American Psychologist

© 2018 American Psychological Association 2018, Vol. 73, No. 6, 827–839 0003-066X/18/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000252

Moral Meta-, Marginalization, and Youth Development

José M. Causadias and Kimberly A. Updegraff Willis F. Overton Arizona State University Temple University

Morality, a central dimension of , is crucial for research on the development of youth experiencing marginalization. In this article, we discuss two main meta-narratives as moral frameworks that provide different meaning to the past and to cultural change: liberal , focused on the struggle of those who have historically experienced marginalization (e.g., racial/ethnic minorities), and community lost, focused on those who are experiencing some forms of marginalization in response to cultural and economic changes (e.g., rural Whites). Because these two meta-narratives represent a false dichotomy, we use relational —, of opposites, opposites of identity, and synthesis of wholes—to formulate an integrated metanarrative, community progress, to overcome this polarity and promote research on the development of all youth experiencing marginalization. Acknowledging and understanding these moral meta-narratives is crucial because they influence scientific discourse, political action, and policy that impacts marginalization and youth development.

Keywords: culture, , meta-narratives, marginalization, development

Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000252.supp

The role of culture,1 as well as research on racial/ethnic search (e.g., García Coll, Akerman, & Cicchetti, 2000; S. minority youth (henceforth, minority youth2), have been Graham, 1992; MacPhee, Kreutzer, & Fritz, 1994; McLoyd historically neglected in developmental science. If margin- & Randolph, 1985). One of the major achievements of alization is defined as relegating and groups to the García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) integrative model is that fringe of society, both culture and minority youth have it addressed both forms of marginalization by placing cul- experienced considerable marginalization in developmental ture and minorities at the forefront of developmental sci- research. It took decades for scholars to convince their ence. colleagues that culture is not peripheral but of central im- In this article, we advance this endeavor by presenting portance in human development (e.g., Quintana et al., 2006; morality as a domain of culture that is often neglected in Rogoff, 2003; Super & Harkness, 1986) and that minority developmental research on marginalization and by discussing youth are under- and misrepresented in developmental re- the role of meta-narratives as moral frameworks that have profound impact on the development of youth experiencing marginalization.3 We center on two opposing meta-narratives that are implicitly used to approach youth marginalization: Editor’s note. This article is part of a special issue, “New Directions in This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. liberal progress and community lost.WeuseOverton’s (2010, Developmental Science With Youth Experiencing Marginalization” pub- This article is intended solely for the personal use oflished the individual user and is not to bein disseminated broadly. the September 2018 issue of American Psychologist. José M. 2015) relational epistemology to frame and propose their in- Causadias and Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor served as guest editors of the tegration. Fundamental split dichotomies, such as these oppos- special issue, with Jacquelynne S. Eccles as advisory editor.

Authors’ note. José M. Causadias and Kimberly A. Updegraff, T. 1 We define culture as a system of practices, , values, and ideals Denny Sanford School of Social and Dynamics, Arizona State that are shared by a community, transmitted from one generation to the University; Willis F. Overton, Department of Psychology, Temple Univer- next, dynamic and constantly changing, operating at the individual and sity. societal levels, and related to ethnicity and race (Causadias, 2013; Cohen, This work did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in 2009; Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). 2 We use the term minorities to represent membership in any non-White the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. groups in the United States, including, but not limited to, African Ameri- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to José M. cans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Native Americans, and Pacific Islanders. Causadias, T. Denny Sanford School of Social and Family Dynamics, 3 Consistent with the editorial for this special issue (see Causadias & Arizona State University, Cowden Family Resources Building, 850 South Umaña-Taylor, 2018), we focus on “youth experiencing marginalization” Cady Mall, Tempe, AZ 85281. E-mail: [email protected] or “youth marginalization” rather than “marginalized youth.”

827 828 CAUSADIAS, UPDEGRAFF, AND OVERTON

cognitive developmental theory of moral reasoning that posits an invariant sequence of stages through which individuals progress. Although this theory was informed by data from youth and young adult males in the United States (Colby et al., 1983; Kohlberg, 1963), Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning were postulated as universal (e.g., Nisan & Kohlberg, 1982; Snarey, Reimer, & Kohlberg, 1985). However, scholars have argued that moral reasoning among children from different cultural groups are broader than the concepts articu- lated by cognitiveϪdevelopmental (Kohlberg, 1963) and do- main approaches (Turiel, 1983). Efforts to integrate developmental and cultural perspec- tives on moral reasoning has led to an expansion of the concepts that are pertinent to moral development to better represent the diversity of human in different (Jensen, 2008). One such model involves an em- phasis on moral reasoning regarding (i.e., indi- vidual and needs), divinity (i.e., spirituality, religios- ity, and divine ), and community ( and José M. concerns for the group’s welfare; Jensen, 2008; Shweder, Causadias Much, Mahapatra, & Park, 1997). These expanded concepts of morality are pertinent to the study of youth marginaliza- tion in the United States. For example, many Latino youth ing meta-narratives, are typical of Cartesian dualistic episte- are socialized to concepts of community, such as mologies. However, from a relational epistemological placing the needs of the family above the needs of the viewpoint this separation represents a false dichotomy, because individual (Sabogal, Marín, Otero-Sabogal, Marín, & Perez- both are in constant interpenetration, coaction, and reciprocal Stable, 1987). As such, understanding moral development bidirectionality (Overton, 2010, 2015). We employ relational from a perspective that is informed by developmental and epistemological principles—holism, identity of opposites, op- cultural models has the potential to advance the field. But it posites of identity, and synthesis of wholes—to approach these also entails recognition of the supraindividual of meta-narratives and developmental research on youth experi- culture (Kitayama & Uskul, 2011), the acknowledgment encing marginalization and to formulate a new integrated that morality goes beyond the development of moral rea- metanarrative: community progress. We believe this metanar- soning at the individual level. It also operates at the societal rative can guide research, policy, and interventions to support level through moral meta-narratives that impact the devel- the development of all youth experiencing marginalization. opment of youth experiencing marginalization. Following García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) integrative model, we focus primarily on youth residing in the United States. Morality and Meta-Narratives Morality4 specifies ideals, norms, values, , , and Culture, Morality, and Development goals (Wuthnow, 1987), informing the distinction between García Coll and colleagues (1996) situated cultural influ- good and bad, right and wrong, fair and unfair, and meaningful This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedences publishers. in minority youth development not as isolated but within and meaningless (Smith, 2003). Morality is made of interre- This article is intended solely for the personal use ofthe the individual user and is dominant not to be disseminated broadly. stratification system of society. According to this lated sets of values, rules, practices, identities, and organiza- framework, minority youth development is inherently linked to tions that work together to regulate individual behavior and culture, ethnicity, race, gender, and class. Reflecting on the role make social life possible. For individuals, morality provides a of morality can further advance the understanding of margin- cohesive—but not always coherent— of assumptions, ex- alization, because morality plays a central role in human de- pectations, commitments, beliefs, aspirations, thoughts, judg- velopment and culture (Jensen, 2008, 2015). Moral develop- ments, obligations, and feelings. But morality is not merely a ment is conceptualized as a universal aspect of children’s set of abstractions far removed from everyday life. Morality is socialization in all cultures and societies (Jensen, 2015). Within the field of developmental psychology, research has 4 We rely on some of the premises of Haidt and Graham’s moral focused heavily on the development of children’s moral rea- foundations theory (J. Graham & Haidt, 2010; J. Graham, Haidt, & Nosek, 2009; Haidt & Graham, 2007). However, a detailed discussion of this soning regarding principles of , fairness, and individual theory goes beyond the scope and aims of this article. For a comprehensive rights (see Haidt, 2008). Kohlberg (1963, 1969) proposed a review, see Haidt (2012). META-NARRATIVES 829

development has often focused on the role of master narra- tives, these are typically rooted in the work of Erik Erikson and focus on identity (Hammack & Pilecki, 2012; McLean & Syed, 2015). In contrast, our approach to meta-narratives is grounded in the work of Smith (2003) and Haidt (2008, 2012) and centers on morality. Moral meta-narratives (henceforth, meta-narratives) are a unique form of narratives. They are broader and more encompassing than are single narratives and master narra- tives,5 in that they include, in some cases, all , experience, and meaning in a single story. Meta-Narratives function like invisible constitutions that guide and inspire communities. They are shared stories that lay out the foun- dation for a moral order, offering a system of beliefs, , and obligations (Haidt, 2008). Meta-Narratives go beyond chronicles of separate events placed in , but they aspire to express the magnitude and meaning of actions and events in a unified, interconnected (de Rivera & Sarbin, 1998). Meta-Narratives are therefore pur- Kimberly A. posefully created to provide accounts and meaning to hu- Updegraff man history, usually by articulating three common compo- nents: (a) a cast of characters who are the subjects or objects a call for action, a motivating engine to enact and sustain moral of action; (b) a plot with a structured sequence of beginning, orders, a framework that inspires individuals to pursue what is middle, and end, although not always in that order; and (c) good, valued, and just (Smith, 2003). For groups, communities, the transmission of an important message, whether it is a societies, and nations, morality is enacted collectively in social , explanation, or insight about life and the world practices, , and . Morality is personified by (Smith, 2003). Many Western meta-narratives parallel or institutions and therefore not merely limited to subjective con- emulate the Christian , including elements of par- cerns for rules and values (J. Graham & Haidt, 2010). Morality adise lost, fall or awakening into , temptations along the plays a pivotal role in cooperation and coalition building, as way, and a road to redemption (Smith, 2003). perceived moral outrage over transgressions galvanize groups In addition to providing meaning and social cohesion, and facilitate social cohesion (Tooby & Cosmides, 2010). meta-narratives have the function of enforcing moral sys- Ultimately, moral systems, such as , bind individuals tems that challenge, perpetuate, or seek to reclaim social into moral communities (J. Graham & Haidt, 2010). power. Power dynamics lie at the center of meta-narratives The broader cultural frameworks in which individuals because they serve to maintain a moral and social order. derive their moral beliefs are profoundly narrative in form. They define who marginalization and who does For instance, the “American experiment” metanarrative ar- not, and who is entitled to rights and privileges, access to gues that brave and freedom-loving pioneers, fleeing reli- resources, and even justice. They inform ideology and serve gious and political persecution, came to the New World to for , motivating individuals and commu- carve a new civilization (Smith, 2003). Through their hard nities to defend the status quo and to view current social work, they forged a new society where equality and arrangements as just, legitimate, and necessary (Jost, Fed- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedrule. publishers. This metanarrative has powerful effects in the lives of erico, & Napier, 2009). But they can also articulate system This article is intended solely for the personal use ofAmericans the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. and even citizens of other countries. It organizes resistance by challenging the status quo and illuminating practices, rituals, and obligations. Without this narrative, the present conditions of some groups as unfair and oppres- “many Americans would confront the world with profound sive. Thus, these meta-narratives are not power-neutral: confusion and disorientation” (Smith, 2003, p. 68). They are biased toward responding to perceived threats to We acknowledge the rich of narrative research in privilege and or toward denouncing oppres- developmental sciences that has documented the importance sion. Next, we discuss the metanarrative that arguably in- of root metaphors as cultural models of development (Coo- spired García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) integrative per, 1987; Cooper & Denner, 1998) and cultural conflict model, and that is at the core of most developmental re- and rapid (Greenfield, 1999; Rogoff, 2003), to search on youth marginalization. name a few approaches. However, we argue that morality and meta-narratives are not central to their conceptualiza- 5 For a discussion of differences and similarities between master narra- tions. Furthermore, although narrative research on youth tives and meta-narratives, see the online supplemental materials. 830 CAUSADIAS, UPDEGRAFF, AND OVERTON

power and enjoy exclusive social advantages and privileges (e.g., Whites,7 religious majorities, heterosexuals, men, na- tionals). Thus, liberal progress is not an abstract issue dis- connected from the of children and youth who have historically experienced oppression and exclusion. On the contrary, this metanarrative has had a profound impact in the development of youth experiencing marginalization. It has provided a roadmap for group action aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination, like the American civil rights movement. In turn, these movements resulted in landmark legislations (e.g., Brown v. Board of , 1954; Civil Rights Act of 1964) that have led to some improvements in the educational opportunities and lives of minority youth over the last decades. The impact of this metanarrative in developmental sci- ence on youth marginalization cannot be overstated. We argue that García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) integrative model is firmly embedded within this metanarrative, be- cause it conceptualizes marginalization as central rather Willis F. than peripheral to the theoretical understanding of minority Overton youth development. Grounded within social stratification theory, a key emphasis of this framework is on its under- lying processes, including racism, discrimination, oppres- The Liberal Progress Moral Metanarrative sion, and segregation (García Coll et al., 1996). Further- One of the more consequential moral frameworks for the more, this metanarrative impacts development by inspiring, study of youth marginalization is the “liberal progress” meta- providing life purpose and meaning and articulating politi- narrative (henceforth, liberal progress), described as follows: cal, ideological, social, and professional goals for those who embrace it (e.g., the struggle against inequality), including Once upon a time, the vast majority of human persons suffered in many minority scholars (see Syed, 2017). societies and social institutions that were unjust, unhealthy, re- pressive, and oppressive. These traditional societies were repre- hensible because of their deep-rooted inequality, exploitation, The Community-Lost Moral Metanarrative and irrational traditionalism—all of which made life very unfair, The community-lost metanarrative (henceforth, commu- unpleasant, and short. But the noble human aspiration for auton- nity lost) represents history and morality in stark contrast to omy, equality, and prosperity struggled mightily against the the liberal progress metanarrative. Also framed as the Rea- forces of misery and oppression, and eventually succeeded in establishing modern, liberal, democratic, capitalist, welfare soci- gan narrative (Westen, 2008), this metanarrative is defined eties. While modern social conditions hold the potential to max- as follows: imize the individual freedom and pleasure of all, there is much Once upon a time, folk lived together in local, face-to-face work to be done to dismantle the powerful vestiges of inequality, communities where we knew and took care of each other. Life exploitation, and repression. This struggle for the good society in was simple and sometimes hard. But we lived in with which individuals are equal and free to pursue their self-defined nature, laboring honestly at the low and in handcraft. Life was

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. is the one mission truly worth dedicating one’s life to securely woven in homespun fabrics of organic, integrated

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is notachieving. to be disseminated broadly. (Smith, 2003,p.82) culture, , and tradition. We truly knew who we were and The core message of liberal progress is that injustice, felt deeply for our land, our kin, our customs. But then a dreadful thing happened. Folk community was overrun by the oppression, and inequality provoked significant in barbarisms of modern industry, urbanization, rationality, sci- the past, but modern democracy and science offer a chance ence, fragmentation, anonymity, transience, and mass produc- to reverse these effects by promoting equality and fighting to overcome the lingering consequences of exclusion (Haidt, 2012). Issues of power are central to this metanar- 6 Individuals can belong to more than one of these groups, as proposed by the intersectionality framework (Crenshaw, 1991). We do not utilize rative because it focuses on groups that have historically this model, because it has already been employed to approach marginal- faced marginalization (e.g., racial/ethnic, sexual, and reli- ization (e.g., Santos, 2016), whereas using moral meta-narratives to address gious minorities; women; immigrants6). According to lib- marginalization has not. 7 We use the term Whites to represent membership in any racial/ethnic eral progress, these groups have been oppressed, victimized, group in the United States of European ancestry, including, but not limited excluded, and neglected by those who hold positions of to, European Americans, Anglo-Americans, and Caucasians. META-NARRATIVES 831

tion. Faith began to erode, social dissipate, folk customs privilege of Whites. It sheds light on the rise of Donald J. vanish. Work became alienating, authentic feeling repressed, Trump to the presidency of the United States under the call neighbors, strangers, and life standardized and rationalized. for a return to the past and the status quo of unapologetic Those who knew the worth of simplicity, authentic feeling, and uncontested White dominance (“Make America Great nature, and custom resisted the vulgarities and uniformities of Again”). It has profound effects on the development of . But all that remains today are tattered vestiges of youth who have historically experienced marginalization a world we have lost. The task of those who see clearly now is to memorialize and celebrate folk community, mourn its because it directly threatens their well-, not only by ruin, and resist and denounce the depravities of modern, removing protections but by potentially criminalizing un- scientific that would kill the Human . (Smith, documented, transgender, and minority youth. 2003, pp. 85–86) However, community lost may have the positive effect of calling attention to the adverse experience of rural White In contrast to liberal progress, community lost focuses on youth. In recent years, rural White youth have been afflicted groups that are now experiencing some forms of marginal- by the heroin epidemic (Cicero, Ellis, Surratt, & Kurtz, ization (e.g., rural and working-class Whites, alienated men) 2014) and have surpassed urban youth in substance abuse and argues that the excessive pressures and demands of (Lambert, Gale, & Hartley, 2008; Roberts et al., 2016). modern societies—science, urbanization, industrialization, Landmark research on the development of White youth has secularization—have eroded and fragmented communities documented the role of identity development in that were previously harmonious, integrated, religious, and the context of educational and career pathways (Bettie, traditional in values and lifestyles. The past plays a central 2014; Bullock & Limbert, 2003; Fine & Sirin, 2007) and role in community lost, and it is usually viewed as a splen- White youth and their feelings of marginalization in school, did period of prosperity and cohesion, happiness and har- their multiethnic communities, and more broadly, society mony, and obedience to tradition and God. Cultural change (Azmitia, Syed, & Radmacher, 2008). Nevertheless, more is perceived as negative, as alien ideas championed by developmental research on rural White youth is necessary. intellectuals (e.g., professors, journalists) challenged and perverted this order. Those who endorse this narrative see the present as decadent and yearn for the past. They “have Moral Meta-Narratives, Marginalization, and discovered that nostalgia can be a powerful political moti- Youth Development vator, perhaps even more powerful than . can be disappointed. Nostalgia is irrefutable” (Lilla, 2016, p. xiv). Liberal progress and community lost impact emotional re- In part, community lost articulates the reaction to major sponses and cognitive processing, provide meaning to the past, demographic shifts in the United States, including the rapid help explain the present, and give guidance for the . Most growth in minority populations. By 2044, Whites will no important, these two meta-narratives are central to understand- longer be the numerical majority in the country (Colby & ing the development of youth experiencing marginalization, Ortman, 2015). Community lost also accounts for economic because they define (a) who has been the victim of marginal- and cultural changes, including the decline in health and rise ization, (b) what are the causes of social injustice and exclu- in mortality as a result of worsening economic conditions of sion, (c) what are the solutions to these issues, and (d) how rural and working-class Whites in the country (Case & morality influences the development of youth experiencing Deaton, 2015, 2017) and their struggle to keep up with rapid marginalization, as they operate at the individual and societal cultural changes, deep resentment of urban liberals, and levels. feelings of betrayal and abandonment by the federal gov- First, liberal progress and community lost are important ernment (Hochschild, 2016). However, it is problematic to because they define who has experienced marginalization and This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedequate publishers. the experience of rural, working-class Whites to that is entitled to supports and resources. By providing the blueprint This article is intended solely for the personal use ofof the individual user and isgroups not to be disseminated broadly. that have historically faced marginalization in of a moral order, they identify what is right or wrong and who ways that are quantitatively and qualitatively different (see has been treated unfairly. Thus, they challenge the status quo Causadias & Umaña-Taylor, 2018). For instance, marginal- (system resistance) by advocating for social inclusion of mi- ization of rural Whites is often related to class and educa- norities and other groups that have historically experienced tion, whereas minority marginalization is also based on marginalization (liberal progress) or rationalize maintaining culture, ethnicity, and race (Isenberg, 2016), which have the status quo (system justification) and restoring prosperity to different developmental implications. ethnic majorities and historically dominant groups that have Despite these differences, the impact of the community- experienced the whiplash of globalization and threats to their lost metanarrative should not be easily disregarded, even if social status (community lost). Liberals may support social its premises are questionable. This metanarrative articulates justice programs because their morality is rooted in care for the employed by the populist wave that depicts lib- disadvantaged and equality among groups, whereas conserva- eral progress as a threat to the social status, power, and tives may oppose such programs because they counter their 832 CAUSADIAS, UPDEGRAFF, AND OVERTON

ethic of autonomy and personal responsibility (Haidt, 2012; operate at the metatheoretical level to provide grounding that Haidt & Graham, 2007). informs the way specific domains of inquiry are studied, it is Second, meta-narratives a pivotal role in delineating the important to note that there several levels of metatheory (see causes of marginalization. This usually involves identifying Figure 1). Although liberal progress and community lost func- the sources of oppression and injustice, typically by portraying tion at a high level of discourse (i.e., metatheoretical an outgroup as the causal agent in the marginalization of the discourse–metatheory), the ontological–epistemological level ingroup. Liberal progress finds White supremacy and patriar- is above it and informs all other levels (i.e., metatheoretical chy to be the root causes of the oppression of minorities, discourse—ontological–epistemological groundings). It is immigrants, and women, which often leads to blaming conser- variously referred to as a “” or, when applied spe- vative White men for their marginalization. The community cifically to science, a “scientific research ” level of lost places the responsibility for the unwanted changes to their metatheory (Overton, 2010, 2015). And it is at this level that communities on secularism, , and globalization, the solution to the integration of the two meta-narratives must which often leads to blaming liberals, professors, journalists, be found. women, minorities, and immigrants. There are currently two alternative scientific research para- Third, meta-narratives play a pivotal role in delineating digms that can inform the meaning of moral meta-narratives: solutions to the problems of youth marginalization, which have the CartesianϪmechanisticϪdualistic and the processϪ a direct impact on cultural, ethnic, and racial relations and relational . The Cartesian epistemology establishes youth development. Whereas liberal progress places a major relations between paradigms as an unavoidable dichotomy in emphasis on systemic change to overcome structural issues of which either one or the other constitutes reality. Thus, it offers power, privilege, and exclusion, community lost argues in no guidance for a reconciliation between the moral orders favor of individual agency and personal merit to achieve au- articulated and embodied by liberal progress and community tonomy and prosperity, denying the role of structural forces. lost. Embracing the tenets of this dualistic metatheory—that These opposite and apparently irreconcilable perspectives re- follows a reductionist “divide and conquer strategy” with re- sult in very different policies, programs, and legislation. They also prescribe very different research agendas. Fourth, meta-narratives display how morality has a direct influence on the development of youth experiencing margin- alization, because they operate at the individual and societal level. At the individual level, these meta-narratives shape de- velopment by providing a moral order and a historical account that gives meaning and purpose to how youth make sense of their own experiences. At the societal level, these meta- narratives can have a decisive influence in child development, because they provide a moral order to institutions that become the contexts of development (Super & Harkness, 1986). Neigh- borhoods, schools, and governments may explicitly or implic- itly subscribe to liberal progress or community lost, which in turn, conditions how children and adolescents are treated, what resources are afforded to them, and their likelihood to over- come marginalization. This is consistent with research and theory linking societal-level cultural processes and individual This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allieddevelopment publishers. (see Greenfield, 1999, 2009). This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Integrating Opposing Moral Meta-Narratives Using the Process؊Relational Paradigm It is challenging to find a middle ground between two seemingly contradictory moral frameworks (Stout, 1988) such as liberal progress and community lost. How does one recon- cile what seems irreconcilable? How can one perspective that sees racial and gender equality as the goal (liberal progress) Figure 1. Levels of discourse proposed by Overton (2010). Reproduced with permission from “Life-Span Development: Concepts and Issues,” by and another that sees it as a problem (community lost) be W. F. Overton, in R. M. Lerner and W. F. Overton (Eds.), Handbook of brought together? To answer this question, one must address Life-Span Development: Vol. 1. Cognition, Biology, and Methods, 2010, the notion of “levels of metatheory.” Although meta-narratives Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Copyright by Wiley. META-NARRATIVES 833

spect to fundamental concepts—leads to split, dichotomous either/or conceptual approaches to problem solutions. Thus, within this context, one must choose one of the two moral World meta-narratives as the fundamental , and its opposite be- History comes derived, epiphenomenal, or a special case of reality (Overton, 2015). The that the two moral meta-narratives are simply rivals is one Cartesian solution; another is the idea US History that one can contain and subsume the other. In contrast, the processϪrelational paradigm demonstrates how the split or opposition of these two meta-narratives can be resolved and Racial both can constitute a whole whose parts are reciprocally co- relations acting and interpenetrating. The processϪrelational paradigm is composed of four principles—holism, identity of opposites, opposites of identity, and synthesis of wholes—that serve to eliminate splits and offer a stable base from which to pursue science within a relational world (Overton, 2010, 2015). Liberal The first is holism, which asserts that the mean- Progress ing of any entity or event derives from the context in which it is embedded. Just as is the overarching principle of the Cartesian paradigm, holism forms the basic principle of relational epistemology. Any system is a rela- Figure 2. First principle: Holism. tional set of processes such that the whole determines the nature of the parts and the parts determine the nature of the whole (Overton, 2015). Holism invites researchers to ap- traditionally misrepresented as distal but that exert powerful preciate that even if they focus on one metanarrative or one influence on the development of youth experiencing mar- component of each one—past as paradise lost, equality as ginalization and are commanding engines of meta- promised land—they also need to recognize that these com- narratives. For instance, how the Atlantic slave trade im- ponents must be contextualized as parts of systems that pacts the development of African American youth and function as wholes: communities, states, and nations. Also, motivates liberal progress, or how the U.S. Civil War shapes they need to pay attention to the historical development the development of rural White youth in the South and fuels from which each moral metanarrative emerged: civil rights community lost. In the end, holism can help overcome the movements for liberal progress and modernity and global- false dichotomy of liberal progress versus community lost ization for community lost (see Figure 2). by illustrating how they are both embedded in ecological, This attention to the whole ecosystem of development and cultural, and historical forces that shape the development of history is consistent with the aim of García Coll and col- youth experiencing marginalization. leagues’ (1996) integrative model of recognizing the role of Holism also encourages developmental researchers to culture in development, as well as historical and structural look inward, in addition to looking outward. It underscores forces driving marginalization. Holism invites researchers the notion that developmental science is a en- to consider critical components of the experience of mar- terprise that is framed, pursued, and conducted by develop- ginalization that impacts development and may be ne- mental researchers who are not morally neutral but are glected, including ecological changes at the community, committed to certain meta-narratives. Ultimately, develop- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedneighborhood, publishers. county, state, national, and global levels. For mental research on youth marginalization is an exercise of This article is intended solely for the personal use ofexample, the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. how climate change threatens the health, well- power by the developmental researcher, because it docu- being, and life of vulnerable youth of every ethnic back- ments and legitimizes some experiences of ground (Wheeler & Von Braun, 2013). Likewise, it points but not all. “One aspect of power is the ability to determine out the role meta-narratives can play in promoting aware- what counts as knowledge and to make knowledge appear ness of and action against climate change (liberal progress) ‘natural’ rather than a human construction” (Gjerde, 2004, or denial of research and avoidance of action p. 145). under the pretext that environmental protections will de- The second principle of relational epistemology is termed stroy jobs (community lost). Holism also encourages devel- the identity of opposites. It constitutes one moment of anal- opmental researchers to consider not only ecological but ysis that relaxes the logical law of contradiction and, thus, also historical and cultural forces that shape the develop- establishes an identity between parts of a whole. In this ment of youth experiencing marginalization. Holism can moment, the parts are understood not as exclusive contra- foster a new appraisal of historical and cultural processes dictions (as in the Cartesian split epistemology) but as 834 CAUSADIAS, UPDEGRAFF, AND OVERTON

differentiated and equal polarities of a unified and indisso- identity of opposites can inform and guide research on such ciable relationship (Overton, 2010). As differentiations, youth by encouraging developmental researchers to see that each pole is defined recursively: Each pole defines and is minorities and majorities are part of the same matrix, be- defined by its opposite. Here each category contains and is cause they are codependent and intimately connected. Ma- its opposite; they are coequal and inseparable. Conse- jorities cannot exist without minorities, and versa, quently, based on the identity of opposites principle, com- because their relationship exemplifies the dynamic of mu- munity lost is liberal progress, and liberal progress is com- tually constructed contrasts. For instance, in a hypothetical munity lost. Both are part of the matrix of American history, homogeneous society, ethnicity becomes irrelevant because culture, morality, and meaning-making (see Figure 3). the idea of ethnic groups is founded on differences and Community lost and liberal progress are constantly en- requires boundaries, contrasts, and interactions (Gjerde, gaged in a coconstructing feedback loop, nonadditive and 2004). Majorities and minorities are part of the same sys- reciprocal codetermination (Overton & Reese, 1973). First, tem, so changes in one component (demographic growth of landmark issues of community lost, such as perceived cul- minorities) triggers a reaction in the other (sense of alien- tural change, threats to social status, and competition for ation and loss of power among Whites), and this relation scarce resources during economic crisis can directly trigger feeds into opposing meta-narratives. This idea of an insep- further disadvantage among groups championed by liberal arable connection between two poles has been employed progress. Recent studies have revealed that perceived scar- successfully in developmental psychopathology, a frame- city may change of race in ways that aggravate work that emphasizes the notion that normal development racial discrimination, underscoring how marginalization can cannot be understood without studying abnormal develop- be exacerbated during of economic duress (Krosch & ment, and vice versa (Sroufe, 1997). Amodio, 2014). Times of economic scarcity also influence Studying the implications of the U.S. demographic shift the educational opportunities of Latino youth, for example, in the balance of White versus minority youth is an example but such impact depends on the developmental timing of the of the application of identity of opposites. Further, this economic crisis in their lives (Pérez-Brena, Wheeler, Ro- major demographic shift is likely to impact distinct groups dríguez De Jesús, Updegraff, & Umaña-Taylor, 2017). La- of youth at different developmental points (e.g., early child- tino youth who transitioned out of high school during the hood, adolescence, the transition into adulthood). More 2007 economic downturn, compared to their older siblings broadly speaking, identity of opposites presents a challenge who transitioned prior to this historical event, were less us to approach different groups at opposite developmental likely to pursue postsecondary education and less likely to periods that can have important parallels. For instance, attend a 4-year higher education (Pérez-Brena et graying and browning are twin demographic al., 2017). Second, one metanarrative can reinforce the currently reshaping American society (Pastor, Scoggins, & other, because Whites who resent Blacks might feel that Treuhaft, 2017). First, graying refers to the growing trend in they are falling behind if they perceive that Blacks are the senior population, which is predominantly White and is making progress (Norton & Sommers, 2011). Whites who projected to double and outnumber youth for the first time endorse the current U.S. status hierarchy as legitimate are in U.S. history by 2033 (Pastor et al., 2017). Second, brown- more likely to report that Whites were victims of racial ing refers to the growing trend in the minority population, discrimination when minority racial progress was salient which is projected to become the majority of the U.S. (Wilkins & Kaiser, 2014). population by 2044 (Pastor et al., 2017). These twin pro- García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) integrative model cesses—the aging White population and the browning of showed the importance of culture, ethnicity, and race in the younger generations—can trigger a racial generation gap development of youth experiencing marginalization. The that can exacerbate opposing meta-narratives but also man- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ifests the joint fate of these two groups. Seniors are less This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. likely to support education spending on youth when they are from different racial groups (Lafortune, Rothstein, & American History and Culture Schanzenbach, 2016), whereas minority groups might feel less inclined to support rising health care benefits mostly aimed at elderly Whites. Liberal Community The third principle of relational epistemology is the op- Progress Lost posites of identity. This principle establishes a stable foun- dation for inquiry by moving to a second moment of anal- ysis following the identity of opposites, in which the law of contradiction is restated and categories again exclude each other (Overton, 2010). As a consequence of this exclusion, Figure 3. Second principle: Identity of opposites. parts exhibit unique identities that differentiate each from META-NARRATIVES 835

the other. These unique differential qualities are stable Finally, the fourth principle, synthesis of wholes, func- within any dynamic system and thus may form a relatively tions as a third moment of analysis in the dialectical under- stable platform for empirical inquiry. Hence, liberal prog- taking of relational epistemology. It establishes a resolution ress and community lost now each attains a unique identity to the bipolar tension of the opposites of identity by moving that differentiates one from the other. They become stand- away from this conflict and discovering a new system, a points, points of view, lines of sight (Latour, 1993), or synthesis, that integrates these two moral meta-narratives levels of analysis, not bedrock as in the Cartesian and provides a more stable base for future research (Over- paradigm (Overton, 2010). Although explicitly recognizing ton, 2010). The synthesis of wholes can also inform devel- that both meta-narratives exist, impact, and mobilize indi- opmental research on youth marginalization. For instance, viduals and groups, alternative perspectives allow analyzing by using both liberal progress and community lost to ap- marginalization from a liberal progress or community-lost proach the development of minority youth, one may account standpoint. They no longer represent competing accounts; for the historical consequences of stratification and segre- rather, they are two reciprocally related points of view on gation articulated in García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) marginalization. Liberal progress can provide a unique plat- integrative model, as well as how recent cultural changes form to approach the development of minority youth as they and growing populism can trigger further exclusion and struggle with institutional and structural barriers, whereas compromise any social progress. One can even entertain the from the community-lost perspective one can investigate need for progress and the sense of community lost as how economic decline and rapid cultural change promotes moments experienced by both racial minorities and major- adversity and alienation that affects rural White youth de- ities, recognizing progress lost (the sense that there was a velopment (see Figure 4). golden age of improvement in social justice and inclusion) García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) integrative model and conservative progress (the desire for social change that argues that there is “no theoretical or empirical to brings about a stronger sense of God and country). Like- assume that individual primary developmental processes wise, rural minority youth experience most of the same operate differently for children of color than for Caucasian adversities as do White rural youth (in addition to others), children in Western society” (p. 1893). Developmental re- whereas Black Muslims might feel as alienated by secular- searchers can advance this idea by using the opposites of ization as are White evangelists. The synthesis of wholes identity principle and recognizing that liberal progress and can inform and guide research on the development of youth community lost are only standpoints—again, not rock bot- experiencing marginalization by encouraging individuals to tom realities—from which to address youth development. overcome the moral empathy gaps in American culture wars But minority and White youth are not essentially different, (Ditto & Koleva, 2011) and expand their moral compass to even if they face very different and unique cultural and include all youth experiencing marginalization in their con- ecological influences. Taking the community-lost perspec- ceptualizations, research, training, interventions, and policy. tive, in addition to the liberal progress standpoint, can also advance the field. Proponents of liberal progress have been An Integrated Moral Metanarrative: criticized for not including conservatives in their vision of Community Progress social change. But advances in diversity and inclusion of Using the synthesis of wholes, we formulate a new meta- youth experiencing marginalization cannot be maintained narrative that integrates both liberal progress and commu- or consolidated if those who are opposed or feel affected by nity lost and endeavors to address both historical and new them are excluded from this conversation. Ultimately, in- forms of youth marginalization. Toward this end, we pro- cluding conservative voices and perspectives is crucial in pose the “community progress” metanarrative (see Figure 5, advancing cultural, ethnic, and racial diversity because po-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Community Progress): litical beliefs are key components of culture (Redding, This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. 2012). Once upon a time, different groups came together under very different circumstances, creating the American experiment. Some came from another land voluntarily, others were forced, and others were displaced or conquered. Within each of these groups, some individuals did better than others. For a long period of time, some were treated unfairly, others inhumanely, Liberal Community whereas others enjoyed prosperity and wealth. Regardless of Progress Lost economic issues, many of these groups lived in communities united by culture, , and . But then change happened, and it had an impact, both for the better and for the Ethnic Minority Youth Rural White Youth worse. The struggle for justice and equality resulted in the improvement in the lives of some who were previously treated Figure 4. Third principle: Opposites of identity. unfairly or inhumanely, but this progress was insufficient and 836 CAUSADIAS, UPDEGRAFF, AND OVERTON

that aims at addressing all forms of social exclusion. Im- portant to this process is admitting the influence of meta- narratives on researchers themselves. The social and psy- Liberal Community Community chological sciences have been characterized as being Progress Progress Lost ideologically homogeneous, favoring liberal progress (Red- ding, 2012). In , more than 80% of psychology profes- sors have described themselves as liberal in their political Ethnic Minority Youth Rural White Youth views, and less than 10% have labeled themselves as con- All Marginalized Youth servative (Duarte et al., 2015; Inbar & Lammers, 2012). But even though liberal progress is largely endorsed in Ameri- Figure 5. Fourth principle: Synthesis of wholes. can psychology, minorities are still not well represented in the discipline, and research on marginalization is still lack- incomplete. At the same time, others experienced a deteriora- ing. Most doctoral recipients in the psychological and social tion of their communities and of life. Traditions started sciences (72%) are White (National Science Foundation, to vanish, faith eroded, and the bonds that kept the community 2015). Further, studies of culture, ethnicity, race, and strat- together started to weaken. Rapid cultural change and global- ification processes, although increasing, still accounted for ization also affected their economic well-being and have led to less than 1% of all peer-reviewed articles targeting the rising inequality. Today, we strive to recognize and address periods of childhood and/or adolescence in the PsycINFO the fact that many continue to struggle to overcome social database in the past two decades.8 exclusion, whereas others are coping with the deterioration of In terms of applied developmental science, there is a need their communities. The future of America depends on includ- for policies, interventions, and training programs that em- ing all of them, to build a more perfect union with liberty and brace community progress and target the universal needs of justice for all. all youth experiencing marginalization and the specific Guided by this proposed metanarrative, we strive to pro- needs of particular youth populations. For instance, poverty, mote a shared moral foundation that can guide conceptual- obesity, drug abuse, and limited access to quality health care izations, research, training, interventions, and policy to and education are examples of social problems that cur- overcome all forms of youth marginalization, moving away rently affect both minority and rural White youth. At the from the false dichotomies of liberal progress and commu- same time, it is important to design, implement, and eval- nity lost. Community progress gives a new meaning to the uate policies, interventions, and training programs specifi- American experiment by illustrating the of differ- cally tailored to the development of specific groups. Poli- ent forms and degrees of marginalization, the simultaneous cies and programs promoting the adaptation of refugee coexistence of social exclusion for some groups and pros- populations in the United States are one such example. perity for others, and the urgent need to come together to Research that tests the direct impact of meta-narratives on make this experiment viable and sustainable. This complex youth marginalization is necessary, for instance, by exam- perspective promotes inclusion without , a more ining how the rise of community lost can exacerbate anxiety nuanced appreciation of the unique and interconnected ex- among undocumented minority youth and compromise ed- periences of marginalization of different groups in the his- ucational achievement, leading to leaks in the academic tory of the United States. pipeline (see Cooper, Cooper, Azmitia, Chavira, & Gullatt, This proposed metanarrative cannot magically bridge the 2002). Likewise, more investigations on the development of moral divide or reverse the current political, cultural, and rural White youth afflicted by the heroin epidemic are economic polarization, because this divide operates within a needed (Cicero et al., 2014). This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedCartesian publishers. framework. For the community progress narrative Other potentially fruitful future research directions in- This article is intended solely for the personal use ofto the individual user and be is not to be plausible, disseminated broadly. first one must understand that human clude looking at the link between meta-narratives and mas- are profoundly moral creatures who gravitate toward differ- ter narratives in youth development; the association be- ent meta-narratives (Haidt, 2008, 2012; Smith, 2003). These tween meta-narratives and the development of moral meta-narratives, in turn, provide individuals, communities, reasoning regarding autonomy, divinity, and community and institutions with different moral foundations that guide (Jensen, 2008; Shweder et al., 1997); and the role of meta- the things they care about, hold sacred, and determine who narratives on the interplay between culture, development, is experiencing marginalization and who are the beneficia- ries of power, privilege, and resources. Developmental re- 8 A PsycINFO search ((childhood OR adolescence) AND (racism OR search on youth marginalization can advance by recogniz- discrimination OR segregation OR prejudice OR oppression) AND (race ء ء ing the importance of morality, embodied in meta- OR ethnic or cultur )) conducted on April 10, 2017, yielded 317 peer- reviewed articles from 1975 to 1995 and 2,233 from 1997 to 2017, narratives, and building a program of research, training, accounting for .002% and .006% of all articles on childhood and adolescent interventions, and policy inspired by community progress samples during these periods, respectively. META-NARRATIVES 837

and psychopathology (Causadias, 2013). Because this dis- ground, like the one articulated by the community- cussion was focused on the role of meta-narratives in the progress metanarrative. development of youth experiencing marginalization in the United States, more research on how these processes unfold References in other regions of the world with unique meta-narratives and cultural, ethnic, and racial dynamics is necessary. It is Alston, W. P. (1993). The reliability of sense . Ithaca, NY: important to note that further investigations are indispens- Cornell University Press. able to address how effective community progress can be in Azmitia, M., Syed, M., & Radmacher, K. (2008). On the intersection of personal and social identities: Introduction and evidence from a longi- mobilizing resources and institutional support for all youth tudinal study of emerging adults. New Directions for Child and Adoles- experiencing marginalization. While pursuing diversity and cent Development, 2008, 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cd.212 inclusion, one should avoid color-blind racism that perpet- Bettie, J. (2014). Women without class: Girls, race, and identity. Oakland, uates inequality by denying subtle forms of , discrimi- CA: University of California Press. nation, and marginalization (Dovidio, Gaertner, & Saguy, Brown v. Board of Educ., 347 U.S. 483 (1954). Bullock, H. E., & Limbert, W. M. (2003). Scaling the socioeconomic 2015). After all, good intentions are insufficient to accom- ladder: Low-income women’s perceptions of class status and opportu- plish social justice (Kalev, Dobbin, & Kelly, 2006). But nity. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 693–709. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j people should also admit that the current cultural and po- .0022-4537.2003.00085.x litical polarization in the United States is unsustainable and Case, A., & Deaton, A. (2015). Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife that they should strive to find a shared moral framework. among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Proceedings of Admittedly, morality is not the only dimension of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 15078–15083. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518393112 culture that accounts for youth marginalization. Racism, Case, A., & Deaton, A. (2017). Mortality and morbidity in the 21st century. sexism, xenophobia, homophobia, transphobia, antisemi- Retrieved June 1, 2017, from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/ tism, islamophobia, and classism, to name a few, also uploads/2017/03/6_casedeaton.pdf play a meaningful role in perpetuating social exclusion. Causadias, J. M. (2013). A roadmap for the integration of culture into But morality is another important piece of the puzzle, one developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1375–1398. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000679 that requires further research in developmental sciences Causadias, J. M., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2018). Reframing marginaliza- addressing youth marginalization. If it is true that “rarely tion and youth development: Introduction to the special issue. American is progress made in conceptualizing, measuring, and un- Psychologist, 73, 707–712. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000336 derstanding human behavior without appreciation of and Cicero, T. J., Ellis, M. S., Surratt, H. L., & Kurtz, S. P. (2014). The response to the inadequacies of extant, dominant concep- changing face of heroin use in the United States: A retrospective analysis of the past 50 years. Journal of the American Medical Association tual frameworks and (McLoyd, 2004,p. Psychiatry, 71, 821–826. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014 185),” then developmental research can benefit from .366 expanding one’s view of culture to consider the role of Civil Rights Act of 1964, Pub. L. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (1964). moral meta-narratives in development and from taking Cohen, A. B. (2009). Many forms of culture. American Psychologist, 64, into account all youth experiencing marginalization. 194–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015308 Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., Lieberman, M., Fischer, K., & Saltz- More broadly, understanding the important role of mo- stein, H. D. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Mono- rality and meta-narratives also forces one to face the graphs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 48, 1–124. limitations of developmental science and science in gen- http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1165935 eral. Human beings are ultimately believers who embrace Colby, S. L., & Ortman, J. M. (2015). Projections of the size and compo- moral orders, even when these beliefs and assumptions sition of the U.S. population: 2014–2060 (Current Population Reports, cannot be verified empirically; are not derived from a P25–1143). Retrieved from https://census.gov/content/dam/Census/lib rary/publications/2015/demo/p25-1143.pdf This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allieddeeper, publishers. objective, or independent body of knowledge; Cooper, C. R. (1987). Conceptualizing research on adolescent development This article is intended solely for the personal use ofand the individual user and is not to beare disseminated broadly. not universal, self-evident, or shared by all in the family: Four root metaphors. Journal of Adolescent Research, 2, groups (Smith, 2003). Instead of individuals using reality 321–330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/074355488723010 and verifiable to guide their beliefs, beliefs condi- Cooper, C. R., Cooper, R. G., Jr., Azmitia, M., Chavira, G., & Gullatt, Y. tion to a large degree how facts are construed and knowl- (2002). Bridging multiple worlds: How African American and Latino youth in academic outreach programs navigate math pathways to college. Applied edge is built (Alston, 1993). The result is that they rely on Developmental Science, 6, 73–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S1532480 their faith in beliefs that cannot be proven except by XADS0602_3 those same beliefs (Haidt, 2012). Thus, developmental Cooper, C. R., & Denner, J. (1998). Theories linking culture and psychol- research is not enough, and advocating against margin- ogy: Universal and community-specific processes. Annual Review of alization based on scientific arguments is insufficient. As Psychology, 49, 559–584. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1 .559 scientists, we must also rely on the moral that Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity youth marginalization is wrong, unfair, and unacceptable. politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, To do so, as citizens, we must find a common moral 1241–1299. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1229039 838 CAUSADIAS, UPDEGRAFF, AND OVERTON

de Rivera, J. E., & Sarbin, T. R. (Eds.). (1998). Believed-in imaginings: Jensen, L. A. (Ed.). (2015). Moral reasoning: Developmental The narrative construction of reality. Washington, DC: American Psy- and life course pathways among cultures. In The Oxford handbook of chological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10303-000 human development and culture: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. Ditto, P. H., & Koleva, S. P. (2011). Moral empathy gaps and the American 230–254). http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199948550 culture war. Review, 3, 331–332. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ .001.0001 1754073911402393 Jost, J. T., Federico, C. M., & Napier, J. L. (2009). Political ideology: Its Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Saguy, T. (2015). Color-blindness and structure, functions, and elective affinities. Annual Review of Psychol- commonality: Included but invisible? American Behavioral Scientist, 59, ogy, 60, 307–337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707 1518–1538. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0002764215580591 .163600 Duarte, J. L., Crawford, J. T., Stern, C., Haidt, J., Jussim, L., & Tetlock, Kalev, A., Dobbin, F., & Kelly, E. (2006). Best practices or best guesses? P. E. (2015). Political diversity will improve social psychological sci- Assessing the efficacy of corporate affirmative action and diversity ence. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 38, e130. http://dx.doi.org/10 policies. American Sociological Review, 71, 589–617. http://dx.doi.org/ .1017/S0140525X14000430 10.1177/000312240607100404 Fine, M., & Sirin, S. R. (2007). Theorizing hyphenated selves: Researching Kitayama, S., & Uskul, A. K. (2011). Culture, mind, and the brain: Current youth development in and across contentious political contexts. Social evidence and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 419– and Personality Psychology Compass, 1, 16–38. http://dx.doi.org/10 449. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145357 .1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00032.x Kohlberg, L. (1963). The development of children’s orientation toward a García Coll, C., Akerman, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). Cultural influences moral order: I. Sequence in the development of moral thought. Vita on developmental processes and outcomes: Implications for the study of Humana, 6, 11–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000269667 development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental 12, 333–356. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400003059 approach to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of social- García Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., ization theory and research (pp. 347–480). Chicago, IL: Rand-McNally. Wasik, B. H., & Vázquez García, H. (1996). An integrative model for Krosch, A. R., & Amodio, D. M. (2014). Economic scarcity alters the the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child perception of race. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of Development, 67, 1891–1914. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1131600 the United States of America, 111, 9079–9084. http://dx.doi.org/10 Gjerde, P. F. (2004). Culture, power, and experience: Toward a person- .1073/pnas.1404448111 centered . Human Development, 47, 138–157. http:// Lafortune, J., Rothstein, J., & Schanzenbach, D. W. (2016). School finance dx.doi.org/10.1159/000077987 reform and the distribution of student achievement (NBER Working Graham, J., & Haidt, J. (2010). Beyond beliefs: Religions bind individuals Paper No. 22011). Cambridge, MA: The National Bureau of Economic into moral communities. Personality and Review, 14, Research. http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w22011 140–150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868309353415 Lambert, D., Gale, J. A., & Hartley, D. (2008). Substance abuse by youth Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives and young adults in rural America. Journal of Rural Health, 24, 221– rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and 228. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-0361.2008.00162.x Social Psychology, 96, 1029–1046. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015141 Latour, B. (1993). We have never been modern. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graham, S. (1992). “Most of the subjects were White and middle class”: University Press. Trends in published research on African Americans in selected APA Lilla, M. (2016). The Shipwrecked Mind. New York, NY: New York journals, 1970–1989. American Psychologist, 47, 629–639. http://dx Review of Books. .doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.47.5.629 MacPhee, D., Kreutzer, J. C., & Fritz, J. J. (1994). Infusing a diversity Greenfield, P. M. (1999). Cultural change and human development. New perspective into human development courses. Child Development, 65, Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1999, 37–59. http:// 699–715. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1131411 dx.doi.org/10.1002/cd.23219998305 McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. (2015). Personal, master, and alternative Greenfield, P. M. (2009). Linking social change and developmental narratives: An integrative framework for understanding identity devel- change: Shifting pathways of human development. Developmental Psy- opment in context. Human Development, 58, 318–349. http://dx.doi.org/ chology, 45, 401–418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014726 10.1159/000445817 Haidt, J. (2008). Morality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, McLoyd, V. C. (2004). Linking race and ethnicity to culture: Steps along 65–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00063.x the road from inference to hypothesis testing. Human Development, 47, Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by 185–191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000077990 politics and religion. New York, NY: Vintage. McLoyd, V. C., & Randolph, S. M. (1985). Secular trends in the study of Haidt, J., & Graham, J. (2007). When morality opposes justice: Conservatives Afro-American children: A review of child development, 1936–1980. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. have moral that liberals may not recognize. Social Justice Re- Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(4–5, This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. search, 20, 98–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z Serial No. 211). Hammack, P. L., & Pilecki, A. (2012). Narrative as a root metaphor for National Science Foundation. (2015). Science and engineering doctorates. political psychology. Political Psychology, 33, 75–103. http://dx.doi Retrieved March 2, 2017, from https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2017/ .org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2011.00859.x nsf17306/data/tab22.pdf Hochschild, A. R. (2016). Strangers in their own land: Anger and mourn- Nisan, M., & Kohlberg, L. (1982). Universality and variation in moral ing on the American Right. New York, NY: New Press. judgment: A longitudinal and cross-sectional study in Turkey. Child Inbar, Y., & Lammers, J. (2012). Political diversity in social and person- Development, 53, 865–876. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1129123 ality psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 496–503. Norton, M. I., & Sommers, S. R. (2011). Whites see racism as a zero-sum http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691612448792 that they are now losing. Perspectives on Psychological Science, Isenberg, N. (2016). White trash: The 400-year untold history of class in 6, 215–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691611406922 America. New York, NY: Viking. Overton, W. F. (2010). Life-span development: Concepts and issues. In Jensen, L. A. (2008). Through two lenses: A cultural–developmental R. M. Lerner (Ed. in Chief) & W. F. Overton (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of approach to moral psychology. Developmental Review, 28, 289–315. life-span development: Vol. 1. Cognition, biology, and methods across http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.11.001 the lifespan (pp. 1–29). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. META-NARRATIVES 839

Overton, W. F. (2015). Processes, relations and relational-developmental- of of suffering. In A. Brandt & P. Rozin (Eds.), Morality systems. In W. F. Overton & P. C. M. Molenaar (Eds.). Handbook of and health (pp. 119–169). New York, NY: Routledge. child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 1. Theory and method Smith, C. (2003). Moral, believing animals: Human personhood and (7th ed., pp. 9–62). http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118963418 culture. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10 .childpsy102 .1093/acprof:oso/9780195162028.001.0001 Overton, W. F., & Reese, H. W. (1973). Models of development: Meth- Snarey, J. R., Reimer, J., & Kohlberg, L. (1985). Development of social-moral odological implications. In J. R. Nesselroade & H. W. Reese (Eds.), reasoning among Kibbutz adolescents: A longitudinal cross-cultural study. Life-span developmental psychology: Methodological issues (pp. 65– Developmental Psychology, 21, 3–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649 86). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-515650-9.50010-1 .21.1.3 Pastor, M., Scoggins, J., & Treuhaft, S. (2017). Bridging the racial gen- Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. De- eration gap is key to America’s economic future. Retrieved September velopment and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ 14, 2017, from http://nationalequityatlas.org/sites/default/files/ S0954579497002046 RacialGenGap_%20final.pdf Stout, J. (1988). Ethics after Babel: The languages of morals and their Pérez-Brena, N. J., Wheeler, L. A., Rodríguez De Jesús, S. A., Updegraff, discontents. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. K. A., & Umaña-Taylor, A. Y. (2017). The educational and career Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1986). The developmental niche: A con- adjustment of Mexican-origin youth in the context of the 2007/2008 ceptualization at the interface of child and culture. International Journal economic recession. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 100, 149–163. of Behavioral Development, 9, 545–569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2017.02.006 016502548600900409 Quintana, S. M., Aboud, F. E., Chao, R. K., Contreras-Grau, J., Cross, Syed, M. (2017). Why traditional metrics may not adequately represent W. E., Hudley, C.,...Vietze, D. L. (2006). Race, ethnicity, and culture ethnic minority psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, in child development: Contemporary research and future directions. 1162–1165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691617709590 Child Development, 77, 1129–1141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2010). Groups in mind: The coalitional roots of 8624.2006.00951.x war and morality. In H. Høgh-Olesen (Ed.), Human morality and soci- Redding, R. E. (2012). Likes attract: The sociopolitical of ality: Evolutionary and comparative perspectives (pp. 191–234). http:// (social) psychologists. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 512– dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-05001-4_8 515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691612455206 Turiel, E. (1983). The development of social knowledge: Morality and Roberts, M. E., Doogan, N. J., Kurti, A. N., Redner, R., Gaalema, D. E., . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Stanton, C. A.,...Higgins, S. T. (2016). Rural tobacco use across the Westen, D. (2008). Political brain: The role of emotion in deciding the fate United States: How rural and urban areas differ, broken down by census of the nation. New York, NY: PublicAffairs. regions and divisions. Health & Place, 39, 153–159. http://dx.doi.org/ Wheeler, T., & von Braun, J. (2013, August 2). Climate change impacts on 10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.04.001 global food security. Science, 341, 508–513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/ Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. New York, science.1239402 NY: Oxford University Press. Wilkins, C. L., & Kaiser, C. R. (2014). Racial progress as threat to the Sabogal, F., Marín, G., Otero-Sabogal, R., Marín, B. V., & Perez-Stable, status hierarchy: Implications for perceptions of anti-White bias. Psy- E. J. (1987). Hispanic familism and acculturation: What changes and chological Science, 25, 439–446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797 what doesn’t? Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 9, 397–412. 613508412 http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/07399863870094003 Wuthnow, R. (1987). Meaning and moral order: Explorations in cultural Santos, C. (2016). The intersection of ethnic and gender identity among analysis. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Latina/o youth in the United States: Links to well-being, and familial ethnic and gender socialization. International Journal of Psychology, 51(S1), 989. Received April 21, 2016 Shweder, R. A., Much, N. C., Mahapatra, M., & Park, L. (1997). The “big Revision received October 23, 2017 three” of morality (autonomy, community, divinity) and the “big three” Accepted October 25, 2017 Ⅲ This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.