (1957). Primordial, Personal, Sacred, and conflict in North Maluku Province, Indonesia, Civil Ties. British Journal of Sociology, 8(2), 1999-2000. Indonesia, 79, 69-91. 130–45.
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Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1241 - 1252 (2016)
SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
Journal homepage: http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/
Ownership Rights to University Invention: Universities Legal Authority to Exert Ownership Interest or Claim
Ramli, N.*, Zainol, Z. A. and Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A. Faculty of Law, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi Selangor Malaysia
ABSTRACT In the era of technology revolutionisation, universities have taken a huge step forward embarking on research, development, innovation and commercialisation. In order to successfully carry out these missions, a clear ownership of intellectual property generated at the university is crucial to avoid future disputed transactions. Thus, as part of the technology transfer framework at the university, institutional intellectual property policy has been developed as a guideline to ensure smooth and successful management of intellectual property exploitation. The generally practised ownership model of university intellectual property is university ownership compared with inventor ownership. This paper analyses legal authorities which allow a university to exert ownership over intellectual property created within the university, mainly the intellectual property law, contract law employment law and institutional intellectual property policy. Issues on how binding the institutional intellectual property policy of the university is on members are considered to ensure that the university claim over intellectual property is premised on legal perspectives.
Keywords: Intellectual property, university intellectual property policy, university intellectual property ownership, university invention
INTRODUCTION Universities have evolved from teaching and learning institutions into those devoted to research and innovation in addition to
ARTICLE INFO their traditional missions and objectives. Article history: Etzkowitz (2000) coined a new terminology, Received: 30 September 2015 Accepted: 30 January 2016 ‘entrepreneurial university’, to describe the E-mail addresses: latest development concerning universities [email protected] (Ramli, N.), [email protected] (Zainol, Z. A.), An entrepreneurial university refers to a [email protected] (Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A.) * Corresponding author university involved in commercialising
ISSN: 0128-7702 © Universiti Putra Malaysia Press Ramli, N., Zainol, Z. A. and Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A. its innovations. These developments have employment law, contract law and the validated the importance of clear ownership university’s intellectual property policy. of intellectual property created at the university so as to avoid any future disputes INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY and their potential effect on the end result OWNERSHIP LAW of commercialising its intellectual property. A basic rule of intellectual property rights In light of these developments, is that ownership of intellectual property universities have introduced their own at the first instance is conferred on the unique intellectual property policy as a inventor or the creator of the intellectual guide to manage their intellectual property. property. Thus, in line with this and the The university intellectual property intellectual property justifications such as policies are developed at the university labour theory and personality theory, the administration level and they are not author has original claims or rights to his or legally binding compared with the statutory her intellectual property . However, in terms law passed by the Parliament such as of intellectual property law, authorship or the Malaysia Patents Act, 1983 and the inventorship and ownership of intellectual Malaysia Copyright Act, 1987. The question property are two different categories as an arising from the implementation of the inventor or author need not be the owner university’s intellectual property policy of the intellectual property he or she has is whether the policy can legally bind the created. The intellectual property can then university community through employment be transferred from the inventor or author contracts or contracts for admission to to a third party or to the employer if the universities between students and the intellectual property is created or invented university and also contracts between the in the course of employment. In this case, university and its associates. A study the owner of the intellectual property is the involving 10 university researchers from employer. different public universities in Malaysia The exception to this rule is when an found that eight out of 10 researchers were original invention or creation is made by not satisfied with the university claim over an employee in the course of employment their inventions. However, to date, there in which intellectual property rights are have been no reported Malaysian cases of accrued to the employer. For instance, dispute over university intellectual property in Malaysia, ownership of the copyright since all disputes were settled within the as contained in section 26(2)(b) of the university through negotiations. This paper Copyright Act 1987, ownership of copyright discusses the legal elements referred to by works created by employees ‘in the course the university in order to determine the of employment’ is said to accrue to the university intellectual property ownership, employer. Section 26(2)(b) of the Copyright namely the statutes on intellectual property, Act 1987 states:
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“... not having been so commissioned, Morris LJ acknowledged that in this case, is made in the course of the author’s the employer has to pay lecturing expenses employment, the copyright shall and that the accountant may also have used be deemed to be transferred to the facilities and amenities of the company the person who commissioned the at the time of employment to provide the text work or the author’s employer, for the lectures and that the lectures were subject to any agreement between a useful input to the employment contract the parties excluding or limiting of the accountant. However, he found that such transfer....” (Section 26(2)(b) the accountant was not directed to prepare Copyright Act 1987) and deliver the public lecture series. Thus, copyrights for the public lectures were held According to Kamal Halili, the phrase to be owned by the accountant. Citing the ‘in the course of employment’ in accordance judgment, Morris LJ stated that: with the provisions can be interpreted as “…prima facie I should have ‘description of job scope’ or ‘working thought that a man, engaged on time’ of an employee. In order to provide terms which include that he is clarification on the course of employment called upon to compose and deliver of an employee, the court in the case public lectures or lectures to some of Stevenson Jordan & Harrison Ltd v specified class of persons, would MacDonald & Evans (1952) 69 RPC 10, in the absence of clear terms in decided on this issue. In this case, the the contract of employment to the company was claimed ownership of the contrary, be entitled to the copyright copyright for the book written by a former in those lectures. That seems to be employee during his employment. The both just and common sense.”. question that arose from this case was (Stevenson Jordan & Harrison Ltd whether the accountant or the company v MacDonald & Evans) which was an employer to the accountant was entitled to the copyright of a book Judgement in this case shows the produced by him in respect of the public importance of a contract of employment lecture series he presented to discuss in determining ownership of intellectual financial management in business. The property. This is because employment United Kingdom Court of Appeal held relationship can only be determined through that sections of the book related to reports the terms of contract of employment, either prepared during working hours are owned it is a contract of service or contract for by the employer while sections of the book service. dealing with public lectures belonged to the accountant for giving lectures or talks which were not included in the latter’s job scope.
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EMPLOYMENT LAW Thus, in determining the existence of The ownership of intellectual property employment relationship, there are few created or invented by an inventor or author tests created by the courts, namely the can only be transferred to the employer if control test, organisation or integrated test there is an employment relationship between and multiple test (Kamal, 2002; Maimunah, the creator and the employer, that is contract 2011). of service, and in order to differentiate With regards to intellectual property between contract of service and contract rights in the universities, workers are for service, reference can be made to the employees of the university and the law case of Stevenson Jordan & Harrison Ltd provides that if an employee has created v MacDonald & Evans (1952) 69 RPC 10, an intellectual property in the course of where Lord Denning held that: employment, the university as an employer owns the intellectual property, unless there “It is often easy to recognise a is a contract at the beginning of the period contract of service when you see of employment stating otherwise. The legal it, but difficult to say wherein the position is clear to every type of intellectual difference lies. A ship’s master, property. a chauffeur and a reporter or the staff of a newspaper are all CONTRACT employed under a contract of A contract is one way of determining service; but a ship’s pilot, a taxi university intellectual property rights man and a newspaper contributor because the university’s relationship with are employed under a contract for intellectual property creators at the university services. One feature which seems is contractual. For employees, employment to run through the instances is that, contract entered into with the university under a contract of service, a man is binding on both parties as well as all is employed as part of the business, statutory provisions relating to employment and his work is done as an integral relationship. As for the students, (the part of the business; whereas under relationship between students and the a contract for services, his work, university is also contractual (Monotti & although done for the business, is Ricketson, 2003; Patel, 1996; Lewis, 1983). not integrated into it, but is only Similarly, the relationship with university accessory to it”. (Stevenson Jordan associates is also contractual. & Harrison Ltd v MacDonald & A contract is an agreement enforceable Evans) by law and thus, legally binding on the contracting parties when all the elements are fulfilled (Section 2(h) Contracts Act 1950; Sinnadurai, 2003; Mohaimin, 2009). Among
1244 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1241 - 1252 (2016) Ownership Rights to University Invention the elements of contracts are proposal, AIM AND SCOPE OF UNIVERSITY acceptance, consideration, intention INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY POLICY to create legally binding relationship, competence, free consent of the parties and The university involvement in the validity of contract (Ahmad & Abdul, 2003; commercialisation of its intellectual property Sinnadurai, 2003; Mohaimin, 2009). has turned the institution into a business There are two types of contracts entity dealing with various business matters relevant to university intellectual property such as patent applications, technology rights, namely employment contracts and transfer agreements, confidentiality and contracts of assignment. Thus, the terms the distribution of royalties (Bertha, 1996). of the contract should be drafted in clear The university intellectual property policy terms describing allocation of intellectual has become a part of the framework for property ownership created at the university. technology transfer at the university Besides statutory provisions, employment (Monotti & Ricketson, 2003) whereby this law and terms of contract, ownership of policy is intended to manage the intellectual university intellectual property is also property generated within universities, to determined through intellectual property stimulate the development of science and policy developed at the university level. technology and also to ensure that any invention created within the university will INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY be fully exploited for the benefit of society. POLICY According to the “Guidelines on Universities policies are meant to be Developing Intellectual Property Policy followed by members of the universities for Universities and R & D Organizations’ which include academicians, researchers, issued by WIPO , there are six fundamental students, non-academicians and associates areas of basic university intellectual or in some universities, they are known as property policy. They are (i) the coverage visitors. For instance, paragraph 1.1 of the of basic intellectual property, (ii) allocation UKM Intellectual Property Policy states of intellectual property ownership, (iii) that: disclosure of intellectual property, (iv) commercialisation and licensing of patents, “This Policy is applicable to all (v) the distribution of royalties and (vi) the persons, including Employees, rights and responsibilities of the creator to the Students and Associates”. university. In Malaysia, the five fundamental (UKM Intellectual Property Policy, areas of intellectual property policy looking 2010) at intellectual property policies of five research universities in Malaysia are (i) the ownership of intellectual property rights,
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(ii) management and commercialisation property rights. Some policies provide for of intellectual property rights, (iii) income ownership according to the category of distribution (iv) the dispute resolution creator that are employees of the university, and (v) collaboration. It is submitted that students and associates. In the area of intellectual property policies at research management and commercialisation of universities in Malaysia are in line with intellectual property rights, the policy lays the guidelines issued by WIPO. Table 1 down the importance and role of university compares five main scopes of the university technology transfer office (TTO) in the intellectual property policy among the five management and commercialisation of research universities in Malaysia. university intellectual property. The TTO’s Based on Table 1, there are five scopes in role includes assessing the intellectual the intellectual property policy of Universiti property, carrying out the process and Malaya, Universiti Sains Malaysia and management of intellectual property Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. The protection, transferring technology, widening intellectual property policy at Universiti the relationship with potential industries to Kebangsaan Malaysia does not mention the commercialise intellectual property and also scope of collaboration while Universiti Putra to promote commercialisation of university Malaysia Research Policy contains only two intellectual property. scopes, namely distribution of income and The third scope is the provisions for commercialisation. The scope of university distribution of income which are contained intellectual property policy is under the in the university intellectual property discretion of university management. policies in order to avoid disputes between The first scope of university intellectual the parties concerned. The fourth scope is property policy is regarding intellectual on dispute resolution which provides for
Table 1 Comparison of Intellectual Property Policy Scopes between Malaysian Research Universities
University Ownership of Management and Income Dispute Collaboration Intellectual Commercialisation of Distribution Resolution Property Intellectual Property Universiti Malaya ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Universiti ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Kebangsaan Malaysia Universiti Sains ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Malaysia Universiti Putra ✔ ✔ ✔ Malaysia Universiti ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Teknologi Malaysia Source: Author
1246 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1241 - 1252 (2016) Ownership Rights to University Invention an arbitration council set up to help solve of this Constitution and of the disputes regarding university intellectual Statutes, Rules and Regulations, property. The fifth scope is on collaboration all powers and duties conferred whereby intellectual property policy or imposed upon the University by provides guidelines for the management such provisions.” (Article 3(e) of of intellectual property resulting from University Constitution) collaborative research. The power given to the university VALIDITY OF UNIVERSITY may be exercised by the authorities such INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY as the University Board, the Senate, the POLICY University Management Committee or by The validity of university intellectual Faculty, School, Centre, Academy, Institute, property policies is often the issue in dispute Education Committee, the Selection among the creators be they employees, Committee, Welfare Committee employee, students or associates with the university. Student Welfare Committee, and other The question of the validity of university bodies as may be prescribed by the Statute policy depends on whether the university as the University Authority. has the power to enact any policies including Article 16 of the University Constitution the intellectual property policy. In Malaysia, states that the board of university has the power to enact laws in universities the power to manage, create and oversee is provided for in the constitution of the university policy and may exercise all the university contained in the First Schedule powers given to the University. However, of the Universities and University Colleges Article 16(2) of the University Constitution Act 1971. provides that the Board has no authority to Article 3 (e) of the constitution approve any resolution, which is within the empowers the university to carry out and power of the Senate, though they are allowed implement the statutes, rules and regulations to offer their views for consideration by the of the university. This article states that: Senate. The senate, under Article 17, is “… the Chancellor, the Pro- an academic body of the university and Chancellors, the Vice-Chancellor, has the authority to regulate on matters of the Board and the Senate are hereby teaching, examination, investigation and constituted a body corporate with award of degrees. In addition, the Senate perpetual succession, and with full has the power to shape policies and methods power and authority under such of teaching, education, examination, name; research, scholarship and training conducted within the university as well as formulate (e)To exercise and perform, in policies to protect academic freedom and accordance with the provisions professional excellence. Article 29 (5) of
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1241 - 1252 (2016) 1247 Ramli, N., Zainol, Z. A. and Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A. the Constitution states that “Regulations Gray for the purpose of commercialisation may be made by any Authority if it is so of these patents. The question posed before empowered by this Constitution, Statute or the court was whether Gray had breached his Rules”. The Constitution also requires that employment contract. Terms of the contract each university statutes and rules legislated of service stated that his job responsibilities should be published, as provided for under are “to teach, to undertake research, to Article 30(1) of the Constitution: organize research and generally to stimulate research among the staff and students.” When any new Statute or Rules is The court ruled that Gray does not have made, amended or revoked every the responsibility to invent. In addition, the such Statute, Rules, amendment or High Court of Australia considered whether revocation shall be published in the Gray violated the employment contract Gazette and in such other manner by failing to comply with two university as the Board may direct. (Article policies referred to by the university within 30(1) of University Constitution) the terms of the employment contract. These policies were the Patents Regulations and The Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, the Intellectual Property Regulations. in drafting the UKM Intellectual Property Policy 2010, began with proposals or drafts of Research and Innovation Planning Committee on 30 September, 2009. This proposal was brought to the meeting of the Senate for endorsement on 23 October, 2009. Finally, on December 24, 2009, the draft of Intellectual Property Policy was recommended by the Senate and it was endorsed and approved by the university. The issue of the validity of intellectual property policy developed by the university has been disputed in the case of University of Western Australia v Gray (No 20) [2008] FCA 498. Dr Gray was employed by the
University of Western Australia (UWA) as a Figure 1. Flow Chart of the Process of Legislating professor of surgery. During his employment University Policy in UKM (Source: Author) period, Gray applied for several patents for inventions and ownership of these patents The first policy, the Patents Regulation, were subsequently transferred to a company, was implemented in 1975 and its scope Sirtex Medical Ltd., which was founded by included the establishment of a Patent
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Committee, disclosure of inventions to Section 14 of the same Act also stated the Vice Chancellor and the transfer of that: ownership of the invention to the University “Control and management of real of Western Australia. The second policy and personal property vested in or was the Intellectual Property Regulations acquired by UWA is also conferred implemented in 1997. Under this policy, a upon the Senate.” (University of committee known as Intellectual Property Western Australia v Gray) Committee was formed and empowered to make guidelines for the disclosure of potential inventions to be patented In addition to the jurisdiction conferred to the Vice-Chancellor. Moreover, both to the senate in the above provisions, Section these regulations provided for university 31 of the Act empowers the Senate to make, intellectual property ownership created amend and change the statute for matters by the employee. Under Rule 4(4) of the related to (i) management, administration Intellectual Property Regulations and and discipline at the university, (ii) the Rule 6(3) of the Patents Regulations, the appointment and dismissal of deans, university owns all intellectual property professors, lecturers and other employees (unless the copyright), which is created by at the university, and (iii) control and invest an employee during the employment period. the assets of the university. In formulating its According to French J , the issue of policy-making procedure at the University validity of the regulation by the University of Western Australia, French J decided that: of Western Australia can be determined “By section 31(2) the draft of through reference to the provisions under every proposed Statute is to be the University of Western Australia Act, submitted to the Convocation for its which empowers the university Senate to consideration. Under section 31(3) enact laws on universities. Section 5 of the the Convocation may consider and Act provides that the Senate is the power of draft amendments to the proposed the university authorities. Section 13 of the statute and return the draft to the University of Western Australia empowers Senate. If the Senate agrees, it may the Senate to control and manage the affairs forthwith make the Statute. If it of the university and states that the Senate: does not, there is a process for a “… may from time to time appoint conference between the Senate and deans, professors, lecturers, the Convocation. Where agreement examiners, and other officers and cannot be reached, the Senate can servants of the University …” nevertheless make the statute. (University of Western Australia By section 33 Statutes require v Gray) approval of the Governor and
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must be published in the Gazette management of university property. The and “shall thereupon have the court ruled that the university does not have force of law”. They are subject to the power to make regulations that encroach annulment by resolution of either on other people’s property rights. House of Parliament.” (University French J held that: of Western Australia v Gray) “Moreover, in my opinion, such The University of Western Australia’s provisions of the Regulations statute drafting procedure can be formulated made by UWA as purport to vest as a Figure 2. intellectual property rights in it In regard to the provisions on university or interfere with the intellectual power, the court held that both the rules property generated by its academic by UWA were invalid because they were staff, are not valid. UWA did not rely outside the authorised power that allowed upon the earlier Patents Regulations the University of Western Australia to as a source of its property legislate under the University of Western rights. But the IP Regulations Australia Act. This Act empowers the assert ownership by UWA of all members of the university Senate to make intellectual property developed by regulations relating to the control and its staff (apart from most copyright).
Figure 2. Flow Chart of Statute Legislation at the University of Western Australia in the UWA v Gray Case (Source: Author
1250 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1241 - 1252 (2016) Ownership Rights to University Invention
UWA was authorised, by the UWA the regulation is not valid for the Act, to make regulations relating to reasons I have outlined then it could the control and management of its not be said that it was intended by own property. It was not authorised either party that compliance with by the Act to make regulations an invalid regulation could become acquiring property from others a contractual obligation. The or interfering with their rights.” incorporation of the Statutes and (University of Western Australia the Regulations of the university v Gray) into staff contracts is, in my opinion, posited on their validity.” Hence, the rules for intellectual property (University of Western Australia v rights regarding inventions by university Gray) employees as well as any regulations relating to the management of intellectual property According to the Gray case, provided are not valid. The Court has also ruled that that the policy is formulated in accordance in determining university policies, the term with the university’s procedure, all which was inserted into the employment university staff are obliged to comply with contract of Gray, the university’s policy any policies formulated by the university, should be valid in order to be enforceable including university intellectual property and in this case, there was no breach of the policies. For workers, the terms of the employment contract by Gray as the basic service contract also clearly state that university Patent Regulation and Intellectual employees must adhere to any university Property Regulation was found to be policies, including the intellectual property invalid because the university acted beyond policy, and that the workers are bound by perpetrated legal power. The Court held: the regulations contained in the policy. According to the outcomes of the Gray case, “Property rights vested by contract a university policy can only be effective if in the university or otherwise there are proper procedures and approval by devolving on the university can be the Senate of the law-making body of the protected, managed and controlled University of Western Australia. by statute or regulation as can any of University intellectual property policies its property. However UWA cannot, can only be enforced if the procedure is by regulation, acquire property from followed in full within the jurisdiction of its staff members. The position is no the university as provided by the statute or different where the staff member’s the constitution of the university. University contract embodies a regulation, intellectual property policies can bind which purports to declare that employees, students and associates in the intellectual property generated by event this policy is valid and provided for him or her belonged to UWA. If
Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1241 - 1252 (2016) 1251 Ramli, N., Zainol, Z. A. and Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A. in the employment contract or in a contract Monotti, A., & Ricketson, S. (2003). Universities between the university and the students and and Intellectual Property Ownership and associates. Exploitation. New York: Oxford University Press.
CONCLUSION Patel, S. H. (1996). Graduate Students’ Ownership and Attribution Rights in Intellectual Property, In conclusion, a university could claim India Law Journal, 71, 481. ownership of intellectual property created Sakina S. A. Y., & Azimon Abdul Aziz. (2003). at the university if it is based on statutory Mengenali Undang-undang Kontrak Malaysia. provisions on intellectual property Petaling Jaya: International Law Book Services. ownership, employment law that determines Sinnadurai, V. (2003). Law of Contract (3rd ed.). the employer-employee relationship and Kuala Lumpur: Lexis Nexis Butterworth. also on contract law. Besides that, the university’s intellectual property policy must Stevenson Jordan & Harrison Ltd v MacDonald & Evans [1952] 1 TLR 101. also provide guidelines on the allocation of university intellectual property ownership Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. (2010). UKM provided that the policy is legally valid to Intellectual Property Policy 2010. Bangi: UKM Press. bind members of the university. University of Malaya. (2010). Intellectual Property REFERENCES Policy for University of Malaya. UM Centre of Innovation and Commercialization UMCIC. Bertha, S. L. (1996). Intellectual Property Activities at U.S. Research Universities. IDEA, The Journal University of Western Australia v Gray (No 20) [2008] of Law and Technology, 36, 513. FCA 498.
Etzkowitz, H., Webster, A., Gebhardt, C., & Terra, B. Universiti Putra Malaysia. (2007). UPM Research R. C. (2000). The future of the university and the Policy. Retrieved from http://www.upm.edu.my/ university of the future: evolution of ivory tower dokumen UPM_Research_Policy.pdf. to entrepreneurial paradigm. Research policy, Universiti Sains Malaysia. (2009). Universiti Sains 29(2), 313-330. Malaysia Intellectual Property Policy. Research Kamal, H. H. (2002) Isu Harta Intelek dalam and Innovation Division, USM. Hubungan Majikan-Pekerja. Malaysian Law Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. (1999). Intellectual Journal, 3, lxxiii. Property Policy Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Lewis, C. B. (1983). The Legal Nature of a University Research and Management Centre, UTM. and the Student-University Relationship. Ottawa World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO. Law Review, 15, 249-254. (n.d). Guidelines on Developing Intellectual Maimunah, A. (2011). Malaysian Industrial Relations Property Policy for Universities and R & D and Employment Law, Kuala Lumpur: McGraw Organizations. WIPO. Hill Education.
Mohaimin, A. A. (2009). Law of Contract in Malaysia, Sweet and Maxwell Asia. Petaling Jaya.
1252 Pertanika J. Soc. Sci. & Hum. 24 (3): 1241 - 1252 (2016) REFEREES FOR THE PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES VOL. 24(3) SEPT. 2016
The Editorial Board of the Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities wishes to thank the following:
Abdul Basir Mohamad Ho Jo Ann Noormala Amir Ishak (UKM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) (UiTM, Malaysia) Ain Nadzimah Abdullah Ida Madieha Abdul Ghani Nordin Abd. Razak (UPM, Malaysia) Azmi (USM, Malaysia) (IIUM, Malaysia) Ang Lay Hoon Ramizah Wan Muhamad (UPM, Malaysia) Jaime Orejan (IIUM, Malaysia) (Adelphi University, USA) Anusha U. R. Rosya Izyanie Shamshudeen (Pondicherry University, India) Junhai Guo (UPM, Malaysia) (Kyushu University, Japan) Asok Kumar Ghosh Sam Fungshan Yim (UTAR, Malaysia) Kiranjeet Kaur Dhillon (Jordan Evangelical Theological (UiTM, Malaysia) Seminary, Jordan) Chan Swee Heng (UPM, Malaysia) Kwame Ampofo Boateng Sarjit Kaur (UiTM, Malaysia) (USM, Malaysia) Chan Yuen Fook (UiTM, Malaysia) Lee Geok Imm Sarjit Singh Darshan Singh (UPM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Deanna L. Sharpe (University of Missouri, Columbia, USA) Lee Yok Fee Setiono Sugiharto (UPM, Malaysia) (Universitas Katolik Atma Jaya, Dessy Irawati Indonesia) (Radboud University, The Netherlands) Lo May Chiun (UNIMAS, Malaysia) Shakila Abd. Manan Faridah Ibrahim (USM, Malaysia) (IUKL, Malaysia) Margaret Kiley (Australian National University, Suzi Fadhilah Ismail Fauziah Ahmad Australia) (UIAM, Malaysia) (UKM, Malaysia) Mohamad Fazli Sabri Tsang Shu Ming Goh Ying Soon (UPM, Malaysia) (Hong Kong Shue Yan University, Hong (UiTM, Malaysia) Kong) Mohamad Rashidi Mohd Goi Chai Lee Umamaheswara Rao Bontha (Curtin University, Malaysia) Pakri (Dhofar University, Oman) (USM, Malaysia) Goi Mei Teh Vahid Nimehchisalem (IUKL, Malaysia) Mohani Abdul (UPM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Gurnam Kaur Sidhu Vijay Thakur (UiTM, Malaysia) Mohd Naqib Ishan Jan (Dhofar University, Oman) (IIUM, Malaysia) Hasani Mohd Ali Yuhanif Yusof (UKM, Malaysia) Mohd Nizam Osman (UUM, Malaysia) (UPM, Malaysia) Haslinda Hasan (UMS, Malaysia) Munir Shuib (USM, Malaysia)
IIUM - International Islamic University Malaysia UiTM - Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia UNIMAS - Universiti Malaysia Sarawak UTAR - Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman IUKL - Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur UKM - Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia UPM - Universiti Putra Malaysia UUM - Universiti Utara Malaysia UIAM - Universiti Islam Antarabangsa Malaysia UMS - Universiti Malaysia Sabah USM - Universiti Sains Malaysia
While every effort has been made to include a complete list of referees for the period stated above, however if any name(s) have been omitted unintentionally or spelt incorrectly, please notify the Chief Executive Editor, Pertanika Journals at [email protected]. Any inclusion or exclusion of name(s) on this page does not commit the Pertanika Editorial Office, nor the UPM Press or the University to provide any liability for whatsoever reason.
Pertanika Journals Our goal is to bring high quality research to the widest possible audience
INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS (Manuscript Preparation & Submission Guide) Revised: June 2016
Please read the Pertanika guidelines and follow these instructions carefully. Manuscripts not adhering to the instructions will be returned for revision without review. The Chief Executive Editor reserves the right to return manuscripts that are not prepared in accordance with these guidelines.
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Failure to comply with these specifications will require new figures and delay in publication. NOTE: Illustrations may be produced in colour at no extra cost at the discretion of the Publisher; the author could be charged Malaysian Ringgit 50 for each colour page.
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SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS Owing to the volume of manuscripts we receive, we must insist that all submissions be made electronically using the online submission system ScholarOne™, a web-based portal by Thomson Reuters. For more information, go to our web page and click “Online Submission”. Submission Checklist 1. MANUSCRIPT: Ensure your MS has followed the Pertanika style particularly the first four pages as explained earlier. The article should be written in a good academic style and provide an accurate and succinct description of the contents ensuring that grammar and spelling errors have been corrected before submission. It should also not exceed the suggested length.
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HARDCOPIES OF THE JOURNALS AND OFF PRINTS Under the Journal’s open access initiative, authors can choose to download free material (via PDF link) from any of the journal issues from Pertanika’s website. Under “Browse Journals” you will see a link, “Current Issues” or “Archives”. Here you will get access to all current and back-issues from 1978 onwards.
The corresponding author for all articles will receive one complimentary hardcopy of the journal in which his/her articles is published. In addition, 20 off prints of the full text of their article will also be provided. Additional copies of the journals may be purchased by writing to the Chief Executive Editor.
The Role of Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Litigation in Malaysia 1057 Ahmad, M. and Rohana, A. R.
ESL Lecturers’ Perceptions on using i-MoL as a Mobile-Based Tool for 1069 Teaching Grammar Ganapathy, M., Shuib, M., Gunasegaran, T. and Azizan, S. N.
Washback Effect of School-based English Language Assessment: 1087 A Case-Study on Students’ Perceptions Alla Baksh, M. A., Mohd Sallehhudin, A. A., Tayeb, Y. A. and Norhaslinda, H.
A Comparative Analysis of Pakistani English Newspaper Editorials: 1105 The Case of Taliban’s Attack on Malala Yousafzai Hayat, N. and Juliana, A. W.
Online Shopping Preference and M-Payment Acceptance: A Case Study 1121 among Klang Valley Online Shoppers Penny, L., Chew, W. L., Raja, R. and Lim, H. A.
Cultures of Teaching: Mapping the Teacher Professional Development 1139 Terrain Chantarath Hongboontri and Mananya Jantayasakorn
Studying a Television Audience in Malaysia: A Practice of Audience 1165 Ethnography in Kampung Papitusulem, Sabak Bernam, Selangor Rofil, L. E. F., Syed, M. A. M. and Hamzah, A.
Controversies in Stylistics: Leading to the Culmination of New Approaches 1181 Norhaslinda, H.
Factors Contributing to the Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World: 1195 An Exploratory Study Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J. and Sultana, T.
Iranian EFL Learners’ Perception of the use of Communication Strategies 1211 and Gender Effect Moazen, M., Kafipour, R. and Soori, A.
The Dynamics of Makean Ethnic Identity in North Maluku, Indonesia: 1223 A Possible Collaboration of Competing Approaches Amin, S. and Syamsiar
Ownership Rights to University Invention: Universities Legal Authority to 1241 Exert Ownership Interest or Claim Ramli, N., Zainol, Z. A. and Tengku Zainuddin T. N. A. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities
Vol. 24 (3) Sept. 2016 Contents
Foreword i Nayan Deep S. Kanwal
Review Article Transforming Agriculture Research into Commercialisation: 907 Experience of Universiti Putra Malaysia Mohd-Azmi, M. L., Jesse, F. F. A., Sarah, S. A., Roslan, S., Zuraidah, A. and Hambali, I. U.
Regular Articles The Legal Perspective of Khalwat (Close Proximity) as a Shariah Criminal 923 Offence in Malaysia Siti Zubaidah Ismail
Motivation and Study Engagement: A Study of Muslim Undergraduates 937 in Malaysia Arif Hassan and Ibrahim Al-Jubari
This Far and No Further: Barriers in the Managerial Woman’s Journey to 953 the Top Vol. 2016 24 (3) Sept. Surbhi Kapur, Ratika Mehrotra and Nandini Banerjee
Customer Retaliatory Complaining: An Extension of Customer Complainin g 971 Behaviour (CCB) Nor Irvoni Mohd Ishar and Rosmimah Mohd Roslin
A Qualitative Study of the Post-80 Generation in Career Development Realm 991 in Hong Kong, China Ng Yin-ling, Tabitha
Exploratory Factor Analysis: Blended Motivation of Malay Students 1011 Learning Mandarin as a Foreign Language Tan, T. G., Hairul Nizam Ismail and Ooi, A. E.
Instrumental and Hostile Aggression among the Fans of Padideh Soccer 1025 VOL. 24 (3) SEPT. 2016 Club of Iran Saeid Kabiri, Mohammad Mahdi Rahmati and Mahmoud Sharepour
Modelling Business Responsibility of SMEs: A Study Based on the 1043 Stakeholder Approach Ginta Ginting
Pertanika Editorial O ce, Journal Division O ce of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (R&I) 1st Floor, IDEA Tower II UPM-MTDC Technology Centre Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang Selangor Darul Ehsan Malaysia http://www.pertanika.upm.edu.my/ E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +603 8947 1622 / 1619