14 TECHNICAL NOTES ON DRINKING-WATER, AND IN EMERGENCIES Technical options for excreta disposal in emergencies

Sanitation is the efficient disposal of excreta, urine, refuse, and sullage. Initially, indiscriminate is usually the main health hazard in refugee camps. This technical note outlines ways in which excreta and urine can be managed during the early stages of an emergency, while long-term solutions are devised. (See Technical Note 7 for guidance on managing solid .) The technical options for emergency excreta disposal are limited and simple. If they are to work, however, they must be properly managed and be understood and supported by the community.

Immediate measures Managing open defecation Keeping people away from specific The immediate tasks after a disaster People affected by a disaster still areas is not easy, particularly are as follows: need to defecate! They will attempt where traditional habits make to follow traditional practices, but if such practices common. It may be • Obtain the services of a good that is not possible they will defecate necessary to construct a physical translator. Effective sanitation wherever they can. Your first task barrier, such as a fence, or to set provision has more to do with is to prevent excreta contaminating up patrols to keep people away. views and opinions of the user water supplies or the food chain, This approach can only be very population than the technology. so you must prevent defecation in temporary. Move as quickly as It is very important to have a areas such as: possible to provide appropriate good relationship with users, excreta disposal facilities and and that requires the skills of a • the banks of rivers, streams, or encourage people to use them. competent translator. ponds which may be used as a water source (and if water is to • Consult with all interested be abstracted from shallow , Defecation fields parties including representatives then it is important to ensure that These should be located so that they of the affected population, these wells are situated upstream are easily reached by the community aid agencies and government of the defecation areas); or but do not pollute water supplies officials. or sources of food. It is better to • agricultural land planted with provide a number of small fields • Survey the site to gather crops, particularly if the crops are equally spread around the affected information on existing sanitation soon to be handled or harvested population as this will reduce the facilities (if any), the site layout, for human consumption. walking distance for most users. population clusters, topography, It will also allow for flexibility of ground conditions, and available operation and the separation of men construction materials. and boys from women and girls. • Prevent indiscriminate defecation. Especially prevent The defecation field should be defecation in areas likely to screened and divided into small contaminate the food chain or strips so that a different strip can be water supplies. used each day. The area of the field Figure 14.1. Prevent open defecation in farthest from the community should • Select areas where defecation areas planted with crops be used first, so that people do not may safely be allowed. have to walk across contaminated

TECHNICAL NOTES ON DRINKING-WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE IN EMERGENCIES Updated: July 2013 14.1 Technical options for excreta disposal in emergencies ground to reach the designated area Defecation fields have a short life trench using the spade provided. If (Figure 14.2). They can be improved and are difficult to manage. They the ground is wet or soft, a piece of by digging shallow trenches along should be replaced with more wood can be laid along each side of the centre of each strip and piling sustainable solutions as soon as the trench. Some trenches should the excavated soil to one side. Users possible. be dug narrower so that they can are encouraged to defecate in the be used by small children and the trench and then cover their waste Shallow family elderly. with the soil piled beside it. Providing each family with its own Shallow trench latrines can quickly has many advantages. become smelly, especially in hot However in certain areas, sharing Access path and humid climates. All faeces must of latrines among relatives living be covered at least once a day and Area already used in several households, has proven trenches closed when the contents effective in protecting health Strip in use reach 0.3m from the ground surface. and maximizes use of scarce

resources. In the first few days of an emergency, this can be a Deep trench latrines simple structure such as shown in A trench 0.8m to 0.9m wide, 6.0m 20-30m maximum width Figure 14.3. A key advantage is that long and at least 2.0m deep is providing the affected community covered by a wooden or plastic floor with tools to build and maintain the and divided into six cubicles (Figure latrines is practically the only input 14.5). The top 0.5m of the trench required. walls should be lined with plastic sheeting for ease of cleaning and to If family latrines are not possible prevent the sides from collapsing. (for example, because of the lack of The cubicles and privacy screen IN Security screen OUT space) then some form of communal can be made of plastic sheeting on latrines will have to be provided. a light wooden frame. A roof can be Shallow trench latrines provided if necessary. A drainage DOWNHILL ditch should be dug around the Trenches around 0.2m to 0.3m latrine to divert . Figure 14.2. Plan of a defecation field wide, 1.5m deep and 4.0m long are surrounded by a temporary screen Each day the contents of the trench (Figure 14.4). Users defecate by are covered by a layer of soil squatting across the trench. After approximately 0.1m deep. This will Privacy screen of local materials use, users cover their faeces with reduce the smell and prevent flies (cloth/plastic some of the soil dug out of the from breeding in the trench. sheeting)

Security screening (local materials or plastic sheeting) Poles to attach screening

Used area

Trench Access path depth approx. 0.15m Wooden Hole approx Handwashing facility foot rests 0.3 x 0.5 x 1.0m deep Dug soil (for back-filling)

Figure 14.3. A shallow family latrine Figure 14.4. Trench defecation fields

14.2 TECHNICAL NOTES ON DRINKING-WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE IN EMERGENCIES Technical options for excreta disposal in emergencies

Partitions of local materials 1m apart Squat plate cubicle Timber foot rests and floor plates Toilet door Lightweight timber frame

Excavated soil (used for back-fill)

Plastic sheeting door flap

Partition wall

Plastic sheeting Spacing of foot rests varied to suit adults and children (no more than 150mm apart)

Trench 0.8m wide Note: Where prefabricated x 2.0m deep, length self-supporting latrine slabs are to suit the number to be used in place of timber Temporary of cubicles required sewer pipes cubicle sizes may need to be Sewer adjusted to fit slab width (e.g. 0.8m) Figure 14.6. Temporary toilet over a sewer

Figure 14.5. Deep trench latrines Cover slab When the bottom of the trench has Mobile latrine blocks risen to within 0.3m of the surface, In Europe and North America, the trench is filled with soil and the mobile latrine blocks are common. latrine is closed. Typically, these contain a number of 0.5m Pipe lining A trench latrine system is very toilet cubicles, sometimes provided labour-intensive and requires with and handwashing constant supervision. Not only must facilities. A tank is provided for clean the contents of each latrine be water and another to collect waste. covered each day, but new latrines The waste tank is emptied using a must be prepared, old ones filled portable vacuum tanker. in, and regularly-used latrines must be cleaned. Close supervision is The deployment of mobile latrine essential. A poorly-maintained blocks is not limited to industrialized latrine will quickly become offensive countries. Provision for the ultimate to the community and will not be disposal of the waste must, however, used. be part of their deployment. Typical diameter Making use of existing 400mm

Borehole latrines Depth 5-10m (depending on water table) facilities In areas with deep soil, many In urban areas, it may be possible to borehole latrines can be built in a Solids make use of existing facilities such short time using hand augers. accumulation as sewers, public , bucket The holes are usually 0.3m to 0.5m latrines, or stormwater drains. in diameter and 2.0m to 5.0m deep Temporary latrines, such as the (Figure 14.7). The top of each hole one shown in Figure 14.6, can be is lined with a pipe, and two pieces Note: Some soil conditions may require a pipe lining greater than 0.5m constructed over a sewer or drain. of wood are provided for footrests. Additional water may be required Borehole latrines should be closed to carry the through the when the contents are 0.5m from the Figure 14.7. A borehole latrine system. surface.

TECHNICAL NOTES ON DRINKING-WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE IN EMERGENCIES 14.3 Technical options for excreta disposal in emergencies

Packet and plastic bags nearby or use of the flowing water as a drinking-water source. In both If the affected population is on instances overhung latrines may the move, or if it is not possible to increase human health risks. construct any form of latrine (such as in a flooded area), a simple Raised latrines plastic bag may be the only disposal If the ground is rocky or the water option. The bags should be strong, table is high, many of the options water-tight and have a sealable top. described will be unsuitable because Users should defecate directly into they depend on deep pits. An the bag and then seal it. The bags alternative is to raise the pit above need to be collected regularly and ground level (Figure 14.9). taken away for burial. Biodegradable Figure 14.9. A raised latrine bags are preferred for their limited The walls of the pit can be extended impact on the environment. above ground level using local Long-term solutions materials such as wood, bamboo or Chemical toilets stone. The lining is then surrounded Most of the options in this note are only temporary. As soon as it Portable chemical toilets have been by a bank of soil to prevent it becomes obvious that the community used in emergencies in South and collapsing and to support the toilet is likely to remain in their new Central America. Typically, they cubicle. In practice, it is normally location for any length of time then are light-weight portable cubicles only possible to raise latrines about 1 to 1.5m above ground level. Higher longer-term solutions should be fitted with toilet seats with sealed latrines are rarely acceptable to users. sought. In most cases, some form holding tanks below. To reduce the of on-site sanitation will be most smell, the tank is partially-filled with appropriate. Details of the design and chemicals before use.The holding construction of longer-term options tank must be emptied regularly. are given in the references below. Overhung latrines If no other options are available, overhung latrines are an option in flood situations as long as water is flowing. A simple wooden structure, either built over the water (Figure 14.8) or floating on the water, allows users to defecate directly into the flowing water. This is rarely a major health problem as the volumes of water involved are large. Attention should be given to whether or not there are agriculture fields Figure 14.8. An overhanging latrine

Further information Harvey, P., Baghri, S. and Reed (2002) Emergency Harvey, P. (2007) Excreta disposal in emergencies – a field Sanitation: Assessment and programme design, manual. WEDC, Loughborough University, UK WEDC, Loughborough University, UK. http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/publications/

Water, Sanitation, Telephone: + 41 22 791 2111 Hygiene and Health Unit Telephone (direct): + 41 22 791 3555/3590 Avenue Appia 20 Fax (direct): + 41 22 791 4159 1211 Geneva 27 URL: www.who.int/water_sanitation_health Switzerland

Prepared for WHO by WEDC. Author and Series Editor: Bob Reed. Editorial contributions, design and illustrations by Rod Shaw Line illustrations courtesy of WEDC / IFRC. Additional graphics by Ken Chatterton. Water, Engineering and Development Centre Loughborough University Leicestershire LE11 3TU UK T: +44 1509 222885 F: +44 1509 211079 E: [email protected] W: http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk

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