1421

About the Authors Authors

Martin Abkowitz (deceased) Chapter D.37

Sadao Adachi Chapter D.30

Gunma University Sadao Adachi received his PhD from Osaka University and is a Professor Emeritus of Faculty of Science and Technology the Faculty of Science and Technology at Gunma University. He has published and Gunma, Japan presented over 300 technical papers and 25 textbooks on semiconductor physics and [email protected] technology. His current research interests include physical properties of semiconduc- tors and new functional materials.

Guy J. Adriaenssens Chapter A.7

University of Leuven Guy Adriaenssens received his PhD from the University of Washington (1971) for Lab. for Semiconductor Physics an NMR study of ferroelectric phase transitions. After postdoctoral studies at the Leuven, Belgium University of Saarland, Germany, he joined the University of Leuven, Belgium, in [email protected] 1973. There his main research interests centered on the electronic transport properties and the electronic density of states of amorphous semiconductors, chalcogenide glasses and conjugated polymers, and on defect structures in CVD diamonds.

Wilfried von Ammon Chapter A.5

Von Ammon Consulting Wilfried von Ammon studied Physics at the Technical University of Roth, Germany Munich and at the University of Regensburg; he received his PhD in [email protected] Physics in 1981. He then joined Wacker Siltronic, working in research and development. His main focus was on silicon crystal growth, silicon- layer growth by chemical vapor deposition, neutron transmutation doping, thermal treatment of silicon, and behavior of defects in silicon. He is now retired.

Hajime Asahi Chapter C.23

Osaka University Hajime Asahi received his PhD degree from the University of Tokyo, Inst. of Scientific and Industrial Research Japan in 1976. He then joined NTT Laboratories, where he engaged Osaka, Japan in research on MBE of III-V semiconductors and their optical device [email protected] applications. In 1987 he joined ISIR, Osaka University, then focussing on research on MBE of III-nitride, diluted magnetic and temperature- insensitive semiconductors, quantum nanostructures, and their device applications.

Peter Ashburn Chapter C.22

University of Southampton Peter Ashburn received a PhD degree in Electrical and Electronic Engineering in School of Electronics and Computer 1974 from the University of Leeds and then joined the Philips Research Laboratories. Science In 1978 he joined the University of Southampton and is currently a Professor Southampton, UK of Microelectronics. His research interests include SiGe heterojunction bipolar [email protected] transistors (HBTs), ultimate CMOS and carbon nanotubes. He has published over 200 papers in the scientific literature and has authored two books on bipolar transistors.

Mark Auslender Chapter C.21

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer Mark Auslender received a PhD in Solid-State Theory in 1977. He was a Certified Sheva Senior Researcher at the Institute of Metal Physics (Ural Branch, USSR Academy of Dept. of Electrical and Computer Sciences). In 1991 he joined the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Engineering Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel, where he is a Grade A Researcher and Beer Sheba, Israel [email protected] Adjunct Full Professor in the department. His present interests focus on micro- and nanophotonics, optical sensors, graphene, and manganites. 2004 published over 50 titute, St. Petersburg, Russia, onomy. 1990. Since 1990 he has been working at 2010 she joined ASML as a design engineer eceived an MS in Physics from the University 1981) at Ioffe Ins ilicon. She continued her research work at Utrecht University, Monica Brinza received a PhDwith from a the thesis University of onphous Leuven electronic in s transport propertieswith of hydrogenated a amor- post-doccrystalline focused solar on cells. low In temperaturein the amorphous Development and and micro-systems. Engineering Department of EUV lithographic Ian Baker received hisUniversity PhD in 1973. in His Silicon careerimaging Sensors in CCDs solid from to state Southampton advanced imaging infrared90 has detectors. papers spanned He and visible has has presentedindustry 32 over in patents. 2008. He His wasfor current awarded long interests range an surveillance are MBE and avalanche for astr photodiode services arrays to Chapter D.34 Chapter A.7 Mohammed L. Benkhedir r of Annaba, Algeria, andde holds Tebessa, Algeria. a He lectureshipLeuven, gained at where a the he PhD Centre studied inin Universitaire the Physics amorphous electronic from selenium the properties by Universitycurrently and means Professor of density of at the photoconductivity of University states techniques. of Tebessa, He Algeria. is Darren Bagnall isComputer a Science senior at lecturer Southamptonpioneering at University. work His on the research molecular-beam School epitaxy hasdeposition (MBE) included (CVD) of and for chemical Electronics the vapor development and ofbased new on nano ZnO, and silicon quantum andrefereed devices silicon papers. germanium. He has Chapter C.22 Chapter A.7 where he worked as aPhilipps Senior University Researcher Marburg, till Germany. His researchproperties interests and are devoted charge tobooks, transport optical co-authored in seven disordered book chapters, semiconductors. and He published 230 has peer-reviewed edited articles. two Paul D. Brown received ain PhD 1989. in He Applied isNottingham. Physics presently His from Professor current the research of University intereststween Materials of are the Characterisation Durham concerned processing, at with structure, the thematerials, and interrelationship assessed University property using be- of of a structural, broadon range functional, novel of and variants characterization biomedical techniques, of with electron emphasis microscopy. Sergei Baranovskii received his PhD ( Mark Baxendale has beenof a London Reader since inemergent 2002. Nanotechnology phenomena His at in general Queen theand Mary research applications physical University nanoscale interest and carbon life isgraphene) macromolecules sciences in (fullerenes, in the with carbon self-organization physical nanotubes, a and and and focus life on sciences. the science Chapter B.17 Chapter E.47 Chapter A.9 Monica Brinza Ian M. Baker Leonardo MW Ltd Southampton, UK [email protected] ASML Netherlands B.V. Veldhoven, The Netherlands [email protected] University of Nottingham Dept. of Mechanical, MaterialsManufacturing and Engineering Nottingham, UK [email protected] Philipps University Dept. of Physics Marburg, Germany [email protected] University of New SouthSchool Wales of Photovoltaic andEnergy Renewable Engineering Sydney, Australia [email protected] Tebessa University Lab. of Applied and TheoreticalTebessa, Physics Algeria [email protected] Paul D. Brown Mohammed L. Benkhedir Sergei Baranovskii Darren M. Bagnall

Queen Mary University of London School of Physics andLondon, Astronomy UK [email protected] Mark Baxendale Authors 1422 About the Authors About the Authors 1423

Peter Capper Chapters B.12, B.14, B.15 For biographical profile, please see the section “About the Editors”. Authors

R. Lawrence Comstock (deceased) Chapter E.49

Ray DeCorby Chapter D.41

University of Alberta Ray DeCorby is a Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University Electrical and Computer Engineering of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. His research is in the area of integrated optics, Edmonton, Canada with a current focus on air-core waveguides and microcavity devices for sensing, [email protected] lab-on-a-chip, and quantum information applications.

M. Jamal Deen Chapter B.20

McMaster University M. Jamal Deen is a Distinguished University Professor and Senior Canada Dept. of Electrical and Computer Research Chair in Information Technology at McMaster University, Engineering Canada. He has published over 500 peer-reviewed articles, two textbooks, Hamilton, Canada six patents, and has 14 best paper/poster/presentation awards. His current [email protected] research interests are nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, nanotechnology, and their emerging applications to health and environmental sciences. Dr Deen is currently serving as President of the Academy of Science, The Royal Society of Canada.

Leonard Dissado Chapter A.10

University of Leicester Professor Emeritus Leonard Dissado works on the theory of dielectric Dept. of Engineering response and electrical breakdown phenomena in a wide range of Leicester, UK materials from glasses and high voltage insulators to bio-tissues. He was [email protected] awarded a DSc from the University of London (1990), a Docteur (hc) by Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France (2007), and an Honorary Professorship from Xi’an Jiaotong University, China (2009).

David Dunmur Chapter D.36

University of Southampton David Dunmur received his DPhil degree from the University of Oxford in 1965. His Chemistry research has been concerned with the dielectric, optical, electro-optical and elastic Southampton, UK properties of liquid crystals. He was Founding Editor of Liquid Crystals Today and the [email protected] 1999 recipient of the G.W. Gray Medal of the British Liquid Crystal Society. Professor Dunmur has now retired from the University of Southampton.

Lester F. Eastman (deceased) Chapter D.32

Andy Edgar Chapter D.38

Victoria University Andy Edgar is an Associate Professor and Senior Research Fellow at the School of School of Chemical and Physical Sciences Chemical and Physical Sciences of Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand. His Wellington, New Zealand research interests are in materials science, particularly glasses, ceramics, and glass [email protected] ceramics for opto-electronic applications such as radiation imaging and detection. He is also interested in the development of optical camera-based systems for X-ray imaging.

Vassili Fedotov Chapter E.56

University of Southampton Vassili Fedotov received a PhD degree in Laser Physics in 2003 from the Optoelectronics Research Centre University of Southampton and is presently a Principal Research Fellow at Southampton, UK the university’s Optoelectronics Research Centre. His research interests lie [email protected] in the fields of metamaterials, plasmonics, and toroidal electrodynamics, and he has authored and co-authored over 70 peer-reviewed journal publications on these topics. physics, ecently served ndustrial Science and Technology 1687. Currently, he works for Cadence Design Chapter C.28 Darrel Frear earned MS andUniversity PhD of degrees California, in Berkeley. He Materials Science isTechnology from currently in the the Package Director Innovation of atSandia Core NXP. National Previously, Darrel Labs, was Motorolaworks with and in Freescale advanced Semiconductor. packagingmaterials, Darrel research modeling, manufacturing, and and reliability. development including Romualdo Alejandro Ferreyra received hismonwealth PhD University, from Richmond, Virginia USA, Com- held in a 2014. post-doctoral researcher Since positionogy, 2015, at Japan. Kyoto he His Institute has main of areashnol- growth, Tec of deposition of research interest insulators and aredesign, fabrication, their III-nitride and related materials’ characterization of solid electronicmathematical state devices, and and computational their calculations. Chapter E.53 Chapter D.31 Mark Fox is Professor ofHe Optical obtained Physics at his the DPhiland University degree worked of Sheffield. from at AT&T thethe Bell University University Laboratories of of Sheffield and Oxforddimensional in at in semiconductor 1998. Oxford 1987 structures, His before quantumspectroscopy. research optics, joining He interests and has ultrafast include authored laser low- Oxford more Masters than Series 150 in papers Physics. and two texts in the Chapter D.40 Jacek Gieraltowski holds ainvolved DSc in from research Warsaw onfor University magnetic (Poland). more He materials than has (ferrites, 35Universitaire Européen thin been years. de Presently, films la he and Mer isproblems (IUEM), nanowires) for Professor working on high Emeritus fast density ofthe switching magnetic Physics application magnetization recording, of at magnetism giant Institut to magnetoimpedance biological and sensors, medical and applications. in 1993. At AISTacterization he of has materials worked using onEXAFS, synchrotron and both HAXPES. radiation molecular He beam techniques alsocurrently epitaxy such employs a growth density-functional as Chief and Senior theory diffraction, Researcher char- calculations. in He the is Systematic Materials Design Group. Brian E Foutz completedand his semiconductor PhD device at physics.on Cornell He the University is Standards Committee studying a for memberSystems electron IEEE developing of transport new the techniques IEEEsystems and and on logic r chips. for automated testing of semiconductor Paul Fons joined the National Institute of Advanced I Chapter E.46 Chapter D.32 Chapter A.4 Darrel Frear Romualdo A. Ferreyra NXP Semiconductor Core Technology in PackageChandler, Innovation USA [email protected] Kyoto Institute of Technology Innovation Center Kyoto, Japan [email protected] National Institute of AdvancedScience Industrial and Technology Tsukuba, Japan [email protected] European Institute for Marine Studies Oceanic Domains Laboratory Plouzané, France [email protected] University of Sheffield Dept. of Physics andSheffield, Astronomy UK [email protected] Jacek Gieraltowski Mark Fox Paul Fons

Charlottesville, USA [email protected] Robert D. Gould (deceased) Brian E. Foutz Authors 1424 About the Authors About the Authors 1425

Yaser M. Haddara Chapter C.22 Authors

McMaster University Yaser Haddara is Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering at McMaster Uni- Dept. of Electrical and Computer versity. He received his PhD in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University in Engineering 1997. His research interest is in semiconductor fabrication process modeling. He has Hamilton, Canada published on modeling diffusion in GaAs, Si, and SiGe, as well as modeling of defect [email protected] formation, nanowire growth, and SiGe oxidation. His current research is on cobalt germanidation, polymer sensors, and SiC process technology.

Walid A. Hadi Chapter D.32

University of Windsor Walid Hadi received his PhD in Electrical Engineering from the University Dept. of Electrical and Computer of Windsor. He is currently an Assistant Professor at Saint Clair College Engineering and an Adjunct Professor at Lawrence Technological University. Dr Windsor, Canada Hadi is a post-doctoral fellow at the University of British Columbia. His [email protected] research is on III-V and II-VI semiconductors and their application in high electron mobility transistors.

Shlomo Hava Chapter C.21

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer Shlomo Hava received a PhD in Electrical Engineering from the Sheva University of Delaware in 1982. Since then he has worked in the Dept. of Electrical and Computer Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Ben-Gurion Engineering University of the Negev, Israel. Currently he is a Faculty Professor and Beer Sheba, Israel [email protected] Head of the Microelectronics Laboratory in this department. His present research interests include micro- and nanometer-scaled diffraction gratings in optical elements and light emitters, and the effects of gamma radiation and vacuum on optoelectronic devices.

Masahiro Hiramoto Chapter E.54

Institute for Molecular Science Masahiro Hiramoto received a PhD in Chemistry from Osaka University in 1986. Dept. of Materials Molecular Science He started research on organic semiconductors and organic solar cells in 1988 at Okazaki, Japan the Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University. He joined the Institute for [email protected] Molecular Science in 2008 as Professor. He has published over 130 papers and is the inventor of the blended junction and tandem junction for organic solar cells.

Hideo Hosono Chapter E.58

Tokyo Institute of Technology Hideo Hosono obtained his PhD in Applied Chemistry from Tokyo Metropolitan Materials Research Center of Element University in1982 and became a Professor at Tokyo Institute of Technology in Strategy 1999. He is a pioneer of transparent oxide semiconductors represented by IGZO Yokohama, Japan (InGaZnOx)-thinfilmtransistorsusedtodriveLCDsandOLEDsanddiscoveredthe [email protected] iron pnictide superconductor. His current concern is design and exploration of novel semiconductors, superconductors, and catalysts.

Colin Humphreys Chapter 1

University of Cambridge Colin Humphreys is Professor of Materials Science and Director of Dept. Materials Science and Metallurgy Research at the University of Cambridge. He is the founder and the Cambridge, UK Director of the Cambridge Centre for Gallium Nitride, which researches [email protected] GaN-based LEDs and electronic devices. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering.

Mehrdad Irannejad Chapter D.41

University of Waterloo Mehrdad Irannejad received his MSc degrees from the University of Dept. of Mechanical and Mechatronics Shiraz, Iran (2000) and the University of Leeds, UK (2008). He received Engineering his PhD degree in Photonic Materials Science Engineering from the Waterloo, Canada University of Leeds in 2012. Currently, he is a Research Associate [email protected] in Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering at the University of Waterloo. His research interests include photonic glasses and polymers, and their integration with 2D materials in nanosensor platforms. onductors ilicon Valley, bon-Neutral Energy CVD) of II-VI semic titute for Advanced Materials eceived his PhD in Materials and to ALD of oxide films. More recently vapor deposition (MO For biographical profile, please see the section “About Editors”. the Processing, Tohoku University. HeScience from r Tohoku Universitymainly in on 1976. the His purification of researchthin metals, interests film single II-VI crystal focus growth compound ofproperties. semiconductors bulk, and and impurity effects on their Minoru Isshiki isretired an in Emeritus 2012 as Professor, a Tohoku Professor University. at He the Ins Chapters B.16, D.33 California, since 2001. Heand is Image currently Sensor Senior CharacterizationGroup Manager at (formerly of ON Aptina Pixel Semiconductor, Imaging). Design Imagea He dissertation Sensor has on a the optical PhDwell spectroscopy in structures. of Physics III-V (1996), semiconductor with quantum Radu Ispasoiu has held engineering managementpositions and technical in leadership the hi-tech optoelectronics industry in S Chapter D.40 has been applied to infrared detectors and PV solar energy. Zahangir Kabir is an AssociateEngineering Professor in at the Concordia Department of University,modeling, Electrical Canada. and and characterization His of Computer electronic research materials andphotoconductors interests devices for with include applications optical theory, to andhas x-ray authored detectors, or HFETs, co-authored and more thin-film than solar 40 cells. refereed He journal papers in the above area. Tim Joyce has 35terization, years’ mainly experience at in LiverpoolIII-V semiconductor University. He materials growth and migrated and then from materials tohe MOVPE III-nitride charac- to has MBE MOMBE concentrated of onmember AFM of and BACG. electron microscopy. He is an active committee Stuart Irvine is ProfessorSwansea University, of and Solar Director of Energyawarded the Materials his Centre in BSc for the in SolarScience College Physics Energy (1978), Research. of (1974, He and Engineering, Loughborough was hissearch University), on DSc his metalorganic chemical in PhD Physics in Materials (1994, University of Birmingham). His re- Tatsumi Ishihara is Professor at theResearch (I2CNER) International Institute at for Kyushu University Car (Japan).University He in received 1991 his and PhD has fromthe been Kyushu fields working of there catalysts, solid sinceof state 2003. energy-related electrochemistry, His solid materials research state interests ionics, likeenvironment the lie fuel catalysts development in cells, like rechargeable deNOx,cars. batteries and and low photocatalysts, temperature PM oxidation catalysts for Chapter B.14 Chapters B.14, E.43 Chapter E.59 Chapter E.45 Chapters A.2, A.3, B.19, C.28, E.45 Minoru Isshiki Tohoku University Inst. of Multidisciplinary ResearchAdvanced for Materials Sendai, Japan [email protected] University of Liverpool School of Engineering Liverpool, UK [email protected] Swansea University College of Engineering Swansea, UK [email protected] ON-Semiconductor Image Sensor Group San José, USA [email protected] Tim Joyce Radu Ispasoiu Stuart Irvine

Kyushu University Dept. of Applied Chemistry Fukuoka, Japan [email protected] Concordia University Dept. of Electrical andEngineering Computer Montreal, Canada [email protected] Safa Kasap M. Zahangir Kabir Tatsumi Ishihara Authors 1426 About the Authors About the Authors 1427

Gudrun Kissinger Chapter A.5 Authors

Innovations for High Performance Gudrun Kissinger obtained a PhD in Crystallography from the University Microelectronics (IHP) of Leipzig and worked as a Research Scientist and Project Leader in IHP Frankfurt/Oder, Germany in Frankfurt (Oder), Germany, from 1984–2001. From 2001–2004 she co- [email protected] founded and joined the start-up company Communicant Semiconductor Technologies. In 2004, she returned to IHP where she is now working as Project Leader in industrial cooperation with Siltronic AG.

Alexander V. Kolobov Chapter E.46

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Alexander V. Kolobov has been involved in chalcogenide research since Science and Technology the late 1970s when he joined A.F. Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute in Tsukuba, Japan Leningrad (Russia). Since 1994 he has been working at the National [email protected] Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology in Tsukuba (Japan), where he is currently a Prime Senior Researcher.

Cyril Koughia Chapters A.2, A.3

University of Saskatchewan Cyril Koughia received his PhD from the A.F. Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute, St. Dept. of Electrical and Computer Petersburg, Russia and is a Research Associate at the University of Saskatchewan, Engineering Canada. His current research interests include electronic and optical properties of Saskatoon, Canada amorphous semiconductors and rare-earth doped glasses used in photonics and [email protected] electronics. He has written many invited papers and has published extensively in international journals in this field.

Roger Lewis Chapter E.55

University of Wollongong Roger Lewis is a Professor of Physics and Associate Dean of Research in the Faculty School of Physics of Engineering and Information Sciences at the University of Wollongong, Australia. Wollongong, Australia Lewis holds a BSc (Honours) from the University of Sydney and a PhD from Griffith [email protected] University, Australia. He is a fellow of the Australian Institute of Physics and of the Royal Microscopical Society.

Geoffrey Luckhurst Chapter D.36

University of Southampton Geoffrey Luckhurst was awarded his PhD in 1965 from the University Chemistry of Cambridge, having obtained his BSc at the University of Hull. His Southampton, UK research into liquid crystals started in Cambridge and continues at [email protected] Southampton where he is Emeritus Professor of Chemical Physics. His work is concerned with many aspects of this interdisciplinary field including the design of novel materials, their molecular orientational order, macroscopic order and dynamics.

Jiří Málek Chapter B.19

University of Pardubice Jiríˇ Málek received his PhD degree from the Institute of Chemical Dept. of Physical Chemistry Technology, Pardubice (1986) and his DSc degree from the Faculty of Pardubice, Czech Republic Chemical Engineering in Prague (2000). He has been a Full Professor [email protected] of Physical Chemistry at the University of Pardubice since 2002. His interests include kinetics of nucleation-growth processes, structural relaxation, and visco-elastic behavior of non-crystalline materials and highly supercooled, glass-forming liquids.

Akihisa Matsuda Chapter C.25

Osaka University Akihisa Matsuda has an MS degree from Waseda University, a PhD from Tokyo Dept. of Systems Innovation Institute of Technology, and was Chief Senior Researcher at ETL, MITI Japan. He was Osaka, Japan also the Director of the Research Initiative for Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells at AIST, [email protected] METI Japan. He was also a Professor at the Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan. titut bout eceived 1984 of the 1959. Since llier II. He zechpublic. Re hnology. He is now iting Professor at Stanford eceived the E.W. Müller Award aces and interfaces. before joining thelecturer RWTH Aachen. in There 1968 and1974 he became qualified he Associate as was Professorretired university appointed two in years Professor 1999. later. He at In University was the in Walter Schottky Universität 1981 Vis Duisburg and r and Winfried Mönch received aGöttingen Dr. rer. in nat. 1961. degree He from spent the three Universität years at the AEG-Forschungsins University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. He hason semiconductor authored two surf monographs Chapter A.8 Hadis Morkoç received his PhDNY, degree and from a Cornell University, Honoris Ithaca, is Causa the from Founders the ProfessorUniversity, Richmond, University of VA. of Engineering He is Montpe fields at of among Virginia physics, the Commonwealth engineering, most andare materials cited science. semiconductors, scientists His oxides, research in interests electronicsensors. the and optoelectronic devices, and Jan Mistrik is currentlyand Senior Nanotechnology Scientist at atHe the the obtained University Center his of of MSc Pardubice,in (1998) Materials Prague C and (quantum PhD opticsa (2003) doctoral and degree from optoelectronics). in Charles materialsFrance. In University science His 2002, from research interest the he is Universityin r of optical characterization particular Versailles, of spectroscopic nanostructures, ellipsometry and50 magneto-optics refereed with journal a papers in the field. Chapter A.3 Chapter D.31 Kazuo Morigaki received his PhD in Physics from Osaka University in Donald Morelli is Professor ofMichigan Materials State Science and University. His Adjunct research Professorsemimetals, interests of conducting span Physics at polymers, a high variety temperature ofband superconductors, topics, gap wide semiconductors, including: and high narrow thermaland conductivity magnetism. crystals, thermoelectric Professor materials, MorelliUniversity of holds Michigan. BS and PhD degrees in Physics from the then, he has workedCentre for d’Etudes Osaka Nucléares University, de Sony Saclay, CorporationPhysics), University Research Yamaguchi of University, Laboratory, and Tokyo Hiroshima (Institute for InstituteProfessor of Solid Emeritus Tec State atlight-induced the phenomena University and ofmicrocrystalline silicon. the Tokyo. electronic His states current of area defects of in interest amorphous are and Naomi Matsuura is anEngineering Associate at Professor the in University of theof Toronto. Toronto Faculty She in of received 2003 her Applied for PhDHer Science the from research and development the focuses University of on three-dimensionalmedical the imaging nanoscale design radiation for architectures. of image-guided new and materials targeted treatment for of enhanced disease. interaction with Chapter E.57 Chapter C.24 Chapter D.39 Winfried Mönch University Duisburg-Essen Faculty of Physics Duisburg, Germany [email protected] Michigan State University Chemical Engineering and Materials Science East Lansing, USA [email protected] University of Pardubice Center of Materials andPardubice, Nanotechnology Czech Republic [email protected] Virginia Commonwealth University Electrical and Computer Engineering Richmond, USA [email protected] Hadis Morkoç Donald T. Morelli Jan Mistrik

University of Tokyo Tokyo, Japan [email protected] University of Toronto Dept. of Materials Science &Toronto, Engineering Canada [email protected] Kazuo Morigaki Naomi Matsuura Authors 1428 About the Authors About the Authors 1429

Jayanta Mukherjee Chapter D.35 Authors

Compound Photonics UK Ltd Jayanta Mukherjee is a Laser Design Engineer at Compound Photonics, Durham, UK United Kingdom, where he works on design, development and manu- jayanta.mukherjee@ facturing of visible and infra-red high power semiconductor lasers and compoundphotonics.com solid state lasers. He holds a BSc (Hons) in Physics, a Master’s in Physics and Laser Engineering, and a PhD in Semiconductor Laser Physics.

Takashi Nagase Chapter E.51

Osaka Prefecture University Takashi Nagase received his PhD degree in Electronic Engineering from Osaka Dept. of Physics and Electronics Prefecture University in 2000. After a postdoctoral fellowship at the National Sakai, Japan Institute of Information and Communications Technology, he joined Osaka Prefecture [email protected] University in 2006 where he is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Physics and Electronics. His current research interests are organic electronics, molecular devices, and nanofabrication.

Hiroyoshi Naito Chapter E.51

Osaka Prefecture University Hiroyoshi Naito received his PhD degree in Electronic Engineering from Osaka Dept. of Physics and Electronics Prefecture University in 1984 where he is now a Professor in the Department of Sakai, Japan Physics and Electronics. He has been engaged in the photoelectric characterization [email protected] of disordered semiconductors such as amorphous chalcogenide glasses and of liquid crystalline materials. His current interests are the optical and electronic properties of organic semiconductors and their application to optoelectronic devices.

Arokia Nathan Chapter E.44

University of Cambridge Arokia Nathan holds the Chair of Photonic Systems and Displays in Dept. of Electrical Engineering the Department of Engineering, Cambridge University. He has extensive Cambridge, UK experience in device physics and modeling, and materials processing. His [email protected] present research interests lie in the integration of devices, circuits, and systems using a broad range of inorganic and organic thin film material systems on rigid and mechanically flexible substrates.

Stephen K. O’Leary Chapter D.32

University of British Columbia Stephen O’Leary received degrees from the University of Toronto. School of Engineering Currently, he is with The University of British Columbia. His current Kelowna, Canada research interests are the material properties of electronic materials. [email protected] Professor O’Leary is a registered Professional Engineer. He is currently a member of the American Physical Society, the Materials Research Society, and a Senior Member of the IEEE.

Chisato Ogihara Chapter C.24

Yamaguchi University Chisato Ogihara received his PhD degree in Physics from University of Tokyo in Graduate School of Science and 1988. He joined the University of Strathclyde in 1989, Gifu University in 1991 and Engineering Yamaguchi University in 1993. His current research focuses on photoluminescence Yamaguchi, Japan and light-induced creation of defects in hydrogenated amorphous silicon. [email protected]

Fabien Pascal Chapter B.20

University of Montpellier Fabien Pascal is involved in a research group working in electronic devices (MOS, Institute of Electronic and Systems MODFET, MESFET, TBH Si–Ge, TBH III–V) by means of their proper background Montpellier, France I–V/C–V characteristics and noise spectral analysis. He is also working on the [email protected] technological qualification of contacts, semiconductor materials and carbon nanotubes based devices by the use of noise spectroscopy. titute hnology. 1982. He holds the Stanley 1983), and was BP Postdoctoral hnology in Stockholm in 1997 as a Senior Sci- ilipps-University Marburg, Germany and at the Thunder Bay eceived a PhD in Applied Physics ( Harry Ruda received his PhDMeek from Chair MIT in in NanotechnologyDirector of at the the Centreon University for the Nanotechnology. of fabrication His Toronto research and andwith interests modeling applications is focus of in quantum nanoelectronicsof functional and the nanostructures nanophotonics. Royal He Society of isof Canada a several and Fellow international the scientific Institute journals. of Physics, and editor Henry H. Radamson receivedterials the from PhD degree Linköping in UniversityRoyalonductor semic Institute in ma- of Sweden Tec inentist. 1996. Since He 2016, joined heBeijing, the is China. professor His in researchand Chinese field nanosensing. Academy is He of nanoelectronics, has Scienceincluding published nanophotonics, in seven more book than chaptersphotonics 200 and and scientific electronics. one articles, book about the integration of Chapters A.2, A.3, D.39 Chapter E.48 Oleg Rubel received his PhDNational in Technical Materials Science University, from Ukraine,the the Zaporozhye Central in Technological 2001. LaboratoryGroup, He Ph and has the worked Semiconductor at Theory Michael Petty’s higher educationand was at DSc) Sussex and University, ImperialInstitute UK of College, (BSc Physics and London of (PhD).Mike’s the research He Institution activities of focus is Engineering on and aof the Tec Fellow organic properties materials. of of He has organized the a thinlayers particular films interest to in electronic the application and of opto-electronic these devices. Regional Research Institute, Canada. Hisdevelopment current of research first-principle includes the functional approaches electronic for materials. predictive modeling of Chapter A.9 Chapter E.51 Steve Reynolds r Asim K. Ray, BSc,Devices MSc, at PhD, Brunel University DSc, London. holdsPhysicist. His Dr the nanoelectronics Ray research Chair is activity a of isdimensional Chartered focused Electronic nanostructures, on Engineer Materials electron and organic/inorganic and transport a in hybridorganic Chartered low crystals structures, and and 2D discotic graphene.reviews He and liquid has book published chapters over in 250 his papers, field including of invited research. Fellow at the Universityhad of several periods Edinburgh in beforeof industry, moving and Photovoltaics, to in FZ 2005/2006 Dundee Jülich,Physics was and in Germany. Guest Director Steve 1987. of Scientist is Solar He insemiconductors, Cities currently has the Scotland. computer Programme His Ins modeling, research Leader and interests in include renewable thin-film energy systems. Chapters C.28, E.52 Chapter A.7 Harry E. Ruda Henry H. Radamson University of Toronto Dept. of Materials ScienceEngineering, and and Edward Rogers Dept.Electrical of and Computer Engineering Toronto, Canada [email protected] Chinese Academy of Science Inst. of Microelectronics Beijing, China KTH Royal Institute ofSchool Technology of Information and Communication Technology Stockholm, Sweden [email protected] Brunel University London Inst. of Materials andMiddlesex, Manufacturing UK [email protected] McMaster University Dept. of Materials ScienceEngineering and Hamilton, Canada [email protected] Durham University School of Engineering andSciences Computing Durham, UK [email protected] Oleg Rubel Asim K. Ray Michael C. Petty

University of Dundee School of Science andDundee, Engineering UK [email protected] Stephen Reynolds Authors 1430 About the Authors About the Authors 1431

Andreas Sattler Chapter A.5 Authors

Siltronic AG Andreas Sattler obtained his Doctor rerum naturalium in Physics from the University München, Germany of Göttingen with a thesis on gettering of cobalt in silicon. His special fields of interest [email protected] were solid state and semiconductor physics. He then joined the simulation group of Siltronic in 2002, where he is working on simulation of crystal growth with special emphasis on defect formation.

Peyman Servati Chapter E.44

University of British Columbia Professor Peyman Servati is Director of Flexible Electronics and Energy Lab (FEEL) Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Vancouver, Canada Columbia. He has extensive experience in novel materials and devices for rigid and [email protected] flexible displays and electronics and electronic textiles. His research interests lie in integrated sensors, electronics, and energy devices in mechanically flexible and textile substrates.

Derek Shaw Chapter A.6

Hull University Derek Shaw has a BSc in Physics from Manchester University, UK, and Dept. of Physics a PhD from Imperial College. He worked for nine years in R&D in the Hull, UK electrical industry, primarily on thermionic emitters for magnetron valves [email protected] and photoconductive CdS. He spent the remainder of his career at the University of Hull, where he initiated research into self and impurity diffusion in CdS, CdTe, HgCdTe, and GaSb.

Fumio Shimura Chapter B.13

Shizuoka Institute of Science and Fumio Shimura has been engaged in both fundamental and practical Technology science and engineering related to semiconductor crystal technology Dept. of Materials and Life Science and semiconductor device processing, and is the author of a book. Fukuroi, Japan Fumio Shimura received his PhD degree in Applied Physics from [email protected] Nagoya University, Japanin 1982. He is currently a Professor at the Sizuoka Institute of Science and Technology and Adjunct Professor, North Carolina State University.

Yusuke Shinmura Chapter E.54

Institute for Molecular Science Yusuke Shinmura received a PhD in Science from the Graduate University for Dept. of Materials Molecular Science Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI) in Hayama, Japan, in 2015. He joined the Institute Okazaki, Japan for Molecular Science in Okazaki, Japan, in 2010. His current research interests are [email protected] doping effects to organic semiconductors and organic photovoltaic cells.

Michael S. Shur Chapter D.32

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Dr Michael Shur is Patricia W. and C. Sheldon Roberts Professor at RPI. His interests Dept. of Physics, Applied Physics, and are in semiconductor physics. He is Foreign Member of the Lithuanian Academy of Astronomy Sciences and Fellow of IEEE, APS, IET, ECS, MRS, OSA, SPIE, EMA, and AAAS, New York, USA received IEEE and other awards, and holds Honorary Doctorates from St. Petersburg [email protected] Technical University and the University of Vilnius.

Poppy Siddiqua Chapter D.32

University of British Columbia Poppy Siddiqua is currently a PhD student at the University of British School of Engineering Columbia. Her research interests are focused on the electron transport Kelowna, Canada within wide-energy gap compound semiconductor materials and their [email protected] device implications. She worked as a Lecturer at Daffodil International University, Bangladesh prior to joining the University of British Columbia as a PhD student. itish eceived lline materials, 2001. phous semiconductors, hnology). In 2007 he joined photonic systems, including lasers, books, edited three books and five conference published 200 research papers. Stephen John SweeneyDepartment is of Physics Professor at of(Hons) the in University Physics Applied of and Surrey, Physics UK.His and Head He research a holds interests of PhD a are in the BSc for in Semiconductor use low-dimensional Laser in and photonic Physics. novel devicesenergy semiconductors with generation applications and including efficiency, communications, sensing, and healthcare. Jai Singh is ProfessorDarwin, Australia of and Physics FellowHis at of research the the Australian interests Charles Institute are Darwinof of in excitonic University, Physics. processes condensed-matter in theory,nanostructures, crystalline covering and and areas amor design ofHe solar has cells, written OLEDs, two proceedings, and and scintillators. Chapter A.3 Chapter D.35 Roman Svoboda was bornHe in received 1980 his in PhD Hradec degreeof in Pardubice Krylova, Physical Czech (2008), Chemistrypublic. Re where frominterests he the include currently University advanced works kinetic asprocesses, analysis a structural of senior complex relaxation scientist. physical-chemical phenomenaand His in novel methods non-crysta of thermal analysis. Chapter B.19 Vacuum Council (BVC) 2006–2008,for Recording Vacuum Science Secretary Technique of and theof Application International the (IUVSTA) 2004–2016, Union ISO/TC201 and Subcommittee ChairmanChemical on Analysis Data 1993–2017. Management and Treatment in Surface David Sykes is aof Director the of Loughborough UK Surface Surface Analysis Analysis Ltd. Forum He (UKSAF) was 2000–2015, Chairman Chairman of the Br After graduating from HokkaidoCo. University Ltd. in for 1970, twoto Keiji years. Professor Tanaka He worked in then at 1991. returnedphysical Canon In properties to 2011 and Hokkaido photoinduced he University phenomenachalcogenide became and glasses, of an and was amorphous received Emeritus materials, promoted the Professor. specifically first He Ovshinsky has Award in worked on Hitoshi Suzuki received hisof PhD Technology degree and in then AppliedInstitute joined Physics of the from Information Communications Tokyo Institute andHiroshima Research University. Communications Laboratory His Tec (National current researchstructures focuses of on organic the moleculesfunctional analysis using nanostructures of scanning for self-assembled probe biomolecules. microscopy and fabrication of Tim Smeeton is adevelopment of Chief novel Technologist light-emitting devices atLEDs, and SHARP deep ultraviolet Laboratories (UVC) of technologies,his PhD and Europe, from photonics-based leading the sensors. Universityof He of InGaN r Cambridge quantum in wells 2005 usingtechniques. for transmission research into electron the microscopy nanostructures and X-ray scattering Chapter B.18 Chapter D.42 Chapter 1 Chapter E.51 Stephen J. Sweeney Jai Singh Charles Darwin University School of Engineerng andTechnology Information Darwin, Australia [email protected] University of Surrey Dept. of Physics andTechnology Advanced Institute Guildford, UK [email protected] Loughborough Surface Analysis Ltd Loughborough, UK [email protected] SHARP Laboratories of Europe Oxford, UK [email protected] University of Pardubice Dept. of Physical Chemistry Pardubice, Czech Republic [email protected] David Sykes Roman Svoboda Tim Smeeton

Hokkaido University Dept. Applied Physics Sapporo, Japan [email protected] Hiroshima University Graduate School of AdvancedMatter Sciences of Higashihiroshima, Japan [email protected] Keiji Tanaka Hitoshi Suzuki Authors 1432 About the Authors About the Authors 1433

Charbel Tannous Chapters A.4, E.49 Authors

University of Western Brittany Charbel Tannous holds a DSc from Joseph Fourier University (Grenoble, Lab. of Magnetism of Brittany France) and a PhD from the University of Sherbrooke (Quebec). He Brest, France has worked on 1/f noise in fractal circuits and microelectronic device [email protected] simulation, and also on wireless communications and non-linear signal processing. He is now a Full Professor of Physics working on fast switching magnetization problems for high density magnetic recording and magnetic sensors.

Ali Teke Chapter D.31

Balikesir University Ali Teke is currently an Associate Professor in the Physics Department Dept. of Physics at the Balikesir University, Turkey. He received his BSc (1992) and PhD Balikesir, Turkey (1997) degrees from Physics Departments of the Middle East Technical [email protected] University, Turkey and Essex University, UK, respectively. His current research activities include the investigation of the electronic and optical properties of wide-band-gap semiconductors such as GaNand ZnO and exploring new devices for electronic and optoelectronic applications. He has published more than 30 journal and conference papers, and chapters in books.

Junji Tominaga Chapter E.46

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Junji Tominaga is a Prime Senior Researcher at the National Institute of Advanced Science and Technology Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan. He received his PhD from Cranfield Tsukuba, Japan Institute of Technology, UK (1991). He was the Director of the Center for Applied [email protected] Near-Field Optics Research until 2009. His current research is on non-volatile solid-state phase change memory using superlattice structures.

Harry Tuller Chapter A.11

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Harry Tuller received his EngScD from Columbia University (1973) and honorary Dept. of Materials Science and doctorates from Universities of Marseille and Oulu. He is Editor-in-Chief, Journal Engineering of Electroceramics and President, International Society of Solid State Ionics, Fellow Cambridge, USA American Ceramic and Electrochemical Societies, von Humboldt awardee, and co- [email protected] founder of Boston MicroSystems. His research focuses on defects and properties of metal oxides with applications to sensors, energy conversion, memory, and MEMS devices.

Kazushige Ueda Chapter E.58

Kyushu Institute of Technology Kazushige Ueda received a Master’s degree in Inorganic Materials in Dept. of Materials Science 1993 and a Doctoral degree in Materials Science in 1998 from Tokyo Kitakyushu, Japan Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech.). He studied transparent conducting [email protected] materials at the Materials and Structures Laboratory at Tokyo Tech. After moving to Kyushu Institute of Technology in 2003, he started research on luminescent inorganic materials.

Robert M. Wallace Chapter C.27

University of Texas at Dallas Robert M. Wallace earned his PhD in Physics from the University Dept. of Materials Science and of Pittsburgh in 1988. In 1990, Wallace joined Texas Instruments, Engineering working on advanced device concepts and associated integration issues. Richardson, USA In 2003, he joined the University of Texas at Dallas, where he is [email protected] Professor of Materials Science and Engineering. His research interests include surfaces and interfaces of electronic materials. He has over 300 publications and 65 US and international patents. . In 2013, 3 titute of Physics (IOP), as eceived his PhD in Solid superconductors funded by the hite has published over 200 papers c T eceived his PhD in Electrical and Computer Engineering he IEEE. Professor W eceived his BSc from Wuhan University and his MPhil from The Roger Whatmore worked withA winner ferroelectrics of for the Nelson moreImperial Gold than College Medal 40 and London the and years. GriffithCork. Emeritus Medal, He Professor he is is at SRA University aInstitutes at College of Fellow Physics and of Materials, Minerals theof and Royal Mining, the and Royal Academy a Irish Member of Academy. Engineering and the Chapter C.26 Swiss National Science Foundation.scientist Since at 1994 the he Swisspresent has Federal research been Institute is a of in research hnology the Tec field Lausanne. of His applied superconductivity. Rainer Wesche studied physicsAfter at completing the his University diploma of in(PhD Constance, 1984, in Germany. he 1988). was From assistantScherrer 1989 from Institute to 1985 in 1993 to 1989 Switzerland, heof where was high-current he a research led applications scientist an of at experimental high- the study Paul Chapter E.50 in the field of sensor technology and novel sensing materials. he joined International Rectifier Inc. (now Infineon Technologies Americas Corp.). University of Hong Kong. He r Congyong Zhu r from Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU).expands His from research epitaxy experience growth, inreliability electrical VCU study characterization, of simulation, GaN based phase HEMTs noise, to and phase shifters based on BaSrTiO Neil White is Professor of Intelligentand Sensor Systems Computer in Science the Department at ofInstitution the of Electronics Engineering University andhnology of Tec (IET) Southampton, and UK. the He Ins is a Fellow of the well as a Senior Member of t Jifeng Wang is aTohoku University Senior in Manager 2008 atState as Rasa Physics an Industries, from Associate the Ltd., Professor.focus Chinese He Japan. on Academy r the He of microelectronic retired Sciences materials from in and 1991. he His is research the author interests of over 90 publications. David S. Weiss isScientist the at Research the Director of Universityas Molecular a of Glasses, Scientist Rochester. Fellow. Inc. He Hein and received retired 1969. his a from PhD His Senior Eastman inphotoelectrical research Chemistry Kodak properties from interests in Columbia of focus 2009 University authored organic on over materials. 100 the publications He photochemistry, and holds co-authored photophysics, 26 one and book. US patents and has Chapter C.29 Chapters B.16, D.33 Chapter D.37 Chapter D.31 Roger Whatmore Imperial College London Dept. of Materials London, UK [email protected] University of Southampton School of Electronics andScience Computer Southampton, UK [email protected] Rasa Industries Ltd. Advanced Microelectronic Materials Development Center Tokyo, Japan [email protected] Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne Swiss Plasma Center Villigen, Switzerland [email protected] Neil White Rainer Wesche Jifeng Wang

Molecular Glasses, Inc. Rochester, USA [email protected] Infineon Technologies Chandler, USA [email protected] Congyong Zhu David S. Weiss Authors 1434 About the Authors 1435

Detailed Contents

List of Abbreviations ...... XXIX ealdCont. Detailed 1 Perspectives on Electronic and Photonic Materials Tim Smeeton, Colin Humphreys ...... 1 1.1 Tremendous Integration ...... 2 1.2 The Silicon Age ...... 3 1.2.1 The Transistor and Early Semiconductor Materials Development...... 3 1.2.2 The Integrated Circuit ...... 5 1.3 The Compound Semiconductors...... 7 1.3.1 High-Speed Electronics ...... 8 1.3.2 Light Emitting Devices...... 9 1.3.3 The III-Nitrides ...... 11 References ...... 14

Part A Fundamental Properties

2 Electrical Conduction in Metals and Semiconductors Safa Kasap, Cyril Koughia, Harry E. Ruda ...... 19 2.1 Fundamentals: Drift Velocity, Mobility and Conductivity ...... 20 2.2 Matthiessen’s Rule ...... 22 2.3 Resistivity of Metals ...... 23 2.3.1 General Characteristics ...... 23 2.3.2 Fermi Electrons ...... 25 2.4 Solid Solutions and Nordheim’s Rule ...... 26 2.5 Carrier Scattering in Semiconductors ...... 28 2.6 The Boltzmann Transport Equation ...... 29 2.7 Resistivity of Thin Polycrystalline Films...... 30 2.8 Inhomogeneous Media: Effective Media Approximation...... 32 2.9 The Hall Effect ...... 35 2.10 High Electric Field Transport ...... 37 2.11 Impact Ionization ...... 38 2.12 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas...... 40 2.13 One-Dimensional Conductance ...... 42 2.14 The Quantum Hall Effect ...... 43 References ...... 44

3 Optical Properties of Electronic Materials: Fundamentals and Characterization Jan Mistrik, Safa Kasap, Harry E. Ruda, Cyril Koughia, Jai Singh ...... 47 3.1 Optical Constants ...... 47 3.1.1 Refractive Index and Extinction Coefficient ...... 48 3.1.2 Kramers–Kronig Relations ...... 49 99 99 53 53 87 88 50 96 85 89 93 50 50 51 52 53 54 56 62 69 65 79 79 68 71 75 82 79 80 100 107 101 106 107 109 104 111 112 113 ...... co Dispersion Relation ...... / ...... g ...... N ...... Magnetism and Spin-Polarized Band Structure in Magnetic Materials and Infrared Reflection of Magnetic Materials ...... 4.2.3 Electronic Properties: Localized, Free, Itinerant 4.2.2 Thin Magnetic Films ics and Quantum Devices 4.2.1 Types of Exchange and Coupling 3.3.1 Lattice or Reststrahlen Absorption 4.3.2 Magnetic Quantum Dot Arrays 4.3.3 Magnetic Vortex Properties and Applications 4.3.1 Magnetic Signal Processing Devices 4.1.14.1.2 Fundamental Magnetic Quantities The Hysteresis Loop 3.2.1 Cauchy Dispersion Equation 4.1.3 Intrinsic Magnetic Properties of a Material 4.1.4 Traditional Types of Magnetism and Classes 3.2.2 Sellmeier Dispersion Equation 3.2.3 Gladstone–Dale Formula 3.2.4 Wemple–DiDomini 3.2.5 Group Index 3.3.2 Free-Carrier Absorption (FCA) 3.3.3 Band-to-Band or Fundamental Absorption 3.3.4 Exciton Absorption 3.3.5 Impurity Absorption 3.4.1 Bulk Samples 3.3.6 Effects of External Fields 3.5.1 Abbe Number or Constringence 3.5.2 Optical Materials 3.4.2 Thin Film Optics 3.5.3 Optical Glasses 3.3 Optical Absorption References 4.3 Spintronics and Quantum Information Devices 4.2 Nonconventional Magnetism and Progress Toward Spintron- Defects in Monocrystalline Silicon Wilfried von Ammon, Andreas Sattler, Gudrun Kissinger Charbel Tannous, Jacek Gieraltowski Magnetic Properties: From Traditional to Spintronic 3.2 Refractive Index 4.1 Traditional Magnetism 5.1 Technological Impact of Intrinsic Point Defects Aggregates 5.2 Thermophysical Properties of Intrinsic Point Defects 3.4 Optical Characterization 3.5 Optical Materials References

5 4

Detailed Cont. 1436 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1437

5.3 Aggregates of Intrinsic Point Defects...... 115 5.3.1 Experimental Observations ...... 115 5.3.2 Theoretical Model: Incorporation of Intrinsic Point Defects...... 118 5.3.3 Theoretical Model: Aggregation of Intrinsic Point Defects. 120 5.3.4 Effect of Impurities

on Intrinsic Point Defect Aggregation...... 123 Cont. Detailed 5.4 Formation of OSF Ring ...... 127 References ...... 129

6 Diffusion in Semiconductors Derek Shaw ...... 133 6.1 Basic Concepts ...... 134 6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms...... 134 6.2.1 Vacancy and Interstitial Diffusion Mechanisms ...... 135 6.2.2 The Interstitial–Substitutional Mechanism: Dissociative and Kick-Out Mechanisms ...... 135 6.2.3 The Percolation Mechanism ...... 135 6.3 Diffusion Regimes ...... 136 6.3.1 Chemical Equilibrium: Self- and Isoconcentration Diffusion ...... 136 6.3.2 Chemical Diffusion (or Diffusion Under Nonequilibrium Conditions) ...... 136 6.3.3 Recombination-Enhanced Diffusion...... 138 6.3.4 Surface Processing Effects ...... 138 6.3.5 Short-Circuit Paths ...... 138 6.4 Internal Electric Fields ...... 138 6.5 Measurement of Diffusion Coefficients ...... 139 6.5.1 Anneal Conditions ...... 139 6.5.2 Diffusion Sources ...... 139 6.5.3 Profiling Techniques...... 139 6.5.4 Calculating the Diffusion Coefficient ...... 140 6.6 Hydrogen in Semiconductors ...... 140 6.7 Diffusion in Group IV Semiconductors ...... 141 6.7.1 Germanium ...... 141 6.7.2 Silicon ...... 141 6.7.3 Si1x Gex Alloys ...... 141 6.7.4 Silicon Carbide ...... 142 6.8 Diffusion in III–V Compounds ...... 143 6.8.1 Self-Diffusion ...... 143 6.8.2 Dopant Diffusion ...... 143 6.8.3 Compositional Interdiffusion ...... 144 6.9 Diffusion in II–VI Compounds ...... 144 6.9.1 Self-Diffusion ...... 145 6.9.2 Chemical Self-Diffusion ...... 145 6.9.3 Dopant Diffusion ...... 145 6.9.4 Compositional Interdiffusion ...... 146 6.10 Nano Volume Diffusion ...... 146 6.11 Diffusion in Molten Semiconductors...... 146 6.12 The Meyer–Neldel Rule ...... 146 168 170 168 171 171 171 168 167 165 166 164 157 164 166 166 171 158 159 172 157 154 160 162 163 153 153 161 161 147 147 147 151 175 180 184 181 177 177 183 187 183 187 189 ...... Schottky Contacts ...... 7.7.2 Interrupted Field TOF (IFTOF) 7.8.2 Spin-Dependent Recombination 7.8.3 Time-Resolved Microwave Conductivity (TRMC) 7.8.1 Surface Photovoltage (SPV) 7.7.1 TOF Mobility and DOS Measurements 7.6.4 TPC Applications 7.6.3 TPC Density-of-States Analysis 7.5.2 Switch-off Transient 7.2.1 CPM 7.5.1 Switch-on Transient 7.6.17.6.2 TPC Principles TPC Experiment and Related Techniques 7.2.3 Fourier-Transform Photocurrent Spectroscopy (FTPS) 7.2.2 Dual Beam Photoconductivity (DBP) 7.4.3 MPC Applications 7.1.2 Example Applications in Materials Research 7.1.1 Definitions and Overview 7.4.2 MPC Density of States Analysis 7.4.1 MPC Background and Experiment 8.1.2 Band Offsets of Semiconductor Heterostructures 8.1.1 Barrier Heights of Laterally Homogeneous 8.3.2 Band Offsets of Semiconductor Heterostructures 8.4.1 Nonalloyed Ohmic Contacts or MUTIS Schottky Contacts 8.3.1 Barrier Heights of Schottky Contacts 8.4.2 Atomic Interlayers 7.8 Other Photoconductivity-Related Techniques 7.7 Time-of-Flight (TOF) and Related Techniques 7.6 Transient Photocurrent Spectroscopy (TPC) References 7.3 Steady-State Photocarrier Grating Method (SSPG) 7.2 ConstantPhotocurrentMethod(CPM) 7.4 Modulated Photocurrent Spectroscopy (MPC) 7.5 Switch-on and Switch-off Transients 6.14 General Reading and References References Electronic Properties of SemiconductorWinfried Interfaces Mönch 6.13 Conclusions Photoconductivity in Materials Research Stephen Reynolds, Monica Brinza,Guy J. Mohammed Adriaenssens L. Benkhedir, 7.1 Steady-State Photoconductivity (SSPC) 8.1 Experimental Database 8.2 IFIGS-and-Electronegativity Theory 8.4 Modifications Schottkyof Contacts 8.3 Comparison of Experiment and Theory

8 7

Detailed Cont. 1438 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1439

8.5 Graphene Schottky Contacts ...... 190 8.6 Final Remarks...... 190 References ...... 191

9 Charge Transport in Disordered Materials Sergei Baranovskii, Oleg Rubel ...... 193 9.1 General Remarks on Charge Transport in Disordered Materials...... 195 ealdCont. Detailed 9.2 Charge Transport in Disordered Materials via Extended States ...... 198 9.3 Hopping Charge Transport in Disordered Materials via Localized States...... 200 9.3.1 Nearest-Neighbor Hopping ...... 201 9.3.2 Variable-Range Hopping...... 203 9.3.3 Description of Charge-Carrier Energy Relaxation and Hopping Conduction in Inorganic Noncrystalline Materials...... 205 9.3.4 Description of Charge-Carrier Energy Relaxation and Hopping Conduction in Organic Noncrystalline Materials ...... 211 9.4 Concluding Remarks ...... 215 References ...... 216

10 Dielectric Response Leonard Dissado ...... 219 10.1 Definition of Dielectric Response ...... 220 10.1.1 Relationship to Capacitance ...... 220 10.1.2 Frequency-Dependent Susceptibility ...... 220 10.1.3 Relationship to Refractive Index ...... 221 10.2 Frequency-Dependent Linear Responses...... 222 10.2.1 Resonance Response ...... 222 10.2.2 Relaxation Response ...... 224 10.3 Information Contained in the Relaxation Response...... 228 10.3.1 The Dielectric Increment for a Linear Response 0 ...... 228 10.3.2 The Characteristic Relaxation Time (Frequency) ...... 231 10.3.3 The Relaxation Peak Shape ...... 237 10.4 Charge Transport...... 240 10.5 Data Presentation ...... 243 10.6 A Few Final Comments ...... 243 References ...... 244

11 Ionic Conduction and Applications Harry Tuller...... 247 11.1 ConductioninIonicSolids...... 248 11.2 Fast Ion Conduction ...... 251 11.2.1 Structurally Disordered Crystalline Solids ...... 251 11.2.2 Amorphous Solids ...... 254 11.2.3 Heavily Doped Defective Solids ...... 254 11.2.4 Interfacial Ionic Conduction and Nanostructural Effects...... 255 11.3 Mixed Ionic–Electronic Conduction ...... 256 11.3.1 Defect Equilibria ...... 256 11.3.2 Electrolytic Domain Boundaries ...... 257 269 270 273 273 271 271 271 269 293 294 295 295 295 301 304 297 299 273 296 273 304 258 275 275 261 258 260 261 261 262 263 276 276 277 275 278 289 289 278 286 278 278 280 283 ...... with an Applied Magnetic Field (MCZ) ...... 12.3.4 Stepanov 12.3.5 Edge-Defined FilmGrowth 12.3.3 Kyropoulos 12.3.1 Verneuil 12.3.2 Czochralski 13.2.1 Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 13.2.2 Polycrystalline Silicon 13.3.2 Czochralski Method 13.3.3 Impurities in Czochralski Silicon 12.3.6 Bridgman 13.3.1 Floating-Zone Method 12.3.7 Vertical Gradient Freeze 13.4.1 Czochralski Growth 11.4.1 Sensors 12.3.8 Float12.3.9 Zone Traveling Heater Method 11.4.2 Solid11.4.3 Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) Membranes 11.4.4 Batteries 11.4.5 Electrochromic Windows 12.3.11 High-Temperature Solution Growth (Flux) 12.3.12 Hydrothermal 12.3.13 Growth from the Vapor 12.3.10 Low-Temperature Solution Growth 12.3.14 Multicrystalline Si Growth for Solar Cells 12.4.1 Group IV 12.4.2 Groups12.4.3 III–V Groups12.4.4 II–VI Oxides/Halides/Phosphates/Borates 12.2 History 12.3 Techniques 12.1 Background 13.1 Overview 13.2 Starting Materials 13.3 Single-Crystal Growth 13.4 New Crystal Growth Methods Single-Crystal Silicon: Growth andFumio Properties Shimura Bulk Crystal Growth: MethodsPeter and Capper Materials 11.4 Applications 11.5 Future Trends References References 12.4 Materials Grown 12.5 Conclusions

12 Part B Growth and Characterization 13

Detailed Cont. 1440 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1441

13.4.2 Continuous Czochralski Method (CCZ) ...... 305 13.4.3 Neckingless Growth Method ...... 306 References ...... 306

14 Epitaxial Crystal Growth: Methods and Materials Peter Capper, Stuart Irvine, Tim Joyce...... 309

14.1 Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE) ...... 309 Cont. Detailed 14.1.1 Introduction and Background ...... 309 14.1.2 History and Status ...... 310 14.1.3 Characteristics...... 310 14.1.4 Apparatus and Techniques...... 311 14.1.5 Group IVs ...... 313 14.1.6 Group III–Vs ...... 314 14.1.7 Group II–VIs ...... 316 14.1.8 Garnets ...... 318 14.1.9 Oxides/Fluorides ...... 318 14.1.10 Atomically Flat Surfaces ...... 318 14.1.11 Conclusions ...... 319 14.2 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition ...... 319 14.2.1 Introduction and Background ...... 319 14.2.2 Basic Reaction Kinetics ...... 319 14.2.3 Precursors ...... 321 14.2.4 Reactor Cells...... 322 14.2.5 III–V MOCVD ...... 324 14.2.6 II–VI MOCVD ...... 327 14.2.7 Conclusions ...... 329 14.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) ...... 329 14.3.1 Introduction and Background ...... 329 14.3.2 Reaction Mechanisms ...... 330 14.3.3 MBE Growth Systems ...... 331 14.3.4 Gas Sources in MBE ...... 333 14.3.5 Growth of III–V Materials by MBE ...... 334 14.3.6 Conclusions ...... 337 References ...... 337

15 Narrow Bandgap II-VI Semiconductors: Growth Peter Capper ...... 343 15.1 Bulk Growth Techniques ...... 344 15.1.1 Phase Equilibria ...... 344 15.1.2 Crystal Growth ...... 345 15.1.3 Material Characterization ...... 347 15.2 Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE) ...... 349 15.2.1 Hg-rich Growth ...... 349 15.2.2 Te-rich Growth...... 350 15.2.3 Material Characteristics ...... 351 15.2.4 Device Status ...... 352 15.3 Metal-Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) ...... 353 15.3.1 Substrate Type and Orientation...... 356 15.3.2 Doping...... 357 15.3.3 In situ Monitoring ...... 357 416 381 381 415 399 401 414 414 397 403 393 404 407 406 409 411 412 380 380 385 365 361 371 371 372 362 379 358 367 377 413 386 375 375 387 390 408 360 359 368 359 367 ...... /Si(001) x ...... Ge ...... x ......  ...... 1 ...... of Epitaxial GaN Conductivity of Si/Si ...... of Electronic and Optoelectronic Materials 17.4.3 ReflectionHigh-Energy Electron Diffraction 18.1.1 Auger18.1.2 Electron Spectroscopy X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 17.4.2 Microdiffraction andPolarity 17.4.1 Electron Diffraction andImage Contrast Analysis 17.7.2 Cathodoluminescence/Correlated TEM Investigation 17.7.1 Identifying Defect Sources Within Homoepitaxial GaN 16.3.5 Other Methods 16.2.1 The LPE Technique 16.2.2 Vapor-Phase Epitaxy Techniques 16.3.4 The Traveling Heater Method (THM) 15.4.1 Double-Layer Heterojunction Structures 16.1.1 Basic Properties 16.3.3 Bridgman and Gradient Freezing (GF) Method 16.3.1 The16.3.2 CVT and PVT Techniques Hydrothermal Growth 17.7.3 Scanning Transmission Electron Beam Induced 15.4.3 MCT and CdZnTe Growth on Silicon 15.4.2 Multilayer Heterojunction Structures 16.1.2 Phase Diagram References 18.2 Glow-Discharge Spectroscopies (GDOES and GDMS) 17.5 Characterizing Functional Activity 17.6 Sample Preparation 17.7 Case Studies – Complementary Characterization 17.8 Concluding Remarks References 16.4 Conclusions Surface Chemical Analysis David Sykes Structural Characterization Paul D. Brown 15.4 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) Wide-Bandgap II-VI Semiconductors: GrowthMinoru and Isshiki, Properties Jifeng Wang 17.1 Radiation-Material Interactions 16.1 Crystal Properties References 16.3 Bulk Crystal Growth 18.1 Electron Spectroscopy 17.2 Particle-Material Interactions 17.3 X-ray Diffraction 17.4 Optics, Imaging and Electron Diffraction 15.5 Alternatives to MCT 16.2 Epitaxial Growth

17 18 16

Detailed Cont. 1442 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1443

18.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) ...... 417 18.4 Conclusion ...... 423

19 Thermal Properties and Thermal Analysis: Fundamentals, Experimental Techniques and Applications Safa Kasap, Jiří Málek, Roman Svoboda...... 425

19.1 Heat Capacity ...... 426 Cont. Detailed 19.1.1 Fundamental Debye Heat Capacity of Crystals...... 426 19.1.2 Specific Heat Capacity of Selected Groups of Materials .... 428 19.2 Thermal Conductivity...... 431 19.2.1 Definition and Typical Values...... 431 19.2.2 Thermal Conductivity of Crystalline Insulators ...... 432 19.2.3 Thermal Conductivity of Noncrystalline Insulators...... 433 19.2.4 Thermal Conductivity of Metals...... 435 19.3 Thermal Expansion ...... 436 19.3.1 Grüneisen’s Law and Anharmonicity ...... 436 19.3.2 Thermal Expansion Coefficient ˛L ...... 437 19.4 Enthalpic Thermal Properties...... 438 19.4.1 Enthalpy, Heat Capacity and Phase Transformations ...... 438 19.4.2 Conventional Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) ..... 440 19.5 Temperature-Modulated DSC (TMDSC)...... 446 19.5.1 TMDSC Principles ...... 446 19.5.2 TMDSC Applications ...... 447 19.5.3 Tzero Technology...... 448 References ...... 449

20 Electrical Characterization of Semiconductor Materials and Devices M. Jamal Deen, Fabien Pascal...... 453 20.1 Resistivity ...... 454 20.1.1 Bulk Resistivity...... 454 20.1.2 Contact Resistivity ...... 459 20.2 Hall Effect ...... 462 20.2.1 Physical Principles ...... 462 20.2.2 Hall Scattering Factor...... 463 20.3 Capacitance–Voltage Measurements...... 464 20.3.1 Average Doping Density by Maximum–Minimum High-Frequency Capacitance Method...... 464 20.3.2 Doping Profile by High-Frequency and High–Low Frequency Capacitance Methods...... 466 20.3.3 Density of Interface States ...... 467 20.4 Current–Voltage Measurements ...... 470 20.4.1 I–V Measurements on a Simple Diode ...... 470 20.4.2 I–V Measurements on a Simple MOSFET ...... 470 20.4.3 Floating Gate Measurements ...... 471 20.5 Charge Pumping ...... 472 20.6 Low-Frequency Noise ...... 473 20.6.1 Introduction ...... 473 20.6.2 Noise from the Interfacial Oxide Layer...... 474 477 479 516 515 515 515 529 530 475 527 529 523 520 490 491 520 485 514 524 485 485 488 495 507 495 528 535 530 530 535 527 527 526 524 532 534 534 534 534 537 ...... x x HBTs x ...... Ge Ge ...... x x Ge   1 x 1  1 ...... x Epitaxy ...... x ...... Ge ...... x ...... Ge  ...... x 1  1 ...... Epitaxy ...... x Ge ...... x  1 on Optical Constants on Relaxed Si Electrical and Optical Properties ...... 21.3.4 Electric-Field and Temperature Effects 21.3.3 Modeling of Optical Constants 21.3.1 Diversity of Silicon as an Optical Material 21.3.2 Measurements of Optical Constants 22.2.1 Dielectric Functions and Interband Transitions 20.6.3 Impedance Considerations During Noise Measurement 22.1.6 Majority-Carrier Mobility in Tensile-Strained Si 22.1.8 Apparent Band-Gap Narrowing in Si 21.1.4 Theory of Electrical and Optical Properties 22.1.1 Critical Thickness 21.1.1 Structure21.1.2 and Energy Bands Impurity Levels and Charge-Carrier Population 21.1.3 Carrier Concentration, 21.2.1 Ohm’s Law Regime 21.2.3 Review Material 21.2.2 High-Electric-Field Effects 22.1.7 Minority-Carrier Mobility in Strained Si 22.3.5 Selective Si 22.2.3 SiGe Quantum Wells 22.2.2 Photoluminescence 22.3.6 Heteroepitaxial Ge on Si 22.1.4 Density22.1.5 of States Majority-Carrier Mobility in Strained Si 22.1.3 Dielectric Constant 22.1.2 Band Structure 22.3.2 Hydrogen22.3.3 Passivation Ultra-Clean Epitaxy Systems 22.3.1 In situ Hydrogen Bake 22.3.4 Si References 22.2 Optical Properties of SiGe 20.7 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy Silicon-Germanium: Properties, Growth andYaser Applications M. Haddara, Peter Ashburn, Darren M. Bagnall Single-Crystal Silicon: Electrical andMark Optical Auslender, Shlomo Properties Hava 22.1 Physical Properties of Silicon-Germanium References 21.2 Electrical Properties 21.1 Silicon Basics 21.3 Optical Properties 22.3 Growth of Silicon-Germanium

Part C Materials for21 Electronics 22

Detailed Cont. 1444 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1445

22.4 Polycrystalline Silicon-Germanium ...... 537 22.4.1 Electrical Properties of Polycrystalline Si1x Gex ...... 538 References ...... 539

23 Temperature-Insensitive Band-Gap III-V Semiconductors: Tl-III-V and III-V-Bi Hajime Asahi...... 543 ealdCont. Detailed 23.1 Tl-III-V Alloy Semiconductors ...... 544 23.1.1 Expected Properties of Tl-Based III-V Alloys ...... 544 23.1.2 Growth of Tl-III-V Alloys ...... 546 23.1.3 Temperature Dependence of Physical Properties ...... 547 23.1.4 Tl-III-V LD Application ...... 549 23.2 III-V-Bi Alloy Semiconductors ...... 550 23.2.1 Expected Properties of Bi-Based III-V Alloys ...... 550 23.2.2 Growth of III-V-Bi Alloys...... 551 23.2.3 Optical Properties of III-V-Bi Alloys ...... 552 23.2.4 III-V-Bi LD Application ...... 553 23.3 Summary ...... 554 References ...... 554

24 Amorphous Semiconductors: Structure, Optical, and Electrical Properties Kazuo Morigaki, Chisato Ogihara ...... 557 24.1 Electronic States ...... 557 24.2 Structural Properties ...... 560 24.2.1 General Aspects...... 560 24.2.2 a-Si:H and Related Materials...... 560 24.2.3 Chalcogenide Glasses...... 561 24.3 Optical Properties ...... 561 24.3.1 General Aspects...... 561 24.3.2 a-Si:H and Related Materials...... 563 24.3.3 Chalcogenide Glasses...... 564 24.4 Electrical Properties ...... 565 24.4.1 General Aspects...... 565 24.4.2 a-Si:H and Related Materials...... 566 24.4.3 Chalcogenide Glasses...... 567 24.5 Light-Induced Phenomena...... 567 24.6 Nanosized Amorphous Structure ...... 569 References ...... 570

25 Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon Akihisa Matsuda...... 573 25.1 Reactions in SiH4 and SiH4=H2 Plasmas ...... 574 25.2 FilmGrowthonaSurface...... 575 25.2.1 Growth of a-Si:H ...... 575 25.2.2 Growth of c-Si:H ...... 576 25.3 Defect Density Determination for a-Si:H and c-Si:H...... 580 25.3.1 Dangling Bond Defects ...... 580 25.3.2 Dangling Bond Defect Density in c-Si:H ...... 582 25.4 Device Applications ...... 582 583 584 589 591 583 589 586 586 593 620 620 631 639 636 636 615 615 619 593 615 621 633 637 640 637 640 635 636 641 641 598 607 608 607 607 625 611 613 604 605 599 600 600 601 ...... c-Si:H ...... y ...... N x ...... Dielectrics Dielectrics ...... k k ...... 25.5.2 High Growth Rates of Device-Grade Related to Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells 25.5.1 Controlling Photoinduced Degradation in a-Si:H 26.1.1 Basic Ferroelectric Characteristics and Models 26.2.1 Ferroelectric Oxides 27.2.1 Transistor Structure 27.2.2 Transistor Dielectric Requirements in View of Scaling 27.2.5 High- 27.5.1 Tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) 27.4.1 Types of IC Memory 27.4.2 Capacitor Dielectric Requirements in View of Scaling 27.1.2 Role of Dielectrics for ICs 26.2.2 Triglycine Sulphate (TGS) 27.1.1 The Scaling of Integrated Circuits 27.2.3 Silicon Dioxide 27.4.4 Dielectrics for Nonvolatile Memory 27.5.2 Low- 27.4.3 Dielectrics for Volatile Memory Capacitors 26.2.3 Polymeric Ferroelectrics 26.4.3 Piezoelectrics 26.4.4 Pyroelectrics 26.4.1 Dielectrics 26.4.2 Computer Memories 27.2.4 Silicon Oxynitride: SiO 26.3.4 Thin Films 26.3.1 Single Crystals 26.3.2 Ceramics 26.3.3 Thick Films 25.6 Summary 26.1 Definitions and Background 26.2 Ferroelectric Materials References Dielectric Materials for Microelectronics Robert M. Wallace 25.5 Recent Progress in Material Issues Ferroelectric Materials Roger Whatmore 27.1 Overview 27.2 Gate Dielectrics 27.3 Isolation Dielectrics 27.5 Interconnect Dielectrics 27.6 Summary 27.4 Capacitor Dielectrics References References 26.4 Ferroelectric Applications 26.3 Ferroelectric Materials Fabrication Technology

26 27

Detailed Cont. 1446 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1447

28 Thin Films Robert D. Gould†, Safa Kasap, Asim K. Ray ...... 645 28.1 Deposition Methods...... 647 28.1.1 Physical Deposition Methods ...... 647 28.1.2 Chemical Deposition Methods ...... 662 28.1.3 Sol–Gel Method...... 667

28.2 Structure ...... 669 Cont. Detailed 28.2.1 Crystallography ...... 669 28.2.2 Film Structure ...... 670 28.2.3 Morphology ...... 676 28.2.4 Raman Spectroscopy ...... 678 28.3 Properties ...... 680 28.3.1 Optical Properties...... 680 28.3.2 Optical Absorption...... 684 28.3.3 Electrical Properties ...... 685 28.4 Concluding Remarks ...... 699 References ...... 702

29 Thick Films Neil White ...... 707 29.1 Thick Film Processing ...... 708 29.1.1 Screen Printing...... 708 29.1.2 The Drying and Firing Process ...... 709 29.2 Substrates ...... 710 29.2.1 Alumina ...... 710 29.2.2 Stainless Steel...... 710 29.2.3 Polymer Substrates ...... 710 29.3 Thick Film Materials ...... 711 29.3.1 Conductors ...... 711 29.3.2 Resistors ...... 712 29.3.3 Dielectrics ...... 713 29.3.4 Polymer Thick Films ...... 713 29.4 Components and Assembly ...... 714 29.4.1 Passive Components...... 714 29.4.2 Active Components ...... 714 29.4.3 Trimming ...... 715 29.4.4 Wire Bonding ...... 716 29.4.5 Soldering of Surface-Mounted Components ...... 716 29.4.6 Packaging and Testing ...... 717 29.5 Sensors ...... 717 29.5.1 Mechanical ...... 718 29.5.2 Thermal...... 719 29.5.3 Optical ...... 719 29.5.4 Chemical ...... 719 29.5.5 Magnetic ...... 720 29.5.6 Actuators ...... 720 References ...... 720 787 787 786 782 748 766 769 757 758 769 752 752 745 781 746 777 729 732 753 756 729 731 737 731 739 741 743 727 727 727 732 736 734 729 729 733 737 739 733 725 726 726 ...... and Lattice-Matching Conditions Between III–V Quaternaries and Binary Substrates ...... 31.8.2 p-Type Doping 31.8.1 n-Type Doping 31.6.2 Aluminum Nitride 31.5.1 Low Field Transport 31.5.2 High Field Transport 31.6.1 Gallium Nitride 31.4.1 Thermal Expansion Coefficients 31.4.2 Thermal Conductivity 31.6.3 Indium Nitride 30.4.2 Elastic Constants and Related Moduli 30.5.3 Thermal Conductivity 31.4.3 SpecificHeat 30.4.1 Microhardness 30.5.2 Thermal Expansion Coefficient 30.7.1 The Reststrahlen Region 30.5.1 SpecificHeat Debyeand Temperature 30.3.2 Molecular and Crystal Densities 30.3.1 Lattice Parameters 30.6.3 Deformation Potential 30.4.3 Long-Wavelength Phonons 30.6.2 Carrier Effective Mass 30.7.2 The Interband Transition Region 30.6.1 Bandgap Energy 31.8 Doped GaN 31.4 Thermal Properties of Nitrides 31.6 Optical Properties of Nitrides 31.2 Lattice Parameters of Nitrides 31.7 Properties of Nitride Alloys 31.3 Mechanical Properties of Nitrides 31.5 Electrical Properties of Nitrides References 31.1 Crystal Structures of Nitrides 30.4 Mechanical, Elastic and Lattice Vibronic Properties 30.6 Energy Band Parameters 30.7 Optical Properties 30.5 Thermal Properties 30.8 Carrier Transport Properties Group III Nitrides Romualdo A. Ferreyra, Congyong Zhu, Ali Teke, Hadis Morkoç III-V Ternary and QuaternarySadao Compounds Adachi 30.1 Introduction to III–V Ternary and Quaternary Compounds 30.2 Interpolation Scheme 30.3 Structural Parameters

31 Part D Materials for Optoelectronics30 and Photonics

Detailed Cont. 1448 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1449

31.9 Defects in GaN ...... 789 31.9.1 Points Defects ...... 789 31.9.2 Extended Defects ...... 792 31.10 GaN-Based Nanostructures ...... 794 31.10.1 Quantum Wells ...... 794 31.10.2 Quantum Dots ...... 796

31.10.3 Vertical Cavities ...... 796 Cont. Detailed 31.10.4 Nitride Nanorods ...... 799 31.11 Summary and Conclusions...... 801 References ...... 802

32 Electron Transport Within III-V Nitride Semiconductors Stephen K. O’Leary, Poppy Siddiqua, Walid A. Hadi, Brian E. Foutz, Michael S. Shur, Lester F. Eastman† ...... 829 32.1 Electron Transport Within Semiconductors and the Monte Carlo Simulation Approach...... 830 32.1.1 The Boltzmann Transport Equation ...... 831 32.1.2 Our Ensemble Semi-Classical Monte Carlo Simulation Approach ...... 832 32.1.3 Parameter Selections for Bulk Wurtzite GaN, AlN, and InN ...... 832 32.2 Steady-State and Transient Electron Transport Within Bulk Wurtzite GaN, AlN, and InN...... 834 32.2.1 Steady-State Electron Transport Within Bulk Wurtzite GaN ...... 835 32.2.2 Steady-State Electron Transport: A Comparison of the III–V Nitride Semiconductors with GaAs ...... 836 32.2.3 Influence of Temperature on the Electron Drift Velocities Within GaN and GaAs ..... 836 32.2.4 Influence of Doping on the Electron Drift Velocities Within GaN and GaAs ...... 839 32.2.5 Electron Transport in AlN...... 841 32.2.6 Electron Transport in InN ...... 842 32.2.7 Transient Electron Transport ...... 843 32.2.8 Electron Transport: Conclusions ...... 845 32.3 Electron Transport Within III–V Nitride Semiconductors: A Review.. 845 32.3.1 Evolution of the Field ...... 846 32.3.2 Developments in the 21st Century ...... 848 32.3.3 Future Perspectives ...... 849 32.4 Conclusions ...... 850 References ...... 850

33 II-IV Semiconductors for Optoelectronics: CdS, CdSe, CdTe Minoru Isshiki, Jifeng Wang ...... 853 33.1 Background ...... 853 33.2 Solar Cells ...... 853 33.2.1 Basic Description of Solar Cells ...... 853 33.2.2 Design of Cd-Based Solar Cells ...... 854 33.2.3 Development of CdS/CdTe Solar Cells ...... 855 33.2.4 CdZnTe Solar Cells ...... 858 33.2.5 The Future of Cd-Based Solar Cells ...... 858 876 875 882 874 873 875 879 879 893 886 888 893 886 886 872 892 892 892 891 889 871 867 867 868 870 868 869 858 897 858 898 898 900 900 863 900 863 902 902 902 859 860 862 901 ...... for Photovoltaic HgCdTe Arrays and the Einstein Relations ...... 34.5.4 Theoretical Foundations for HgCdTe Array Technology 34.5.2 Nonideal Behavior in HgCdTe Diodes 34.5.1 Ideal Photovoltaic Devices 34.5.3 Influence of Siliconon Photodiode Performance Array 34.6.1 Liquid Phase Epitaxial (LPE)-Based Processes 34.6.2 Vapour Phase Epitaxial (VPE)-Based Processes 34.7.3 Two-Color34.7.4 Array Technology HgCdTe Electron Avalanche Photodiodes (e-APDs) 34.7.1 Small34.7.2 Pixel Technology Higher Operating Temperature (HOT) Device Structures 34.7.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 34.7.6 Retina-Level Processing 34.7.5 Multifunctional HgCdTe Detectors 34.1.1 Introduction to Solar and Infrared Imaging 34.1.2 Historical Perspective and Early Detectors 34.1.3 HgCdTe Infrared Detector Market in the Modern Era 33.3.2 CdTe and CdZnTe Radiation Detectors 33.3.1 Basic Description of Semiconductor Radiation Detectors 35.1.1 Historical Perspective 35.2.2 Direct-35.2.3 and Indirect-Gap Semiconductors Emission and Absorption Rates 35.2.1 Carrier–Photon Interactions in Semiconductors 35.2.6 Density of States 35.2.5 Gain in Semiconductors 33.3.3 Performance of CdTe and CdZnTe Detectors 33.3.4 Applications of CdTe and CdZnTe Detectors 35.2.4 Population Inversion 34.6 Manufacturing Technology for Photodiode Arrays 34.7 Advanced HgCdTe Technologies References 34.5 Introduction to Photovoltaic Devices in HgCdTe 34.8 Emission Devices in II–VI Semiconductors 34.9 Potential for Reduced Dimensionality in HgTe–CdTe 34.4 Sprite Detectors 34.1 Overview 34.3 Photoconductive Detectors in HgCdTe 34.2 Applications and Sensor Design Optoelectronic Devices and Materials Stephen J. Sweeney, Jayanta Mukherjee 33.3 Radiation Detectors II-VI Narrow Bandgap Semiconductors:Ian Optoelectronics M. Baker 35.1 Introduction to Optoelectronic Devices 35.2 Light-Emitting Diodes and Semiconductor Lasers References 33.4 Conclusions

35 34

Detailed Cont. 1450 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1451

35.2.7 Optical Feedback in a Fabry–Perot Laser Cavity ...... 905 35.2.8 Wave Guiding ...... 906 35.2.9 Carrier Confinement ...... 907 35.2.10 Current Confinement ...... 908 35.2.11 Laser Threshold and Efficiency ...... 909 35.2.12 Carrier Recombination Processes ...... 910

35.2.13 Temperature Sensitivity and T0 ...... 912 Cont. Detailed 35.3 Single- and Multimode Lasers ...... 913 35.3.1 DFB and Wavelength Tuneable Lasers...... 913 35.3.2 Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs) ...... 915 35.3.3 High Power Lasers ...... 917 35.3.4 Quantum Cascade Lasers ...... 920 35.3.5 Emerging Semiconductor Materials for Modern Semiconductor Lasers...... 921 35.4 Optical Amplifiers ...... 922 35.4.1 An Introduction to Optical Amplification ...... 922 35.4.2 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers (SOAs) ...... 922 35.5 Modulators...... 923 35.5.1 Modulator Theory...... 923 35.5.2 Polarization-Insensitive Modulators...... 924 35.5.3 High-Speed High-Power QCSE Modulators ...... 925 35.5.4 The Electro-Optic Effect ...... 926 35.6 Photodetectors ...... 927 35.6.1 Photodetector Requirements ...... 927 35.6.2 Photodetection Theory ...... 927 35.6.3 Detectors with Internal Gain ...... 928 35.6.4 Avalanche Photodetectors ...... 928 35.7 Conclusions ...... 929 References ...... 930

36 Liquid Crystals Geoffrey Luckhurst, David Dunmur...... 933 36.1 Introduction to Liquid Crystals ...... 933 36.1.1 Calamitic Liquid Crystals ...... 935 36.1.2 Chiral Liquid Crystals ...... 937 36.1.3 Discotic Liquid Crystals ...... 938 36.2 The Basic Physics of Liquid Crystals ...... 940 36.2.1 Orientational Order ...... 940 36.2.2 Director Alignment ...... 940 36.2.3 Elasticity...... 941 36.2.4 Flexoelectricity ...... 944 36.2.5 Viscosity ...... 945 36.3 Liquid-Crystal Devices...... 947 36.3.1 A Model Liquid-Crystal Display: Electrically Controlled Birefringence (ECB) Mode ...... 948 36.3.2 High-Volume Commercial Displays: The Twisted Nematic (TN) and Super-Twisted Nematic (STN) Displays ...... 951 36.3.3 Complex LC Displays and Other Cell Configurations ...... 952 956 977 971 978 968 967 970 970 997 958 964 999 956 957 979 979 999 989 983 990 988 983 980 981 982 990 980 992 980 1006 1005 1006 1006 1007 1004 1001 1001 1001 1003 1008 1009 1010 1011 1011 1000 ...... † ...... Ions 2 ...... and Chemical Structures of Mesogens ...... 38.6.1 Compact Fluorescent Lamps 38.6.2 Phosphors for Solid State Lighting 38.6.3 Long-Persistence Phosphors 38.6.4 X-Ray Imaging 36.4.1 Chemical Structure and Liquid- Crystal Phase Behaviour 38.1.4 Semiconductors 38.6.5 Phosphors38.6.6 for Displays Scintillators 37.2.3 Photogeneration 37.3.1 Dark Decay 37.2.2 Photodischarge–Charge Transport 37.2.1 Dark Conductivity 38.1.1 Rare-Earth Ions 36.4.2 The Formulation of Liquid-Crystal Display Mixtures 36.4.3 Relationships Between Physical Properties 37.3.3 Electrical-Only Cycling 37.3.2 Photosensitivity 38.1.2 Transition-Metal Ions 38.1.3 s 37.4.6 Charge-Transport Layer (CTL) 37.4.7 Overcoat Layer 37.4.5 Charge-Generation Layer (CGL) 37.4.3 Substrate and Conductive Layer 37.4.4 Smoothing Layer and Charge-Blocking Layer 37.4.2 Coating Technologies 37.4.1 OPC Architecture 38.6 Applications 38.5 Experimental Techniques – Photoluminescence 38.2 Interaction with the Lattice 38.3 Thermally Stimulated Luminescence 38.4 Optically (Photo-)Stimulated Luminescence 38.7 Representative Phosphors References 37.3 OPC Characterization 37.2 Operational Considerations and Critical Materials Properties 37.1 Chester Carlson and Xerography Luminescent Materials Andy Edgar 36.4 Materials for Displays Organic Photoconductors David S. Weiss, Martin Abkowitz 38.1 Luminescent Centres References 37.5 Photoreceptor Fabrication 37.6 Summary 37.4 OPC Architecture and Composition References

37 38

Detailed Cont. 1452 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1453

39 Nano-Engineered Tunable Photonic Crystals Harry E. Ruda, Naomi Matsuura ...... 1013 39.1 PC Overview ...... 1014 39.1.1 Introduction to PCs ...... 1014 39.1.2 Nanoengineering of PC Architectures ...... 1015 39.1.3 Materials Selection for PCs ...... 1016

39.2 Traditional Fabrication Methodologies for Static PCs ...... 1017 Cont. Detailed 39.2.1 2-D PC Structures ...... 1017 39.2.2 3-D PC Structures ...... 1022 39.3 Tunable PCs ...... 1027 39.3.1 Tuning the PC Response by Changing the Refractive Index of the Constituent Materials ...... 1027 39.3.2 Tuning PC Response by Altering the Physical Structure of the PC ...... 1028 39.4 Summary and Conclusions...... 1030 References ...... 1031

40 Quantum Wells, Superlattices, and Band-Gap Engineering Mark Fox, Radu Ispasoiu...... 1037 40.1 Principles of Bandgap Engineering and Quantum Confinement .... 1038 40.1.1 Lattice Matching ...... 1038 40.1.2 Quantum-Confined Structures...... 1039 40.2 Optoelectronic Properties of Quantum-Confined Structures ...... 1040 40.2.1 Electronic States in Quantum Wells and Superlattices..... 1040 40.2.2 Interband Optical Transitions ...... 1042 40.2.3 The Quantum-Confined Stark Effect ...... 1044 40.2.4 Intersubband Transitions ...... 1045 40.2.5 Vertical Transport ...... 1046 40.2.6 Carrier Capture and Relaxation ...... 1046 40.3 Emitters ...... 1047 40.3.1 Interband Light-Emitting Diodes and Lasers ...... 1047 40.3.2 Quantum Cascade Lasers ...... 1049 40.4 Detectors ...... 1050 40.4.1 Solar Cells ...... 1050 40.4.2 Avalanche Photodiodes ...... 1050 40.4.3 Infrared Detectors ...... 1051 40.5 Modulators...... 1052 40.6 Quantum Dots and Nanowires ...... 1053 40.7 Conclusions ...... 1055 References ...... 1055

41 Glasses for Photonic Integration Ray DeCorby, Mehrdad Irannejad ...... 1059 41.1 Main Attributes of Glasses as Photonic Materials ...... 1061 41.1.1 The Glass Transition and Control of Viscosity ...... 1062 41.1.2 Metastability ...... 1064 41.1.3 Glass as Host Material...... 1068 41.2 Glasses for Integrated Optics ...... 1068 41.2.1 Low-Index Glassy Films ...... 1068 41.2.2 Medium-Index Glassy Films ...... 1069 41.2.3 High-Index Glassy Films ...... 1070 1102 1104 1102 1100 1098 1089 1083 1083 1084 1090 1091 1092 1107 1108 1097 1081 1087 1088 1071 1075 1077 1071 1072 1075 1077 1107 1111 1112 1112 1113 1114 1105 1114 1118 1118 1120 1123 ...... Applications ...... d Selected ...... ) Thin-Film Solar Cells ...... 2 ...... (CIGS ...... Generation, and Other Applications Using Laser Processing 2 ...... 42.1.1 Experimental 42.1.2 Theoretical Treatment 42.1.3 Stimulated Light Scattering, Supercontinuum 41.3.1 Advantages of Glass-Based Light Sources 41.3.2 Alternative Glass Hosts 41.3.3 Progress41.3.4 Towards Integrated Light Sources in Integration Glass of Dissimilar Materials 44.2.1 Localized and Extended States 44.2.2 Density44.2.3 of States (DOS) Effective Carrier Mobility 44.3.1 Thin-Film Strain Gauges 44.3.2 Strained Amorphous-Silicon Transistors 43.5 CdTe Thin-Film Solar Cells 43.6 CuInGaSe 43.4 GaAs Solar Cells 43.3 Amorphous Silicon 43.2 Crystalline Silicon 42.4 Photoinduced Phenomena 42.5 Summary References References 43.1 Figures of Merit for Solar Cells 42.1 Third-Order Nonlinearity in Homogeneous Glass 42.2 Second-Order Nonlinearity in Poled Glass 42.3 Particle-Embedded Systems 41.4 Summary References 43.8 Conclusions Disordered Semiconductors on Mechanically Flexible Substrates for Large-Area Electronics Peyman Servati, Arokia Nathan Solar Cells and Photovoltaics Stuart Irvine 41.3 Laser Glasses for Integrated Light Sources Optical Nonlinearity in PhotonicKeiji Glasses Tanaka 44.1 a-Si:H TFTs on Flexible Substrates 44.2 Field-Effect Transport in Amorphous Films 43.7 Excitonic PV 44.3 Electronic Transport Under Mechanical Stress References

44 42 Part E Novel Materials43 an

Detailed Cont. 1454 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1455

45 Photoconductors for X-Ray Image Detectors M. Zahangir Kabir, Safa Kasap ...... 1125 45.1 X-Ray Photoconductors ...... 1127 45.1.1 Ideal Photoconductor Properties ...... 1127 45.1.2 Potential Photoconductors ...... 1128 45.1.3 Summary and the Future ...... 1135

45.2 Dark Current Limitations ...... 1136 Cont. Detailed 45.2.1 Charge Carrier Depletion ...... 1137 45.2.2 Steady-State Thermal Generation ...... 1137 45.2.3 Carrier Injection ...... 1138 45.3 Metrics of Detector Performance ...... 1139 45.3.1 X-Ray Sensitivity...... 1140 45.3.2 Detective Quantum Efficiency ...... 1141 45.3.3 Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)...... 1143 45.3.4 Image Lag and Ghosting ...... 1144 45.4 Summary ...... 1145 References ...... 1145

46 Phase-Change Memory Materials Alexander V. Kolobov, Junji Tominaga, Paul Fons ...... 1149 46.1 Structure of Ge-Sb-Te Phase-Change Alloys ...... 1150 46.1.1 Crystalline Phase...... 1150 46.1.2 Amorphous Phase ...... 1152 46.2 Mechanism of the Phase-Change Process ...... 1156 46.2.1 Structural Studies ...... 1156 46.2.2 Photo-Assisted Amorphization of Ge2Sb2Te5 ...... 1156 46.3 Present Applications and Future Trends ...... 1158 References ...... 1160

47 Carbon Nanotubes and Bucky Materials Mark Baxendale ...... 1163 47.1 Carbon Nanotubes...... 1163 47.1.1 General ...... 1163 47.1.2 Geometry...... 1165 47.1.3 Synthesis and Chemistry ...... 1165 47.1.4 Electronic Structure and Transport ...... 1166 47.1.5 Nanoelectronic Devices ...... 1168 47.1.6 Networks ...... 1168 47.1.7 Other Electronic Applications ...... 1169 47.2 Bucky Materials...... 1170 References ...... 1170

48 Graphene Henry H. Radamson ...... 1173 48.1 Graphene Synthesis ...... 1174 48.2 Band Structure and Electronic Applications ...... 1176 48.3 Characterization of Graphene Material ...... 1178 48.3.1 AFM ...... 1178 48.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy ...... 1178 48.3.3 Raman Spectroscopy ...... 1179 48.3.4 XRD Analysis...... 1180 1248 1250 1252 1245 1234 1234 1235 1187 1263 1263 1185 1186 1189 1257 1258 1258 1259 1264 1192 1225 1180 1228 1182 1228 1236 1260 1261 1265 1205 1199 1215 1218 1229 1230 1232 1220 1220 1220 1244 1239 1238 1239 1241 1239 ...... † ...... 2 ...... Superconductors: An Overview c T ...... A Macroscopic Quantum Phenomenon ...... 50.2.1 Major Families of Cuprate Superconductors 50.2.2 Generic Phase Diagram of Cuprate Superconductors 50.2.3 Crystal Structures 49.1.2 The Write Head 51.3.1 Diodes and Transistors 51.3.2 Organic Light-Emitting Structures 49.1.1 Magnetic Thin Films 49.1.3 Spin-Valve Read Head 51.1.1 Orbitals and Chemical Bonding 51.1.2 Band Theory 51.1.3 Electrical Conductivity 51.3.3 Photovoltaic Devices 49.1.4 Longitudinal Recording Media (LMR) 50.1.2 Superconductor Electrodynamics 50.1.1 Characteristic Properties of Superconductors 50.2.4 Critical Temperatures 49.1.5 Perpendicular Magnetic Recording 49.2.1 Tunneling Magnetoresistive Heads 50.1.3 Superconductivity: 50.1.4 Type II Superconductors 50.3.2 Irreversibility Line 50.3.1 Anisotropic Superconductors 50.3.3 Limitations of the Transport Critical Current 50.7 Summary References 50.6 Iron-Based Superconductors 49.1 Magnetic Recording Technology 51.1 Electrically Conductive Organic Compounds Molecular Electronics Michael C. Petty, Takashi Nagase, Hitoshi Suzuki, Hiroyoshi Naito High-Temperature Superconductors Rainer Wesche 48.4 Photonic Applications Magnetic Information-Storage Materials Charbel Tannous, R. Lawrence Comstock 50.1 The Superconducting State References 51.2 Materials 51.3 Plastic Electronics 49.2 Magnetic Random-Access Memory 49.3 Extraordinary Magnetoresistance (EMR) 50.2 Cuprate High- 49.4 Summary References 50.5 The Special Case of MgB 50.3 Physical Properties of Cuprate Superconductors 50.4 Superconducting Films

51 49 50

Detailed Cont. 1456 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1457

51.4 Molecular-Scale Electronics ...... 1266 51.4.1 Moore’s Laws...... 1266 51.4.2 Nanoscale Organic Films ...... 1267 51.4.3 Patterning Technologies ...... 1269 51.4.4 Molecular Device Architectures ...... 1271 51.5 DNA Electronics ...... 1274

51.6 Conclusions ...... 1276 Cont. Detailed References ...... 1276

52 Organic Materials for Chemical Sensing Asim K. Ray ...... 1281 52.1 Analyte Requirements ...... 1282 52.2 Brief Review of Inorganic Materials...... 1283 52.2.1 Oxide Semiconductor Sensors ...... 1283 52.2.2 Graphene Based Sensors...... 1285 52.3 Macrocylic Compounds for Sensing ...... 1286 52.3.1 Preparation of Sensing Membranes ...... 1286 52.3.2 Thin-Film Properties ...... 1289 52.4 Sensing with Phthalocyanine and Porphyrin ...... 1291 52.4.1 Amperometric Sensor ...... 1291 52.4.2 Optical Sensors...... 1292 52.4.3 Detection of Volatile Organic Vapor Compounds ...... 1295 52.4.4 Phthalocyanine for Biosensing ...... 1296 52.5 Polymeric Materials ...... 1297 52.5.1 Conducting Polymers ...... 1298 52.5.2 Ion Sensing ...... 1299 52.5.3 Examples of Other Polymeric Sensors ...... 1300 52.6 Cavitand Molecules...... 1303 52.7 Concluding Remarks ...... 1305 References ...... 1305

53 Packaging Materials Darrel Frear ...... 1311 53.1 Package Applications...... 1312 53.2 The Materials Challenge of Electronic Packaging...... 1313 53.2.1 Materials Issues in High-Speed Digital Packaging ...... 1313 53.2.2 RF Packaging Materials Issues ...... 1314 53.3 Materials Coefficient of Thermal Expansion ...... 1315 53.4 Wirebond Materials ...... 1315 53.4.1 Wirebond for Digital Applications ...... 1315 53.4.2 Wirebond for RF ...... 1317 53.5 Solder Interconnects ...... 1317 53.5.1 Flip Chip Interconnects...... 1319 53.5.2 Flip Chip for RF...... 1320 53.5.3 Pb-Free...... 1320 53.6 Substrates ...... 1322 53.6.1 RF Substrate Materials...... 1322 53.7 Underfill and Encapsulants...... 1323 53.7.1 Underfill...... 1323 53.7.2 Encapsulation...... 1323 1337 1337 1333 1334 1335 1335 1336 1340 1343 1339 1339 1340 1331 1332 1332 1341 1342 1342 1324 1324 1325 1343 1329 1330 1325 1326 1326 1326 1327 1327 1327 1344 1344 1345 1326 1345 1345 1345 1345 1346 1346 1346 1346 1346 1346 1347 1347 ...... Stacking ......  –  55.1.3 Physical Phenomena at Terahertz Frequencies 55.2.1 Thermal 55.1.1 Bridging Electronics and Photonics 55.1.2 Focus on Frequency 55.1.4 Terahertz Technology Timeline 55.1.5 Entry into the Terahertz Literature 53.8.1 Adhesive Polymers 53.8.2 Metal Fillers 53.8.3 Conduction Mechanisms 55.2.2 Vacuum Electronic 53.8.4 Isotropic Versus Anisotropic Conduction 53.8.5 Rework 53.9.1 Thermal Issues in Digital Packaging 53.9.2 Thermal Issues in RF Packaging 55.2.3 Solid-State Electronic 55.2.4 Laser-Pumped 55.3.1 Thermal 55.2.5 Mechanical Excitation 55.3.2 Electro-Optic 55.3.3 Electronic 55.4.1 Mirrors 55.4.2 Lenses 55.4.3 Polarizers 55.4.4 Metamaterials References 54.6 Route Formation 54.7 54.8 HOMO–LUMO Gap 54.9 Tandem Cells 54.10 Conclusions 55.1 Overview 54.3 Donor–Acceptor Sensitization 54.4 Exciton Diffusion 54.5 Blended Junctions 55.2 Terahertz Sources Materials for Terahertz Engineering Roger Lewis Organic Solar Cells Masahiro Hiramoto, Yusuke Shinmura 53.8 Electrically Conductive Adhesives (ECAs) 54.1 History 54.2 Excitons 53.10 Summary References 53.9 Thermal Issues 55.3 Terahertz Detectors 55.4 Terahertz Components 55.5 Conclusion References

55 54

Detailed Cont. 1458 Detailed Contents Detailed Contents 1459

56 Metamaterials Vassili Fedotov ...... 1351 56.1 Bulk Metamaterials...... 1351 56.1.1 Basic Principle of Metamaterial Operation ...... 1352 56.1.2 The First Metamaterial ...... 1353 56.1.3 Magnetic Metamaterials (Artificial Magnetism) ...... 1353

56.1.4 Negative-Index Metamaterials (Left-Handed Media) ..... 1355 Cont. Detailed 56.1.5 Chiral Metamaterials ...... 1358 56.1.6 Transformation Optics and Metamaterial Cloaks ...... 1360 56.1.7 Hyperbolic Metamaterials...... 1362 56.2 Planar Metamaterials ...... 1365 56.2.1 Frequency Selective Surfaces ...... 1365 56.2.2 Magnetic Mirrors (High Impedance Surfaces)...... 1367 56.2.3 Perfect Metamaterial Absorbers ...... 1368 56.2.4 Designer Metasurfaces and Flat Optics...... 1369 56.2.5 Polarization Manipulation with Planar Metamaterials .... 1370 References ...... 1375

57 Thermoelectric Materials Donald T. Morelli ...... 1379 57.1 Overview of the Field ...... 1380 57.2 Semiconductors as Thermoelectric Materials...... 1381 57.2.1 Electronic Properties of Charge Carriers in Semiconductors ...... 1381 57.2.2 Semiconductors with Low Intrinsic Thermal Conductivity. 1383 57.2.3 Semiconductor Solid Solutions ...... 1384 57.3 New Concepts in Thermoelectric Materials Design ...... 1385 57.3.1 Phonon-Glass Electron Crystal: Skutterudites ...... 1385 57.3.2 Bulk Nanostructured Thermoelectrics: Pb-Chalcogenide Nanocomposites...... 1387 57.3.3 Crystals with Large Anharmonicity: Tetrahedrites...... 1388 57.4 Summary and Future Outlook ...... 1389 References ...... 1390

58 Transparent Conductive Oxides Hideo Hosono, Kazushige Ueda ...... 1391 58.1 Overview ...... 1391 58.1.1 Electrical Conduction ...... 1391 58.1.2 Transparency ...... 1393 58.2 Materials Design for TCOs ...... 1395 58.2.1 Electronic Structures of Oxides...... 1396 58.2.2 Materials Design for n-Type TCOs ...... 1396 58.2.3 Materials Design for p-Type TCOs ...... 1398 58.3 New Approach to Explore Candidate Materials: Materials Genome Approach ...... 1402 References ...... 1403

59 Inorganic Perovskite Oxides Tatsumi Ishihara...... 1405 59.1 Typical Properties of Perovskite Oxides ...... 1409 59.1.1 Dielectric Properties ...... 1409 1409 1413 1413 1410 1411 1421 1461 1495 1435 1414 1415 1418 1419 1420 1417 ...... 59.1.2 Electrical Conductivity and Superconductivity 59.1.3 Catalytic Activity 59.3.1 Cathode 59.3.2 Anode 59.3.3 Electrolyte 59.3.4 Interconnector 59.2 Photocatalytic Activity 59.3 Application for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 59.5 Summary References 59.4 Oxygen Separating Membrane

Glossary of Defining Terms Subject Index About the Authors Detailed Contents

Detailed Cont. 1460 Detailed Contents 1461

Glossary of Defining Terms

 Band Active Material Equivalent of the valence band in an organic The main functional component of thick-film paste, semiconductive material usually in the form of a finely divided powder  Band Active Matrix Addressing Equivalent of the conduction band in an organic The technique used to write and change images on semiconductive material complex liquid-crystal displays. Each display consists  Bond of thousands of picture elements (pixels) arranged as Chemical bond formed between the nuclei of atoms. a matrix of columns and rows. Each pixel has There are two bonding regions above and below a transistor switch (thin-film transistor – TFT), which

a nodal plane containing the nuclei. In ethylene, has been deposited onto one plate of the liquid-crystal Glossary a -bond is formed by the overlap of p orbitals on the display. A voltage is applied sequentially to the rows carbon atoms of pixels, and selected pixels within each row are  Bond switched on by data voltages on the columns. As the Bond formed along the internuclear axis, between the next row in the sequence is activated, the elements of nuclei of the atoms. In ethylene, a  bond is formed the previous row are switched off from the data line by the overlap of two carbon sp2 hybrid orbitals by the TFT, but hold their charge as an electrical capacitor until the row is addressed next time in the sequence, after a full frame time. Thus the image is built up line by line, and individual pixels must hold A their charge for the period of the full frame-address time  Abbe Number ( d) Air Mass (AM) Number A measure of the dispersion (wavelength dependence) This is often abbreviated to AM followed by a number of the refractive index n of transparent materials at and characterizes the intensity and spectrum of light  . /=. / visible wavelengths; d D nd  1 nF  nC ,where (modified by absorption in the atmosphere). The AM d D 587 nm, F D 486 nm, and C D 656 nm. Typically number is 0 for no air mass (i. e., for a satellite solar  d takesvaluesof8020, which decreases with array), 1 for the sun directly overhead, and 1.5 for the increasing nd from 1.5 to 1.9 sun at 45ı to the horizon ˛ Absorption Coefficient ( ) All-Optical Switch The absorption coefficient represents the logarithmic Optical inputs are switched by other optical signals. In decrement of the incident light intensity per unit many cases, the switching is produced by length in the material refractive-index changes. Comparing electronic Accelerated Crucible Rotation Technique (ACRT) devices such as transistors, in which an electrical input A means to stir liquids in sealed ampoules, leading to is controlled by an electrical current, we expect that improvements in crystal properties the all-optical switch can work faster, being free from Acceptor electrical noise. However, at present, in contrast to the Impurity in a semiconductor or any other m scale of a transistor, an all-optical switch may electroluminescent device capable of inducing hole have cm scales conduction and accepting a valence-band electron to Amorphous Metal oxides produce an acceptor energy level Glassy alloys of a transition metal with oxygen, Acceptor Concentration typical examples being TiO2,Ta2O5,Nb2O5,and 3 Number of acceptors per cm . It refers to the total Y2O3. In bulk form, these materials are typically concentration Na and the concentration of ionized polycrystalline or crystalline ceramics. However,  acceptors Na amorphous thin films can be deposited with relative Acceptor Level ease and they have been widely used as high-index A level with energy Ea that acquires an electron layers in optical filter design and as dielectric layers in captured from the valence band to an orbit near the the microelectronics industry acceptor’s atom Amorphous Network Accumulation Network consisting of atoms distributed randomly The condition in which, for an MIS structure, the with a short-range order, i. e., holding a regular applied voltage to the gate electrode VG results in an coordination of atoms increase in the density of majority carriers near the Amorphous Semiconductors surface of the underlying semiconductor. The applied Semiconducting materials having a random network voltage is less than the flat band voltage, VG < VFB without long-range order are the B k and Q , 0 D m d in the opposite directions. . Thus, a diffusivity //,where T T B k =. Q  . exp 0 D D A term generally describing thefabrication final process points line, in such the asand IC the packaging interconnection fabrication steps. Thesegenerally process require steps lower thermal budgets A general expression connecting thea value parameter of in a thermallyabsolute activated temperature process to the pre-exponential factor, the activation energydiffusion, for and Boltzmann’s constant, respectively A phenomenon characterized by thea appearance strong of magnetic response (mostfrequencies) notably in at a optical material compositeinherently engineered non-magnetic from materials A defect in the performanceasymmetry of about a the lens optic arising axis,sharpness from leading lens of to an loss image of at focus A network of dislocations loops.a The stacking fault origin of is Sidislocation interstitials. The loops size can of be the many It resembles the non-reciprocity ofin magnetized the Faraday media effect but requiresfor no its magnetic observation, and field isLorentz fully reciprocity compliant with principle. the The effectplanar is chiral observed metamaterials and in involves partial conversion of the incident waveopposite into handedness, one and of it the isconversion that the is efficiency asymmetric of with this direction respect to of the propagation Technique to measure infrared absorptionthin spectra films of on a prismutilizing with multiple enhanced reflections sensitivity of anthe infrared prism beam in A method in which anmeasure electron the spectrometer energy is distribution used ofemitted to Auger from electrons a surface Often associated with amphotericity, auto-compensation occurs when the incorporationelectrically active of impurities of oneautomatic type leads incorporation to of the electrically activeof defects the opposite type. Asmelt-grown an GaAs example, with the donors doping alwaysinadvertent of leads incorporation to of acceptors attenth about of one the donor concentration A new fundamental phenomenon of electromagnetism, which manifests itself as a difference in the overallpolarized intensity of waves transmitte circularly D B Back End of Line (BEOL) Arrhenius Relation Artificial Magnetism Astigmatism A-Swirl Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR) Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) Auto-Compensation Asymmetric Transmission ). The As (Ga (SFM) Ga ) chain terminating in  2 III–Vs and similarly in CH ) anti-site is expected to be  As / non-polar (hydrophobic) chemical 2 (cation Ga COOH acid group Ga  Synthetic Ferrimagnetic Media a donor (acceptor) in the the II–VIs Definition of apparent band gaptransistors seen in due bipolar to the combinednarrowing effects due of to band heavy gap dopingFermi–Dirac and statistics the use of Number of bits per unitmedium. area In stored disk on drives, a itbits/unit recording is length the times product the of numberlength the of (usually tracks inches; per the unit arealquoted density in is Gbit/in frequently anion As a polar Dopants that may serve both as acceptors and donors This occurs when an impurityacceptor can or act a either donor. as Ina an GaAs, site a on Si either atom sublatticedonor can and or take can shallow up act acceptor as a shallow The application of transmission and/orelectron scanning microscopy for the purposeand/or of chemical structural microanalysis The deviation of lattice vibrationsof in a solids from simple those harmonic oscillator,lattice which thermal lead resistivity to nonzero The electronegative atomic component in a compound, e.g., As in GaAs, Se in ZnSe Low-temperature heat treatment, normally inpresence the of Hg, with theelectrical aim properties of of adjusting materials. the Theheating process and of slowly cooling semiconductorreverse lattice materials damage. to As aannealing metallurgical term, describes the use ofinternal heat energy to of reduce a the crystal.mechanical This (strain) energy or may may be representconcentration, variations which in can be reduced by diffusion, etc. See Occurs in semiconductor compounds andanion is (cation) an replacing a cationcation (anion) (anion) lattice on site, a e.g., regular As Thin films of silicon withnoncrystalline a but structure which that have is thea advantage higher of absorption coefficient comparedsilicon to crystalline An organic molecule possessing both(hydrophilic) polar and groups. The classic examples areconsist fatty of acids, a which non-polar (

Apparent Band gap Narrowing Areal Density Amphoteric Dopants Amphotericity Analytical Electron Microscopy Anharmonicity Anion Annealing Antiferromagnetically Coupled Media (AFC) Antisite Defect Amorphous Silicon Amphiphilic Glossary 1462 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1463

Background-Limited Performance (BLIP) distance right at the metal–semiconductor interface Describes the best signal-to-noise performance that from the Fermi level to the majority-carrier band-edge, can be achieved with a detector. In this condition the i. e., the conduction-band maximum in n-type and the only noise stems from the random arrival rate of valence-band maximum in p-type contacts photons and is, therefore, at a theoretical minimum Beam Effective Pressure Ratio Backscattered Electrons In molecular beam epitaxy, this is the ratio between Incident electrons that have interacted with atomic the partial pressures of the various components of the nuclei and scattered backwards with comparable molecular source beams incident energy. They may be used for sample Birefringent Crystals imaging with contrast dependent on the local averaged Crystals such as calcite that are optically anisotropic, atomic number which leads to an incident light beam becoming Baldereschi Concept separated into ordinary (o-) and extraordinary (e-) Mean-value k-points in the Brillouin zone are defined waves with orthogonal polarizations; incident light such that the value that any given periodic function of becomes doubly refracted because these two waves the wavevector assumes at these special k-points is an experience different refractive indices no and ne excellent approximation to the average value of the Blended Junction Glossary same function throughout the Brillouin zone A mixed junction that contains donor/acceptor Ballistic-Electron-Emission Spectroscopy (BEEM) molecular contacts acting as photocarrier generation Technique sites A method to determine the barrier heights of Schottky Blocking Temperature contacts by tunnel injection of almost monoenergetic Temperature where the magnetic exchange coupling electrons from a biased metal tip into between an antiferromagnet and a ferromagnet metal–semiconductor contacts that pass the metal vanishes films as ballistic electrons and are collected by the Bolometer semiconductors, provided their energy is high enough A sensitive detector of terahertz radiation, in many to overcome the interfacial barriers circumstances the most sensitive. The resistance of Band Alignment a detector material, typically Si or Ge, is measured to Type I: electrons and holes are confined within the evaluate the energy deposited. Performance improves same layer. Type II: electrons and holes are confined on cooling, so operation is often at cryogenic in different (adjacent) layers temperatures, e.g., at the boiling point of helium, Band Filling 4:2 K. The bolometer exhibits a relatively fast An effect that takes place when a semiconductor is response (s) for a thermal detector illuminated with light at a frequency within the Boltzmann Equation (BE) absorbing region. Upon absorption of the incident Generally an integro-differential equation that governs photons, the electrons undergo a transition from an the carriers’ distribution function. At equilibrium the occupied band (VB) to the empty band (CB), thereby BE is automatically satisfied by a Fermi distribution. partially populating the empty band The generalized BE is a version revised to include Band Gap (BG) or Energy Gap quantum effects in the carrier’s scattering and The forbidden energy gap between the valence band, interaction with electromagnetic fields. Methods for normally filled with electrons, and the conduction the solution of the BE include the relaxation time and band, normally empty of electrons. The band gap variational, displaced Maxwellian and Monte Carlo energy measures the energy difference between the methods top of the valence band and the bottom of the Boule conduction band. The optical BG is the photon energy There are many terms used for large crystals. These above which the semiconductor absorbs energy of include boule, ingot, and crystal. The top of the crystal incident EM radiation. It may be direct or indirect, is called the seed end, the first to solidify, etc. The depending on the type of electron transition from VB bottom is called the tail or tang end to CB the radiation induces; in Si, the optical BG is Bragg’s Law indirect with Eg D 1:17 eV at 4:2K Can be summarized by the defining equation Band Gap Engineering  D 2dhkl sin , which must be satisfied for The science of tailoring the semiconductor band gap constructive interference to occur, corresponding to to control the electrical and optical properties of the maxima in the positions of diffracted intensity material Bravais Lattice Band Offset A repetitive arrangement of points in space such that The valence and conduction-band offsets describe the the environment of each point is identically similar to corresponding band-edge discontinuities at intimate that of every other point. 14 such arrangements are and abrupt semiconductor–semiconductor interfaces used to describe crystal systems Barrier Height Bremsstrahlung The barrier height of a Schottky contact is the energy Electromagnetic radiation produced by the rapid , 2 ,GeSe with ,and 2 for Si is / .The in a perfect i 55 k p n . p s Se E D 12 n As . It can be electron at 300 K 3 33 3 )is i  n cm . By intermixing these and 3 ometric compositions is 10 Te 10 2  08 : and/or hole concentration ,andAs . Chalcogenide glasses are characterized n 3 60 C Se ı 2 p Se ponent glasses can be formed. Further, 12 ,As 1000 3 Sb S 28 2 Materials that exhibit second-order nonlinearproperties that act as anmaterial effective third-order nonlinear Luminescence stimulated by energetic electrons Electropositive atomic component in ae.g., compound, Ga in GaAs, Cd in CdS Semiconductor that contains the element Cd A crystal structure in whichexists a is center called of centro-symmetric. There inversion classes, are among 32 which crystal 11 are centro-symmetric Standard form of thick filmsa requiring high-temperature exposure firing to cycle, typically700 in the range respect to intrinsic carrier concentration ( crystal semiconductor that has notan been intrinsic doped semiconductor). (i. The e., value of Glasses that are amorphous alloysand/or containing Te. Typical S, examples Se, include Se, GeS Ge Measure of the effect ofcharge applying carriers an (electrons electric or field holes).velocity to It acquired is by the the carriers additional divided (drift by velocity) the electric field Determines how far an injectedfield carrier before moves becoming per immobilized unit inSometimes, a it deep is trap. calculated asmobility the and product lifetime of the drift Gradient of the specific band spectrum approximated to 1 concentration by narrow band gaps andmid good to transparency far-infrared wavelength in range the Technique for the growth ofa thin crystalline solid substrate films as on thevapor-phase result reactions. of This thermochemical reaction occurs above other binary chalcogenide glasses, amulticom wide variety of a wide range of nonstoichi possible. Several compositions have becomeindustrial standard materials, including Ge As Schottky contacts from the variationcapacitance of as a their function ofa applied common voltage. It characterization is technique usedfabrication facilities in wafer Number of current carriers per cm Cascaded Second-Order Materials Cathodoluminescence Cation Cd-Based Compound Semiconductor Centro-Symmetric Cermets Chalcogenide Glasses Carrier Mobility Carrier Range Carrier Velocity, Microscopic Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Carrier Concentration V – C . k , which relate to k D„ p that would be required 2 ogressively freezing a melt ) V – C curve and has no further correction measurements of a MOS capacitor can be used to V – V C – Typically a species that israre-earth co-doped ions along into with a glasspumping host efficiency to or increase radiative the efficiencyrare-earth of ions. the Various sensitizers havedemonstrated, been including silicon nanoclusters, silver ions, and other rare-earth ionssensitization of (such erbium as by in ytterbium) the Celebrated equation for the carrier’srelaxation momentum time due to scattering by ionized impurities Ratio of the compressive ora tensile substance force applied per to unit surfacevolume area of to the the substance change per in unit volume the electron momentum in crystal deceleration of an electron innucleus the vicinity of an atomic Technique developed in order towhere grow one compounds component is volatiletemperature. at The the growth growth is carriedwithdrawing out the by melt physically from itscrystallizes furnace, on while a the seed. melt Thereplenished volatile from component a is reservoir inarrangement a of separate the furnace. equipment The canvertical, the be former horizontal offering or thethe possibility top of of viewing the solid/liquidfeedback interface of and the giving visual growth process Crystals are produced by pr from one end, usually viarange crucible of movement. materials A is wide madeand using its this many variants simple technique A primitive cell in theproves reciprocal-space to lattice, be which body-centered cubicprovides (bcc) the for domain Si. of BZ wavevectors to achieve the same capacitancealternative density dielectric material. as This an is extracted directly from, for example, thea accumulation region of C Denotes the rod-like shape ofthe the majority molecules of forming liquid-crystal phasesare known that, as therefore, calamitic liquid crystals Theoretical thickness of SiO determine the oxide thickness andelectrically the active defects amount (fixed of charge,charge, trapped mobile charge, and interfaceand trapped mobile charge) contaminants in theused oxide. to It determine can the also oxideof be thickness dopants and at the the profile semiconductor surface. The technique is a method to determine barrier heights of

C

Broadband Sensitizer Brooks–Herring (BH) Formula Bulk Modulus Bridgman Growth Bridgman Technique Brillouin Zone (BZ) Capacitance–Voltage ( Calamitic Capacitance Equivalent Thickness (CET) Glossary 1464 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1465

a solid surface, e.g., a single crystal diamond, which Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) causes deposition onto that surface. In the CVD An MOS device technology consisting of nMOS and technique, thin films are obtained under equilibrium pMOS transistor pairs conditions. The gas-phase reaction is activated by Complex temperature in order to create condensable species A bound state between two or more adjacent, like or that lead to film growth. Different CVD techniques unlike species, e.g., an antisite and a lattice vacancy at have been developed (see Mercury-Sensitized a nearest-neighbor site on the same sublattice such as Photo-CVD, Hot-Wire CVD, MOCVD, MPCVD,and AsGaVGa PECDV). All techniques used for the production of Compositional Uniformity diamonds require a means of activating gas-phase A critical parameter in all ternary alloy systems that carbon-containing precursor molecules, usually CH4, determines a material’s usefulness in device diluted by hydrogen applications Chiral Nematic Compound Semiconductor The liquid-crystal phase in which the director is Semiconductor crystals composed of two or more twisted into a helical arrangement; the phase is, atomic elements from different groups of the periodic therefore, not superimposable on its mirror image and chart Glossary so exhibits macroscopic chirality. The chirality of the Compressive Strain phase originates from that of the constituent Type of strain obtained when a strained Si1xGex molecules. The chiral nematic is sometimes referred layer is grown on a silicon substrate to as a cholesteric phase Compton Scattering Chromatic Aberration Transfer of energy from a photon to an electron, A blurring of resolution due to the differing focal leading to the scattering of a longer-wavelength lengths of a lens when acting on electrons of differing photon energy Concentration Quenching Cleave and Stain The reduction in luminescence efficiency and A rapid, although destructive, technique for assessing luminescence lifetime of a laser glass when the semiconductor structures. Particular chemical rare-earth dopant concentration is high. Quenching is mixtures affect the surfaces of different due to interactions between closely spaced rare-earth semiconductor types in different ways, giving rise to ions at high concentrations. These interactions create effects that can be seen in a simple optical new pathways, other than the desired radiative decay, microscope. The sample is first cleaved to produce for the ions to relax to the ground state after they have a clean surface, preferably at an angle that tends to been raised to a desired lasing level by pump energy magnify the scale of the structure, and then stained Conduction Band (CB) Band of energies allowed for electrons in Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) a semiconductor, which is empty in undoped Fractional increase in the length of a macroscopic semiconductors. There are many CBs, separated by material per unit temperature increase. The units of band gaps. However, the term CB usually refers to the = CTE are 1 K conduction band that has the lowest energies, or Coercive Field closest to the valence band (VB). It is separated from The electric field required to reduce the polarization in the VB by a band gap a ferroelectric material to zero in a fully saturated Conductive Layer ferroelectric hysteresis loop The layer on which the charge-generation layer and Coercive Squareness Parameter (S ) charge-transport layer are coated. It is connected to The slope of the major hysteresis curve of the ground in the electrophotographic process a ferromagnetic recording layer normalized to the Conductivity ratio of the remanent magnetizationı to the coercive Product of the number of electrons or holes per unit = . = / volume, the electronic charge, and the mobility of the field S D 1  Mr CHc dM dH HDHc carrier  D ne Coherence Length () e,h Conductivity Mass The shortest distance within which a considerable Used for electron or hole conductivity (mobility) change of the Cooper-pair density is possible calculations Cohesive Energy Configuration Coordinate Model The energy required to dissociate the atoms of a solid Model of interaction between the electronic system of into isolated atomic constituents a luminescent center and the vibrational system of the Columnar Phase surrounding atoms and ions A liquid-crystal phase in which the constituent Converse Piezoelectric Effect molecules, usually disc-like, are stacked into columns; The generation of mechanical strain in a material in these are arranged parallel to each other in either response to an applied electric field, where the strain a hexagonal or rectangular array is linearly proportional to the applied field , 0 ) liquifies on s, where a byte (B) is 8 bits = Liquid Encapsulation by Mott; the superscript represents the sorMB C = ,andD  Point-like defects that are producedcovalent bonds. by breaking The dangling bondunpaired may electron, have two an paired electrons,electrons. or These no dangling bonds were denoted as D the surface of the meltcrystal, and, and to acts some as extent, aoxide on barrier also the against insulates As the loss. meltreducing from The the the boric rates crucible; at whichcrucible impurities are from introduced the into thewithdrawal melt of and the aiding exhausted meltafter from growth the crucible A measure of the distancefield beyond due which to the a electric pointatom) charge is (e.g., screened an by ionized theholes) dopant free and carriers becomes (electrons increasingly or negligible Doping impurities or other impuritieslevel whose lies energy toward the center of the band gap DLTS is a useful techniqueconcentrations for of measuring deep levels insemiconductors. conducting Deep levels within thelayer depletion of a pn junctioninto are forward filled bias. by On putting the applyinglevels junction a are allowed reverse to bias, empty these a thermally. This change produces in junction capacitance consisting of a series charge state Rate of decrease of theorganic surface photoconductor potential of a charged Rate at which the digitala data, digital recorded storage or device, read isby back transferred. Mbyte in Characterized D Magnetoresistive device with the senseflowing current in the plane of the films Magnetoresistive device with the sense current flowing perpendicular to the plane of the films (LEC) Growth Czochralski growth pulls a crystalseed from is the held in melt. a The rotated. holder After vertically partial above immersion the into meltslowly the and withdrawn melt, and it the is crystalThe forms growth on takes the place seed. becauseloss of from the the increased crystal compared heat the to seed the and melt. Rotation growing of crystala leads near-cylindrical naturally crystal to from whichsubstrates circular can be sawn. Theprotected GaAs against melt As must loss be ifBoric this oxide method (see is to be used. D Dangling Bonds (Broken Bonds) Debye Length Deep-Energy-Level Impurities Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) Dark Decay Data Rate Current in the Plane (CIP) Current Perpendicular to the Plane (CPP) Czochralski and Liquid-Encapsulated Czochralski 1) is the ratio Ä ) c the resistance drops T c T is the Cooper-pair (always f 10 kV is applied to sharp C n  ) (where f '/ i ) . c exp 2 is a characteristic property of the = C 1 c n T 200 nm D The jumps of a diffusingrandom particle but are correlated, generally i. e., not independent successive of jumps each are other; not of the jump rate ofthe correlated jumps jumps were to random the jump rate if The stress field around adefects dislocation congregate can around be it. reduced Thisatmospheres, if results called Cotterell in atmospheres, defect whichcommonly are observed even when thewould dislocation not itself provide an observabledefects signature. aggregate EL2 in this way in SI substrate material Media In perpendicular recording media: aconsisting recording of surface two layers, thethe first second being consisting of granular multilayers, and cobalt typically and of palladium edges or fine wires ofsurrounding metals, the the metal gas is such ionizedvoltage as and is air discharged. DC, If ions the havingDC the voltage same move polarity toward as a the grounded electrode superconductor in question. At The magnetic field sufficient tosuperconducting destroy the state in a type I superconductor Variations of the superconducting order parameter abruptly to an unmeasurably small value Liquid-nitrogen-cooled surface within thechamber growth arranged to minimize contaminationwafer of surface the by impurities A small aggregate or clusteris of of vacancies. octahedral Usually, shape it withcase (111) of facets, nitrogen but doping, in ita the can platelet also or a adopt rod-like the70 cluster. form The of usual size is Ratio of incident photon energyenergy and output electricity Bound electron pairs formed ofopposite electrons spins with and momenta (inwith their zero ground electric field) state When a high voltage of 5 The density) around the thermal equilibrium values Maximum thickness of a strainedgrown layer on a that substrate can be beforeoccurs relaxation of the layer

Cotterell Atmosphere Coupled Granular Continuous (CGC) Recording Critical Field (B Correlation Factor ( Critical Fluctuations Cryopanel Crystal-Originated Particle (COP) Conversion Efficiency Cooper Pairs Corona Discharge Critical Thickness Critical (Transition) Temperature ( Glossary 1466 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1467

of exponentials. From the temperature spectra in the channel region. This condition occurs for generated for different time windows of the transient, applied voltages between the flat band and threshold Arrhenius plots can be made to determine the energy voltages, i. e., VFB < VG < Vthr level (eV) and capture the cross-section (cm2)ofthe Depth of Field defects The distance along an optic axis that an object can be Defect Chemistry moved without noticeably reducing the resolution Representation of interactions between defect species Depth of Focus and free carriers (dopant, impurity, native defect, Maximum spacing between an imaging screen and electrons, and holes) in terms of chemical-style a photographic plate (or CCD) that allows a recorded equations from which the concentrations of the image to be retained in focus various species concerned can be obtained Depth Profiling Deformation Potential Monitoring of signal intensity as a function of Effective electric potential describing interaction of a variable that can be related to distance normal to the carriers with the lattice deformation irrespective of surface, cf., the compositional depth profile. Note: the what is the cause of the deformation. It describes the signal intensity is usually measured as a function of phenomenology of the interaction between carriers sputtering time Glossary and phonons of deformation types Depth Resolution Deformation Potential Parameters Depth range over which a signal changes by There are two and four such parameters for electrons a specified quantity when reconstructing the profile of and holes in Si, respectively. For holes, the parameter an ideally sharp interface between two media or set includes one describing interaction with anti-phase a delta layer in one medium deformation of atoms in the nonequivalent primitive Detection Efficiency cells’ positions Percentage of radiation incident on a detector system Density-Functional Theory (DFT) that is actually detected DFT is a quantum-mechanical approach to many-body Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) electronic structure calculations of molecular and The ratio of the square of the signal-to-noise ratio at condensed-matter systems. The many-electron the output of the detector to that at the input. The wavefunction is written in terms of the electron relative increase in image noise due to an imaging density. The major problem with DFT is that the exact system as a function of the spatial frequency, f ,is functionals for exchange and correlation are not expressed quantitatively as DQE(f ), which represents known. The widespread approximations are the the signal-to-noise transfer efficiency for different local-density approximation (LDA) and GW frequencies of information in an image approximation (GWA). The LDA assumes that the Detectivity functionals for exchange and correlation depend only A signal-to-noise parameter, normalized to area and on the density at the coordinate where the functional bandwidth, often used for photoconductive detectors is evaluated. LDA DFT calculations dramatically or single-element photovoltaic detectors underestimate the gaps of sp3-bonded semiconductors Devitrification and insulators. In GW approximation, the exchange The transition of a glassy material to its lower-energy and correlation is expressed as the product of crystalline state. This process is usually driven by a single-particle propagator G and a screened thermal energy, such as if the material is held at some interaction W. GWA DFT calculations yield the gaps characteristic temperature above its glass-transition of sp3-bonded semiconductors and insulators temperature. The difference between the generally to within a few tenths of an eV crystallization temperature and the glass-transition Density of States (DOS) temperature for a particular glass is one measure of its The density of states is the number of energy states stability per unit energy interval at the energy E. It stands for Diamond Structure the density distribution of allowed electronic energies A structure in which each atom lies at the center of in a material and is widely used with respect to this a tetrahedron surrounded by four nearest neighbors distribution across the band gap of disordered located at the points of the tetrahedron. In such semiconductors a structure diffusion is isotropic Density-of-States Mass Dielectric Constant/Susceptibility (DC/DS) Used for electron or hole density-of-states calculations Basic material optical tensor property that linearly Depletion connects the electric displacement to the electric-field The condition in which, for an MIS structure, the vector inside the material. For Si it is scalar. At optical applied voltage to the gate VG electrode results in frequency DC/DS is a complex quantity a reduction of the majority carriers near the surface of Dielectric Materials the underlying semiconductor. This region is referred A class of materials that are insulators or to as the depletion layer. Charge remaining in this nonconductors where charge imparted to one part of near-surface region is due to ionized dopants present the material is not communicated to any other part - C .It -Si, full . C -type) 3 C  susceptibility -orp cm / C -orp 18 C 10  es. For n-Si, the critical moderately-doped dielectric constant and or the concentration of ionized d semiconductors (n , referring to either the total of an electron in an orbit near the donor 3 N d E Lightly C d N -type semiconductors, but in n C A photoconductor with an architecture where the the Fermi function over theturn carrier’s reduces energy, to which a in Maxwell–Boltzmannlightly distribution doped for semiconductors An impurity in a materialelectrical that conduction is in capable that of materialan inducing by electron transferring to the conductionthe band. energy A donor’s level is semiconductors contain impurities with energythat levels are well separated fromHeavily-doped the CB and VB. Carrier generation via charge transfer (CT) exciton An atom from a differentfrom group the of host the atom that periodica substitutes table donor, for acceptor, it. or It amphoteric canincorporated and be to is give deliberately n- or p-type conductivity A semiconductor that contains donorsacceptors. and/or concentration or p atom. The donor concentration isdonors the per number cm of donors Fermi–Dirac statistics must be used for carriers in n contain so many dopants thatmerge their with CB energy or/and levels VB,conduction which at leads low to temperatur metallic donor concentration of this, Mott’stransition, insulator–metal proves to be about 3 degeneracy of carriers is mettemperature only well below room A material composite or mediumsimultaneously negative that dielectric exhibits permittivity and magnetic permeability Velocity per unit of applied fieldcarrier imparted by to the a electric charge field.traps In it the is presence reduced of fromfraction carrier the of free-carrier time velocity a carrier by spends the in the trapping centers Phenomenological equation for the free-carriercontribution to the contains two parameters: the effectivefrequency plasma and the relaxation time Devices where the layers area coated metal sequentially drum on substrate charge-generation and charge-transport functionscarried are out in separate layers The change of coercivity ofparticles small with ferromagnetic switching time under thermal excitation Donor Donor-Acceptor Sensitization Dopant Doped Semiconductor Double-Negative Medium Drift Mobility Drude Formula Drum Photoreceptors Dual-Layer Organic Photoconductor Dynamic Coercivity over 3 and presents technique in which the (impulse) and the carrier’s coordinate, p Boltzmann’s equation Liquid-phase epitaxy a semiclassical probability description ofstatistics a and carrier’s dynamics. At equilibrium, it converts to substrate is lowered into theorientation melt in a vertical Like electrons in graphene. Thesemassless electrons or behave as relativistic particlesthey like obey photons the and Dirac equation The generation of an electrica polarization charge change separation or in aapplied material stress, in where response the to polarizationlinearly an change proportional is to the applied stress Symmetry axis for properties suchindex as or the dielectric refractive tensor ofa a molecular liquid-crystal level it phase; is at preferred commonly orientation associated of with the the uniqueconstituent molecules, axis either of rod the like or disc like Indicates the disc-like shape ofmolecules the that constitute anisotropic a classphases of known liquid-crystal as discotic liquid crystals Derived from Monte Carlo simulationmodel studies, describes this electronic transport inin random terms media of disorder-induced fluctuationshopping of site both energy and relative orientation A function of which obeys three diffusion lengths Technologies in which the imagea is pattern comprised of of pixels. Inprinting electrophotographic the electrostatic digital latent imagea is charged written photoreceptor on using alaserorLEDbar computer-controlled A The process of scattering andradiation reconstruction in of specific directions asinteraction with a a consequence periodic of structure,interacting e.g., with light a grating ora X-rays crystal interacting lattice with The macroscopic parameter that characterizesjump the rate or jump frequencylevel. of It a is species normally at obtained theexperimental by atomic matching profiles to solutions ofdiffusion the equation, appropriate e.g., Fick’s seconddiffusion law. coefficient The measurement techniques include Haynes–Shockley, time-of-flight, and noise-measurement-based methods Measure of the spatial extentTypically, the of concentration a of diffusion a region. expected diffusant to can fall be by more than a factor of 10

Dirac Fermion Direct Piezoelectric Effect Director Discotic Disorder Model Distribution Function Digital Printing Dipping Diffraction Diffusion Coefficient or Diffusivity Diffusion Length Glossary 1468 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1469

E polymer and metallic conductive particles. The polymer is an adhesive material that chemically reacts ELayer with metals and other polymers to form a bond. The Thin ferromagnetic cobalt alloy film added to one or metallic particles in the ECA form a network in the two sides of the Ru layer in a synthetic ferrimagnetic cured joint, which forms an electrical conduction path media to increase the exchange coupling Electroabsorption E0 Center Generic term for all effects of changing the absorption A kind of unpaired-electron dangling bond in oxide coefficient upon applying a strong electric field. For glasses. In SiO2, an Si atom that is bonded to three O Si, the dominant is the change of the free carriers’ atoms may have one E0 center. The center, which may absorption in IR be produced by radiation, gives ESR signals and Electroabsorption Modulator (EAM) optical absorption at „!  6eV Light transmittance modulator based on the Easy Axis Quantum-Confined Stark Effect (QCSE) Direction in a ferromagnetic sample along which the Electron magnetization is oriented in the absence of an external Elementary particle having a negative charge of 19 Glossary magnetic field. In thin films, the easy axis is the 1:602 10 C and rest mass m0 equal to  direction in a substrate surface along which the 9:109 10 31 kg director tends to align; it is determined by the nature Electron Affinity of the surface treatment The energy distance from the conduction-band Edge-Defined Film-Growth Technique minimum to the vacuum level at the semiconductor Shaped crystals, including tubes, sheets, etc., are surface grown through a die placed on the melt surface Electron-Beam Lithography Edge-on Orientation Method for micro and nanoscale fabrication where Parallel orientation of the – stack to the substrate a pattern on a polymeric layer (resist) is exposed to Effective Mass electron irradiation Generally a set of parameters describing the dynamics Electron Level Number 2 (EL2) of the current carriers, which may deviate drastically The deep levels in most semiconductors were labeled from the free-electron mass. For Si, it includes the according to their observation during DLTS effective mass tensor of electrons in the CB (mt, mt, measurements. EL levels are donors (they are neutral ml)andthemassesofheavy(m1), light (m2)ofspin when they have their electron). HL levels are orbital split-off (m3) holes in the valence band. acceptors (they are neutral when they have their hole). Generally, m1;2 depend on the direction of hole’s EL2 is the most important deep donor level (actually, momentum. Different averages over this direction a double donor) and is either the As anti-site defect or define masses that enter the conductivity and the contains the As anti-site as a component density of states Electron–Phonon Scattering Einstein Relation In Si, in addition to scattering by deformation An equation connecting the mobility , (speed per phonons, scattering may also occur with unit electric field) of a charged particle to its short-wavelength (inter-valley) phonons diffusivity D. Specifically  D qD=.kBT/,whereq is Electronic Wavefunctions the electric charge on the particle. This expression is Solutions (or eigenfunctions) of the Schrödinger only valid for nondegenerate material equation which present the electron’s position in an Elastic Compliance Constant (C) atom. The electronic wavefunctions have to be Defined from Hooke’s law by X D Ce,whereX is the infinite, continuous, and single-valued and their stress and e is the strain. It has units of pressure square modulus presents the probability distribution of Elastic Deformation an electron in the atom Deformation of a body in which the applied stress is Electro-Optic Effect small enough that the object retains its original A change in refractive index upon application of dimensions once the stress is released a strong electric field. This is linked to Elastic Stiffness Constant (S) electro-absorption through the Kramers–Kronig Defined from Hooke’s law by e D SX,wheree is the relation. It manifests itself as a change in strain and X is the stress. It has units of inverse birefringence in response to an applied electric field pressure Electrophotography Elasticity Printing technology in which charged marking A property of liquid crystals that causes the directors particles are developed on an organic photoreceptor to be uniformly aligned parallel to each other. with an image pattern of surface charge, the Deviations from this uniform ground state require the electrostatic latent image, and the subsequent transfer addition of elastic energy to the liquid crystal of these particles to a receiver Electrically Conductive Adhesives (ECA) Electroplating Composite materials consisting of a dielectric curable Process used to deposit a material on a conducting is B k is the i " ,where  1 stack to the current) and/or C  / – T  B k 100 meV and lifetime of leakage /=.  i is the temperature, is the chemical potential ." T e m  = ı 1 ) ua D ,and is the maximum attainable carrier i i H j N n a N  d N 1 ns. The wavefunction, in principle, extends over Dj substrate A distribution function that describesparticles the over number energy of states in ais material. written The as: function For a metal, the Fermibelow level which is its defined one-electron as that levelsabove are energy which occupied they and are emptyat in zero the temperature. ground In state, thethe i. context term e., of Fermi semiconductors, level iselectrochemical a potential synonym for their A material that exhibits aa phase non-strained transition from to a straineda state, spontaneous generating strain at thespontaneous transition, strain and can in be which switchedmore the between stable states two by or the application of a stress effects result in substantial where poly-Si gate electrodes (resultingeffects) in are depletion present The usual way in whichdislocation substrate densities. suppliers EPD quote is foundsurface by in etching molten the alkalis, likeresulting KOH, pitted and surface viewing the under anEach optical pit microscope. represents a singlesurface dislocation ending at the Geometrical construction used to illustraterelationship the between a diffraction patternreciprocal and lattice the of a diffracting crystal Perpendicular orientation of the energy at state Parameter characterizing the strength ofof a the ferromagnetic coupling to anMeasured antiferromagnetic in film. Oe or A An electron–hole pair, which behaveswith like a a binding H energy atom, of 10 thewholecrystal N Boltzmann’s constant, concentration in a doped semiconductor A rare instance of theoccurs optical in activity the phenomenon. presence of It extrinsically, chirality, i.e., which from is drawn the experimentalthat arrangement includes not only moleculesbut (or also metamolecules) the wave propagationmolecules direction. (metamolecules) The must be orientedbe and structurally can achiral F Fermi–Dirac Distribution Fermi Level or Fermi Energy Ferroelastic Etch Pit Density (EPD) Ewald Sphere Exchange Field ( Face-On Orientation Exciton Exhaustion Concentration Extrinsic Optical Activity it / k . s E ) eq that would be t 2 . As a function of small of allowed electron energy / k . s E Brillouin zone from the extrema points of k curve for thin dielectric layers (where tunneling within the Band gap Asymmetric Transmission Brillouin zone V k – proves to be anisotropic parabolicband for and the non-parabolic conduction for valenceellipsoid band, valleys and forming warped spheres,the respectively, in See Thin crystalline layer on awith single-crystal orientation substrate and lattice structurethe determined substrate by crystallography (Greek; arrange upon). This iscrystal the (the growth epitaxial of layer) one on(the the substrate) surface and of where another thelayer orientation is the of same the as grown same the material substrate. as If the the substrate, layerhomoepitaxial. the is If growth of the is the layer andthe substrate growth is are heteroepitaxial. different, Usually, epitaxyonly can be performed where therebetween is the a lattice close constants, match althoughfor it a is layer possible of quitegrown different if lattice there constants to is be abetween change the in layer crystal and orientation thewas substrate. introduced The to term describe epitaxy theparallelism importance between two of lattice having planesnetworks with of similar closely similar spacing The theoretical thickness of SiO required to achieve the samealternative capacitance dielectric material. density This as is an often determined by quantum-mechanical modelingC of the substrate in a chemical bathusing containing electrical metal current ions A surface-reaction scheme in whichchemical an species arriving reacts on thesurface surface diffusion without process. any It iscounterpart considered of the a Langmuir–Hinshelwood reaction Method of defining the opticalthe constants ratio of by measuring reflectance forradiation, s- and and the p-polarized relative phaseat shift large between incidence the angles two, See An emission device creates photonselectron–hole from pairs extra through a processrecombination. called The radiative electron–hole pairscreated are by often forward-biasing a pn junction A dielectric polymer material thatcovers flows the over electronic and components inprovide a mechanical package and to electrical protectionpackaged to devices the Dispersion relation to deviation of

Energy Gap Epitaxial Layer (or Epilayer) Epitaxy Equivalent Oxide Thickness (EOT, Eley–Rideal Reaction Ellipsometry Elliptical Dichroism Emission Device Encapsulation Energy-Band Spectrum Glossary 1470 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1471

Ferroelectric inverse of this effect is the deformation of the director A polar dielectric in which the polarization can be distribution when an electric field is applied to switched between two or more stable states by the a nematic; the magnitude of the deformation is linear application of an electric field in the field Ferroelectric Domains Flip Chip Adjacent regions in a ferroelectric crystal that have Integrated-circuit-level interconnect that can be used their spontaneous polarization vectors inclined to one to replace wirebond interconnects. The flip chip is another asolderbumponanareaarrayonthechipsurfacethat Ferroelectric Hysteresis routes the power, ground, and signals from the The loop that is produced when the polarization in integrated circuit to the bumps. The metallization on a ferroelectric material is plotted as a function of the IC surface is called the under-bump metallurgy applied electric field and forms a metallurgical bond with the solder. The Ferroelectric Relaxor flip-chip die is joined to the package by placing the A ferroelectric that shows a broad peak in relative die face down on the matching bond pads on permittivity at the paraelectric-to-ferroelectric phase a substrate and reflowing the solder to form an transition and in which the temperature of the peak is electrical, thermal, and mechanical interconnect Glossary strongly dependent upon measuring frequency Floating Gate Current Fick’s First Law of Diffusion Very small gate currents ( fA or less) can be For diffusion parallel to the x-axis the diffusant flux measured using the floating gate technique in which (atoms per unit area per second) is equal to D@c=@x, the drain current of a MOS transistor is measured after where c is the diffusant concentration that defines the the gate bias has been removed. Then, by using the diffusivity D decay in the drain current as a function of time and the Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion measured drain current versus gate voltage Based on the first law, this law gives the rate of build characteristics and the oxide capacitance, the gate up of the diffusant concentration at a given depth as current can be calculated @ =@ @. @ =@ /=@ c t D D c x x Floating Zone (FZ) Technique Field-Effect Transistor (FET) This technique uses a solid feed rod that is melted at A transistor where the current between two electrodes its lower end by a high-frequency coil. The melt flows (the drain and source) is modulated by the electric through a central hole of the coil down to the growing field from a third electrode (the gate) crystal below the coil. The FZ technique does not Field Emission need a crucible. Hence, the melt is not contaminated Electron emission from a metal or semiconductor into by other materials. The crystals that are grown vacuum under the influence of a strong electric field according to the FZ technique are called FZ crystals Figure-of-Merit (FOM) Fluence Measure of the performance of an integrated circuit The total, time-integrated, flux of particles (electrons, technology. The time delay associated with signal protons, ions, etc.) that reach a unit area of sample. It propagation is a common metric can be used to represent the total number of ions Fill Factor (FF) implanted into a surface and is sometimes called the Measure of the maximum power that can be obtained dose from a photovoltaic solar cell compared with the product I  V Fluorescence sc oc . Firing Luminescence with a lifetime 10 ns One of the key stages of the thick-film production Fluoride Glasses process. It is usually undertaken in a continuous-belt Multicomponent glasses, typically based on fluorides furnace at temperatures of up to 1000 ıC of zirconium, barium, lead, gallium, lanthanum, Flat band Voltage (VFB) aluminum, and sodium. They have a wide The voltage applied across an MIS device at which transparency range, from ultraviolet to mid-infrared there exists no charge in the semiconductor. As wavelengths. They also have low characteristic a result, the valence and conduction band structure of phonon energies and can dissolve large concentrations the semiconductor are flat. This condition occurs of rare-earth ions. For these reasons, they are when this voltage equals the work function difference extremely popular as hosts for rare-earth-doped between the metal electrode and the semiconductor amplifiers and lasers operating in the UV/visable and under ideal conditions. The presence of charges in the mid-infrared regions insulator or at the interface, due to defects, modifies Flux Lines (Vortices) the voltage required to achieve the flat band condition Regions in which magnetic flux enters a type II Flexoelectricity superconductor in the mixed state. Screening currents Generation of a macroscopic electrical polarization in flow around each of the flux lines. Due to the repulsive a nematic liquid crystal when the director distribution vortex–vortex interactions a hexagonal flux line lattice is deformed from its uniform state of alignment. The is formed Bridgman method bonded Ge atoms in giant 2 may currently be the bestof method very to small detect voids the density The primary recombination of a(quasi-bound) correlated hole–electron pair immediately following photoexcitation A single layer of sp Glass that contains crystalline particlesSuch or materials regions. may be transparent or smoggy Binding matrix within the thickactive film. particles This together binds and the alsoto bonds the the substrate thick film The approximate temperature at whichchanges a from material a supercooled liquidsolid, or to vice an versa. amorphous Theabrupt transition but is continuous marked by change an involume slope and enthalpy of the versus temperature specific Viscosity curves. varies rapidly near the glass-transition temperature, which is also sometimessoftening called temperature the A method in which ameasure spectrometer relevant is intensities used emitted to fromdischarge a generated glow at a surface.term This that is encompasses a glow general discharge optical-emission spectrometry (GDOES) and glow discharge mass spectrometry (GDMS). GDOESa is method in which anused optical-emission to spectrometer measure is the wavelengthemitted and from intensity a of glow discharge light GDMS generated is at a a method surface. inused which to a measure mass the spectrometer mass-to-charge isabundance quotient of and ions from aa glow surface discharge generated at This technique is similar toexcept the that the melt isthe not furnace. physically Instead, removed the from temperaturethe gradient melt along is controlled electricallycommences so at that the solidification seed and progresses until the melt is a honeycomb shape The change of X-ray sensitivitydetector of as the a X-ray result image ofIn previous the exposure presence to of radiation. ghosting,a a previously shadow acquired impression image of isuniform visible exposures in subsequent Change in the resistivity offilms a coupled stack of by ferromagnetic thin non-ferromagneticthe orientation films of when the magnetizationadjacent of to the the films non-ferromagnetic filmchange in is resistivity varied. with The lowmagnetic temperatures and fields high was observed tohence be the as adjective large as 50%; Geminate Recombination Germanene Glass Ceramics Glass Frit Glass-Transition Temperature Glow Discharge Spectrometry (GDS) Gradient Freeze Growth Ghosting Giant-Magnetoresistive (GMR) Effect reflection hkl ample. Four collinear reflection l k h cm) of a semiconductor s  probes are equally spaced, athe current outermost is probes, applied and through theacross voltage the difference two inner probesvoltage is and measured. current From values, the thecalculated resistivity assuming can that be the contactresistances and between spreading the probes andand the the semiconductor resistance of thecomparison probes to are the negligible in resistance of the semiconductor Absorption and emission of lighta takes short place time in that such theexcited atomic states coordinates are in unchanged; ground i.vertical e., and on transitions a are configuration coordinate model The process of movement ofa fluid temperature through gradient Ferromagnetic film in a magnetoresistiveread or head spin-valve in which theeasily magnetization to an can external respond magnetic field Strongly bound electron–hole pairs A law that states that the intensity of an in a diffraction pattern is equalopposite to the intensity in the A term generally describing theintegrated-circuit initial fabrication points in process the line, suchtransistor as fabrication the steps. These processesrequire generally higher thermal budgets GOI measures the breakdown stabilitylayer of of the a oxide MOS capacitorthe when capacitor. a There voltage are is different appliedintegrity to types tests. of Most gate of oxide these are standardized. This An effect caused by defects.formation The of energy the for normal the coresreduced of in the regions flux with lines a is reduced Cooper-pair density Spacing between the bottom ofof the the slider recording and medium the in top a disk drive Focal plane array consisting ofa an silicon ROIC HgCdTe sensor on Process of forced flow of fluid A means of performing infraredmeasurements absorption with great speed andon precision, an based optical interferometer A popular technique used to( measure the resistivity

G

Franck–Condon Principle Free Convection Free Film Frenkel Exciton Friedel’s Law Front End of Line (FEOL) Gate Oxide Integrity (GOI) Flux Pinning Flying Height Focal Plane Array (FPA) Forced Convection Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectrometry Four-Point Probe Glossary 1472 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1473

exhausted. Once again, both horizontal and vertical Heat Capacity arrangements are possible, and often the reservoir is The amount of heat required to change the replaced by liquid encapsulation to impede As loss temperature of a substance temperature by 1 degree, from the melt. This is now the favored technique for with units of energy per degree the growth of most GaAs substrate material Heteroepitaxy Grading The growth of a layer of markedly different Grading is the gradual change from one composition from the substrate, i. e., the epitaxial semiconductor to another, exemplified by the gradual layer and the substrate are made from different change from GaAs to GaAsP that is necessary in some materials, e.g., the diamond growth on an iridium LEDs single-crystal substrate. Another example is the Grätzel Cell growth of GaxIn1xPyAs1y layers lattice-matched to Named after its inventor, Michael Grätzel, this is InP. The heteroepitaxial growth techniques are a dye-sensitized cell using a porous TiO2 substrate to chemical-vapor deposition, liquid-phase epitaxy, and collect the photo-generated charge molecular-beam epitaxy GRINSCH Laser Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor (HBT) A graded-refractive-index separate-confinement A modification to the standard bipolar transistor Glossary heterojunction laser (see Separate Confinement where a heterojunction is used to control the carrier Heterojunction (SCH) Laser). Optical confinement is flow at the base optimized by grading the composition of the cladding layers Heterojunction Laser Gunn Diode A semiconductor laser where both electrical and optical confinement exploit the properties of (See Negative Differential Resistance). This is heterojunctions is a heterojunction laser. If the active a device based on low-doped, n-type GaAs and relies region is sandwiched between two heterojunctions, on the NDR effect. It is used for the generation of the laser is termed a double heterojunction low-power microwave currents Heterojunctions and Heterostructures A heterojunction is the junction between different H materials (e.g., GaAs and AlGaAs with different band gaps). Such a junction exhibits several properties that Hall Effect may be very useful to device manufacturers. These The deflection of a charged particle moving in include changes in the energies of the valence or a magnetic field that is perpendicular to its motion. conduction bands, or both, and changes in the optical The deflection is due to the Lorentz force on the properties. A heterostructure is a semiconductor charged particle and it causes the charges to structure where the properties of heterojunctions are accumulate on one side of the sample. The voltage exploited measured at right angles to the current flow is called Heterostructures the Hall voltage. The Hall effect can be used to Multilayer structures that have regions of different characterize the mobility (cm2=Vs), resistivity  3 composition within them; used in advanced IR device ( cm), type of carrier, and carrier density (cm )of types a semiconductor sample. The Hall mobility is the product of conductivity and the Hall constant (the Hexagonal As transverse-electric-field Hall field divided by the The natural form of elemental arsenic product of the current density and the magnetic HgZnTe induction) of a conductor or semiconductor; An alternative Hg-based ternary system to MCT a measure of the mobility of the electrons or holes in Hierarchical Nanostructuring a semiconductor. The Hall coefficient and factor relate The combination of introduced defects/impurities in H linearly to  and , respectively a thermoelectric material with different characteristic Hard Axis length scales and meant to scatter phonons with Direction in a ferromagnetic sample at right angles to a wide range of wavelengths the easy axis High Impedance Surface Hard Magnetic Bias Film (also Longitudinal Bias A planar metamaterial, which acts as a ground plane Film) that does not support propagating surface waves (see Permanent magnetic film abutted to the free film in Magnetic Mirror.) a magnetoresistive or spin-valve head to eliminate High Index Contrast magnetic domains Waveguides or devices fabricated using two or more Head Field Slope Parameter (Q) materials that have very different refractive indexes. The maximum slope of the magnetic field of a write High index contrast is the basis for the confinement of head in the direction of the magnetization of the light to very small cross-sectional-area waveguides or recording layer normalized to the coercive field (Hc) very-small-volume optical cavities, either using total = divided by the magnetic spacing .d/, Q D dHx dx internal reflection or photonic band gap effects. High Hc=d (trigonal and 2 re referred to as image lag ween a photon or electron (tetragonal) 3 cm = technique is a method to determine barrier V V 5 / I 10  Technique (Current–Voltage Technique) Process of generation of electron–holecarriers moving pairs in by an electricbreakdown field threshold, higher which than for the Si3 is of the order of A ferroelectric material in whichpolarization spontaneous is not the primaryFrequently, order the parameter. primary order parameterspontaneous is strain the associated with atransition ferroelastic phase A foreign atom unintentionally presentsemiconductor, incorporated in the either during growthprocessing or The result of a collisionand bet the nuclei or electronsthere of is a a material, net such changesystem that in and the in internal the energies sumand of of after the the the kinetic collision energies before Technique to determine the densitymolecules of and gas-phase chemical species usingabsorption infrared spectra Technique to determine the surface-bonding mixed or hybrids, formed byorbitals. combining Examples the are sp s (linear), and sp p heights and ideality factors oftheir Schottky current–voltage contacts from characteristics The ideality factor of Schottkythe contacts characterizes variation of their barrierapplied heights voltage as a function of Lag is the carryover ofprevious image X-ray charge exposures generated into by subsequentframes. image The residual signal fractionsa pulsed following X-ray irradiation a The Growth that takes place inhigh aqueous-based temperatures solutions at and high pressures An artificial material composite characterizeda by hyperbolic dispersion of thewaves. Such supported dispersion (propagating) is typicallycomposites found of in extreme anisotropy, wheredielectric the permittivity is sign reversed of for theparallel directions and orthogonal to the anisotropy axis The state of the magnetizationexternal magnetic in field response depends to on an the the magnetization initial state of planar), and sp I V / Impact Ionization Improper (or Extrinsic) Ferroelectric Impurity Inelastic Scattering Infrared-Laser-Absorption Spectroscopy (IRLAS) Infrared-Reflection-Absorption Spectroscopy (IRRAS) I Ideality Factor Image Lag Hydrothermal Growth Hyperbolic Metamaterial Hysteresis ition of source ough decompos metal semiconductor field-effect where the separation of the index contrast is thus theoptical basis integrated for circuits increased density of A modification of the transistor (MESFET) electrons in the channel fromachieved by the using ionized a donors heterojunction. is higher This electron results mobility in and thuslower greater noise speed and The highest energy molecular orbitalmolecule of that an contains atom or an electron.molecule If were the to atom lose or anlikely electron, lose it it from would this most orbital Slow cooling, or top-seeded (similargrowth to of materials Czochralski) in athe solution freezing designed point to of reduce thetemperature desired phase below a critical Alignment of the director perpendicularof a to substrate the surface Epitaxial growth of a layerthe of substrate the same composition as Junction between materials of thebut same of chemical different type electrical properties.a For p-n example, junction in GaAs is a homojunction Electronic transport that localized electronssite to hop site from with the assistance of phonons Group of effects associated within the high carrier electric transport fields. Forrelation Si, between it drift includes velocity the andsaturation nonlinear electric (n-Si) field and with near saturationof (p-Si), drift anisotropy velocity regarding therelative electric to orientation the crystallographic axesSasaki–Shibuya (the effect), and the diffusion’sas anisotropy regards the density gradientsperpendicular along to and the strong electric field The same technique as catalyticfor CVD, thin-film which growth is thr used gas materials utilizing catalytic reactionfilament on the heated Concept used to explain the(and propagation diffraction of processes), a in wave thata every primary point wavefront on acts aswavelets, a the source envelope of function spherical ofreconstruct which the acts primary to wavefront a short time later Circuits consisting of electronic elementsdiffering made enabling from technologies such asthin-film, thick-film, monolithic silicon, etc. In molecules, the orbitals occupiedare by seldom the pure electrons s or pure p orbitals. Instead, they are

High-Electron-Mobility Transistor (HEMT) Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) High-Temperature Solution Growth Homeotropic Alignment Homoepitaxy Homojunction Hopping Conduction Hot-Carrier Phenomena Hot-Wire Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Huygens’s Principle Hybrid Circuits Hybridization Glossary 1474 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1475

configuration on the film-growing surface using light Ni3Sn4. These intermetallics typically form at the absorption during reflection of an infrared beam interface of the solder and the metallization and are In-Situ Monitoring usually more brittle than the solder or the Tools to help in understanding layer growth kinetics metallization and to provide monitors suitable for feedback control Intermetallic Reactions And Phases in epitaxial growth systems Two or more metals can react chemically to produce Integrated Circuit (IC) compounds. These are revealed in phase diagrams as Combination of active and passive circuit elements to labeled, vertical lines. The compound is often referred enable computational logic or analog operations to as an intermetallic phase Integrated Detector Cooler Assembly (IDCA) Internal Photoemission Yield Spectroscopy (IPEYS) A commonly used infrared detector scheme in which Technique the detector is mounted directly on the cold finger of IPEYS is a method to determine barrier heights of a cryocooler (often based on Stirling cycle engines). Schottky contacts and band offsets of semiconductor The detector and cold finger are then enclosed in heterostructures by photoinjection of hot electrons a vacuum vessel with a transparent window and over the energy barriers at metal/semiconductor and optical baffles semiconductor/semiconductor interfaces, respectively, Glossary Integrated Optics/Photonics as a function of the photon energy of the exciting light The manufacture of photonic elements and circuits on Interstitial a planar substrate, typically using thin-film deposition, A site lying between regular lattice sites that can be lithography, and etching steps. Typically, the substrate occupied by dopant, impurity, or host atoms. The is a glass or semiconductor wafer, and the photonic latter case is known as a self-interstitial. It generally elements are guided-wave devices behaves as a donor Interconnect Intersubband (ISB) Transition The system of metal conducting lines and contacts Transition between confined states within the among IC components. The categories include local conduction or valence bands (between neighboring devices), intermediate (between Intragrain Critical Current Density j neighboring circuit elements), and global (across the c The value of critical current density j within a single IC chip) c grain, limited only by the pinning properties Interdiffused Multilayer Process (IMP) Intrinsic Point Defect The process of obtaining a uniform alloy composition Is the general term for either a vacancy or a Si of Cd Hg  Te by the growth of alternate layers of x 1 x interstitial in the Si matrix the binary compounds that are thin enough to completely interdiffuse within the time of growth Inversion Interface Trap Density Condition in which, for a MIS structure, the applied The density (cm3) of positive or negative charges voltage to the gate electrode VG results in an increase located at the silicon/silicon dioxide interface, due to of minority carriers near the surface of the underlying defects induced by oxidation, structural defects, semiconductor. This region is referred to as an impurities, or other defects caused by bond-breaking inversion layer. When present in a MISFET, this mechanisms such as radiation or hot carriers. These condition results in a conducting channel between the states are typically in electrical communication with source and drain regions. This condition occurs for the charges in the channel of a MOSFET and results applied voltages beyond the threshold voltage, i. e. < in stretch-out of the capacitance–voltage Vth VG characteristics. They also affect the turn-on and Inversion Symmetry turn-off characteristics of a MOS transistor A system in which the laws of physics are unchanged Interface-Induced Gap States by the operation of inversion Because of the quantum-mechanical tunnel effect, the Ion Implantation wavefunctions of electrons tail across semiconductor A method of introducing impurities into the surface of interfaces in energy regions where occupied states a solid. The impurity atoms to be introduced are 6 overlap a band gap. These evanescent waves are the ionized and accelerated by a high voltage, up to 10 V continuum of the intrinsic interface-induced gap states in some instances. They penetrate the surface to Intergrain Critical Current Density a depth dependent on their energy. Unfortunately, this Macroscopic transport critical current density, which disrupts the crystal lattice by introducing irradiation can be much smaller than the intragrain jc because of damage, which in turn must be repaired by annealing the weak-link behavior of large-angle grain at elevated temperatures before the electrical activity boundaries in the cuprate superconductors of the implanted atoms can be obtained Intermetallic Compounds Ionization Substances that form between pad metallizations and Process of forming an electrically charged atom (ion) the active components of molten solder (typically Sn). Ionization Energy For Cu metallization, Sn reacts to form Cu3Sn and The energy distance from the valence-band maximum Cu6Sn5 intermetallics. For Ni, Sn reacts to form to the vacuum level at semiconductor surfaces m 5 and 14 : , is used, which floats on 3 not couple well to lattice O 2 irradiating laser beams on amorphousthin semiconductor films Technique to determine the densityatoms of and gas-phase molecules whose opticallyare excited emissive states states Growth of quantum wells onsame, a or substrate very similar, with lattice the constant An equation linking the concentrationsreacting of species the in various a chemical-typefrom equation, defect chemistry derived analysis Minority-carrier lifetime is one ofparameters the determining electrical the performance ofdevices; IR it can be affecteddopants by impurities and/or The defect creation associated withsamples. illumination This of is normally observedmaterials in having a amorphous flexible network A reduction in the totalbe dislocation obtained strain energy either can by polygonizationdislocations or arranging by themselves in linearlatter arrays. results in The the creationboundary of or a lineage. small-angle grain The readerthis will in find most examples books of on materials science State of matter with propertiesa characteristic liquid of both and a crystal;certain that properties is, are it anisotropic flowsa like like crystal. those a At of liquid the and molecularlong-range level orientational the order phase and has translational some element disorder of in the long range An inert layer, usually B (sometimes called the thermal band). The edges of the top of the meltcomponents; to this prevent loss is of used volatile forcompounds As and P-containing LPE is epitaxial growth ofrequired a material layer in by a dissolving liquid.becomes the On supersaturated cooling, and the forms material afilm solid is film. deposited If on this aepitaxial substrate, the growth can be A form of mid tofrom far-infrared simple absorption resulting vibrations of lightlattice. Such atoms vibrations in do a heavier vibrations and result in sharpfrequencies absorption are lines, directly whose related tostrengths mass are and proportional whose to concentration.absorption is LVM particularly suited forconcentrations measuring in carbon SI GaAs This term refers to thewindow transparent between atmospheric the wavelengths 7 Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF) Lattice-Matching Law of Mass Action Lifetime Light-Induced Defect Creation Lineage Liquid Crystal Liquid-Encapsulated Czochralski Technique Liquid-Phase Epitaxy (LPE) Localized Vibrational Mode (LVM) Absorption Long Wave (LW) , above c j of Si at room

igh electron mobility by , the free-carrier concentration N 0) > c j Method to build up multilayermaterials structures by of organic the transfer ofa a water monolayer surface to floating a on raised solid and substrate lowered as through the latter theinterface. is monolayer/water Deposition modes include Y-type (monolayer transfer from the watersubstrate surface on to both the the upwardthe and latter downward through motion the of monolayer/air(film interface), transfer X-type only on downwardsubstrate), motion and of Z-type the (film transferupstroke) only on the Transitions between states of theforbidden same parity are A useful method to fabricatesemiconductors polycrystalline showing h Diffuse background of lines informed a by diffraction the pattern elastic scatteringscattered of electrons incoherently High-vacuum oven from which molecularbe beams produced can in molecular-beam epitaxy.are These usually ovens fitted with temperaturemounted sensors. in Shutters front allow theoff, beams as to required be turned on and Dual integral relations between theparts real of and a imaginary one-sided Fourierfunctions transform of of time, causal which includesadmittances. KKR all allow physical us toconstants define based the optical on KKR relationsphase for of amplitude complex reflection and coefficientsopaque from sample an of the material under measurement This is similar to theextent Czochralski of method pulling is but the limited,greater producing diameter crystals but of shorter length Situated well below the upperseparates critical a field, region this without line pinning and zero temperature versus The experimental resistivity A type of alloy solidsubstituted solution in in a which lattice an has atom structure the as same the valence electron atom it replaces the irreversibility field, from avortices region ( with pinned

L K

Langmuir–Blodgett Film Deposition Laporte’s Rule Laser Crystallization Kikuchi Lines Knudsen Cell Kramers–Kronig Relations (KKR) Kyropoulos Technique Irreversibility Line Irvin Curve Isostructural Solid Solution Glossary 1476 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1477

this window are influenced by the water-vapor content reaction), bioluminescence (appearing as a result of and atmospheric conditions biological processes), thermoluminescence (cased by Longitudinal Magnetic Recording temperature rise), and so on Recording system consisting of a write head and a read head and a recording medium where the magnetization is parallel to the surface of the M recording medium Magnetic Annealing Long-Range Disorder Thermal process involving a ferromagnetic sample in Defined by the absence of the long-range order, i. e., a magnetic field in which the sample has induced the lack of periodic arrangements of atoms a direction of easy magnetization (easy axis) Low-Dimensional Structure Magnetic Mirror Heterostructure with dimensions comparable to the A planar metamaterial, which acts as a mirror that wavelength of an electron or hole, typically less than preserves, rather than reverses, the phase of 100 Å, so that quantum effects are important electromagnetic waves upon reflection Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) Magnetic Random-Access Memory (MRAM) Glossary This refers to the lowest-energy molecular orbital of Digital memory device composed of ferromagnetic an atom or molecule that does not contain an electron. thin films coupled to current-carrying conductors used If the atom or molecule were to accept an electron, it to establish the direction of the magnetization in the would be most likely to do it with this orbital ferromagnetic films. The resistance of the coupled Low-Frequency Noise films is different when the direction of magnetization Electrical measurement of the current or voltage noise in the two ferromagnetic films changes spectral densities of a semiconductor component, Magnetic Spacing typically at frequencies from  1Hzto 100 kHz. Spacing between the bottom of the slider and the 2 The units are in A =Hz for current noise spectral center of the ferromagnetic storage layer in 2 density and V =Hz for voltage noise spectral density. a recording medium characterized by the magnetic It is a sensitive electrical technique that can be used to spacing parameter d probe microscopic defects in semiconductor Magnetic Transition components and as a gauge of their reliability In digital magnetic recording, the region between Low-Temperature Co-fired Ceramic (LTCC) opposite states of the magnetization in the recording A composite material structure made of alumina medium. The length of the transition (l)isl D a, bonded at a temperature below the sintering where a is the transition parameter temperature of alumina using a glass binder. In Magnetic Tunneling Junction (MTJ) a substrate form, LTCC can be co-fired (melting the Magnetic random-access memory (MRAM) in which glass and bonding the alumina while capturing the the magnetic state of the ferromagnetic sample is metal interconnects and lines) at lower temperatures, sensed by the change in resistance of electron current so it is possible to use higher conductivity materials tunneling through a thin insulating layer when the like Cu or Ag conductors in the ceramic magnetization in the two electrodes coupled to the Low-Temperature Solution Growth ferromagnetic sample changes from parallel to Normally used for water-soluble materials, with antiparallel orientation growth being progressed by either slow cooling or Magnetoresistance solvent evaporation Change in resistance of a ferromagnetic material due L-Pit to changes in the orientation of the magnetization with See A-Swirl respect to an induced easy axis. It is sometimes Luminescence referred to as anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) In general terms, this is the emission of light by and is characterized by the change in resistivity with a luminescent material (also called phosphor) due to magnetic field normalized to the nominal resistivity conversion of a certain type of energy into  = electromagnetic radiation over and above thermal Magnetoresistivity (MR) radiation. The luminescence is the light emitted by The change of resistivity in the applied magnetic nonthermal sources in contrast with the emission of field. For Si, MR is a diverse tensor reflecting the radiation from a heated object, which is called symmetryoftheCBandVB incandescence. In accordance with the source of Majority Carriers energy the luminescence may be the Electrons in an n-type and holes in a p-type photoluminescence (excited by external illumination), semiconductor. Majority-carrier mobility is the electroluminescence (induced by the passage of mobility of electrons (holes) in n-type (p-type) electrical current), cathodoluminescence (excited by material irradiation with electrons), triboluminescence (excited Masking Effect by mechanical treatment, e.g., grinding), Severe suppression of the magnitude of photocurrent chemiluminescence (emitted during chemical due to the development of a dead region in front of the or after als. By usual definition, fically to the monolithic invisibility or ) materials are artificial materials constructed (a Greek preposition that can mean cloaking An elementary building block ofwhich a is metamaterial, artificially built onfrom a common sub-wavelength scale constituent materials suchand as dielectrics metals A term that refers toglasses the or nonequilibrium amorphous nature solids. of Amorphousexcess internal solids energy have relative tocrystalline the state corresponding or states ofmethod the of same manufacture, material. The such asinhibits melt a quenching, transition to thestate lowest-energy crystalline A low-dimensional (planar) form ofrepresented a by metamaterial, a thin metalon film a periodically sub-wavelength patterned scale. Althoughmany metasurfaces times are thinner than thecan wavelength strongly of interact light, with they electromagneticwhich waves, they transmit, absorb, ordiffraction, acting reflect as without media ofdirection zero of dimension in light the propagation Refers to the chip-scale manufacturephotonic of waveguide optical circuitry, and using processing techniques borrowed from the microelectronics industry. Related to this isintegrated the optics, need as for facilitated by high-density waveguides high-index-contrast and photonic cryst microphotonics refers speci manufacture of optical and photonicsilicon elements (CMOS) chips on (MPCVD) Technique A technique for film deposition.widely This used is technique now for the diamondtransferred most growth. by Energy the is microwaves towhich gas-phase transfer electrons, their energy tocollisions. the The gas gas molecules through dissociate,species the are active formed, and theonto deposition the of substrate diamond immersed in the plasma occurs An empirical rule proposed by Miller in 1964, which to its superior material andresulting electrical in properties, the abbreviation MOS Meta beyond with specific geometries to produceUnconventional exotic optical behavior. responses, such asrefractive a index negative (leading to superlenses),these result structures. from Terahertz metamaterials areformed usually by patterning an electricalgold, conductor, on such a as substrate ofplastic an or electrical undoped insulator, semiconductors. suchfind Metamaterials as further application in theby terahertz offering spectral control region of polarizationof and the possibility Metamolecule Metastability Metasurface Microphotonics Microwave Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition Miller’s Rule Metamaterial .The MIS (the oxide) due m, which 2 m. There is 25 mband metal semiconductor 2 3and5 : : g thin films of compound Te, which is still the pre-eminent infrared x absorption band around 4: Cd x 2 Metamolecule Metasurface  1 semiconductors from a chemically reactivephase vapor where at least onea of metal-organic the components is Form of MBE where somefrom or external all gas beams sources, are ingroup III–V generated III MOMBE beams only are the from metal organic sources A low-temperature growth technique usingalkyls metal (and elemental Hg internary the compounds) case as of the Hg-based sources Structure that is one possible realization of refers to the gate structure,barrier. which The is application a of simple a Schottky produces reverse a bias depleted to region this thatcross-sectional gate occludes area part of of the the channel,its and conductivity thus modifies Composite materials made out ofdots metallic embedded quantum in organic or glass hosts Technique for depositin (IR) material Technique for preparing thin filmssource by gas decomposing materials by collisionmercury with atoms photo-excited A molecular compound or mixturecapable of of compounds forming a liquid-crystalof phase temperatures over between a the range crystalliquid and phases isotropic See See (MESFET) Probably the simplest three-terminal devicebe that fabricated can on GaAs. The insulator has traditionally been SiO aCO active region, in which theabsorbed incident solar and light no is photocurrent is generated Product of the remanent magnetizationthickness of and a the magnetic recording film Noise voltage at the terminalsby of fluctuations a in read the magnetization headmedia of caused the recording The term for the transparentbetween atmospheric the window wavelengths 3 divides the band into twotransmission with in the the better 3.3 to atmospheric 4 A narrow band gap II–VIHg semiconductor compound,

Metal-Organic Molecular-Beam Epitaxy (MOMBE) Metalorganic Vapor-Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) Metal/Oxide/Semiconductor (MOS) Metallic Nanocomposites Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD) Mercury-Sensitized Photo-CVD Mesogen Meta-Atom Metafilm Metal Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor Media Flux Media Noise Medium Wave (MW) Mercury Cadmium Telluride (MCT) Glossary 1478 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1479

suggests that .2/=f.1/g3 is nearly constant for all polymers, the area is sometimes referred to as plastic non-centrosymmetric crystals electronics Miniband Molecular Reorientation Interval of allowed energies for carriers in Nonlinear process in which the orientation of a superlattice, resulting from the delocalization and molecules in liquid changes upon illumination with broadening of the quantum-well energy levels intense light Minimum Thermal Conductivity Molecular-Beam Epitaxy (MBE) The minimum value of lattice thermal conductivity of Low-temperature growth technique for epitaxial films a solid, corresponding to a phonon mean free path on from atomic or molecular beams from thermal the order of one interatomic spacing evaporation sources. It is carried out in ultra-high Minority Carriers vacuum. Chemical Beam Epitaxy (CBE) is a form of Electrons in a p-type and holes in an n-type molecular-beam epitaxy in which group III and group semiconductor. Many electron devices work on the V beams are generated from external gas sources. Gas base of minority-carriers transport. Minority-carrier Source MBE (GSMBE) is a form of MBE where mobility is the mobility of electrons (holes) in p-type some or all beams are generated from external gas (n-type) material sources, in III–V GSMBE only the group V beams are Glossary Misfit Dislocations from hydride sources These are dislocations introduced near the boundary Molecularly Doped Polymers (MDP) of an epitaxial layer and the substrate, when Formulations of charge-transport materials dissolved a mismatch between the lattice constants exists. The in a polymer matrix. CTLs of OPCs are typically density of these dislocations is proportional to the MDPs mismatch. Although they run parallel to the boundary, Monolayer (ML) they can interact and penetrate much of the epitaxial A single layer of atoms (in III–V MBE a layer of the layer; see Threading Dislocations compound or alloy, e.g. a layer of Ga C As) Mixed State Moore’s Law In type II superconductors, this state exists between Prediction based upon the empirical observation by the lower and upper critical fields. In the mixed state, G. Moore that the minimum cost of manufacturing superconducting and normal regions coexist. integrated circuits per component actually decreases Magnetic flux enters the superconductor in the normal with the increase in the number of IC components, cores of the flux lines and thus with greater circuit functionality and computing power. A corollary of this observation is Mobility that the density of integrated circuit transistors will Parameter defined as the ratio of the carrier velocity double roughly every 1.5–2 years (see Scaling) (cm=s) to the electric field through which it is moving Moseley’s Law (V=cm). It is expressed in units of cm2=Vs. At the States that the square root of the frequency of microscopic level, it is related to the dominant characteristic X-rays, for certain elements, is linearly scattering time and the effective mass of the carrier. related to the atomic number The notion includes drift mobility ,which Multi-Crystalline Silicon (mc-Si) corresponds to the motion parallel to the field and Hall mobility H, which corresponds to motion Wafers of silicon, cheaper to produce than the perpendicular to the electric field, when a magnetic single-crystal silicon wafers but with multiple field is applied single-crystal grains in each wafer Multiple Quantum Well (MQW) Mobility Edge Structure composed of a stack of QWs separated by The boundary between localized and delocalized sufficiently thick barriers so that the electron wave states in a band functions and energy levels are localized to each QW Mobility Gap Energy separation between two mobility edges of the conduction and valence bands N Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) MTF measures the efficiency of an imaging system Nanowire such as a detector to resolve (transfer) different spatial Quantum wire formed by seeded growth on frequencies of information in an image. In other a nano-patterned substrate words, MTF is the relative signal response of the Narrow Band gap system as a function spatial frequency Refers to a semiconductor with a forbidden energy Molecular Electronics gap of less than about 0:7 eV, making it suitable for Exploitation of organic materials for electronics and detection in the infrared wavebands optoelectronics applications. Examples are displays Native Defect based on liquid crystals and organic A vacancy, a self-interstitial, an anti-site, or any electroluminescent polymers. In the case of organic complex of these nonlinear optical material to optical times extinction index, divided by the radiation  A model that describes therecombination probability as of a geminate function ofthe the efficiency applied of field geminate with pairthe photogeneration initial pair-separation and distance as parameters 4 wavelength A phenomenon in which thetransmittance instantaneous of the device dependsof both incident on illumination the and level onof the the prior device. transmittance Such answitches element enables all-optical A Mach–Zehnder modulator in whichwaveguide is a made part out of of the Changing a the nonlinear intensity material. of thethe incident effective path light length changes experiencedat by the the nonlinear light waveguide, controlling transmission A set of metrics thatapplicability allows of us a to quantify the switching A material whose properties changewith upon intense illumination light Switching of optical signals usingillumination-dependent an phase shift of nonlinear materials A Bragg periodic structure inlayers which is nonlinear at least one set of A difference between the phaseintense shift light experienced and by a phasewhich shift intensity experienced approaches by zero light Polarization that does not experiencedependence purely on linear the electric field Defined as the difference betweencation the concentrations, total hence anion anion- and or cation-rich A semiconductor material, with electronsmajority as charge carriers, the that isdonor formed atoms by doping with Temperature where stable defect clusters/aggregates start to form as nuclei Figure of merit used todepending described on the the power angle of ofthe a collection refractive lens, index of of the the lenssituated medium and in which the lens is O Onsager Model Optical Absorption Coefficient Optical Bistability Nonlinear Mach–Zehnder Modulator Nonlinear Material Figures of Merit Nonlinear Optical Medium Nonlinear Optical Switching Nonlinear Periodic Structure Nonlinear Phase Shift Nonlinear Polarization Non-Stoichiometry n-Type Conductivity Nucleation Temperature Numerical Aperture way wrong ). In GaAs, electrons ulting in oscillations in the Transferred Electron Effect (See current flow. This is thesome Gunn microwave effect sources and is used in A medium characterized by thethan refractive zero index less An exotic optical effect characterizedchange by in anomalous the direction ofrefraction, light when propagation a upon beam of light bends the that undergo the transferred electronfrom effect the are primary excited conduction bandtheir minimum, effective mass where is low,where to their subsidiary effective minima, mass isa considerably result, greater. although As they havetheir greater drift kinetic velocity is energy, lower. This,a in reduction turn, of results current in incurrent–voltage the characteristics external circuit. show The a reductioncurrent in after a critical voltageratio is of applied current to (although voltage the This will is always be NDR. positive). It canNDR be region shown is that unstable current andtransported flow that in in charge groups, the tends res to be while crossing an interface between two media The simplest of the liquid-crystallong-range phases; orientational it order has butlong-range is devoid translational of order A measure of sensitivity fordetector a and multiplexed infrared the change inproduces scene a temperature signal that equivalent tothe the detector rms noise level of A device where a partmade of out one of of a two nonlinearintensity waveguides material. of is Changing the the incident lightpath changes length the experienced effective by thecontrolling waveguided coupling light, between thus the two waveguides A device that consists ofa two nonlinear mirrors material. separated by As thenonlinear refractive material index changes of with the anillumination, increased the effective level path of length ofis the altered, resonator changing the transmissiondevice properties of the A figure of merit thata describes refractive the nonlinear applicability optical of materialnonlinear in index terms change of and effective absorption A set of two relationsreal that (imaginary) permits part calculation of of the nonlinearoptical response frequency at given the a given knowledgeimaginary of (real) the nonlinear response atfrequencies all other optical

Negative Differential Resistance (NDR) Negative Index Medium Negative Refraction Nematic Phase Noise-Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) Nonlinear Directional Coupler Nonlinear Fabry–Pérot Interferometer Nonlinear Figure of Merit Nonlinear Kramers–Kronig Transformations Glossary 1480 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1481

Optical Constants P The real and imaginary parts of the square root of the dielectric constant/susceptibility, called refraction and Paraelectric extinction index, respectively; they define the optical Non-polar phase that transforms into the ferroelectric properties of bulk material and mesoscale structures phase at the Curie temperature Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) Partial Response Maximum-Likelihood (PRML) A technique to determine the plasma parameter and Recording Channel reactions in the plasma by measuring the emission Particular form of equalization used in digital intensity of line spectra from the plasma recording channels. The detector is maximum Optical Gap likelihood (See Band gap) Passivation Optical Limiter Refers to the removal of electrical activity of a defect, A device in which the transmittance decreases with often by trapping a mobile atom of the opposite increased level of illumination electrical type (a donor may trap a mobile acceptor, Optical Properties of a Sample for example). The defect now becomes a complex, These include the apparent reflectance, transmittance, consisting of the original defect and the new Glossary and absorbance component in close proximity, but without electrical Optical Texture properties. Unlike compensation, ionized impurity Pattern observed for thin slabs of birefringent material scattering is reduced by passivation and carrier between crossed polarizers under a microscope. It is mobility is increased used as a fingerprint to help identify the many Passive Matrix Addressing different liquid-crystal phases Also known as simple multiplexing, passive matrix Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance addressing is a technique for writing images onto Magnetic resonance observed by optical means, liquid-crystal displays. The display elements are particularly by detection of electron spin resonance by arranged as a matrix of rows and columns, and a series monitoring luminescence intensity and polarization, of voltage pulses are applied to each row in sequence. etc. Individual pixels are activated by applying a voltage to Order Parameter the relevant column, such that the sum of the row and The parameter that measures the extent of long-range column voltages exceeds the desired switching or order characteristics of a phase. The orientational threshold voltage. Each pixel responds to the root order parameter is the most important for liquid mean square voltage applied during the line-address crystals; by definition it vanishes in the isotropic phase time, and unlike the active-matrix addressed displays, Organic Photoconductors (OPC) there is no charge-storage facility. Thus, the number Single material or a formulated blend of materials that of rows that can be addressed is limited have photoconductive characteristics Peltier Effect Organic Photoreceptors The absorption or evolution of heat at the junction of Thin-film multilayer devices made from organic two different conductors photoconductive materials. These devices are often Penetration Depth ( L) called organic photoconductors The characteristic length scale for the penetration of Oscillator Strength a magnetic field into the surface layer of Measure of the probability of a transition between a superconductor levels; an oscillator strength of 0.01–1 is highly Perfect Absorber probable (allowed) and has a short lifetime (ns), one A planar metamaterial that completely absorbs less than 0.001 is improbable (partially forbidden), incident electromagnetic energy (light) and has a long lifetime (s–ms) Perfect Diamagnetism (Meissner Effect) Oxidation-Induced Stacking Fault Of the superconducting state is reflected by the fact A stacking fault that shows up after wafer oxidation. that a magnetic field is expelled from the interior of During oxidation, Si interstitials are injected from the a field-cooled superconductor as soon as the wafer surface into the bulk. They aggregate around superconducting state is reached oxygen precipitates of a critical size and thereby Permalloy squeeze an additional lattice plane (stacking fault) Alloy of nickel and iron with approximately 80% Ni between two regular lattice planes and 20% Fe. Composition of alloy with zero Oxygen Precipitates magnetostriction Aggregates of oxygen atoms that form in Permittivity (") Czochralski-grown crystals due to their relatively A measure of the polarizability of a dielectric large oxygen content. The silica crucible that holds the material, which is frequency dependent. The relative Si melt is slowly dissolved during the growth process, permittivity of a material is often given by " or "r, which introduces oxygen into the melt and, hence, such as with the parallel-plate capacitor expression for into the growing crystal capacitance: C D ""0A=t (see Dielectric Constant) s 14  10  s (characteristic Photo-Induced 12  10 purities in semiconductors. initial surface potential  Photodarkening, A very sensitive technique foridentification the of measurement shallow and im The measurement is a two-stageabsorption process; of the light excites thedonors electron into on a un-ionized higher levelionizes and this thermal electron energy into now theit conduction can be band, measured where asenergy a of photo-current. the Because optical the ionizationdonor is type, dependent the on photocurrent the spectrumphoton energy, as displays a peaks function that of the are donors characteristic present of This utilizes a p-n junctionseparate in electron–hole a pairs semiconductor (created to byof the photons) absorption to generate a voltage A complete encapsulated device suitableon for a mounting roof or building façade. Modules will often glass or changes in defectTypically, a sites laser within the beam glass. is usedrefractive to index, locally density, modify absorption the coefficient,of etc., the glass (see ).Degradation These processes are widelypattern used photonic to structures suchwaveguides, as and Bragg refractive gratings, lenses into glasses Light-induced change in the moleculara molecule structure of Luminescence excited by the externalthe illumination of material. It should beand distinguished light from scattering, reflection which areillumination also and caused are by not external connectedradiation with of thermal the material. Thethese criterion phenomena to is distinguish the characteristicthe decay cessation of time the after incidentand light. scattering While would reflection decay within time of atomic vibrations of luminescent material) A quantum of electromagnetic radiation High-purity glasses in which impuritiesor are suppressed controlled at ppm levels.fiber An glass example developed is at the thecentury, optical end which of is the very twentieth recentlong when history compared of to artificial the glasses of 5000 years Spreading of an intense lightphotorefractive beam properties due of to a the material of an organic photoconductor isof a photodischarge measure when of exposed the tocharacterizations rate are light. the Typical initial slopephotodischarge of the (V/J) and the energyphotodischarge required to for half the (characteristic time of electromagnetic oscillationsincident of light wave), the photoluminescencepersist would at least more than Photo-Thermal Ionization Spectroscopy Photovoltaic Device Photovoltaic Module Photoisomerization Photoluminescence Photon Photonic Glass Photorefractive Beam Fanning Photosensitivity 10 ns, typically & XPS), and X-rays (XPS) m Schottky contacts and involving a metastable state in the pumping cycle An enhancement of the reactionshining rate UV on radiation onto the the surface growing by film Temporal coloring induced by (UV)illumination. light For instance, photo-structural changesAg of particles, which are dispersed in oxide glasses The part of the conductivityabsorption that of is light. caused Negative by valuesphotoconductivity the of are the possible when opticalactivates efficient excitation carrier traps. Adevice photoconductive uses the change insemiconductor resistance to of measure a the slab extrapairs of electron–hole created by the absorption of photons The current that is generatedabsorption as of a light result of the Quasi-stable darkening induced by lightIn illumination. chalcogenide glasses, it occursoptical with absorption a edge, red-shift which of isathermal induced photo-structural through processes. The process, however, is speculative PES is a method toSchottky determine contacts the and barrier band heights offsetsheterostructures of of from semiconductor energy-distribution curves of electrons photoemitted fro semiconductor heterostructures excited by ultraviolet light (UPS), soft X-rays (S A deterioration of semiconductor propertiesprolonged by light exposure Plot of exposed potential versusa exposure continuous using exposure either or flashintensity exposures of varying Changes in the properties ofinvolving transitions a between glass metastable induced states by of light, the Recording system consisting of aand write a and recording read medium head whereperpendicular the to magnetization is the surface of the recording medium Blended junction having routes forholes, electrons which and are formed byself-assembly, percolation while due maintaining to donor/acceptor molecular contacts in the bulk of the organic film A crystalline solid that exhibitsof the a thermal glassy properties or amorphousproperties material of and a the good electric crystal Quantized lattice vibrations in a solid Luminescence with a lifetime

Photo-Catalysis Photochromic Photoconductivity Photocurrent Photodarkening Photoemission Spectroscopy (PES) Technique Photoinduced Degradation Photoinduced Discharge Characteristic (PIDC) Photoinduced Effects Perpendicular Magnetic Recording Phase-Separated Structure Phonon Glass Electron Crystal Phonons Phosphorescence Glossary 1482 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1483

comprise a number of cells and the typical size is of Plasmon the order of 1 m2 Quantized collective motions of electron gas in Photovoltaic Solar Cell a metal. In a bulk metal, the plasmon propagates as A semiconductor device for the conversion of solar a longitudinal wave, which may be probed by an energy into electricity electron beam. In a metal nanoparticle, a transversal Piezoelectric Polarization surface plasmon can be excited by light waves Generation of electric polarization in certain dielectric Plastic Deformation crystals as a result of the application of mechanical Deformation of a body caused by an applied stress, stress which remains after the stress is removed Piezoelectricity Plastic Electronics Property of some crystalline materials, which produce Use of polymers in electronic and optoelectronic an electric charge when subjected to an externally devices (see Molecular Electronics) applied force (direct effect). They also deform when subjected to an external electric field (reverse effect) Point Defect Piezoresistivity Smallest structural element, or imperfection, to cause

Property of certain materials, including thick-film departure from a perfect lattice structure, e.g., Glossary resistors, whereby an externally applied force gives a dopant or impurity atom rise to a change in resistance Poisson’s Equation Pinned Film A differential equation relating the spatial gradient of Coupling of a ferromagnetic to an antiferromagnetic the local electric field to the local space-charge density film resulting in the magnetization of the Poisson’s Ratio () ferromagnetic film being constrained to a fixed The ratio of transverse contraction strain to direction. The strength of the coupling is characterized longitudinal extension strain in the direction of by an exchange field parameter (Hua) measured in Oe stretching force. Tensile deformation is considered or A=m positive and compressive deformation is considered Pixie Dust negative. The definition of Poisson’s ratio contains Thin layer of Ru as used in synthetic a minus sign so that normal materials have a positive antiferromagnetic media (SAF) ratio Planar Chirality Polarity Two-dimensional form of mirror asymmetry, which Property of a physical system that has two points with implies that a planar object or a pattern cannot be different characteristics, such as one that has opposite brought into congruence with its mirror image charges or electric potentials (obtained by reflection across a line in the object’s Polarization Ratio plane) unless it is lifted off the plane. The simplest The density of states at the Fermi energy in an energy example of a planar chiral object is the Archimedean band for electrons in a metal with spins parallel spiral . " Planar Lightwave Circuit (PLC) (antiparallel) to the local magnetization is D EF )and . # Industrially established processes for manufacturing D EF ), respectively. The polarization ratio is integrated optics devices in silica-based glasses . "/ . #/ D EF D EF P D " # deposited on silicon wafers. Typically, the glass layers D.E /CD.E / are deposited by chemical vapor deposition or flame F F Poles of a Write Head hydrolysis. These technologies were developed Structure in a write head that couples the magnetic mainly for applications in fiber optics and are widely fields to the write gap used to manufacture wavelength multiplexers Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition Polycrystalline Solid (PECVD) Technique Polycrystalline material is not a single crystal as Like CVD, this is a technique for thin-film deposition. a whole, but is composed of many small crystals In contrast to the CVD technique, in the PECVD randomly oriented in different directions. The small technique the deposition of a film is a nonequilibrium crystals in polycrystalline solids are called grains. process. In the PECVD technique, the gas-phase Theses grains have irregular shapes and orientations. reactions, which are activated by temperature in the A polycrystalline material has grain boundaries where CVD technique, originate from an interaction of differently oriented crystals meet. Polycrystalline electrons with the gas molecules injected in the silicon is produced in the form of a ribbon or thin film reaction chamber. In the plasma, the dissociation of Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) the gas precursors is obtained by their collisions with CH3ŒSi.CH3/2OnSi.CH3/3 is mainly used as energetic electrons. The products of the reactions silicon-based organic polymer interact with the substrate surface and lead to the Polygonization deposition of a thin film. As the dissociation of the The motion of dislocations to form structures that gases is produced by electron impacts, the reactor and resemble three-dimensional polygons. In this way, substrate can be kept at room temperature they minimize their strain energies. Readers are refers to refers to the operation Quantum Cascade operation means that only one frequency (or quantization of energy levels within arealized narrow by region interleaved energy wellsformed and by barriers alternating layers ofsemiconductor different alloys. of a single electron tumblingsteps, down in many contrast potential to othercharge laser carriers designs encounter where a many singlelasing potential step. The a small range of frequencies)often is built available, in and during this thea is manufacture, limitation of which lasers is generally. QCLscompact, promise robust, future and reliable sourcesradiation of but terahertz presently suffer theto drawback be of cooled having to operate The change in near-band-edge opticalquantum absorption wells that in takes placefield when is a present high electric A semiconductor quantum heterostructurequantum that confined is in all threeexample, dimensions, InAs for islands embedded inand a Ge layer islands of in GaAs Si Infrared detector based on intersubbandquantum transitions dots in Indicates either the probability thata the photon absorption of will result inand the hole creation or of the a ratiophotons free of to electron the the number number of ofdetermined luminescence stimulating by photons. xerographic When discharge ofphotoreceptor, the QE is a measureeffectiveness of of the surface overall charge neutralizationabsorbed per (or incident) photon. Itxerographic is gain sometimes or called supply efficiency.determined When by spectroscopic methods, suchfluorescence as quenching, it is ageneration within measure the of light-absorbing charge moiety Quantum effect associated with quantizationband of and the level. It iszero-dimensional observed systems in whose two, size one, becomes and small Low-dimensional semiconductor quantum heterostructure where a thin layergap with is a sandwiched lower between band layersa (barriers) higher with band gap, leadingcarriers to along spatial one confinement dimension of for which the energy is The QCL is a sourceterahertz of and radiation infrared regions. suited to the The favored crucible material forthe GaAs melt growth and from for Knudsenrefers cells to for its high-temperature MBE. capabilities Pyrolytic Q Quantum Confined Stark Effect (QCSE) Quantum Dot (QD) Quantum-Dot Infrared Photodetector (QDIP) Quantum Efficiency Quantum Size Effect Quantum Well (QW) Quantum Cascade Laser (QCL) Pyrolytic Boron Nitride (pBN) ) 50 is an organic compound n / 3 COOCH / 3 CH . C D 2 CH referred to the many excellentscience books that on discuss materials dislocations and their interactions Thick films that are curedthan at their much cermet lower counterparts. temperatures Thea binding polymer material matrix and is thein resulting flexible films circuits can be used . Generation of an electric polarizationa change charge separation or in aa material change in in response material to temperature that is widely used to transfer graphene sheets Analytical technique that is sensitivesuch to as open vacancies, defects, in apositrons crystal. is The greater lifetime when of theis total reduced, number as of happens electrons atpositron vacancies. lifetime Measuring can give semiquantitative estimates of the concentrations of these defects Optical device that can provideupon a varying fixed input output intensity. intensity Thebased principle on may multi-photon be absorption, whichefficient becomes when light is more intense Volatile compound containing the elementfor required deposition onto the substrate The carefully engineered combination ofand materials processes to enable theintegrated fabrication circuit of technology. an The careful consideration of materials properties, deviceand physics, electrical engineering principles issuccessful required integration of for materials into an IC chip Ferroelectric material in which thepolarization spontaneous is the primary order parameter True epitaxy only occurs whenthe the substrate lattice constants (material of A) andequal. layer If (material they B) are are different,gross misfit bending dislocations of or the even structurepseudomorphic can growth, occur. the In lattice constantsvery can different. be However, before misfitbe dislocations formed, can either the growthof of the B substrate is material, A, stoppedstructure. is or In grown a either on layer top case, of thematerial the structure B is being stabilized severely with strained.this Manufacturers technique use to produce deviceselectrical with or advanced optoelectronic properties Semiconductor material in which theholes dopants as the create majority chargedoping carrier. with It acceptor is atoms formed by Width of a pulse inhead a when digital sensing magnetic recording a read recordedCharacterized transition. by the 50% width (PW

Polymer Thick Films Polymethyl-Methacrylate (PMMA) Pyroelectric Effect Positron Annihilation Power Stabilizer Precursor Process Integration Proper Ferroelectric Pseudomorphic Layers p-Type Conductivity Pulse Width Glossary 1484 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1485

quantized in discrete levels. Carriers have free motion Radiative recombination refers to the transfer of at in the plane perpendicular to the confinement least some of the energy of the excess carriers into direction. May be repeated to produce a multiple photons. Non-radiative recombination involves only quantum well (MQW) the production by lattice phonons (heat) Quantum Well Intersubband Photodetector (QWIP) Reflectance-Transmittance (R–T) Method Long-wavelength (IR) detector based on light Defines the optical constants, based on two equations absorption through intersubband electron transitions connecting the former to the reflectance and in n-doped QWs transmittance of the slab sample of material under Quantum Wire measurement Semiconductor quantum heterostructure with Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED) two-dimensional confinement of carrier motion. Glancing-angle electron diffraction technique, Carriers have just one direction of free motion sensitive to surface reconstruction and morphology. Quasi-Fermi Levels Key in situ analytical technique in MBE Levels that correspond to the energy positions the Reflectometer equilibrium Fermi level would need to have in the gap Instrument used for reflecting light off the substrate to

in order to produce carrier densities equivalent to the monitor the growth process. This is normally achieved Glossary ones that are generated by the illumination through detecting the interference modulation of the Quasi Particles light intensity from a growing film Unpaired electrons excited above the energy gap Reflow Process of heating a glass above its glass-transition R temperature, to the point that its viscosity is sufficiently reduced to enable the material to flow. In Radiation Resistance combination with surface tension effects or other This is important for solar cells operating in space external forces, reflow is often exploited in the where high doses of gamma rays and high energy reshaping of optical devices particles can significantly degrade the efficiency of the Remanent Magnetization cells Magnetization that remains in a sample after the Radio-Frequency (RF) Circuits magnetic fields are removed High-speed and microwave analog circuits that Remanent Polarization operate in the range 0:1100 GHz Dielectric polarization that remains in a ferroelectric Reactive Sputtering material after an electric field has been applied Technique for preparing thin films by sputtering with Resistivity a mixture of reactive gas and conventional sputtering Parameter of a semiconductor that depends on the free gas such as oxygen and argon electron and hole densities (cm3) and their respective Reactor Cell mobilities (cm2=Vs), and is expressed in units of Chamber where the precursors react to deposit a film  cm. It is the reciprocal of conductivity and it onto the substrate depends strongly on temperature in a semiconductor Read Head Resolution In magnetic recording the ferromagnetic device used The smallest separation of two points in an object that to generate a voltage proportional to the state of can be distinctly reproduced within an image magnetization in the recording medium Resonant Nonlinear Response Readout Integrated Circuit (ROIC) The nonlinear response taking place in the absorbing Commonly describes the silicon chip on which the spectral region detector material is mounted. The role of the ROIC is Responsivity to integrate the signal, perform some signal processing Signal term often measured using a two-temperature and readout the array. Other terms are: multiplexer or black body. Units can be V=W(usedfor mux photoconductors) or V=photon (often used for Reciprocal Lattice multiplexed photodiodes) Theoretical lattice constructed from a real lattice, such Retrograde Solidus that any vector from the origin to a diffracted spot is Describes the shape of the solidus when it shrinks as normal to a particular plane in the real lattice, with the temperature is reduced. In GaAs, the increased reciprocal length of that plane spacing width of the solidus at high temperatures indicates that Recombination concentrations of Ga or As, in excess of Process whereby non-equilibrium populations of stoichiometry, can exist in the solid crystal. These electrons and holes return to their equilibrium values. concentrations must reduce as the crystal cools Depending on whether the recombination rate is because of the retrograde solidus proportional to the excess carrier density or the square Rutherford Scattering of that quantity, the processes can be referred to as Elastic scattering of electrons due to an electrostatic linear and quadratic, or alternatively as interaction with the nucleus and surrounding electrons a monomolecular and bimolecular recombination. of an atom .Formost k in order to 2 m = zone refining ions 16 ) k is less than unity and the growing crystal k on the sample surface. Thesematerial sputter under atoms investigation. from Those the thatare are passed charged into a massGDMS, spectrometer the for sputtering analysis. is In accomplisheddischarge. by SIMS a is, glow by convention,as generally dynamic, classified in that thecontinually material removed surface as layers they are areand being static, measured, in which theis ion restricted dose to less during than measurement 10 retain the surface in an essentially undamaged state The voltage induced on aa material temperature due difference to across it impurities, In growth from the meltimpurity the into incorporation the crystal of depends an ratio on of the the equilibrium solubilities ina the dilute melt solution, and this the ratio solid.equilibrium is For value given of by impurity the concentration ratiosolidus at of the and the the liquidus atThis the ratio is growth the temperature. segregation coefficient, contains a lower impurity concentrationsource than melt. in The the exploitation ofin this the fact purification has technique resulted of Quantum-mechanical rule based on wavefunctionoperator and symmetry that determines oscillatortypically strength; set by parity orconsiderations angular-momentum Growth of a single-crystal layerany in deposition a on window the without surrounding mask layer Process of forming the CIGSa or copper, CIS indium, layer and by galliumform exposing precursor the layer alloy to Se to Spontaneous formation of a layeron of a organic solid material substrate surface.place The by process immersing usually the takes substrateorganic into compound. a The solution driving of forceself-assembly the for can be chemical and/orattraction electrostatic A nonlinear process associated withrefractive nonlinearity negative that results inof spatial intense spreading light A nonlinear process associated withnonlinearity positive that refractive results in focusing of intense light Device that converts the incidentelectrical photons pulse directly into Composite materials made out ofquantum semiconductor dots embedded in organic or glass hosts A term given to semiconductors whose resistivity lies Seebeck Effect Segregation Coefficient ( Selection Rule Selective Epitaxy Selenization Self-Assembly Self-Defocusing Self-Focusing Semiconductor Detector Semiconductor Nanocrystals Semi-Insulating ) interface-induced gap states Moore’s Law 50 eV) electrons that escape from the Antiferromagnetically Coupled Media < intrinsic near sample surface, used to form topographic images Discharge Mass Spectrometry (GDMS) Mass-spectrometric techniques that are wellthe suited chemical for analysis of semiconductors.to In being addition extremely sensitive toare most quantitative impurities, and they can give valuableregarding information the distributions of concentrationsdepth. with In SIMS, high-energy primary ions are focused Partial differential equations in quantumwhich mechanics, describe how the quantumsystem state changes of with a time quantum Mask used to define theusually desired made thick-film of pattern. stainless It steel, is polyester, or nylon Method by which thick filmssubstrates. are See deposited onto (AFC) Low-energy ( Partial pressure of a substanceliquid, in so equilibrium the with partial its pressurethe is temperature determined of solely the by liquid and vapor Intensity at which the effectiveto absorption a decreases half of its initial value Maximum magnetization that a ferromagneticcan attain sample in magnetic fieldsfield larger than the coercive Resonant nonlinear process in whichdecreases with absorption an increased level of illumination Calculated reduction of integrated circuitdimensions element according to physical andprinciples engineering and constraints, as wellconsiderations as (See economic Generic term given to microscopya techniques scanned that micro use or nanoscaleproximity tip to in a immediate surface tophysical image features topography with or almost other atomicmain resolution. types are The atomic forcescanning microscopy tunneling (AFM) microscopy and (STM) Metal–semiconductor contacts are also named Schottky contacts Equates the barrier heights ofcontacts n-type with (p-type) the difference Schottky ofand the the metal electron work affinity function (ionizationsemiconductor. energy) The of rule the is incorrectconsider since the it does not

S

Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) and Glow Schrödinger Equations Screen Screen Printing Secondary Electrons Saturated Vapor Pressure (SVP) Saturation Intensity Saturation Magnetization Saturation of Absorption Scaling Scanning Probe Microscopy Schottky Contacts Schottky–Mott Rule Glossary 1486 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1487

above about 106  cm. In GaAs, semi-insulating bearing over the recording medium on the write and properties normally lie in the range of 107108  cm read heads Separate Confinement Heterojunction (SCH) Laser Sliding Boat In the SCH laser, the optical and electrical Liquid-phase epitaxy technique in which the substrate confinements are achieved separately by altering the is slid under the melt in a horizontal orientation thickness and the alloy composition of the cladding Slope Parameter layers (In perpendicular magnetic recording) The slope of Shallow-Energy-Level Dopant the magnetization Á curve at the coercive field times Doping impurities whose energy level lies very close ˛ D 4 dM dH D to the conduction or valence band for donors or H Hc acceptors Slush Shear Modulus A homogeneous charge of a ternary is held across the liquidus–solidus gap with the lower end solid, the Sometimes also called rigidity, this relates stress and strain according to Hooke’s law and is a measure of upper end liquid, and the central section in a slushy a material’s resistance to shearing stress. The shear state, during recrystallization Smectic Phase Glossary modulus, therefore, has units of pressure Liquid-crystal phase with some long-range Sheet Resistance translational order in addition to the long-range Resistivity of a semiconductor sample divided by its orientational order of a nematic. The constituent thickness, measured in =. It is commonly used by rod-like molecules are arranged in layers giving integrated circuit designers when designing translational order in one dimension resistances by specifying the number of squares Soft Underlayer (SUL) required to give a certain value of resistance Magnetically soft (low-coercivity) film underneath the Shields recording layer in a perpendicular magnetic recording Soft ferromagnetic films used to direct the flux from system. Used as a low-reluctance path for the flux a recording layer away from sensor films in a read from the write head head Solar Cell Short Wave (SW) :  Semiconductor device that converts the energy of Often used for wavelengths between 1 0and3 m. sunlight into electric energy. Also called photovoltaic The atmosphere is transparent in relatively narrow cell bands within the SW region, the most common one is Solid/Liquid/Gaseous Phase Equilibria between 2.0 and 2:25 m, although 1:5 misalso These phase equilibria are essential for understanding important, as this is the wavelength for eye-safe lasers both the various growth techniques used and the Short-Range Atomic Structure : post-growth heat treatments, i. e., cool-down after Atomic bonding structures within a scale of  0 5nm, growth and subsequent annealing stages which are characterized by coordination number (the Solid-State Recrystallization (SSR) number of nearest-neighbor atoms), bond length, and Solid-state recrystallization is a growth technique that bond angle. It is demonstrated for such simple glasses produces a homogeneous but polycrystalline charge as SiO2 that the short-range structure is nearly the that is subsequently recrystallized in the solid state to same with that in a corresponding crystal produce multi-grained material Signal Decay Rate Solidus Rate (R) at which the amplitude of a signal read back In an equilibrium phase diagram, the solidus is the from a recording system decays with time . / line below which all the components are solid A t 1 A.t0/ Solitonic Propagation of Pulses R D 100 . = / log t t0 Propagation of pulses characterized by a lack of Signal Processing in the Element (SPRITE) temporal pulse spreading A device used in the UK common module camera. It Spatial Frequency relies on a strip of CMT with a high voltage bias to Spatial frequency is the reciprocal of a spatial drift photon generated holes at the same speed as the dimension (e.g., height x or width y in image is scanned, thus resulting in an amplified signal a two-dimensional image) similar to the temporal at the end of the strip frequency, which is the reciprocal of time. However, Silicene the unit of spatial frequency is preferably expressed as A single layer of sp2-bonded Si atoms in a honeycomb line pairs=mm (lp=mm), instead of cycles=mm shape Specific Heat (Capacity) Single-Layer Organic Photoconductor Amount of heat required to change a unit mass (or A photoconductor with an architecture where the unit quantity, such as mole) of a substance by 1 degree charge-generation and charge-transport functions are in temperature combined into a single layer Spherical Aberration Slider A blurring of resolution due to the spread of path In a disk drive, the structure used to support an air lengths of rays traveling from an object to the image , V T u B k K D is the Boltzmann B is smaller than k . Between the lower = c1 L B  D  2, show perfect diamagnetism only is the absolute temperature p = T 1 is the particle volume, is the uniaxial anisotropy factor for the V u = > K L 2  p D = versus time. The rate ofsensitive such to changes the difference is between extremely temperature the glass and transition the observation temperature. Structural relaxation can be inducedannealing rapidly step, by in an which theglass-transition glass temperature for is some heated period near of its time Impurities that replace the crystal’sbase base atom’s atom lattice at position that Base material onto which aExamples film of is typical deposited. substrates includeas alumina, materials beryllia, such aluminum nitride,insulated silicon, steels, and various plastics.processes, In substrates epitaxial are normally near lattice-matched pieces of material oflarge a area sufficiently for use inprocesses, the normally various from epitaxial similar, i. growth e., common-cation, ternary systems, e.g., CdZnTeMCT for Characterized by the fact thatsuperconducting normal regions and cannot coexist inmaterials. these The value of constant, and Ratio between the species concentration and its particle, where Type II superconductors, for which  1 and the upper critical fieldsare type in II the superconductors mixed state.superconductor Magnetic via flux the enters normal the conductingflux lines cores of the Difference between the glass-transition temperature and the in-use temperature forFor a a glass-based large (small) device. supercoolingstructural temperature, relaxation the rate is low (high) Structure of repeated QWs withthe thin coupling barriers of allowing wavefunctions fromthe adjacent subsequent QWs delocalization and of the energy levels Avalanche photodiode architecture where anincorporated SL in is the carrier multiplicationthe region purpose for of reducing theexcess dark noise current factor as well as the In small ferromagnetic particles theflip magnetization from can one state toexcitation. the This opposite behavior state is under similarThe thermal to resistance a of paramagnet. the particle tocharacterized switching by is a thermal stability factor below the lower critical field Substitutional Impurities Substrate Superconductors of Type I Supersaturation Superconductors of Type II Supercooling Temperature Superlattice (SL) Superlattice Avalanche Photodiode (SL-APD) Superparamagnetism ) " Defined in elementary form as the change in length divided by the original length;the it movement can of be one thought cornerinitial of of position as a under cubic stress box from its QW layer grown on aconstant, substrate resulting with in a a different significant lattice layer strain lattice of the QW Force per unit area providedthe either flow by of gravity viscous or fluid by Strong anchoring of the directortheeasyaxisissaidtooccurwhenanappliedfieldis at a surface parallelunable to to alter the orientationsurface of but can the in director the at bulk the Essentially an aging effect associatedBecause with glasses glasses. are metastable materialsnetwork with structures, random they are inherentlyor subject long-term to changes short in materialstructural properties. relaxation Often, is manifested byspecific a volume change (densification) in at fixed temperature plane, arising from a variationa of lens the as focal a length functionlens of of distance from the center of the Read head that uses thein giant three magnetoresistive metallic effect films: aa ferromagnetic non-magnetic free spacer film, film, andpinned a film ferromagnetic The electric polarization that athe substance absence possesses of in an external electric field Compositional depth profile obtainedsurface when composition the is measured asremoved material by is sputtering. Note: inmethods some such analytical as SIMS, theaccomplished sputtering by is the often ion beamin used other for methods analysis, an but ion beam may need toProcess be in added which atoms andsample ions as are a ejected result from of the particle bombardment Device used to transfer thea thick-film screen paste and through onto the substrate Crystals are pulled from aa crucible crystal-shaped containing aperture State of a perfect compoundnumbers where of the atoms ratio of of theIn the elements GaAs, is for a example, simple stoichiometrynumber fraction. exists of when As the and the number of Ga atomsDifference are in equal energy between theemission maximum spectrum of and the the maximumspectrum of the excitation

Strained Quantum Well Stress Strong Anchoring Structural Relaxation Spin Valve Spontaneous Polarization Sputter Depth Profile Sputtering Squeegee Stepanov Technique Stoichiometry Stokes Shift Strain ( Glossary 1488 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1489

solubility limit/equilibrium concentration at a given such as As2S3, optical absorption spectra ˛ around the 2 temperature when this ratio is larger than 1 fundamental edge can be fitted as ˛„! / .„!  Eg/ , Superstrate where Eg is called the Tauc gap. The energy is often Describes the thin-film configuration where the glass used as a measure of the optical band gap, while its substrate acts as the window for solar radiation and, theoretical interpretation is not conclusive therefore, needs a TCO layer before the photovoltaic Technology Node structure can be deposited Minimum half-pitch of metal interconnect is most Surface Passivation representative of the process capability enabling Semiconductor surfaces are often electrically active high-density (low cost/function) integrated circuits and appear to be covered with a high density of and is selected to define an ITRS technology node. deep-level states. These can greatly affect the For each node, this defining metal half-pitch is taken properties of a device. Fortunately, it is often possible from whatever product has the minimum value. to treat the surface to substantially reduce this density Historically, DRAMs have had leadership on metal to values that do not affect device operation. This is pitch, but this could potentially shift to another surface passivation. In GaAs, passivation is often product in the future. Other parameters are also accomplished by covering the surface with a layer of important for characterizing IC technology. For Glossary GaAlAs (see Passivation) example, in the case of microprocessors (MPUs), Surface-Mount Devices (SMDs) physical bottom gate length is most representative of Electronic components that are attached to the surface the leading-edge technology level required for of a circuit board as opposed to having through-hole maximum performance. Each technology node step connections. They are a characteristic feature of represents the creation of significant technology a hybrid circuit progress in a metal half-pitch – approximately 70% of Susceptor the preceding node, 50% of two preceding nodes This is normally made of high-density graphite and is Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR) used to transfer the heat from the heater (possibly RF Denotes the sensitivity of a resistor material to coupling straight into the susceptor) to the substrate changes in temperature. It is usual to quote TCR in Synthetic Antiferromagnet terms of ppm per ıC Sequence of films: Tensile Strain antiferromagnet/ferromagnet/ruthenium/ferromagnet. Type of strain obtained when a strained Si layer is An example is MnFe/Co/Ru/Co. With a thin Ru film, grownonarelaxedSi1xGex layer the final ferromagnetic film is antiferromagnetically Terahertz coupled to the first ferromagnetic film. The coupling 12 between the two ferromagnetic films is characterized One terahertz is the frequency of precisely 10 ,or 3 one trillion, cycles per second. As such one terahertz by the exchange coupling parameter J12 (erg=cm or J=m3) corresponds to one thousand gigahertz and to one million megahertz: Synthetic Ferrimagnetic Media (SFM) 12 3 6 Magnetic recording media in which there are two 1THzD 10 Hz D 10 GHz D 10 MHz. A photon of frequency one terahertz has an energy of ferromagnetic layers of unequal thickness coupled by : a thin layer of ruthenium (Ru), sometimes referred to  4 14 meV and, in free space, a wavelength of exactly 299:792458 m and spatial frequency of as Pixie Dust. The two layers are : 1 antiferromagnetically coupled. The coupling between approximately 33 36 cm . Physically, therefore, the ferromagnetic films is characterized in terms of the terahertz may be described as meV or submillimeter radiation, characterized in wavenumbers by tens of antiferromagnetic coupling between the thinner layer 1 (layer 2) and Ru, and the media flux from that layer by cm . More loosley, terahertz is taken to refer to a range of frequencies around  1 Thz, a convenient an exchange magnetic field H D J ; =.M t / ex ex 2 2 2 spectral range being the two decades from 0:1to ˙ T 10 THz. In this sense, terahertz means 1012 1 Hz Ternary and Quaternary Alloys T Nonlinear Figure of Merit These are alloys containing three or four components, Figure of merit that describes the applicability of respectively. GaAlAs and GaAlAsP are examples a refractive nonlinear optical material in terms of the Thermal Budget Kerr coefficient and two-photon absorption Term describing the temperature–time product Tail States associated with an IC annealing process step. Material Localized states in the tail of band, i. e., conduction stability and morphology are typically very sensitive band and valence band, which generally have an to the annealing temperature for a period of time exponential density-of-states function Thermal Conductivity or Heat Conductivity Tandem Cell Heat flow across a surface per unit area per unit time, Cells connecting more than two unit cells divided by the negative of the rate of change of Tauc Gap temperature with distance in a direction perpendicular Tauc discovered that in many chalcogenide glasses, to the surface technique in which the melt is liquid-phase epitaxy moved over the substrate in a tipping furnace This is a somewhat unusualconduction-band effect electrons where can exist inconduction-band alternative states. In GaAs, theconduction-band lowest minimum corresponds toelectron zero momentum. The application offield an can electric excite electrons intosomewhat subsidiary greater minima energy of from whereback they to will their relax original states.the If electrons the in effective the mass subsidiary of that minima in is the greater primary than minimum,resistance negative can differential be realized. ThisGaAs, effect InP, and can certain be alloys found in A mathematical technique aimed atcomplex electromagnetic designing media (metamaterials) that allow one to control themanner. flow The of transformation light optics in approachthe a enables recreation desired of an electromagnetica phenomenon warping virtual in space asphysical an Euclidian optical space illusion in the A three-terminal device in whichbetween the two current terminals flow (called theregions) source is and controlled drain by thea voltage third applied terminal between (the gateterminals electrode) and one of the two Refers to the difference ina time charge between carrier the is moment generatedand at its one arrival at end the ofin other the time-of-flight end. sample It experiments. is In the xerography,transit primary the time result is the timetraverse for the a charge-transfer photoinjected layer carrier to Thin layer of highly conductingas the material front that contact is in used requirement thin-film of solar high cells. The optical transmissionspectral over range a is wide important tothrough allow as as possible much to sunlight the absorber layer In a magnetoresistive head, ancoupled antiferromagnetic film to the pinned filmmagnetization to of the maintain pinned the filmtransverse in to a the direction magnetization of the recording film Irregular sites in the photoconductor with localized A multiplexing technique used innetworks modern that optical allows close spacinga in single time of channel bits in TDCM is a rapid techniquemeasurement for of the electrical non-contacting resistivity inIts SI speed materials. and high spatialbe resolution used allows TDCM in to a mapping system A Transferred Electron Effect Transformation Optics Transistor Transit Time Transparent Conducting Oxide (TCO) Transverse Magnetic Bias Film Trapping Centers Time Division Multiplexing Time-Domain Charge Measurement (TDCM) Tipping ) th V Fractional change in length orfor volume a of unit a change material in temperature Nonlinear effect associated with heatingmaterials of by the intense light TSC is a useful techniqueof for deep assessing levels concentrations in high-resistivityThese semiconductors. levels are filled opticallyband with light gap above energy. the They arethe emptied sample sequentially, under with bias, asraised. the Defects sample of different temperature ionization is produce energies separate peaks in thea graph function of of current temperature as Thermally sensitive resistors that exhibitresistance a when change the in temperature iscommon altered. forms The have most a negativeresistance TCR, decreases meaning as that the the temperature increases A measure of the efficiencyconversion of of a heat material to for electricity,Seebeck determined the coefficient by and its electrical andconductivities thermal The “electrical” part of themerit, thermoelectric consisting figure of of the productSeebeck of coefficient the and square the of electrical the conductivity The collective effects involving thea conversion temperature of difference to electricity and vice versa Occurs when materials with differentand CTE used are in joined an environmenttemperature that fluctuations experiences resulting in cyclic imposedstrain, cyclic which results in damage to the joined materials Absorption of solar radiation andinfrared radiation re-emission that of is thenby converted into absorption electricity in a narrow-band gap cell Liquid crystals are those wherephase the transition to from another one occurs on changing the temperature Layer deposited onto a substratescreen by printing the process of This term is applied toan dislocations interface that and are that formed thread at layer their way into the epitaxial Voltage at which an inversion layersemiconductor forms substrate in of the an MISapplied structure. voltages For beyond this threshold,turns the on, transistor i. e., abetween conducting the channel transistor is source established andby drain, the as increase observed in drive current

Thermal Expansion Coefficient Thermal Nonlinearities Thermally Stimulated Current (TSC) Spectroscopy Thermistors Thermoelectric Figure of Merit Thermoelectric Power Factor Thermoelectricity Thermomechanical Fatigue Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) Thermotropic Thick Film Threading Dislocations Threshold Voltage ( Glossary 1490 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1491

electronic energy levels inside the band gap. Such Upper Critical Field (Bc2) sites will trap charge carriers and thus inhibit The highest magnetic field allowing the existence of electrical conduction the superconducting mixed state in the type II Traveling Heater Method superconductor considered A molten zone is made to migrate through a homogeneous solid source material Trimming V Process by which the value of thick-film elements can be adjusted. Usually achieved by using a laser or air Vacancy abrasive jet Regular lattice site from which the host atom is Tunneling Conduction missing. Anion (cation) vacancies are generally Process for charge conduction where the charge donors (acceptors) carriers pass through an energy barrier by Valence Band quantum-mechanical tunneling Highest range or band of energies in a semiconductor Tunneling Magnetoresistance (TMR) where electrons are normally present at zero

With two ferromagnetic films coupled by a thin temperature. When electrons are promoted from this Glossary insulating layer, electrons can tunnel through the band, holes are left behind that contribute to the insulating layer and the magnetoresistance coefficient electrical conductivity is given in terms of the polarization ratio for the two Vapor Growth Techniques R 2P1P2 Growth takes place via a vapor phase: particularly contacts as D  . R 1 P1P2 useful for high-melting-point materials, or those with Twin Crystal high partial pressures of one constituent, e.g. ZnS Crystal having two or more crystals or crystal sections Vapor-Phase Epitaxy (VPE) that, when regularly positioned, are in reverse position A form of epitaxy where the components of the layer relative to the other sections to be grown are transported to the substrate as a vapor. Two-Photon Absorption Decomposition of these components to produce the Nonlinear process in which a simultaneous absorption layer occurs because the substrate is heated, often on of two photons results in an electronic transition a support called a susceptor Type I Band Alignment Vegard’s Law Electrons and holes are confined within the same layer States that the lattice parameter of an alloy material is Type II Band Alignment given by the concentration weighted average of the Electrons and holes are confined in different constituents (adjacent) layers Vehicle Liquid component of the thick-film paste. Typically U contains a resin dissolved in a solvent. It is removed during the drying and firing processes Ultrafast Nonlinear Response Verneuil Technique Nonlinear response taking place in the non-absorbing Rapid growth method used for many spectral region high-melting-point materials, mainly oxides Ultra-High Vacuum (UHV) Vertical Superlattice Structure A vacuum better than 109 Torr An ideal nanostructure which enables the efficient Underfill dissociation of photogenerated excitons at the Dielectric composite organic material that is bonded donor/acceptor interfaces within the exciton diffusion between the chip and substrate of a flip-chip device to length and the transport of electrons and holes to the help mechanically interlock the chip to the substrate. respective electrodes The underfill material is typically a silica-filled Vertical Transport anhydride resin polymer Mechanisms of carrier transport parallel to the growth Uniaxial Anisotropy direction in a semiconductor quantum-confined Magnetic anisotropy along one direction in structure a ferromagnetic material and characterized by Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser (VCSEL) 3 3 a uniaxial anisotropy parameter Ku (erg=cm or J=m ) QW diode laser emitting through its top Uniform Planar Alignment semiconductor surface of the director is when the director is parallel to the Vertical-Gradient Freeze Technique surface and to a particular direction in the surface. Similar to the Bridgman method but freezing is This has also been referred to as homogeneous controlled by moving a temperature gradient along alignment a stationary crucible Unipolar Avalanche Photodiode (UAPD) V/I Boundary QWIP detector employing avalanche multiplication of Denotes the spatial location of the transition from the only one type of carrier via intra-QW impact vacancy-dominated region to the Si interstitial ionization by carrier–carrier scattering dominated region and vice versa ,the 3 S 2 1%, which  cations and the other for 1nm : . The defective bond nominally does 0 3 S 2  not exist in the correspondingspecifically crystal. in However, covalent glasses such as As Applied stress (in pounds perEnglish square system, megapascals inch or or MPa psisystem), in in under the the which metric an objectdeformation experiences plastic Time-dependent decrease in the surfaceexposure potential of with a charged OPC or quantum efficiency of supplynumber is of the surface fractional charges neutralizedphoton per absorbed Name coined by Chester Carlsonelectrophotography for using dry powder marking particles The form of energetic electromagneticwavelength, radiation of the A highly sensitive technique forconstant measuring of the crystalline lattice solids A method in which anmeasure electron the spectrometer energy is distribution used ofAuger to photoelectrons electrons emitted and from aX-ray surface photons irradiated by The X-ray sensitivity of athe photoconductive collected detector charge is per unitradiation area per unit exposure of A method for sampling theX-rays diffraction from condition of a surface inlattice order constant. The to X-rays observe are changessurface scanned in and over the an image isfraction built diffracted up at from a changes particularlattice in angle. constant the Changes resulting from in straincomposition or can changes be in imaged in this way bond exists with a concentration of depends upon preparation methods, and so forth Comprises two interpenetrating close-packed hexagonal lattices, one for anions. Each anion (cation) hasnearest four neighbors. cation In (anion) principle, diffusionanisotropic should but be the meagre evidenceindicates available only slight effects Homo-polar bonds in stoichiometric glasses,As–As in such As as Y X Yield Strength Xerographic Discharge Xerographic Gain Xerography X-Ray X-Ray Diffraction X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) X-Ray Sensitivity X-Ray Topography Wurtzite Structure Wrong Bond states m) virtual of g solutions impurity states in the bulk, as well real surfaces and interfaces, respectively, real Crystal-Originated Particle (COP) is the source of Figure of merit that describesa the refractive applicability nonlinear of optical materialnonlinear in index terms change of and linear absorption Weakly bound electron–hole pairs A multiplexing technique used innetworks modern that optical involves sending manyparallel signals at in closely spaced wavelengthsfiber along the same Large-angle grain boundaries in cuprate superconductors, which act as barrierssupercurrents for the Devices where the layers arepolymeric coated support on and an subsequently insulating a fashioned loop into Process where a thin wiremade (can of be Au less or than Alintegrated 25 is circuit bonded and to then the tothe surface a package of pad an or a leadframe in The energy (usually measured inneeded electron to volts) remove an electrona from solid the to Fermi outside level the in surface Ratio of the magnetic fieldmagnetomotive times force the (turns write times gap current) tocoil in the the write Region in a write headfields that that generates couple the to magnetic theCharacterized recording by medium. the gap length Schrödinger’s equation for complex wavethe vectors energy in gap. The continuum of these Mutual annihilation between vacancies andinterstitials Si The virtual gap states are the as of surface states andstates the at interface-induced gap In magnetic recording, the ferromagneticto generate device magnetic used fields fromswitch current the that state can of themedium. magnetization In in disk the drives, recording themade ferromagnetic using device thin is films provided the corresponding boundary conditionsconsidered are See

W

W Nonlinear Figure of Merit Wannier Exciton Wavelength Division Multiplexing Weak Links Web Photoreceptors Wire Bonding Work Function Write Efficiency Write Gap VI Recombination Virtual Gap States Write Head Void Glossary 1492 Glossary of Defining Terms Glossary of Defining Terms 1493

Young’s Modulus face-centered cubic (fcc) lattices, one for the cations Ratio of a simple tension stress applied to a material and the other for anions. Each anion (cation) has four to the resulting strain parallel to the tension. anion (cation) nearest neighbors. Diffusion is isotropic Therefore, Young’s modulus has units of pressure Zone Refining Technique used to repeatedly pass zones of molten Z material through a solid bar in order to purify it, either for use directly in applications or to produce pure Zincblende Structure starting materials, e.g., elements for compound A crystal structure that has two interpenetrating semiconductors Glossary 1495

Subject Index

 band 1461 activation energy 198, 252, 446, – optical phonon frequency 750  band 1461 1117 – phonon dispersion spectrum 750  bond 1461 active – thick film technology 710 -electron delocalization 1299 – component 714 alternating current (AC) 196, 221, – stacking 1335 – material 1461 490, 612, 660 2-D electron gas (2DEG) 40 –region 1333 alumina 2DEG electronic 104 active matrix – materials 710 2DEG heterostructure 40 – addressing 952, 1461 – self-ordered porous 1021 – array (AMA) 1125 – thick film substrate 710 A – flat-panel imager (AMFPI) 1125, aluminum nitride 764 1126 ambipolar diffusion length 160 Abbe number 79, 81, 1084, 1461 – organic light-emitting diode ammonia sensor 1283 abrasive trimming 715 (AMOLED) 1111 amorphous actuator 718, 1170, 1207 – -crystalline boundary 1150 absolute constant photocurrent Index Subject method (ACPM) 157 Adam-Gibbs (AG) 441 –GST 1156 absorptance 159 adhesive – magnet 86 absorption 74, 900 – interconnects, rework 1326 – metal oxides 1461 –rate 901 – interlayer 981 –network 1461 – isotropic 1326 – organic semiconductor 1117 absorption coefficient 222, 1461 advanced Compton telescope (ACT) – oxide semiconductor 1117 – amorphous semiconductor 562 863 – phase GST alloy 1152 – direct 684 Advanced Storage Technology – polymer 434 – effective 1083 Consortium (ASTC) 1220 – semiconducting film 1111 – indirect 684 aerogel 640 – silicon (a-Si:H) 558 –Tauc 684 Ag 1081 – silicon-germanium alloy 163 – Urbach 685 Aharonov–Bohm effect 1167 – -to-crystalline transition 674 AC conductivity 221 air mass (AM) number 1461 amorphous film 670, 674 AC Josephson effect 1232 air-bearing 1186 – electronic properties 1112 accelerated crucible rotation Al2O3 635 – metallic 675 technique (ACRT) 274, 343, 346, AlGaAs 7 amorphous selenium 1461 AlGaN 7, 11 – avalanche detector structure 1131 accelerometer 718 AlInGaP 7 – carrier multiplication 1131 acceptor 1461 alkali halide 273 – effective hole drift mobility 1132 – -bound exciton (ABE) 769 all-optical switch 1461 – hole impact ionization coefficient – concentration 1461 alloy 1132 – dopant 137 – composition interpolation scheme – impact ionization coefficient – doped material 257 726 1131 – doped oxide defect diagram 257 – disorder scattering 41 – multilayer pin-type detector 1130 – doping 359 – group III–V 729 amorphous semiconductor 59, 151, – impurity 250 – group I–VII 729 557, 970, 1086, 1118, 1461 –level 1461 – semiconductor optical spectra – absorption coefficient 561 – molecule 1335 738 – conduction band 558 AC-conductivity, relationship to AlN (aluminum nitride) 829, 844 – electrical conductivity 565 imaginary susceptibility 221 – electron transport 841 – electrical properties 565 accumulation 1461 – free-exciton energy 780 – electronic state 558 acoustic-phonon scattering 507 – material parameter 833 – Hall effect 565 ACRT/THM 276 – mechanical property 749 – light-induced phenomena 567 353, 162 634 310, 597 171, 1288 , 911 6 445 414 97 318 928 1259 414 986 876, 1270, 414 258 1462 790 1202 929 728, 986 443 418 , 214 133 1178, 910 423 375 467 514 108 32 415 414 431 1052 986 414 646, 415, 415 1462 1462 371 458, eneration 579, 413, 365, 1050 g 317, attempt frequency attempt-to-escape frequency attenuated total reflection (ATR) audio–video equipment Auger – depth profiling – electron – hardware – instrument calibration –map – quantitative analysis – spectrum Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) – surface sensitivity Auger recombination – nonradiative Aurivillius crystal structure auto exhaust sensor autocatalytic (AC) model auto-compensation avalanche – breakdown –growthrate atomically flat surfaces – – mixing – vibration atomic layer epitaxy (ALE) atom diffusion atomic – force microscopy (AFM) – layer deposition (ALD) – photodetector (APD) avalanche photodiode (APD) – unipolar average –grainsize – hopping time – positron lifetime AV- M R A M Avogadro number Avrami exponent azo compound – electrophotographic – photosensitivity –pigment 105 529, 888 683, 660 1373 1131 1202 314 680, 595 1367 107 1198 1462 96 1462 249 663 676 229, 163 1462 632, 1462 1194 981 1314 1112 1354 1191, 1462 1462 1239 663 1020 941 282 1235 1061 95 139, 134, 1335 1462 112, 164 254 1216 1203 :H film 3 x Te 2 684 1202, 1068 1462 glass 1315 aspect ratio association energy astigmatism astroid A-swirl asymmetric transmission asymmetric-AC sputtering anti-site defect apparent band gap narrowing – dielectric – parameter – uniaxial annealing anodic oxide film anodisation anti-curl layer anti-ferroelectric anomalous Hall effect (AHE) antiferromagnetic – film pinning – insulator – spin configuration antiferromagnetically coupled (AFC) –media antiferromagnetism antimonide anti-reflection coating as-deposited film a-Se avalanche detector a-SiN Arrhenius–Néel model arsenic selenide arsenic-based material As artificial –design – magnetic conductor – magnetism arrayed-waveguide grating (AWG) Arrhenius – equation – relation – temperature dependence, inorganic array package – physical property of material array via-hole type structure application magnetic areal density 580 , 210 64 98 155, 566 573 565 560 683 561 582 259 1462 561 563 1113 558 75 1462 573 898 1291 197 573 566 558 574 1462 1388 1327 577 1462 1291 1462 1193 1118 1334, 1326 385, 748 574, 95 158 1111 89 1462 1102, otropy s

578, (AEM) (ADX) 1192 (AECA) 1112 1112

ani – magnetoresistance (AMR) anharmonicity anion anisotropic – conductivity – electrically conductive adhesives – structural properties – thermoelectric power – optical properties – photoluminescence – photoluminescence spectra – stationary photoconductivity – valence band amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) –axis –biaxial amplitude reflectance amperometric sensor – charge transfer – sensitivity amphiphilic amphoteric dopants amplifier, optical AMR effect analytical electron microscope – drift mobility – electrical conductivity – electronic material properties – electronic transport properties –growth – growth process – sputtered – structural model –TFT amphotericity – alloy – dangling-bond-defect – dangling-bond-defect density – device applications – device-grade – hydrogenated – optical properties Anderson model Anderson’s criteria angle of deviation angular dispersive x-ray diffraction

Subject Index 1496 Subject Index Subject Index 1497

B barrier energy 233 blocking temperature 1195, 1463 barrier height 1463 blue LED 325 B2I complex 126 – BEEM 179 Bode plot 243 Babinet principle 1366 – effective 177 Bohr magneton 88 back end of line (BEOL) 639, 1462 – flat-band 179 Boling’s relation 1084 background-limited –IPEYS 180 bolometer 1345 – detectors 870 – slope parameters 182 Boltzman–Matano analysis 140 – device performance 875 basal stacking fault (BSF) 776 Boltzmann – performance (BLIP) 1463 battery, high energy density 261 – constant 57 backscattered electron (BSE) 389, BCS theory 1230 –equation(BE) 1463 1463 beam – transport equation 29, 37, 491, Baldereschi concept 1463 – deflection 1119 830, 831 ballistic – effective pressure ratio 1463 bombarding particles primary 423 – conductance 1167 – quality 919 bond – electron 38 Beer–Lambert law 222 – angle 625 – electron emission 834 Beilby overlayer 72 – arrangement 627 –SWNT 1167 bend deformation 942 – energy hierarchy 1155 – transport 1169 bend elastic constant 943 – failure 1315 ballistic-electron-emission Bernal stacked graphene 1177 – length 625 microscopy (BEEM) 176, 179, beryllia, thick film technology 710 – switching 568 1463 Index Subject BI complex 126 – variation 627 band biaxial elastic modulus 1112 borate 289 – alignment 1463 BICUVOX 261 boro-phosphosilicate glass (BPSG) –diagram 624 biexciton 779 1069 – filling 1463 bilayer graphene (BLG) 1177 borosilicate crown 80 – mobility 1114 bi-layered metamolecule 1359 Bose–Einstein distribution 57, 773 –offset 623, 1463 BIMEVOX 254 bottom shield 1214 – structure 1099, 1102 bimolecular recombination 978 boule 1463 – tail states 208 binary bound exciton (BE) 769 band gap 486, 632, 634, 1463 – alloy, solid solution 26 –GaN 774 –bowing 929 – endpoint 731 boundary effect 456 – engineering 524, 1037, 1463 – parameters 726 bovine serum albumin (BSA) 1296 – narrowing 58 bioluminescence 997 bowing parameter 733 – structure, graded 137 bio-sensors, nanotube based 1170 band gap energy 53, 726 bipolar – group III–V ternaries 733 – cubic group III–V ternaries 735 – junction transistor (BJT) 474, Bragg – group III–V binaries 733, 735 497, 1178 – condition 914 – group III–V quaternaries 735 – magnetic junction 104 – grating 1014 – group III–V ternaries 733 – transistor 473, 523 – mirrors 915 – temperature-insensitive 543 biquadratic exchange 86, 99 Bragg’s law 1463 band-edge modulated films 569 birefringence 948, 960 branch point 176 band-pass filter 684 birefringent crystals 1463 branch-point energy 182 band-splitting 905 bisazo compound 986 Bravais lattice 1463 band-stop filter 684 bis-polycarbonate (Lexan) 211 break junction technique 1273 band-structure, MUTIS structure bistable switching 1271 breakdown 624 188 bit aspect ratio (BAR) 1215 Bremsstrahlung 1463 bandtailing 58 bit error rate (BER) 1213 Brewster angle 71 band-to-band bit-patterned 1185 Bridgman 273, 379 – absorption 56, 65 black-body distribution 1098 –crystal 347 – tunneling 877, 927 black-body emission 997 –growth 286, 378, 1464 bandwidth 875 blended junction 1330, 1333 – method 274 barium strontium titanate (BST) Bloch oscillation 1046 – process 285, 345 637 Bloch wave 20 – technique 281, 283 Barkhausen noise 90 blocking layer 982 Brillouin scattering 1087 677 386, 214 734, 493 492 631 1464 491 408 622, 877 1303 1137 213 213 910 734 317 507 152, 564 145 693 351, 907 1114 37 1118 653 1047 739 460 1164 698 151, 1116 692, 1464 152, 912 248, 168 279 1464 1464 676, 152 997, 345 1081 2 As elf-diffusion 3 775, TEM investigation 1464 1464 283, 918 1464 463 s cation – cathodoluminescence/correlated – range – recombination – relaxation – scattering – temperature – transport –trap – tunneling – velocity, microscopic carrier mobility – diffusion picture – effective – modulation – nanotube – time-dependent carrier–carrier scattering carrier–lattice scattering cascaded second-order materials cast recrystallize anneal (CRA) catalyst catastrophic breakdown catastrophic optical damage (COD) cathodoluminescence (CL) – concentration, direct determination – confinement – density – depletion current – distribution function – drift mobility – drift mobility calculation – effective mass – leakage – lifetime cavitand compound Cd – morphological characteristics Cd-based compound semiconductor CdHgTe growth Cd-rich film CdS –film CdSe film CdTe:Sn 678 623, 636 1464 1464 690 619, 1169 ) 671 1133 638 V 231 1165 – 1392, C ) characteristic 594, 968 162 f 1282 1227 – 1164 349 1199 1165 468 219 691, 464 V 468 1169 – 1295 C 1362 713 220 1165 602 1165 1191, 468 466, 637 1046 1464 636 126 1173 1164 er C capture 1464 231 1114 639 60 – – concentration C capacitance–voltage ( – transducer – flatband – silicon surface – method cadmium compound film cadmium zinc telluride – definition – equivalent thickness (CET) cadmium chalcogenide – morphological characteristics calamitic calcination canonical ensemble – configuration entropy fluctuations – thermal fluctuations cap layer growth capacitance – charge storage – –frequency ( carri – measurement capacitor dielectric – ferroelectric material – non-volatile memory applications – scaling capture coefficient carbon – doping – monoxide (CO) – overcoat carbon nanotube – catalysts – dimensionality – symetries –DRAM –thickfilm – electronic structure – semiconductor Carlson, Chester F. Carnot efficiency carpet cloak – field-emission display – interconnect 375 835 696 620 1001, 922 685 458 1263 694, 280 833 1464 462 781 628 485, 831 836 98 669 455 1333 269, 834 1170 255 1464 358 883 1408 976 477 1466 454, 730, 685 474, 344 115 627 1464 1343 , point defect 2 2

1298 100 1464 1014, 891 908 1387

Brillouin zone (BZ) Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) Bruno quantum interference model B-swirl bubble technology buckministerfullerene broken bonds Brooks–Herring (BH) formula Brownmillalite bucky materials buffer chamber broadband sensitizer bulk – concentration –crystalgrowth – defects – electron – film, dielectric constant –growth – heterojunction – -limited conduction – nanostructured thermoelectric – resistivity –SiO – crystal growth, vapor phase – crystal structure – heterostructure device – hole concentration – material conductivity – modulus –SiO bulk wurtzite GaN – band structure burst-illumination LIDAR (BIL) BWO – spreading resistance – material parameter Burstein–Moss shift bulk semiconductor – electron transport – valley occupancy – velocity-field characteristic buried heterostructure (BH) laser buried junction – space charge

Subject Index 1498 Subject Index Subject Index 1499

CdTe-based compound 316 – titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc) 646, 663, 856, 1024, 1062, 1102, central processing unit (CPU) 1186 985 1165, 1175, 1285, 1464 centro-symmetric 1464 – trisazo pigment 985 – vapor transport (CVT) 284, 365 ceramic 98, 1016 – UFSq 985 chemical sensor – actuator, piezoelectric 608 charge generation material – polymer 1297 – capacitor 595 – aggregate 986 –thickfilm 719 – fabrication 601 – chlorodiane blue 986 chemically assisted ion beam etching – laser ablation 606 – fluorenone bisazo pigment 986 (CAIBE) 405 – materials, thick film technology – hydroxygallium phthalocyanine chemiluminescence 997 710 (HOGaPc) 987 chip scale optic (CSO) 13 – q-DC behaviour 241 chip scale packaging (CSP) 13 – metal-free phthalocyanine (H2Pc) cermet (ceramic/metallics) 708, 987 chiral 1464 – dopant 937 – perylene diimide 986 cermet thick film 712 – metamaterial 1353, 1358 – squarylium pigment 988 – resistors 718 – metamolecule 1359 – titanyl phthalocyanine (TiOPc) chalcogenide glass 155, 557, 561, – nanotube diameter 1165 987 1088, 1464 – nematics 937, 1465 charge transport 193, 211, 972 – band gap 564 – smectic C phase 938 – dark conductivity 564, 567 – disordered materials 193 chirality 107, 937, 1358 – drift mobility 564 – limited range 219 chromatic aberration 1465

– optical property 564 – localized states 203 circuit Index Subject – PL spectra 564 – phenomena 513 – element interconnection 617 chalcogenide-based superlattice charge transport layer (CTL) 970, – fanout 618 1160 981, 982, 988, 991 –inverter 618 characteristic temperature 913 – electron transport 988 – NAND gate 618 characterization techniques 454 – glass-transition temperature 988 – response delay time 617 characterizing functional activity – inhomogeneous 982 – semiconductor 462 403 – organic photoreceptor 988 circular dichroism 1358 charge charge-blocking layer 991 cleanliness 329 – area development 969 – electron transport 983 cleave and stain 1465 – collection 152 charge-coupled device (CCD) 395, close-space sublimation (CSS) 855, – density difference (CDD) 1152 454, 863, 876, 1005 1105 – pumping (CP) 469, 472 charge-generation layer (CGL) closure domain 93 – storage, real susceptibility 221 970, 982, 983, 985, 991 cluster 138 – transfer (CT) exciton 1332 – bisazo compound 986 CMOS – transfer complex 977, 1166 – material 984 –device 1267 – trapping 972 – perylene 986 – gate stack 622 charge carrier 1234 – photoreceptor 983 – soft error 1321 – drift mobility 213 – phthalocyanine 987 – technology 617, 1321 – effective mass 1239 coating – trisazo compound 986 – mobility 196, 198 – anti-reflection 680, 683 chemical – relaxation kinetic 213 – conformal 717 – annealing 578 charge generation 977 Coats–Redfern–Sestak plot 446 – bath deposition (CBD) 1105 – amorphous material 978 coclose-spaced sublimation (CCSS) – bisbenzimidazole perylene 985 – beam epitaxy (CBE) 334 858 – CT complex 985 –diffusion 136 Co-Cr-Pt alloy 1208 – fluorenone bisazo 985 – mechanical polishing (CMP) 640 code rate (CR) 1213 – impact ionization 513 – self-diffusion 136, 145 codeposited layer 1333 – intrinsic 987 –sensing 1282 codoping 788 – layer (CGL) 981, 983 –shift 416 – with nitrogen 123 – Onsager model 978 – solution deposition (CSD) 605 coefficient of thermal expansion – PVK–TNF 985 – transformation 441 (CTE) 1112, 1315, 1465 – sensitized 987 – vapor deposition (CVD) 139, coercive field 90, 98, 591, 1192, – thiapyrylium dye 985 156, 295, 372, 404, 523, 573, 636, 1465 313 1465 898, 397 1466 1231 1088 799, 800 180 353 1380, 982 1407 1466 1195 1466 1233 272 440 1466 1466 616 943 1196 ) 711 1466 459 99 944 447 f 970, 1244 1286 1196 62, 1229, 1167 396 1233, 1230 305 305 969 75 188 204 181 spectroscopy (PES) 1073 (CCZ) 1214 (CBED) (CCZ) 1212 rrelation factor ( o corona discharge corona-discharge poling corotron c core-level shift, adatom induced corona charging coordination number copper thick film core multishell (CMS) core-level photoemission continuous-charging Czochralski continuous-granular-composite continuum theory – chiral nematic convection control conventional DSC – total heat flow conventional TEM (CTEM) convergent beam electron diffraction converse piezoelectric effect conversion efficiency – ratio – semiconductor container-free LPE (CFLPE) continuous Czochralski method continuous wave (CW) – coherence length – collective wave function – density Cooper pair corrosion propensity cost per transistor Cotterell atmosphere Coulomb – blockade –gap – interaction coupled granular continuous (CGC) – recording media coupling constant coupling field coverage ratio criteria for precursors critical – angle – current 558 208 1297 900, 442 974 1065 1465 1465 56, 1298 460 1465 736 1281, 211, 690 717 199 558 740, 459 247 20 21 982, 488 1391, 686 1167 686 1113 436 1298 690 34 737 255 1327 19, 42 604 59 566, 42 1326 435, 460 248 253 1465 559 ickfilm h 1465 237 157, 1083, conduction (CHCC) 910 911 constant current (CC) configuration coordinate model configuration entropy fluctuation conformal coating conjugated polymer constant photocurrent method (CPM) constant ratio (CR) cycle contact resistance – direct measurement – model – amorphous semiconductor – deformation – electrode-limited conduction–hole–conduction– conduction–hole–spin–hole (CHSH) conductive layer – density of states – potential energy conduction mechanism – bulk-limited – effective mass – anisotropic – electrical – ionic –t – film thickness conductor – ionic – ionic-electronic – layer-by-layer – mixture rule – oxygen ion – relaxation time – temperature dependence – group III–V binary conductivity mass – tail states conduction band (CB) – quantized – metallic-type – conductivity conduction – electron – mean free path conditional glass former conducting polymer conductivity ) 350  348, 1465 S 620, 1465 1252 665, , 7 347, 1240 1465 1074, 406 616, 1321, 904, 1239, 1054 373 373 406 729 939 99 387, 225 153 367 280 523, 142, 120 616 1284, 1233, 676 1465 447 457 255 1239 454, 595 , 1267, 6 616 1089 1239 1465 1247 1465 1465 1164, 144 1465 2 pton scattering

m 1465 876, 1345, conductivity 1006 metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) 137, 351, (CARR) 1465 1465

compound semiconductor – crystal properties – MOCVD technique compressive strain – quality of epilayers compressive stress Co computer modeling computing power concentration quenching complex – Fermi wavevector – heat capacity – perovskite compliance constant composite material, ionic – phase, rectangular commercial crystal compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) comparison of LPE techniques color glass – phase complementary characterization – electronic material – optolectronic material complementary – out-of-plane cohesive energy colloidal quantum dot columnar – grain structure Cole–Cole function collinear probe compositional interdiffusion (CID) compositional uniformity compound annual reduction rate coherence length – cuprate superconductor – iron-based superconductor –MgB – in-plane coercive squareness parameter (

Subject Index 1500 Subject Index Subject Index 1501

– current definition 1241 crystalline enthalpy 439 – pseudogap 1237 – dopant concentration 127 crystalline material – upper critical fields 1239 –field 1466 – non-centrosymmetric 589 Curie temperature 90, 229, 591, – field, metallic superconductor – properties 589 1188 1229 crystalline polymer Curie Weiss temperature 592 – fluctuations 1466 – thermal conductivity 434 current confinement 908 – magnetic field 1208 crystalline semiconductor 62, 565 current noise measurement, – thickness 1466 – Hall effect 565 high-impedance devices 477 critical (transition) temperature – optical absorption 62 current perpendicular to the plane 1466 – thermoelectric power 565 (CPP) 1466 critical current density 1241 crystalline silicon 562, 1100 current-in-plane (CIP) 1192, 1466 – anisotropy 1241 – intrinsic mobility 501 current-perpendicular-to-plane (CPP) – iron-based superconductor 1250 – phonon modes 492 1192 –MgB film 1246 – room-temperature mobility 501 2 current–voltage (C–V) – polycrystalline cuprate – structural model 558 – characteristic 1099, 1231 superconductor 1242 crystallization – measurement 470 critical temperature 1226 – kinetics 443 – measurement, low-frequency 469 – dependence on hole concentration – temperature 425 1238 c-Si 560 Czochralski (CZ) 112, 271, 297, – epitaxial strain 1245 c-Si:H 495

– iron-based superconductor 1226, – dangling-bond-defect 573 – growth with an applied magnetic Index Subject 1248, 1251 – dangling-bond-defect density field (MCZ) 304 – metal 1226 580, 582 – method 297, 495 – molecular superconductor 1226 – device applications 582 – pulling procedure 299 – oxide 1226 – device-grade 574 – technique 4 – ultrathin film 1244 – epitaxial-like crystal growth 579 Czochralski (CZ) crystal cross Kelvin resistor (CKR) 460 –film 579 – growth condition 301 cross-luminescence 1010 – formation 577 – seed-end portion 301 crosstalk 884 –growth 573, 577, 579 Czochralski (CZ) silicon 301 – long range 881 CT exciton 1332 – carbon 303 cross-track 1211 cubic anisotropy 95 –crystal 300 cryopanel 330, 332, 1466 cubic III–V binary 737, 738 – crystal growth sequence 300 crystal – compliance constant 729 – crystal impurity 301 – clear project 1010 – elastic stiffness 729 – dislocation-free 305 – Debye heat capacity 426 cubic III–V ternary 735 – doping 303 – density 727 cubic perovskite 1406 – impurity 303 – field splitting 999 CuGaSe 164 2 – oxygen 303 –inR&D 280 CuO planes 1234 2 – property 299 – ionic 51 cuprate superconductor 1234, – striation 302 – key parameters 440 1249, 1250 –swirl 302 – neckingless method 306 – carrier concentration 1242 – originated particle (COP) 115, – characteristic length scales 1239 Czochralski and liquid encapsulated 1466 – common features 1234 Czochralski (LEC) growth 1466 – phonon concentration 427 – critical current density 1241 – properties 367 – critical temperature 1238 D – structure 669 – crystal structure 1236 D–A heterojunction 1330 crystal growth 270 –CuO2 planes 1235 – hydrothermal method 377 – doping 1234 damping relaxation time 225 – piezoelectric 601 –energygap 1236 dangling bond 580, 628, 1466 – striations 302 –film 1245 – a-Si:H 580 – transport agent 375 – grain boundaries 1243 – defect 573, 580 crystal structure – hole concentration 1238 – light-induced creation 568 – iron-based superconductor 1248 – in-plane strain 1245 DAP transition 777 –MgB2 1246 – lattice parameters 1237 dark conductivity 210, 567 347 524 874 868 949 295 871, 941, 619 619 573 1354 868 874 ) 874 636 2 1467 573 1467 874 474 357 868, 240 1467 Cl 156 97, 636, 713 2 272 615 619, 882 999 573 928 720, 615 96, 1065, 138 74, 1389, 617 133 c-Si:H 1154 225 97 234 594, 182  138, 243 612 1016 601, 1086 190, 352 675 231 1201 114, tructure (DTGS) 88, s 869 619 – status device – characteristics – degradation – dimensions – optical – performance – photovoltaic – – diffusion-limited – indium antimonide (InSb) – internal gain – materials engineering (DME) – multiple quantum well (MQW) – photoconductive – polycrystalline PbS – white noise current – zero bias resistance deuterated triglycerine sulfate Dieke diagram dielectric – band gap – capacitor – contrast – DC conductivity – dispersion –film –loss – materials properties – modulus – paste thick film – permittivity – relaxation – permittivity relative – quantum mechanical tunneling – simulation diamagnetic diamagnetism diameter control diamond structure diamond thin film diamond-like lattice structure dibit dichlorosilane (SiH – technology – under test (DUT) device-grade a-Si:H device-grade DFT (density-functional theory) devitrification 88, 59, 735, 42, 1210 915 1005 96 486, 1176, 25, 1114 648 662 647 1210 1370 1114 1243 1202, 1467 435, 645 345 196 1137, 1230 874 618 162 466 465, 1156 1230 195, 877 426 674 1467 1114, 1467 647 1467 1467 1389 1467 1467 155, deposition 691, 897 623 1467 1467 1467 653 190, 1113, 152, ion et 114, 61, 736, 117 1467 1197, multiplexing (DWDM) 1142, 874 density of states (DOS) density size distribution of voids density-functional theory (DFT) depl –mass – normal state – vibrational density of tail states – conduction band tail – single-electron density functional theory (DFT) demagnetizing field delocalised states demagnetization energy demagnetizing factor dendritic structure Dennard scaling dense wavelength-division – doping profile deposition – parameter –rate deposition method – chemical deposition – physical detailed balance –thinfilm destabilisation detection efficiency – vacuum evaporation depth –offield – of focus – profiling – resolution designer metasurface detection phase sensitive detective quantum efficiency (DQE) detectivity detector – background-limited performance – cooldown time – effect –region depletion layer 1466 428, 477 1467 1393 1139 1387 1114, 1204 433 478 427, 1039 491 736, 427 239 209 789, 225 1136, 24, 1288 1231 731 225, 1466 979 979 426 559, 1466 198 606 427 119 1467 1089 255 696 886 426, 1467 1333 152 257 116 979, 137 914 1202 469, 1129 1466 425, 1283, plitting 254 624 971 986 1383 e silicon

dependence 755, (DLTS) 1466 fre

DEH – orientation defective – solid deformation potential – parameters deformational phonon degradation in overwrite – free zone – interaction degenerate semiconductor – hierarchical structuring Debye temperature – exponential decay dead region Debye – frequency – heat capacity DC hopping DC sputtering de Broglie wavelength – length – theory Debye response – molar heat capacity DBR laser DC conductivity temperature – characteristic –rate data rate Davydov s dark current – activation – in x-ray detectors dark decay – photoreceptor – III–V binaries – phonon concentration decay rate decoration deep localized states deep trap deep-energy-level impurities deep-level transient spectroscopy – averaging techniques – electrical characterization –chemistry – equilibria – defect

Subject Index 1502 Subject Index Subject Index 1503

– reliability 631 diffusion dip-pen nanolithography (DPN) – response function 226 – anneal 139 1270 – scaling 618 – coefficient 139, 513 dipping 1468 – spacer layer 636 – current 877 – boat 311 – susceptibility 221 – dopant 143 –cycle 666 –thickfilm 604 – hot-carrier 513 – reactors 350 – thickness 636 – isoconcentration 136 – techniques 349 dielectric constant 48, 491, 617 – length 873, 1333, 1468 Dirac cone 1159 – conductivity contribution 493 – mechanisms 134 direct – cubic III–V binaries 738 – recombination enhanced 138 – alloy growth (DAG) 354 – effective 32 – semiconductor 133 – -bandgap energy 743 – optical 737 – short-circuit path 138 – bandgap semiconductor 327 – static 501 – source 139 – chip attach (DCA) 1321 – substrate 710 – tracer concentration flux 136 – current (DC) 196, 219, 455, 486, – wurtzite III–V binaries 738 – transient enhanced 137 567, 606, 660, 718, 1218 dielectric constant/susceptibility – velocity 877 – gap semiconductors 562 (DC/DS) 1467 diffusion coefficient 134, 1468 – photo CVD 573 dielectric increment 231, 235 – measurement 139 – piezoelectric effect 1468 – correlation length 236 diffusion-induced disorder 137 director 935, 940, 948, 1468 – dynamic scaling 236 diffusion-limited detectors 357 – distribution 935 ujc Index Subject – temperature dependence 231 diffusivities of vacancies and Si – orientation, optical properties 950 – thermally activated 230 interstitials 114 – reorientation, threshold voltage dielectric material 617, 1467 949 digital copying 967 – energy barrier 624 discharged area development 969 digital packaging 1313, 1315 – microelectronic device 615 disc-like molecule 939 – thermal performance 1326 – polarizability 619 discotic 1468 digital printing 967, 969, 1468 dielectric relaxation – liquid crystal 940 digital signal processor (DSP) 85 – self similar scaling 240 – nematic 939 digital versatile disk (DVD) 557, – time 169 dislocation 670 898, 1158 dielectric response – density 755 dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) 598 – basic feature 222 –misfit 525 dilute magnetic semiconductor – basic macroscopic definition 220 – threading 525 (DMS) 104, 106, 286 – correlated dynamics 243 disorder dilute nitrides 917 –element 241 – model 976, 989, 1468 – low frequency 240 dimensional scaling – potential 197 – physical concept 219 – capacitor dielectric 636 – static 61 dielectrics 275 diode 177, 454, 714 disordered conductor 251 dielectric–semiconductor interface – sputtering 658 disordered ionic conduction 193 629 dip coating 982 disordered material 193, 1117 diethylzinc (DEZ) 373 dipolar fluctuation 223 – charge transport 198 differential heat flow 440 dipole – DC conductivity 197 differential quantum efficiency 909 – disorder model 975 – electrical conductivity 200 differential scanning calorimeter – field orientation 228 – electron mobility 207 (DSC) 425, 440 – fluctuation 225, 229 – electron transport 201 differential scattering 1197 –glass 229, 235 – extended states 198 – cross section 21 – oscillator model 53 – hopping charge transport 200 diffraction 1468 – permanent 243 – transport phenomena 195 – electron 401 dipole density fluctuation 228, 242 disordered organic material 212 – limit 1357 – relaxation rate 231 – carrier mobility 212 –loss 1017 dipole moment 220 – charge transport 211 diffusant – effective 230 – hopping conductivity 212 – concentration 139, 140 dipole relaxation 239 disordered semiconductor 151, – model 140 – fractal time processes 239 1112 – profiling 139 – self energy description 239 – AC conductivity 196 32 1469 1266 949 715, 1469 1469 1267 273, 981 172, 915 427 ) 1469 790, C 32 1335 1186, 1325 901 284 1468 1235 418 230 1117 1216, 134, 329 1469 636, 1469 96 95, 876 1192 332 347 1204, 735 881 23 21 1116, 684 620, 94, 1088, 1469 1395, 1469 557 608, center E 102 interaction 1312 888 287 layer 606, 0 dual-in-line-package (DiP) – resistance – SIMS (DSIMS) dynamical mean field theory (DMFT) Dzyaloshinski–Moriya exchange dual-layer photoreceptor dual-waveband detector (DWB) Dulong–Petit rule (DP) Durham technique DVD d-wave symmetry dye-sensitized solar cell dynamic – coercivity – impedance – random-access memory (DRAM) E E easy axis ECA metal particle ECB cell transmission curve eddy current edge filter edge-defined film growth edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG) edge-emitting laser – elliptical beam profile edge-on orientation effective – dielectric constant – dipole moment – hole mass –mass – media approximation (EMA) – mobility – resistivity – scattering effusion cell effusion sources Einstein coefficient Einstein relation Ekman flow EL(2) elastic – compliance constant ( 549, , 549 9 215 908 972, 508 212 1468 1355 637 1243 503 490 518 971, 473 1170 983 790 486 981, 167 495, 715 169, 355 1218 470 972 1468 20, 546 621 440 359 466 883 1129 493, 883 313 55 1303 602 349, e-of-flight 158 1468 (DPI) 1468 (DCXRD) 1355 heterostructure (DCPBH) 898 316, (DLPH) tim dual-band device dual-in-line (DIL) Drude – approximation (DA) –formula – model drum photoreceptor – insulating material drying DSC cell – heat-flux dual beam photoconductivity (DBP) dual layer organic photoconductor dual polarization interferometric drift velocity – electric field relationship drift-diffusion relation drive current drift measurement drift mobility DRAM planar capacitor double-negative medium drain depletion region drain resistance – concentration dependence – effective – temperature dependence – DOS spectroscopy DOS effective mass double crystal x-ray diffraction –inSiC – profiling Doppler broadening double exchange double heterostructure (DH) double Schottky barrier double split-ring resonator (DSSR) double-channel planar buried double quantum well (DQW) double-layer charging double-layer heterojunction (DLHJ) – structure double-layer planar heterostructure 1075 226 769 547, 145 1115 52 194 200 101 226 201 196 1468 226 143, 254 1332 839 138 1468 169 92, 195 777 197 51 221 200 984 1468 1048 975 137, 984 466, 136, , 194 603 1331, 941 51 1275 52 379, 1337 351 359 1052 1335 194 136, 48 1275 335 317 1030, 51, 250 357, 311, 914, 1468 913, oncentration

797, 899 single oscillator-based c

distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) distributed feedback (DFB) dissimilar material integration dissipation power dispersive transport display device – fractional time power laws Dissado–Hill function – equation of motion – donor – molecule donor–acceptor – charge-transfer –pair(DAP) donor-bound exciton (DBE) dopant – sensitization – photoreceptor – transport theory – relation disordered solid – electrical conduction disordered sublattice disordered systems – doped crystal – transport phenomena dispersion – ionic crystal – materials – transport properties – localized states – energy spectrum – hopping conduction – density of band carrier – semiconductors – semiempirical single oscillator – efficiency –inGaAs –inMCT – concentration – density –diffusion doped semiconductor doping distribution function DNA chip DNA origami doctor blading domain wall (DW) – laser

Subject Index 1504 Subject Index Subject Index 1505

– constants 942 electrolyte solid oxide 249 electron-beam evaporation 652 – deformation 1469 electrolytic domain 257 electron-beam poling 1088 – energy density 942 – boundary 257 electronegativity, Miedema 183 – stiffness 729 electromagnetic compatibility 91 electroneutrality equation 256 – stiffness constant (S) 1469 electromechanical coupling 609 electron–hole pair (EHP) 1126, elastic properties 729 electron 1469 1127 – semiconductor alloys 731 – affinity 1469 – creation energy 1130 elasticity 1469 – beam lithography (EBL) 1017, Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) elastoresistance 1118, 1119 1019, 1469 607 – coefficient 1118 – beam-induced current (EBIC) electronic material 309, 829 electric dipole (ED) 385, 790 –C60 based 1170 – extrinsic 183 – cyclotron resonance (ECR) 665, – Debye heat capacity 428 – intrinsic 183 745 – heat capacity 428 electric torque 946 – diffraction 393 – silicon dioxide 625 electrical conductivity 257, 566, – energy analyser 415 – thermal conductivity 431 686, 1260 – energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) – thermal properties 425 – amorphous semiconductors 565 10, 385 electronic nose sensor system 1305 – metallic film 686 – injection 691 electronic optical nose 1295 – nanotube 1164 – mobility 198, 1174 electronic packaging 1311 – silicon 495 – motion 20 – classes of material 1313

– size-dependent 688 – paramagnetic resonance (EPR) – encapsulation 1323 Index Subject – temperature-dependence 566 628, 789 – interconnect 1318 electrical measurement techniques – saturated drift velocity 510 –levels 1312 454 – saturation velocity 1174 – material 1313, 1315 electrical properties 557, 685 – scattering 878 – solder 1318 –bulkSiO2 628 – spectroscopy for chemical analysis electronic transport devices 726 – chalcogenide glasses 566 (ESCA) 386 electronic/optoelectronic materials – electrical conductivity 566 – spectrum 488 270 – Hall coefficient of a-Si:H 566 – spin resonance (ESR) 171, 559, electron–lattice 1002 –thinfilm 646, 685 584, 628 electron-momentum parameter 792 electrical resistivity 27 – wavefunction 1086 electron–nuclear double resonance electrically electron avalanche photodiode (ENDOR) 559 – conductive adhesives (ECA) (e-APD) 867, 869, 889 electron–phonon 1324, 1469 –device 869 – coupling 563, 565 – controlled birefringence (ECB) electron device – interaction 492, 494, 1230 948 – high-frequency 829 – inter-valley scattering 503 – detected magnetic resonance electron drift velocity 508, 837 – scattering 1469 (EDMR) 171 –AlN 844 electron-transport charge mobility – erasable programmable read-only – doping dependence 840 989 memory (EEPROM) 637 –GaAs 844 electron-transport material electrically active impurities –GaN 844 – charge mobility 989 – point defect 477 –InN 844 electro-optic electroabsorption 68, 1469 electron effective mass – coefficient 595 – modulator 923 – density-of-states 736 – detection 1345 – modulator (EAM) 1052 – III–V quaternaries 736 –device 600, 947 electrochemical etching 1021 electron transport 829–831, 848 – effect 926, 1027, 1469 electrochemomechanics 263 –AlN 841 electrophotographic cycle electrochromic element 262 –InN 842 – printing 980 electrochromic window 258, 261 – material parameter 832 – process parameter 972 electrode-limited conduction 697 electron transport material electrophotography 967, 968, 1469 electrodeposition (ED) 662, 855 – BCMF 977 electroplating 663, 1469 electroding 603 –DPQ 977 electrospinning 1301 electrodynamics 1229 –PTS 977 electrostatic flux density 220 electroluminescence (EL) 549, 997 –TNF 977 electrostatic latent image 968 952 1214 1470 374 780 1114 1151 1470 1371 1331, 560, 877 48 440 65 1113, 1089 1334 1372 1117 1089 977 773 348, 1043, 1267 990 792 1331 233 195, 1331 258 591 1334 773 1107 1470 156, 1332 921 990 948 101 1220 ) 92 769 47, ua 86 H F temperature 1074 structure (EXAFS) (EMR) 1022 exchange –bias – -coupled-composite (ECC) –field( extraordinary refractive index – effective extrinsic chirality extrinsic doping extrinsic ferroelectric Curie extrinsic optical activity Eyring rate law fabrication – facility (FAB) – nanoscale patterning method – photoreceptor – length – stiffness excited state absorption (ESA) exciton – Bohr radius – bound –diffusion – diffusion length – dipole moment – dissociation – Frenkel-type – polariton (EP) – recombination – two-level system – Wannier-type excitonic absorption excitonic PV excitonic radiative lifetime exciton–phonon interaction exhaust sensor exhaustion concentration exothermic enthalpy exotic QW exponential DOS extended defect extended graphics array (XGA) extended states extended x-ray absorption fine extinction coefficient extraordinary magnetoresistance 1069 311, 315, 379, 677 671 638 427 359, 353 358 1470 1062 1021 560 650 309 652 113 40 1245 353 650 121 1470 353 230 649 1470 269 1296 904 1072 653 651 671 650 310, 408 1244 922, 1470 nt source fine structure) 1470 (ELISA) 918, distribution 623, memory (EEPROM) poi 744 793 Ewald sphere EXAFS (extended x-ray absorption etching – dry etching (RIE) – electrochemical – reactive ion etching (RIE) evaporation – coefficient – of compounds – enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay epilayer – ellipsometry – laser reflectometry – material – monitoring epitaxial – CdTe layer morphology –crystalgrowth –film –GaN –growth – lateral overgrowth (ELO) erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) ESCALAB chamber etch pit density (EPD) – process – reactive – source – surface source evaporator temperature evolution of the void density size – substrates equilibrium – band bending – concentration – population equipartition of energy equivalent oxide thickness (EOT) erasable programmable read-only – strain effects epitaxy – layer overgrowth (ELOG) – layer (or epilayer) 748 1251 385, 182 1470 594 1470 209 1470 655 1323 70 78, 1375 991 1007 740 1324 1470 211 73, 460 415 1073 1067 1292 1324 1470 438 1324 440 440 260 224 1324 70, 1073 439 439 1463, 440 1218 1323 1201 991 991 426, 1470 389 438, 1246 2

enthalpy approximation (ETB) (EDS) (OPV)

– iron-based superconductor –MgB endpoint materials endurance energy – band diagram – barrier –conversion – dispersive x-ray (EDX) – dispersive x-ray spectroscopy energy gap – dissipation – transfer coefficient enabler – metastability encapsulation – electronic package – mold compound – temperature – wire sweep end-member perovskite endothermic glass-transformation – material – processing – organic transistor emission – cross-section –device – stimulated empirical tight-binding energy relaxation – charge carriers energy-band spectrum energy-loss relaxation enthalpy – crystalline – exothermic –fusion – relaxation elemental maps Eley–Rideal reaction ellipsometric angles ellipsometry emerging technology – OLED – organic photovoltaic devices elliptical dichroism Elovich model emergency lighting

Subject Index 1506 Subject Index Subject Index 1507

Fabry–Pérot (FP) – dielectric 607 fill factor (FF) 854, 1471 – cavity 905, 906 – piezoelectric 608 film – interference filter 684 – pyroelectric material 611 – anodic oxide 663 – laser 914 ferroelectric ceramic 230, 606 – as-deposited 676 face-centered cubic (fcc) 607, 746, – fabrication technology 601 –a-SiNx:H 1112 1151 – poling 604 –CdS 676, 698 face-on orientation 1335 ferroelectric material 638 –CdSe 692, 693 Faraday – Aurivillius compound 597 – crystal structure 672 – effect 68 – Czochralski growth 600 – in-plane strain 1245 – induction 1354 – fabrication 600, 601 – insulating 690, 697 –law 1186 – ferroelectric oxide 593 – morphology 678 fast – flux growth 600 – oxide 659 – Fourier transformation (FFT) 475 – illmenite 596 – phthalocyanine 693 – ion conductor (FIC) 251 – lead germanate (Pb5Ge3O11) 598 – Poisson’s ratios 1120 – switching display 938 – oxide 598 – thickness 647, 674, 676 fatigue, thermomechanical 1318 – perovskite ferroelectric 593 film-growing surface 575 FeCoNi, saturation magnetization – phosphate 598 filter 1190 – polycrystalline ceramic 601 – band-pass 684 FEL 1343 – polymeric 599 – band-stop 684 Fermi – properties 589 –design 684

–energy 25, 201, 489, 1113, 1230, – reliability 639 – edge 684 Index Subject 1470 – single crystal 600 – semiconductor-doped 1089 –integral 1382 – solution 600 fin field effect transistor (FinFET) –level 1470 –thick-film 604 6, 620 – surface 42 –thinfilm 605 firing 1471 – velocity 686, 1176 – triglycine sulphate 598 first Brillouin zone (FBZ) 1176 Fermi–Dirac distribution 180, 491, – tungsten bronze 597 first-order transition 941 901, 1114, 1382 ferroelectric random access memory fixed charge 630 ferrimagnet 96 (FRAM or FeRAM) 608, 638 flame hydrolysis deposition (FHD) ferrite 98 ferroelectric to store information 1062 ferroelastic 598, 1470 – dynamic random-access memory flame oxidation deposition (FOD) ferroelectric 229, 1471 608 1062 – characteristic properties 591 ferromagnetic (FM) 1198 flash evaporation 653 – correlated dynamics 229 – resonance 94 flash memory element – correlation length 229 – spin configuration 1198 – nitrided SiO2 638 – Curie point 596 ferromagnetism 96, 1354 flat lens 1357 – device electroding 603 FET sensor 1285 flat panel display 582 – dielectric response 235 fiber Bragg grating (FBG) 1065, flat surface in homoepitaxy 310 – domain 591, 1471 1083 flatband capacitance 468 – extrinsic 591 Fick’s first law of diffusion 1471 flatband voltage (VFB) 478, 630, – hysteresis 591, 1471 Fick’s second law of diffusion 1471 633, 1471 – improper 591, 598 field effect transistor (FET) 620, flexible substrate 710, 1111, 1112 – laser ablation 606 726, 1471 flexoelectric coefficients 945 – oxide 595, 606 field emission 1471 – measurement 963 – oxide thin film 606 field factors 33 flexoelectric effects 964 – properties 590 field-dependent barrier lowering flexoelectric polarisation 955 – relaxor 1471 1138 flexoelectricity 944, 955, 1471 – sputtering 606 field-effect mobility 1115 flip chip 1471 – static scaling 229 field-effect transistor (FET) 279, – interconnect 1319 –system 592 474, 612, 617, 1168, 1177, 1263, – organic package 1321 – theoretical model 592 1285 – solder deposition technique 1320 –thinfilm 606 field-emission display 1169 – substrate 1322 ferroelectric application 591 figure of merit (FOM) 612, 618, – technology 1321, 1323 – capacitor 607 1086, 1098, 1471 – underfill material 1323 495 829, 771 1157 1472 750 776 478 624 835 758, 719 633 112, 496 1050 631 749 1157 1154 1151 12, 935 1283 584 758 620, 618 1115 141 623 545 333 634 1283 634 258 774 361 787 787 794 213 1189 619, 769 621, r transition 373 333, 624 164 835 1284 318 789 5 5 326 98, Te Te 844 2 5 279 Sb Sb 2 2 hickness scaling 837, (GSMBE) t Geiger mode operation gallium nitride (GaN) – defect – donor-accepto – electron mobility – free exciton – mechanical property – nanostructure – n-type doping – optical phonon frequency – photoluminescence spectra – p-type doping – wurtzide galvanomagnetic effect galvanomagnetic measurement garnet – alloy – average electron energy – bound exciton – electronic excitation effect – metastable structure – molecular dynamics – non-thermal process Ge gate – capacitance – electrode work function – leakage currents – oxide integrity (GOI) gate dielectric – gate dielectric material – reliability gate-first process gate-last process gate-substrate capacitance Gaussian DOS Gaussian units Gay–Berne mesogen Ge – dopant diffusion Ge gas phase diffusion gas precursor gas sensor – impedance-based paste – inorganic material – potentiometric – semiconductor gas source, MBE GaSb substrates gas-source molecular beam epitaxy 844 1365 1179 1472 837, 1226 56 680 949 515 73 689 1061 440 859, 54, 250 772 440 334 438, 914 257 563, 334 907 680 1331 260 1472 260 907 249 633 689 1346 71 91 1102 47 31 253, 1164 392, 63, 254 688 921 1193 1472 135 373, odel G 359, m – formation energy –pair frequency – dispersion – selective surface (FSS) – synthesis Fresnel – coefficients – equations front end of line (FEOL) Fuchs–Namba model Fuchs–Sondheimer – equation – formalism – – reflectance spectrum – reflection coefficient Friedel’s law Fröhlich scattering – zone plate Frenkel – defect pair – disorder – exciton freezing temperature – density Fréedericksz transition – plasma effect GaAs/AlGaAs GaAsBi gain spectrum gain-guiding gallium arsenide (GaAs) – device-quality – solar cell –film – layer free carrier – absorption (FCA) fullerenes – transition temperature fundamental properties fusion enthalpy fusion temperature fuel cell – monolithic – solid oxide full width at half maximum (FWHM) 680 640 431 343, 297, 167 135 405, 471 297, 317 1004, 115 520 10, 1471 316, 270, 159 159, 471 68, 1471 1472 1283 630 1472 112, 1215 1472 356 1005, 1232 26 1471 456 1472 476 1471 347, 612, 299 1472 1212, 997, 978 299 343 454, 273 1231, 351, 873 275 1472 287 374 298, 1471 250 1471 347, 544, pectrometry

spectroscopy (FTPS) 495 1472 495, 159, 1019 358, s

Fourier-transform photocurrent four-point probe – technique Franck–Condon principle Fowler–Nordheim floating-zone (FZ) floating gate technique – semiconductor parameter float zone floating gate current floating-zone (FZ) method free – convection – electron model Frank–Read growth spiral Frank–Turnbull mechanism Frank–van der Merwe (FM) –growth Franz–Keldysh effect fluorinated silicate glass (FSG) fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) – properties – silicon flow pattern defect (FPD) fluctuation fluence fluorescence – quenching fluoride glasses fluorite flux – lines (vortices) – method – pinning – quantum flying height focal plane array (FPA) – Fourier transform (FT) Fourier’s heat conduction law Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) foreign substrates forward biasing forced convection forming-gas anneal – large-area focused ion beam (FIB)

Subject Index 1508 Subject Index Subject Index 1509

geminate recombination 978, 1472 – poling method 1088 granular GEN III detector 886 – silicon-based 1062, 1068 –medium 1212 generalized Drude approximation – substrate 1112 – polysilicon 296 (GDA) 493 – surface, hydrophilic 1286 – recording layer (GRL) 1214 generic phase diagram cuprate – Tellurium-based chalcogenide graphene 190 superconductor 1235 (TeX,TeXAs) 1060 – bandstructure 1176 geometry factor 874 – thermal conductivity 433 – characterization 1178 Ge-on-insulator application 313 – third-order nonlinearity 1083 – nanoribbon (GNR) 1177 germanium (Ge) 4, 523, 1103 – transition region 448 – photonic application 1180 Ge-Sb-Te (GST) glass ceramics 1472 – synthesis 1174 – alloy 1151 glass frit 1472 graphite sliding-boat system 312 – phase-change alloy 1150 glass transition 234, 441, 964, 1062 graphitised SWNT 1165 GeTe 164 – activation energy 443 grating structure 914 – amorphous phase 1152 – polymer 429 Grätzel cell 1266, 1473 – crystalline phase 1152 – temperature 254, 425, 429, 439, grid method (GM) 576 – structure 1152 975, 988, 1324 GRINSCH laser 1473 ghosting 1472 – temperature (Tg) 1061 group II oxide giant magnetoresistance (GMR) 86, glasses 251 – MOCVD 328 1185, 1472 glass-forming liquid 438 group III nitride 283 Gibbs free energy 231, 438 glass-forming material 238 – crystal structure 745

Gilbert damping 1217 glass-transformation kinetics 447 – mechanical property 748 Index Subject Ginzburg–Landau glass-transition temperature 1472 group III–V 314 – parameter 1233, 1239 glassy carbon (GC) 1285 group III–V alloy – theory 1232 glassy film – deformation potential 737 Gladstone–Dale coefficient 51 – high-index 1070 group III–V alloy system glass 47, 1082 – low index 1068 – thermal conductivity 732 – aging 448 – medium-index 1069 group III–V binaries 735, 736, 739, – aluminium oxide 1069 glassy metals 436 740 – aluminosilicate 1074 glow curve 1003 – crystal density 727 – bandgap energy 1085 glow discharge – elastic properties 729 – borofluorogallium, BIG glass – mass spectrometry (GDMS) 416, – lattice parameter 727 (BaF2-IF3-GaF3) 1060 417, 778, 861, 1486 group III–V compound 737 – ceramics 1089 – optical emission spectroscopy –diffusion 143 – chalcogenide 1071 (GDOES) 413 group III–V material – enthalpy 439 – spectrometry (GDS) 1472 – MOCVD 324 – fast ionic conductivity 254 – spectroscopy (GDOES) 413, 416 group III–V nitride semiconductor – fluoride 1069 – sputtering 659 830, 835 – fluorozirconate (ZBLAN) 1060, GMR – material 845 1069 – effect 1192, 1193, 1196 – material parameter 832 – formation 234 – ratio 1193 – recent development 848 –former 1061 –sensor 1220 – transient electron transport 834 – glass-transformation kinetics 447 Golay cell 1342 group III–V quaternaries 728, 735, – heavy-metal oxide 1070 gold alloy thick film 712 736, 740 – homogeneous 1083 gold conductor – lattice-matching condition 728 – ionic transport 254 –thickfilm 711 group III–V semiconducting –keyparameter 440 Goldschmidt criteria 593 compound alloy – laser glasses 1071 gradient freeze growth 1472 – electronic transport device 726 – matrix, electrical conductivity gradient freezing (GF) 379 – laser diode 726 193 grading 1473 – light-emitting diode 726 – metallic 436 grain boundary 30, 1242 – optoelectronic device 726 – nanoparticle dispersed 1089 – conductivity 688 – photodetector 726 – oxide 51, 430 – scattering 688 group III–V ternary 733, 740 – particle-embedded 1089 grain size 1187 – band-gap energy 733 – phosphosilicate 1074 grain-growth process 345 – optical mode 730 51 371, 636 430 334, 1196 1333, 356, 524 1091 1289 102 430 745, 343 1473 717 1332, 344 524 319, 525 350 96 939 526 877 185 488 185 330, 1333 1170 898, 336 310, 873 1219 430 1017 881 362 926 1220 510 925 351 1473 162 357 543 543, 924, 1473 1473 726, 801 sler alloy u 1473 1473 calorimetry (DSC) (HDMR) 524, 746, – effective mass – spectrum Heisenberg exchange helical anisotropy hemispherical-grain (HSG) HEMT device hermetic packaging herringbone structure Hervé-Vandamme relationship heteroepitaxial layer – critical thickness – metastable layer – pseudomorphic layer heteroepitaxy heterofulleride heterogeneous system heterointerface heterojunction heavy-hole –band – band alignment – bipolar transistor (HBT) – laser heteropassivation heterostructure –design – detector – lattice-matched – metamorphic – waveguide He – field effect transistor (HFET) heat-flow differential scanning – normalized – temperature dependence heated dot magnetic recording – close-packed (hcp) – columnar phase HF MPC Hg partial pressure Hg vapor pressure Hg-based alternative HgCdMnTe HgCdSe HgCdTe – 2-D arrays hexagonal –As 427 1187 462 55 225 429 1001 759 35 740 1316 463 463 1316 1473 1473 288 462 969 741, ) 464 1473 952 758 503 Q 1473 462 35, 490, 1473 36 490, 43 490 1220 97 19, 36, 1207 196 103 1189 1206 1216, 430 97 36, 1473 288 225 432 93, lasses H laws (HAMR) g – low-temperature experiments – mobility – measurement Hall effect – scattering factor – resistivity – mobility III–V binary – carrier concentration hard –axis – ambipolar conduction – coefficient – materials characterization – physical principle Hall–Petch relationship Haloid Corporation Hamiltonian, vibrational hand-held display – ceramic – ferrites – magnetic bias film Havriliak–Negami fractional power Havriliak–Negami function head field – slope parameter ( – exchanger method –flow heat capacity – composition dependence – Gunn – diode Hagen–Rubens relationship half-metal halides Hall – carrier concentration – coefficient – coefficient n-Si – constant – factor head skew head-media separation (HMS) headphone heat – affected zone (HAZ) – assisted magnetic recording 547 276 321 276 141 737 372 366 368 349 144 379 368 280 489 578 376 281 279 880 365 330 331 277 730 489 1388 53 379 273 437 360 283 1152 1383 880 311 c-Si:H 278 286  282 436 282

alloy semiconductor 315 compound semiconductor

group III–V ternary and quaternary – optical mode group II–VI – binary compound – compound epilayer – materials – semiconductor, MOCVD group II–VI compound – bulk single crystal – wide-bandgap group II–VI compound – layer-by-layer – model, –GaP –InP – method group-III acceptor – gallium arsenide group index group-III nitride semiconductor group-IV semiconductor group-V donor – from Te solutions group II–VI wide-bandgap – Bridgman – gradient freezing growth – characteristics – bulk single crystal – high quality film – on silicon – oxide –system,MBE –regime – silicon – silicon carbide – TlInGaAsN quinary alloys – high-temperature solution growth method – Bridgman – hydrothermal – low-temperature solution growth technique, compound Grüneisen – coefficient – constant –law – parameter GST alloy

Subject Index 1510 Subject Index Subject Index 1511

– diodes 875, 878 high-resistivity crystal 504 horizontal directional solidification – dual-band array 888 high-resolution crystallization (HDC) 288 – high-performance infrared systems –displays 952 host material, glass 1068 892 – electron microscopy (HREM) hot carrier 624 – infrared detector 869 397 –diffusion 513 – photoconductive 871 –mask 1018 – phenomena 507, 1474 – photovoltaic array 892 – transmission electron microscopy hot isostatic pressing (HIP) 603 – photovoltaic detector 892 (HRTEM) 624, 793 HOT MCT device by LPE 317 – solution 350 – x-ray diffraction (HRXRD) 140, hot-wall epitaxy (HWE) 365, 371 – thermal diffusion currents 876 746 – II–VI compound 372 HgCdZnTe 362 high-Tc superconductor 1228 hot-wire chemical vapor deposition HgMnTe 361 high-temperature (CVD) 1474 HgZnTe 361 – oxide superconductor 1410 humidity sensor high – solution growth 1474 –thick-film 720 – electron mobility transistor – solution growth (flux) 276 Huygens metasurface 1370 (HEMT) 8, 336, 726, 1177, 1474 – superconductivity 1226 Huygens’s principle 1474 – electron-momentum parameter high-temperature superconductor HWE growth chamber 373 792 – irreversibility line 1239 hybrid circuit 708, 1474 – field transport 766 – physical property 1228 – substrate 710 – frequency (HF) 464 – upper critical field 1239 hybrid graphene-gold nanoparticles ujc Index Subject – Hg vapor pressure 353 hillock 333, 356 (AuNp) 1285 – impedance surface (HIS) 1367 hole hybrid thin film 1296 – melting point material 271 – array 1020 hybridization 1474 – nitrogen pressure (HNP) 790 – drift velocity 508 hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) – refractive index glasses 80 – effective mass 735 744, 763 – speed electronic 8 – spectrum 488 hydrogen 632 – temperature/pressure 277 hole transport 970 – dilution ratio 575 – vacuum (HV) 647 – trap-free 976 –plasma 578 high-angle annular dark field hole transport material – sensor, titanium dioxide nanotube (HAADF) 408 –DEH 973 1284 high-brightness diodes 326 –DPB 973 hydrogenated 573 higher operating temperature (HOT) –TAPC 973 – amorphous carbon transport 317, 355, 867 –TPD 973 properties 194 –device 886 –TTA 973 higher silane-related species (HSRS) holographic patterning 1026 – amorphous germanium (a-Ge:H) 583 holography 89 61 highest occupied molecular orbital homeotropic alignment 1474 – amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) 61 (HOMO) 1264, 1329, 1332, homoepitaxial GaN 407 hydrophobic substrate 666 1474 homoepitaxy 310, 319, 1474 hydrostatic pressure 928 high-field conduction 690, 699 homojunction 898, 1474 hydrostatic stress 120 high-frequency (HF) capacitance –device 877 hydrothermal 277 method 464 HOMO–LUMO gap 1335 –growth 284, 1474 high-frequency electron device 829 hopper coating 981 – technique 377 high-index contrast 1473 hopping hyperbolic dispersion 1363 high-k dielectrics 6, 633 –band 1117 hyperbolic metamaterial 1362 highly doped n-type wafer 127 – charge transport 976 – enhancement of spontaneous highly doped Si room-temperature – conduction 696, 1474 emission 1365 resistivity 498 – conductivity 203, 210 – negative refraction 1363 high-order Laue zone (HOLZ) 396 – distance, time-dependence 207 – subwavelength imaging 1364 high-pressure Bridgman (HPB) 861 – energy relaxation 208, 213 hypergeometric function, confluent high-pressure depletion (HPD) 584 – length 209 226 high-pressure diamond 279 –rate 202, 206 hyperlens 1364, 1365 high-purity n-Si 510 – transition 201, 210 hysteresis 633, 1474 high-q detector 929 – transport 205, 212, 972 – loop 89 108 1397 436 454 293, 713 489 , 5 1475 1084 , 1042 1475 1 52, 146 354, 387 1410 1475 739 640, 639 , 619 616 137 1475 690 105 617 716 656 617 1317 1325 1325 1068 617 144 353, 639, 619, 455 1060 877 1317 386 1325 1319 386 1288, 1321 617 62 328, 1082 354 714, 1475 lectronic absorption ompositional (IMP) 615, 870, e 640 c –device – insulation layer, thick film insulator – electrical characterization – resistivity – work function insulator–metal transition integrated – detector – cooler assembly (IDCA) –MCT – conductivity – dielectric tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) – dielectrics – electrical – environment – flip chip – Pb-free – polymer – second-level – wire material interconversion interdiffused multilayer process – capacitance interdiffusion – – magnetic concentrator (IMC) – optics, glass – optics/photonics – photonics integrated circuit (IC) – gate dielectrics – manufacturing – performance – scaling – wire bonding intelligent catalyst interaction – cross section – material – particle-material – radiation interatomic potential energy interband – optical transition – transition region – tunneling intercation coulomb repulsion interconnect 223 1027, 1117 1187 611, 750 1051, 829 855, 1295 560, 907 749 869, 1001 833 781, 262, 842 697 1188 1239 1312 1117 1474 , 1264, 353 491, 953 868 2 600, , 1474 254 765, 690, 1475 343 917 1174, 144 876 576, 574 329 1288 1402 917 876 11 1138 360 870 , 336 905 7 1168, 987, 844 aser absorption spectroscopy 669 1083 (ICSD) 1055 899, l (IRLAS) (IRRAS) 1102, inorganic glass inorganic–organic hybrid material in-plane – coherence length –mass – switching (IPS) input/outputs (I/O) in-situ –analysis – monitoring insulating film – doping – tin oxide (ITO) in situ monitoring index of refraction, second-order index-guided structure in-diffusion indirect-gap material indium – gallium zinc oxide (IGZO) – nitride (InN) – material parameter – mechanical property – optical phonon frequency inorganic crystal structure database injection – circuits – current – efficiency – electron transport initial permeability InN – photon detector – reflection absorption spectroscopy – cooler InGaAs InGaAsN InGaAsNSb InGaN infrared detector – zinc oxide (IZO) induced dipole moment density induced uniaxial anisotropy inelastic scattering infrared (IR) – 1336 970 143 878, 552 1144 1038 mponent 928 , 513, 1 552 489 1474 397 1128, 38, 550 985 176 327 324 911 514 tibility co 617 177 177, 275 513 65 362 492 969, 302 11 183 596 596 660 551 1474 393 pound diffusion 3 158 3 1474 1474 986

I (IMPATT) 225 1296 929, 1474 867

impact ionization impact avalanche transit time –lag – lag and ghosting imaging immunogamma globulin (IgG) IMP growth image – contrast analysis – -force effect – formation, photoreceptor imaginary suscep IMPATT diode improper (or extrinsic) ferroelectric impurity – absorption – distribution – ionization energy – scattering – solubility – species IC technology III nitrides III–V com IBM IBM copier ideality factor identical absorption spectra IFIGS continua IGZO IFIGS electric dipole – intrinsic II–VI narrow bandgap semiconductor illmenite –LiNbO III-V-Bi alloy –growth – optical properties III-V-Bi quaternary alloy III-V-Bismides II–VI MOCVD – semiconductor III–V material, band gap III–V MOCVD III–V semiconductor –LiTaO

Subject Index 1512 Subject Index Subject Index 1513

interdigitated electrode (IDE) 611, inter-valley scattering 492 iron-based superconductor 1248 1283 intraband transition 920 – critical current density 1250 interdigitated structure 1335 intragrain jc 1475 – doping 1249 interface 622 intrinsic – phase diagram 1249 – band-bending 178 – chirality 1371 irreversibility field – capacitance 241 – ionic disorder 253 –MgB2 1246 – dangling bond 628 – mobility 470, 496 irreversibility line 1240, 1476 – electrical characterization 454 – pinning 1244 Irvin curve 1476 – resistivity 459 – point defect 1475 isobutyl iodide (IBI) 357 – roughness 1063 – point defect aggregation 120, 123 isoconcentration diffusion 136 – state density (Dit) 633 – resistivity 689 isolation dielectrics 619 –trap 630 – silicon 141 – LOCOS isolation oxide 635 – trap capacitance 465 inverse spin-Hall effect (ISHE) 104 isothermal capacitance transient –trapcharge 467 inversion 1475 spectroscopy (ICTS) 559 – trap density 1475 – layer 465 isotope effect 1231 interface-induced gap states (IFIGS) – symmetry 1475 isotope labeling 580 175, 1475 inverted isotropic liquid 935 interfacial phase-change memory – metamorphic structure (IMM) itinerant magnetism 85, 101 (iPCM) 1159 1104 ITO 1265 interfacial transport 255 – OLED (iOLEDS) 1265 I–V technique (current–voltage ujc Index Subject intergrain critical current density – opal 1025 technique) 1474 1475 – staggered TFT 1116 intermediate diffuser 141 ion J intermetallic compound (IC) 1226, – beam milling 880 1319, 1475 – bombardment 584 Johnson–Mehl–Avrami (JMA) intermetallic reactions and phases – conductor, disordered oxygen equation 443 1475 253 Josephson junction 1242 intermetallics 97 – implantation 880, 1019, 1475 – critical current 1231 intermolecular force 963 – species primary 420 Josephson–Fraunhofer interference internal – yield, positive secondary 421 1232 –energy 427 Joule heating 870 –gain 1076 – yield, relative 421 Joule–Thompson cooler 870, 871 – photoemission yield spectroscopy ionic Judd–Ofelt (JO) analysis 66 (IPEYS) 176, 179 – conduction 193 jump process, diffusion coefficient – quantum efficiency (IQE) 800, – conductivity 253 248 909 – conductivity interface 255 junction International Technology Roadmap – conductor 248 for Semiconductors (ITRS) 616 – conductor application 248 – field-effect transistor (JFET) 478 interpolation scheme 726 –crystal 51 – forming 880 interpolation, linear 737 – disorder 251 –geometry 882 interrupted field time-of-flight –radii 1406 junction-formation method 352 (IFTOF) 170 ionization 1475 interstitial 1475 –energy 1475 K – diffusion mechanism 135 ionized-impurity scattering 507 – recombination 137 ion–lattice interactions 1001 Kauzmann paradox 439 – site 249 ion-selective electrode (ISE) 1292, Kauzmann temperature 441 – trapping 127 1299 Kelvin contact resistance (KCR) interstitialcy mechanism 135 IPEYS technique (internal 454 intersubband (ISB) 1052 photoemission yield spectroscopy) Kerr effect 1027 – absorption 1045, 1055 1475 Kevlar 935 – detector 1051 iron pnictide 1249 Kikuchi lines 1476 – emission 1045 – superconductor 1248 kinematic viscosity 964 – laser 1049 iron-based superconducting film kinetic theory of gases 648 – transition 1045, 1475 1250 Kirkendall effect 137 954 1476 926 567 958 1476 1075, 458 557 958 953, 1028, 960 726 958 960 224 935 1047, 956 948 947, 937 933, 940 961 935 937, 960 955 488 227 942 939 1037, 737 960 940 939 997 935 102 935 222 957 935, 997, 940 939 947 937 1006 936 1476 924 969, 948 ong range order norganic (LMTO) 898, 1169 962 940, i l light-induced defect creation light-induced phenomena – amorphous semiconductors lightly doped drain (LDD) lineage linear – interpolation – interpolation scheme – relaxation response – response – susceptibility linearized muffin-tin orbitals – white light-hole –band – effective mass linewidth enhancement factor liquid crystal (LC) – alignment – bulk nematic – calamitic – chemical structure –chiral – chiral nematic – cholesteric phase – columnar –device – dielectric anisotropy – dipole moment – director – discotic – elastic constants – electrical conductivity – helical structure – – lyotropic – material – material, fluorinated mesogens – molecular properties – molecular shape – molecular structure – negative dielectric anisotropy – nematic – optical properties – optical retardation –order – permittivity – positive dielectric anisotropy – , 9 718 , 878, 892, 7 , 1476 1 639 331 135, 620, 875, 743, 553 1268 595 696 330, 1244 1071 1038, 727 117 621, 1355 739, 1476 982 9 1251 282 524, 728 544, 616, 1087 281 351 726, 261 1135 1073, 47 727 22 356, 727, 921 504 1387 365, 258, 251 163 1134 348, 1134, 66 747 747 925 747 310, N l 103 1476 (LAST) 283, 911 superconductor –GaN –InN lattice-matching – condition law of mass action (LMA) layer thickness layer-by-layer assembly layer-by-layer growth LD application, III-V-Bi LDA (local density approximation) lead – iodide – oxide layer composition lattice – group III–V binary – mismatch – matched – melting – mobility – parameter, iron-based – parameter – vibrations lattice constant –A – phthalocyanine film – zirconium titanate (PZT) – zirconate titanate (PZT) lead–antimony–silver–telluride lead-free piezoelectric leakage current ligands light – absorption – emitting device – point defect (LPD) – source, glass-based light-emitting diode (LED) – amplification – hole LEC Czochralski LEC technique left-handed medium Li battery LF MPC lifetime 739, 1476 1293 112 726, 646 1085, 970 715 101 1476 273 969 543, 1111 1476 685 228 167 1167 287 332 349 1083, 380 665, 115 230 913 729 1476 365, 1387 , 444 1000, 919 9 1476 88 491, 273 662 1476 909 606 349 1287 288 227, 441 747 1476 1047 72,

L 228, 49, defect (LSTD) 744, 574, 743,

laser – ablation – crystallization – detector – diode (LD) large area electronic large-area growth large-diameter crystal – method – technique Laplace transform Laporte’s rule Kyropoulos Kretschmann’s configuration – growth method – method – technique Landau diamagnetism langasite material Landauer formula Landé factor Langevin function Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) – film deposition Kirkwood factor Kohlrausch–Williams–Watts (KWW) Kramers–Kronig relation (KKR) Kissinger plot Knoop hardness Knudsen cell Knudsen effusion Kodak Ektaprint 100 laser light scattering (LLS) – diode array – spectral purity – threshold – trimming, thick film laser light scattering tomography lateral epitaxial overgrowth (LEO) latent image formation lateral conductivity laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) LAST material

Subject Index 1514 Subject Index Subject Index 1515

– rod-like molecules 940 liquid-encapsulated Czochralski Lorentz oscillators 51 – shutter 956 technique 1476 loss coefficient 54 – smectic 935 lithium ion battery 2, 258, 261 low – thermotropic 934 lithographic method 1018 – field transport 758 – torsional elasticity 964 local chemical state of surface 416 – frequency (LF) 464 – twist grain-boundary phase 938 local density approximation (LDA) – phonon energy 1071 – viscosity 945, 964 102, 190, 748 – pressure chemical vapor deposition – viscosity coefficients 964 local density approximation to (LPCVD) 523, 535, 664 liquid crystal display (LCD) 2, 14, density functional theory low-dimensional 582, 933, 953, 1257 (LDA-DFT) 190 – structure 315, 1477 – addressing 949 local field 1090 – transport phenomena 1167 – angle of view 949, 954 local oxidation of silicon (LOCOS) low-energy – bistable device 954 620, 635 – electron beam irradiation (LEEBI) – deformed helix mode 964 local spin density approximation 787 – ECB-mode 948 (LSDA) 88 – ion scattering (LEIS) 388 – ferroelectric smectic display 955 localized magnetism 85, 86 lower critical field – in-plane switching mode (IPS) localized state 152, 195, 206, 1113 – cuprate superconductor 1240 954 – potential barrier 211 –MgB2 1247 – materials 956 localized vibrational mode (LVM) lower explosive limit (LEL) 1282 – multicomponent mixtures 957 absorption 1476 lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

– multiplexing 950 lock-in detection 158 (LUMO) 1264, 1329, 1332, 1477 Index Subject – optical properties 950 LOCOS isolation oxide 635 low-field electron drift mobility – passive matrix addressing 949 logic device dimensions 621 –GaN 837 – relaxation time 950 logic gates 1168 low-frequency dispersion 240 – super-twisted nematic (STN) log-normal distribution 1200 low-frequency noise (LFN) 473, 951, 952 log-pile structure 1024 1477 – thin-film-transistor twisted-nematic London equations 1229 – characteristics 473 952 London penetration depth 1229 – measurement 476 – time response 950 London theory 1232 – spectroscopy 473 – transmittance 950 lone pair electrons 1154, 1155 low-impedance device 476 – twisted nematic (TN) 951 long wave (LW) 1476 low-k application 640 – twisted vertically aligned (TVAN) longitudinal low-k dielectric 6 954 – acoustical (LA) 491 low-loss dielectric material 1014 – vertically aligned nematic (VAN) – bias film 1473 low-pass filter 1219 954 – gauge factor 1119 low-reluctance 1205 – viscous properties 950 – magnetic recording (LMR) 1186, low-Tc superconductor 1228 – zenithal bistable device (ZBD) 1477 low-temperature 955 – recording media 1199 – co-fired ceramic (LTCC) 1314, liquid encapsulated Czochralski – resistivity 43 1477 (LEC) 272 –TFT 1121 – solution growth 276, 1477 liquid phase electroepitaxy (LPEE) longitudinal optical (LO) 54, 491, LPE 312 731, 750, 758, 772 – apparatus 311 liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) 8, 270, – modes 731 – background impurities 311 349, 365, 371, 879, 898, 1038, – phonon emission 1047 – characteristics 310 1476 – phonons 54 –GaAs 314 – second-generation MCT 349 longitudinal-mode peak 549 –growth 371 liquid silicon 297 long-range disorder 1477 – growth mode 311 – impurity solubility 302 long-range orientational order 940 – history 310 liquid thin film 1270 long-wavelength – material point defects 311 liquid, key parameter 440 – infrared (LWIR) 351, 543, 868 –ofMCT 312 liquid-crystal mixtures 962 – LO phonon 737 – optoelectronic device 314 – two phase coexistence 957 – phonon 729 – second-generation MCT 349 liquid-crystal phase loophole device 880 LPE growth method – disc-like molecule 939 Lorentz force 1220 – dipping system 312 739, 327 316 314 336 314 686, 845 952 833 726 333 31, 316 337 313 336 315 951, 832, 23, 315 336 328 313 334 336 324 336 325 324 337 324 328 313 327 336 328 325 As 726 336 313 x ondition 330 330 328 325 374 Ga x 98 649  1 apphire substrate 758 90, 29, nitride semiconductor 317 337 s Mauguin c maximum differential permeability Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution MBE –AlAs – capital costs – commercial systems –GaAs Matthiessen’s rule – Stranski–Krastanov mode material MOCVD grown –Al – group IV – group-III nitride – group-III–V antimonide – mercury cadmium telluride – mixed alloy layer – narrowgap group II–IV compound – phosphorus-based material – silicon – silicon carbide – silicon/germanium – widegap compound material MBE grown – GaAs/AlGaAs – GaAs-based electronic device – group-III nitride – group-III–V nitride –InGaAs – precursor – quality – quantum dot – –sulfides –ZnSe material parameter – quadratic dependence –ternary material properties, group III–V – antimonides – arsenides –GaN – group II oxides – group II–VI semiconductors – HgCdTe – nitrides – phosphides – selenides 227 87 334 1477 1186, 490, 314 318 720 236 309 1191 431 734 661 1477 318 698 100 956 193 102 1215 1188, 1019 406 1196 161, 89 93 1281 1333 199 88 314 316 193 406 711 1477 919 91 1187 1187 315 1185 1024 87 1210 1188 1188 ergy n (MOPA) device 1477 magnetostriction – constant majority carrier magnetron sputtering many-body effect master curve, polyallylbenzene master oscillator power amplifier Marconi company mask processing masking effect mass flow controllers (MFCs) master-curve technique material – charge transport – sensor-active – thermal conductivity –thickfilm material LPE grown – arsenic-based material – atomically flat surface – doping – group III–V – composition – disordered – for x-ray imaging – porous – group II–VI – electronic – optoelectronic – organic thin film – susceptibility –thinfilm – transition – tunnel junction – tunneling junction (MTJ) –curve – easy –hard magnetocrystalline anisotropy magneto-optic material magneto-optical effect magneto-optics magnetoresistance (MR) magnetoresistive sensor magnetization magnetostatic – coupling field – dipolar coupling –e – viscosity magnetic-semiconductor memory 1354 1002 304 1006 999 39 312 1286 1004 1167 604 997, 1287 94 333 418 1214 103 311 1001 893 87 96 1477 1001 1353 1477 316 48 38 1477 356 1211 1001 1477 1477 999 1186 305 103 127, 1191, 999 1367 1220 1322 100 1215, 112,

M 1163 approximation) (MCCZ) 1185,

macromolecule, cylindrical graphitic macroscopic defect magnetic – anisotropy energy – annealing – cap layer (MCL) macrocylic compound macrodefects – field applied continuous CZ macrocylic molecule – graphite sliding-boat – tipping furnace LPEE of CdTe L-pit LSDA (local spin density – field applied CZ (MCZ) –film – material, class – material, thick film – metamaterial – mirror – noise – permeability – random-access memory (MRAM) – recording – resonance imaging (MRI) – sector instrument – semiconductor – spacing – splitting – squareness – surface charge – centres – excitation/emission cycle LTCC lucky drift (LD) model lucky electron luminescence – band-to-band – deep-level – electronic configuration – optically stimulated luminescent ions luminescent material Luttinger liquid (LL) – rare-earth

Subject Index 1516 Subject Index Subject Index 1517

– group III–V compound 330 – sensor, thick film 718 metal-insulator-metal-insulator-metal –growthchamber 332 – slider 1186 (MI-M-I-M) 1178 –growthrate 330, 332 media metal–insulator–semiconductor – history 329 – coercivity 1203 (MIS) 376, 695, 1273 – reaction mechanisms 330 –flux 1199, 1478 – heavily doped polycrystalline Si –Si1xGex film 530 – noise 1200, 1478 623 – technology, MCT 358 medium wave (MW) 1478 – structure 623 MBE growth medium-energy electron diffraction metallic film 686, 690 – defects 333 (MEED) 402 – electrical conductivity 686 – substrate-preparation 332 medium-wavelength infrared metallic glasses 436 MBE-grown MCT (MWIR) 351, 868 metallic nanocomposites 1478 – alternatives 361 meeting front (MF) 793 metallic superconductor 1233 – applications 360 MEH-PPV 158 – isotope effect 1231 – device-quality 359 Meissner effect 1226, 1229 metalloporphyrin – surface morphology 359 membrane –glass 1290 MCT – conductivity 1304 – Langmuir–Blodgett film 1290 – advanced structure 359 –sensing 1286 – polymer 1290 – alloy composition 358 – solid state ionic 248 metallurgical-grade silicon (MG-Si) – array 357 – spin coating 1286 295 – carrier lifetime 351 memory metal-molecule-metal junction ujc Index Subject – composition 350 – capacitor 619 1273 – dislocation density 357 – device tunneling oxide 619 metal-organic (MO) 546 – technology 636 metal-organic chemical vapor – epitaxial growth technique 344 memristors 262 deposition (MOCVD) 8, 309, – epitaxial layer 351 mercuric iodide 1132 365, 371, 407, 605, 665, 744, 857, – hybrid array 360 mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) 1021, 1038, 1105, 1478 – impurity segregation 348 269, 310, 316, 343, 543, 873 metal-organic deposition (MOD) – infrared detector 360 mercury-sensitized photo-CVD 605 – layer 359 1478 metal-organic molecular beam – material characteristic 351 mesa heterojunction (MHJ) 884 epitaxy (MOMBE) 334, 365, – MBE technology 358, 359 Meservey–Tedrow 103 371, 374, 744 –MOVPE 353 mesogen 937, 1478 metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy – pseudobinary alloy composition – chemical constitution 960 (MOVPE) 8, 283, 319, 344, 365, 354 metafilm 1365 371, 546, 879, 1038, 1104, 1478 – sliding boat growth 350 metal 25 – reactor cells 322 – structure 359 – alloy sheet resistivity 711 metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) – substrate material 356 – bulk nonlinearity 1090 464, 514, 523, 617, 620, 685, MCT growth 285 – electrical conductivity 436 1186, 1272 – Bridgman 345 – electrical properties 25 metal–oxide–semiconductor – Hg-rich melt 349 – gate electrode 623, 634 field-effect transistor (MOSFET) – monitoring 357 – nanoparticle 1336 5, 454, 524, 630, 1168, 1272 – solid state recrystallization (SSR) – oxide semiconductor field effect metal–semiconductor 345 transistor (MOSFET) 5 – contact, J–V characteristic 459 – Te-rich 350 – residual resistivity 1225 – field-effect-transistor (MESFET) – traveling heater method) 347 – resistivity 24, 455 8, 463, 1478 MCZ silicon 304 – sheet resistivity 711 metal-semiconductor (MS) 464 mean free path 432, 685 – thermal expansion coefficient 437 metal-ultrathin – bulk electron 685 metal/oxide/semiconductor (MOS) insulator–semiconductor (MUTIS) mean phonon velocity 432 1478 188 mean-field approach 229 metal-free phthalocyanine 1294 metamaterial 1339, 1346, 1351 mechanical metal-induced gap state (MIGS) metamolecule 1352 – exfoliation 1285 183 – geometrical resonance 1353, – properties, thin film 646 metal–insulator transition 1235 1366 – sensor, piezoresistive 718 metal–insulator–metal (MIM) 636 – resonant behavior 1352 283, 432 762, 211, 647, 1301 795, 1479 1479 180, 926 194, 523, , 232 1479 8 925 36 371, 1479 926 1266, 837 398, 1038, 923 336 560 295 560 925 926 1321 330, 335 103 ) 616, 371, 899, 4 , 296 6 926 974 1274 296 937 897 1273 365, 879, 727 898 939 1479 ed photoconductivity (MPC) 161 344, 856, 1479 at nolithic solder 157, 1143, 829 1302 1206 146 1479 309, 744, 972, o modul – chirality – density – dipole relaxation time – dispersion – dynamics (MD) – junction – transistor –wire molecular electronics molecular reorientation molecularly – doped polymer (MDP) modulator – electroabsorption – electro-optic effect – InGaAsP-based – linewidth enhancement – optical – refractive index – wave-guide structure – Y-junction molecular – beam epitaxy (MBE) modulation transfer function (MTF) modulation-doped – FET (MODFET) – GaAs/AlGaAs – electron transport Moore’s law – production – pyrolysis Monsma–Parkin Monte Carlo (MC) Monte Carlo (MC) simulation monomer methacrylic acid (MAA) monopolar conduction monopole inductive write element monosilane (SiH – imprinted polymer (MIP) molten semiconductors, diffusion momentum-flipping collisions monolayer (ML) m 1137, 200 877, 1479 1114, 974 928, 470 319 975 260 740, 1114, 558, 790, 1042, 1242 974 1283 103 247, 1479 633, 975 1117 210, 975 319 161, 200 1113, 250 359 1040, 906 622 208 1115 1479 33 248, 731 731 373 206, 251 321 1479 630 205, 1116, 343, 12 920, 324 19, 195, 680 1392, 195, ed crystal x 739 1260, 1479 1386 1479 975 1479 497 mode-spacing – of electrons MOCVD – polaron model – Poole-Frenkel field dependence – temperature dependence – basic reaction kinetics – characteristics – precursor – technique Moddera–Mathon mode – AlAs-like – GaAs-like model dielectric function (MDF) – effective – field dependence – field-effect –gap – degradation –degradationcoefficient – dipole disorder model – disorder model – edge – compositional fluctuation mixed state mixture rule mobile carrier – concentration – sublattice – charge carrier mobile monitoring mobility MIS diode mi – lifetime – silicon-based electronic device mirror misalignment angle misfit dislocation mismatch mixed conducting miniband minimal thermal conductivity (MTC) minority carrier 1299 627 627 1478 707 254 1245 1028 921 2 615 1091 1478 146 1478 1246 1322 248, 1284 605, 399 573 1478 248 618 729 615 1330 1267 1087, 1064, 708 1084, 1332 1365 1020 262, 615 615 615 605 1275 631 617 1322 314 1299 1314 602 2

hydrogenated 262 (MEMS) (MIPS) (MPCVD) technique

microelectronic circuit –Si-based microelectronic device – dielectric material – scaling microelectronic materials microelectronics – capacitor – interconnect – transistor microhardness micromachining – technique microphotonics microstructure glass (MSG) microprocessor – performance – scaling – unit (MPU) microstrip design –sensor microvia microwave – circuit –device – plasma chemical vapor deposition mid-gap state – critical temperature micro screen micro-ampere microcrystalline silicon, metamorphic growth metastability – crystal structure MgB metasurface Meyer–Neldel rule microdiffraction micro-electromechanical (MEM) micro-electromechanical system –thinfilm microelectronic application – thermally grown SiO migration energy Miller’s rule milliampere milling millions of instructions per second miniaturization

Subject Index 1518 Subject Index Subject Index 1519

morphological characteristics 645, N negative 677 – -bias temperature instability C morphotropic phase boundary (MPB) n -p diodes 878 (NBTI) 630 595 N2O complex 125 – differential mobility (NDM) 509 Moseley’s law 1479 N2V complex 124 – differential resistance (NDR) MOSFET N2V2 complex 124 767, 1480 (metal–oxide–semiconductor NAND-FLASH 1215 – FSS 1366 field-effect transistor) 454 nano volume diffusion 146 – -index medium 1355 nanochannel alumina (NCA) 1020 Moss rule 1085 – refraction 1356, 1363 nanochannel glass (NCG) 1020 Mott’s law 204 – temperature coefficient (NTC) nanocrystalline diamond 159 719 MOVPE/MBE combined growth nanoelectronic device 699, 1168 – temperature coefficient of 337 nanofibrous membrane 1301 resistance (NTCR) 259, 719 MQW nanogap electrode 1273 negligible absorption 77 – band edge absorption 1043 nanomaterial 1284 nematic – laser 336 nanometer 1333 – birefringence 959 MRAM architecture 1218 nanoparticle 679 – dielectric anisotropy 959 MTJ memory cell 1217 –system 1089 – phase 935, 1480 multi-beam optical stress sensor nanoporous array, high-aspect 1020 – viscosity coefficient 945 (MOSS) 262 nanostructure 647, 680 nephelauxetic effect 66 multi-component material sputtering –GaN 794 Nernst effect 1236 Index Subject rate 416 – oxide 1170 Nernst equation 258 multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si) – semiconductor 1167 net electric dipole moment 222 1101, 1479 nanotechnology 557 neutral-impurity scattering 496 multiferroic 105 nanotube neutrality condition 489 – magnetoelectric 598 – carrier mobility 1164 neutron diffraction 251 multijunction cell 1103 – electrical conductivity 1164 neutron transmutation doping (NTD) – electronic structure 1166 multilayer 298 – electrooptics 1169 n-FET drive current 617 – ceramic (MLC) 602 – logic gates 1168 Ni 635 – cuprate superconductor 1244 – semiconducting 1168 NiSi 635 –device 981 – solar cell 1169 nitride – heterojunction (MLHJ) 359 – thermal conductivity 1164 – alloy 782 multilayer film 569 nanowire (NW) 799, 1016, 1027, – crystal structure 745 – quantum size effect 563 1028, 1053 – electrical property 757 multi-mode 913 nanowire light-emitting diode (NW – lattice parameter 746 multimode behavior 729 LED) 799 – light emitter 1048 multioscillator model 738 narrow band gap 1479 – nanorod 799 multiple – II-VI semiconductor 343 – optical property 769 – quantum disk (MQD) 800 narrow gap compounds 317 – semiconductor 829 – quantum well (MQW) 68, 137, narrow gap III–V compounds 892 – thermal property 752 283, 374, 795, 797, 869, 1040, NASICON 259 nitriding 664 1479 native defect 137, 1479 nitrogen dioxide (NO2) – reflection approximation 515 native interstitials 143 –sensor 1291 near-equilibrium grown process multiplets 999 nitrogen doped crystal 125 310 N–N dimer 123 multiplexer 876 nearest-neighbor hopping (NNH) NO complex 125 multistrain well 925 202 noise equivalent photons (NEPh) multi-stripe 918 near-infrared (near-IR) 1013 891 multisubstrate dipping method 313 – slices 346 noise equivalent temperature multiwall nanotube (MWNT) 1163 near-lattice-matched heteroepitaxy difference (NETD) 875, 1480 – ballistic conductance 1167 310 nonabsorbing film 684 – electrical transport 1166 Néel temperature 1235 non-alloyed Ohmic contact 187 MUTIS Schottky contact 187 Néel–Arrhenius formula 91 noncrystalline material 696 680, 726 1481 592 647, 309 157 455, 1481 964, 564 1018 28 557, 777 59 1368 557 927 789, 940, 47, 69 1299 157 230 1085 81 1345 1481 1169 1087 70 737 2 161 230 919 682 559, 998 680 79, 1087 927 936, 1481 563 1088 1292, 1299 730, 530 838 –disorder ithography 100 1481 der (OPSEL) 1004 l (ODMR) – – interference fringes – limiter – ferroelectric – transition order–disorder model – ferroelectric behaviour or – pumped surface-emitting laser optoelectronic device – detector – semiconductor optoelectronic material orbital angular momentum quenching order parameter – stimulated luminescence (OSL) – magnetic mirror – material –memorydevice – mode – nonlinearity – phonon scattering – poling – pumping – rectification – reflectance – scattering –sensor – system integration –texture – thickness – transition matrix – transmission – transmittance optical fiber – attenuation – material –sensor optical phonon scattering rate –GaN optical property – aluminum nitride – a-Si:H – chalcogenide glass –SiGe –thinfilm optically – detected magnetic resonance 72 1415 1480 1086 737 1088 1118, 154, 597 684 1322 182, 922 1335 569, 446 1087, 1480 1480 567 947 567, 929 518 331 1391 1371 1480 976 563, 498 1024 roscopy (OES) 117, 152, 1480 416 1481 617 906 922 105, 80 1358, 562, 579 50, 1210 902 936 60, 393 987 1481 O 560, metal-oxide-semiconductor (NMOS) 1481 518 discharge 574, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) nucleation – activation energy – temperature –field – model numerical aperture –glass – integrated circuit – feedback –gain –gap – absorption coefficient – activity – absorption edge –axis – bistability – communication – constant model – device, figures-of-merit – dielectric constant – emission spect – amplification gain – amplifier – constant, Drude approximation – constants – emission spectroscopy (OES), glow Ohm’s law off-chip interconnect Ohm mobility Ohmic contact oil-free pumping oblique incidence reflectivity octahedral ferroelectric Onsager model Onsager relations opaline lattice open circuit potential (OCV) open-circuit voltage optic optical – absorption n-type-channel 447 1480 1480 1480 23 1234 697 517 659 27 910 1480 863 1480 1480 1480 500 1480 298 1480 517 1480 1396 670 1480 559, 26 872 ) 3 1087, 1480 637 1091 91 1231 998 1073 1086

1411 (N-I-S) 605 dielectrics telescope (NeXT) 298 1231 1480

– neutron transmutation doping – phosphine (PH n-type silicon – electron mobility – refractive index n-type conductivity n-type HgCdTe Nordheim coefficients Nordheim’s rule n-Si – extinction coefficient normal hydrogen electrode (NHE) normal–insulator–superconductor – current–voltage characteristic – junction – figure of merit nondegenerate material nonepitaxial film nonlinear – absorption – Fabry–Pérot–interferometer – inductor – directional coupler – KKR – Kramers–Kronig–transformation – Mach–Zehnder modulator – material figures of merit – optical medium – optical switching – periodic structure – phase shift – polarization nonradiative – decay nonmagnetic (NM) metal non-oxide compounds – process – recombination nonvolatile information, thin film nonvolatile memory device, n-type TCO – material design nonreversing heat flow (NHF) non-stoichiometric oxide nonthermal energy exploration non-stoichiometry

Subject Index 1520 Subject Index Subject Index 1521

organic oxidation kinetics 628 passivation 630, 1481 – glasses 194, 211 oxidation state 626 passivation layer, thick film 713 – laminant 1314 oxidation-induced stacking fault passive electronic component, thick – light-emitting diode (OLED) 991, (OSF) 113, 1481 film technology 714 997, 1111, 1264 oxide passive matrix addressing 1481 – perovskite 1135 – capacitance 466 Pauli – photovoltaic device (OPV) 991 –crystals 271 – exclusion principle 1260 – solvent sensitivity 1295 – electronic structure 1396 – paramagnetism 101 – substrate module circuit 1323 –film 659 – principle 1231 – tandem cell 1336 – high-temperature superconductor Pauling – thin film material 698 1391 – unit 181 – thin layer, dielectric constant –media 1212 Payne–Lacey model 1063 1293 – nanostructure 1170 Pb(Sc0:5Ta0:5)O3 (PST) 613 organic photoconductor (OPC) – particle 122 Pb-free soft error 1321 1481 –thermal 627 Pb-free solder 1321 – architecture 980 – trap density 475 PC fabrication radiation patterning – function 980 oxide glass 51 1018 – material 980 – empirical rules 430 PCBM 158 organic photoreceptor 967, 988, oxide/fluoride growth 318 PCM alloy 1150 1481 oxide/nitride (ON) dielectric stacks PDMS stamp 1270 – charge-transport layer (CTL) 988 637 peeling tape 1344 Index Subject organic semiconductor 168, 170, oxide/nitride/oxide (ONO) dielectric Peierls distortion 1151, 1166 1001, 1330 stacks 637 Peltier cooling 871 – carrier concentration 1117 oxygen Peltier effect 1379  –film 1329 – ion conductivity 254 penetration depth ( L) 1239, 1481 – molecule 1332 – cuprate superconductor 1240 – precipitates 128, 1481 – zero-field mobility 212 – iron-based superconductor 1252 –sensor 259, 1283 organic solar cell 1330 –MgB 1247 – separating membrane 1418 2 – polymer system 1331 percolation 1334 – vacancy concentration 249 – small molecular system 1331 – distance 208 ozone monitoring 1282 organometallic vapor phase epitaxy – mechanism 135 (OMVPE) 319, 886 – parameter 214 organo-silicate glass (OSG) 640 P perfect orientational order 961 – diamagnetism (Meissner effect) oriented crystal 347 P3HT 156 1481 oscillation Pb center 628 –lens 1357 –atomic 223 packaging 717 – metamaterial absorber 1368 – frequency, transition energy 224 packaging system, conjugate 1312 – silicon 111 – molecular 223 paraelectric 1481 perimeter-bonded die 1314 oscillator – phase 591, 597 permalloy 1189, 1481 – damping 222 paramagnetism 96, 97 permeation rate 261 – equation of motion 222 parameter permittivity 620, 1481 – strength 1481 –a 746 – of free space 220 OSF formation 128 –S 792 – relative 48, 220 OSF ring width 129 parasitic perovskite (CaTiO3) 250, 593, 639, out-diffusion 622 – capacitance 618, 623 1405 out-of-plane coherence length 1239 – resistance 623 – chemical element 1407 oval defect 333 parity selection rules 65 – ferroelectricity 1409 overcoat partial response maximum likelihood – photocatalytic activity 1411 – layer 989 (PRML) 1200 – superconductivity 1409 – polyurethane 989 – recording channel 1481 – superstructure 1407 – silsesquioxane 989 particulate matter (PM) 1282 perovskite oxide 1405 overlap zone-melting (OZM) 861 parts per million (ppm) 719 – catalytic activity 1410 Ovshinsky 1149 parylene 640 – property 1409 152, 562 1028 1346, 1016 1017 1020 1022 1018 997, 140, 1014 1021 1027, 1016 1016 1024 1021 1021 1081, 1021 1022 908 1005 861, 1028 1482 1017 1017 1332 1013, 1019 1027 1018 1018 1017, 1017 1015 770, 1015 1005 1019 547 1005 1029 1014, 1005 1021 562, 1027 906 1077 1482 1013 1013 1028 1482 1482 1482 547, abrication method 371, 1118, 1351 1081, f –lantern photonic crystal (PC) – amorphous semiconductors – detector – long term – measuring system – short term –TlInGaAs photon – density photon-confinement photonic – band gap (PBG) –device – glasses, optical nonlinearity –alumina – architecture – cell structure – design limitation –device – electrochemical etching – – effects – electron transfer photoisomerization photolithography – serial patterning photoluminescence (PL) – structure 3-D PBG – tunable – tuning photonic crystal fabrication – charged particle – ion-beam technique – structure – fabrication methodology – lithographic fabrication – lithography fabrication – magnetic – material, optical property – materials and criteria – nanometer-scale – optical functionality – optical response – patterning –PBGstructure – physical architecture – physical structure – self-ordered porous – semiconductor-based 927, 152, 978 979 979 1482 898, 151, 1482 978, 880 1482 359 970 979 739, 1482 875 927 1084, 559 208 967 879 984 967 1090, 979 875 968 927 1090, 726, 582, 875, 1333 1090 928 978 1482 165 349 871 1482 977 1344 167 874 982 990 871 979 um efficiency 984, 1050 180 972 567, 1482 (PICTS) quant photodetector – decay – generation photodarkening – degradation – discharge (PIDC) – discharge characteristic (PIDC) – photoconductive – avalanche – requirement photodiode junctions photodischarge –rate photoemission spectroscopy (PES) – technique photodiode array – manufacturing – performance photoexcited carrier photoexcited transport molecule photogeneration – coating – fluorescence quenching – – layer – material – photoreceptor – semiconductor photoconductor – array, detectivity – tribocharged photocurrent – loop –organic(OPC) photoconduction threshold photoconductive (PC) – array – detector –gain – switch photoconductivity (PC) photoinduced – absorption (PA) – anisotropy – sensitized – charge generation – current transient spectroscopy photochromic 1159 1156 314 28 1009 432 1205 1482 1482 1413 1416 1156 427 1005 617 1332 1000 1149 634 1406 1482 1337 997, 1334 441 1385 1009 1205, 426, 1482 289 1008 1213 28 432 344 1007 1082 1342, 1380, 1158 288, 1186, 1205 634 1074 1208 47, 28 1007 ive region 162 oact

(PMR) time-dependent (PGEC) 1149 1160

photoactive layer phot phosphorus-based material photo-catalysis photo-assisted amorphisation – proton conductivity – solid oxide fuel cell perpendicular magnetic recording – tolerance factor – process mechanism – random access memory (PRAM) phase-separation phonon – material, neuromorphic computing –memory(PCM) – matching – sensitive detection – material perturbation Hamiltonian, p-FET drive current phase – equilibria –lag – transformation phase-change – alloy ternary phase diagram perpendicular recording –media –system – development – concentration –energy – optical phonon scattering – non-polar – polar – temperature dependence phonon-glass-electron crystal – scattering phosphate phosphor – luminescence efficiency phonon–phonon – anharmonic interaction – optical display – persistent – strip – x-ray storage phosphorescence

Subject Index 1522 Subject Index Subject Index 1523

– mask processing 1019 photoreflectance (PR) 770 – squarylium 984 – self-assembly methods 1024 photorefractive beam fanning 1482 – trisazo 984 photonics 1340, 1347 photosensitivity 979, 1482 pigment material 977 photon-trapping structure (PTS) photosensor pinned film 1483 878 – screen printed 719 pinned layer 1193 photoreceptor 979, 983, 984, 990 –thickfilm 719 pinning center 1243 – amorphous semiconductor 970 photo-stimulated luminescence pinning efficiency 1244 – architecture 980 (PSL) 1004, 1008 Piper–Polich 277, 284, 376 – back-coat polymer 989 photothermal deflection spectroscopy pitch helix 937 – characterization 978 (PDS) 559 pixel size 969 – charge generation 971 photothermal ionization spectroscopy pixie dust 1203, 1483 – charge transport 971, 981 (PTIS) 1482 planar – charge transport layer 988 phototransistor 928 – chirality 1373 – charge-generation layer 983 photovoltaic (PV) 316, 1097, 1257 – diode 875 – chemical resistance 991 – array 873 – lightwave circuit (PLC) 1013, – conductive layer 982, 990 – drift current 105 1060, 1483 – dark conductivity 970 – HgCdTe array 892 – metamaterial 1365 – dark decay 971, 979 – module 1482 Planck’s law 901 – dark injection 983 – solar cell 1483 planetary reactor 324 – device architecture 967 photovoltaic device 720, 1482 plasma 1342 ujc Index Subject – dip coating 990 – current–voltage characteristics – display panel (PDP) 582, 1009 – discharge 979 874 – frequency 55, 519, 1394 – drift mobility 972 – ideal 874 plasma-assisted molecular beam –drum 990 epitaxy (PAMBE) 744 phthalocyanine (Pc) 1291, 1296, – dual layer 971 plasma-enhanced chemical vapor 1330 – dye-polymer aggregate 984 deposition (PECVD) 573, 665, –film 693 – electrical characteristic 967 1069, 1112 – polymorph 987 – electrical uniformity 991 – technique 1483 – polymorphic 1289 – electrical-only cycling 980 plasma-enhanced milling 880 – rare-earth metal 1290 – electron transport 981 plasmon 1090, 1483 –thinfilm 1295 – electrophotographic 980 plastic physical vapor deposition (PVD) – fabrication 990 –crystal 236 372, 647, 856, 858 – hopper coating 982 – deformation 1483 physical vapor transport (PVT) – inorganic material 970 – electronics 1483 280, 365, 792 – Langevan recombination 980 – encapsulation 1324 pi bond 1259 – layer 981 – optical fiber (POF) 916 – mechanical strength 991 piezoelectric plating 1190 –organic 967 – actuator 608, 1030 – impurity 1316 – overcoat layer 989 – ceramic 595 platinum resistance thermometer – photoconductivity 984 – coefficient 595 (PRT) 719 – photodischarge rate 991 –device 609 platinum thick film 711 – photosensitivity 991 – effect 1030 p-n diode structure – PVK–TNF charge transfer complex – elastic properties 609 – I–V characteristic 470 984 – material 608 p-n junction 137 – quantum efficiency 971 – polarization 1483 – reverse-biased 908 – spatial uniformity 991 –sensor 608 p-n-control 1337 – surface charge 970 – transducer 270 pocket calculator 582 – surface charge injection 971 piezoelectricity 1483 point defect 628, 1483 – thickness 980 piezoresistance 1118, 1119, 1483 – electrically active 477 – web coating 990 piezoresistive sensor 718 – surface 138 – xerographic 983 pigment generation material point group 936 photoreceptor exposure – bisazo 984 point of zero charge (PZC) 667 – LED array 983 – perylene 984 point source 650 – scanned laser 983 – phthalocyanine 984 Poisson statistics 1211 744, 708, 1400 989 344 353 981 1398 423 154 312 1484 139 1088 357 255 1484 1484 1484 1484 248 714 299 619 617 718 166 321 71 616 153 665, 1484 420 474 1237 1204, 138 1484 488 877 321, 592 298 248 1235– ype 1299 1015, 1010 (KDP) 1060 epitaxy (PACE-I) 1089 t – supply voltage power-law dependence precipitates precision doping precursor – concentration – diethyl telluride (DETe) pressure sensors primary – bombarding particles – ion species – photocurrent principal angle principal component analysis (PCA) printed capacitor printed circuit board (PCB) power – consumption – dissipation – miniaturization – source – stabilizer profiling techniques proper ferroelectric protective overcoat layer proton conductivity proton implantation pseudogap (cuprate superconductor) pseudomorphic layer p- positron emission tomography (PET) postgrowth heat treatment potassium dihydrogen phosphate printer, liquid-toner-based process integration producible alternative to CdTe – conductivity – HgCdTe –MOS(PMOS) – silicon – TCO, electronic structure – TCO, material design pulse width pulsed dye laser pulsed laser deposition (PLD) purified Si push-rod arrangement 447 211 1299 429 591 279 713 710 163 790 1484 972 902 1290 296 974 713 1024 428 1021 1336 211, 296 1021 1484 silicon 1299 1137 719 708, 454 474 694 296 599 297 719 1300 695 718 mission 599, (PTC) (PE BJT) 1281 e 434 1301 434 fluoride – granular – production – randomly stacked – seeding polytype control (SiC) polyvinylcarbazole (PVK) polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) Poole–Frenkel – coefficient – effect – polypropylene structure polysilicon – emitter bipolar junction transistor – ion-selective electrode – membrane –sensor polymorphous – conducting, physical property – conjugated – effective thermal conductivity – electrolyte membrane (PEM) – glass-transformation kinetics – heat capacity – molecularly doped – substrates thick film – tandem cell –thickfilm – thick film conductor –thickfilms – transistor polymeric – composite thermal conductivity – ferroelectric polyvinylidene population inversion porous array – domain size porous material porphyrin, synthetic positive temperature coefficient – of resistance (PTCR) – thermistor positron annihilation –spectroscopy(PAS) – pore shape 984 975 924 1483 163 1282 634 1483 222 1282 1082 434 1298 673 924 986 1483 1281 749, 619, 730 31 475 590 473 945, 1212 1483 ) 601 ilicon 1088 1298 916, 434 601 1260  674 48, 1297, 1259 1483 1483  589 69, 220 1088 601 672 30 640 32, 319 1118 1082, 975 399, 170 1342 1205 phous s 436 1483 1217, 604, 31, yroelectric

977 p

polar crystal polar dielectrics – semiconductor polarisation – microscopic origin polarity polarizability – crystallinity polygonization polyimide polymer – silicon – silicon emitter polyethylene – solid –thinfilm – vapour-deposited Poisson’s equation Poisson’s ratio ( polarization – insensitivity – insensitive modulator – ratio poly(vinyl butyral) polyacetylene polyamor polaron – model pole tip pole write head pollutant gas detection pollution monitoring poly(N-vinyl carbazole) PVK poles of a write head poling poly(methylphenylsilylene) (PMPS) – glass transition temperature – dielectric –film – –growth – interface state – material – piezoelectric polyaniline (PAni) – conductivity polycrystalline – alloy –CIGS – conductivity – blend composition – conducting

Subject Index 1524 Subject Index Subject Index 1525

PV detector technologies 352 –device 314 – process 998 PVK 977 – emission 1044, 1047 – recombination 559, 563, 910 Pyrex glass 1088 – exciton 1043 Radio Corporation of America pyrochlore 250 – finite 1041 (RCA) 956 pyroelectric – GaAs/AlGaAs 1039 radio frequency (RF) 373, 576, – coefficient 595 – infinite 1040 584, 605, 636, 661, 744, 1311 – device, radiation detector 612 – infrared photodetector (QWIP) – circuit flip chip 1320 – effect 611, 1484 530 – circuit interconnect 1320 pyrolytic boron nitride (pBN) 1484 – intersubband photodetector – circuits 1485 PZT ceramic 610 (QWIP) 1051, 1485 – device packaging material 1315 – laser 893, 1047 – digital wirebond 1317 Q – light modulator 1037, 1052 – magnetron sputtering 606 – packaging substrate 1322 – optoelectronic property 1037 – packaging, thermal issues 1327 QCL 1343 – Schrödinger equation 1040 – wirebond material 1317 q-DC behaviour 241 – solar cell 1037, 1050 radioactive Pb210 1321 – characteristic frequency 241 – vertical transport 1046 – equation of motion 242 radioluminescence 997 quantum-confined RAM memory 85 – isolated response 241 – Stark effect (QCSE) 923, 1044, Raman – sub-infinite percolation 242 1052, 1484 – amplifiers 1087 – suceptibility function 241 – structure classification 1039 – crystallinity 580 Index Subject – transport path scaling 242 quantum-mechanical – scattering 679 QLEDs 1009 – confinement 623 – scattering, stimulated 1087 quadratic Stark effect 1044 – tunneling 619 –shift 679 quantum quantum-size effect 1484 – spectroscopy 678, 1179 – ballistic transport 42 quarter-wave stack 684 random telegraph signal (RTS) 475, – cascade laser (QCL) 899, 920, quartz 277, 287 879 1037, 1049, 1484 – crystal microbalance (QCM) randomly oriented particles 33 – conductance 1167 1295 randomly stacked polysilicon, – confined stark effect 925 quasi particles 1485 Siemens method 296 – confinement 899, 923, 1038 quasi-Fermi level (QFL) 155, 902, rapid slider LPE 315 – efficiency (QE) 800, 869, 874, 1485 rapid thermal annealing (RTA) 113, 977, 1484 quasi-static measurements 464 137 – Hall effect (QHE) 462 quaternary rare earth (RE) 66 – information processing 1055 – alloy 739 – doping 315 – interference, Josephson junctions – binary parameters 726 –ion 66 1232 – composition parameters 726 – spectroscopy 1005 – size, amorphous semiconducting – Hall mobility 741 RC delay 639 multilayers 569 – time response 617 – optical modes 731 –wire 42, 557, 1039, 1053, 1485 reaction kinetics, MOCVD 319 – unit cells 731 quantum dot (QD) 325, 336, 374, reactive quench anneal (QA) 283, 345 557, 796, 899, 1007, 1038, 1039, – evaporation 653 1053, 1484 – ion beam etching (RIBE) 405 – array 87 R – sputtering 573, 659, 1485 – infrared photodetector (QDIP) reactor cell 322, 1485 1055 radial distribution function (RDF) –design 354 – laser 1054 560 reactor planetary 324 – layer 913 radiation read head 1485 – photoluminescent 1007 – detector 612 read pulse 1194 quantum well (QW) 10, 68, 330, – patterning 1018 read sensor 1187 374, 547, 557, 569, 794, 899, 903, – resistance 1485 readout integrated circuit (ROIC) 1037, 1039, 1484 radiative 875, 1485 – absorption 923, 1042 – current 912 receptor technology 972 – avalanche photodiode 1050 – decay 1073 rechargeability 261 1486 546, 977 447 1030 336 1138 1063 321, 386, 892 157 1485 288, 1485 177, 1046 1368 331 223 964 404 945 64 1485 227 950 m Arsenide 745 330 12, 737 1049 99 886 1334 1205 ) 590 3 1409 946, 1485 982 916, 99 1196 O 357, 1408 1288 2 718 tructure S (RKKY) spectrometry (RBS) 782 227 (RCLED) s – loss amplification – nonlinear response –sensor resonator, micromachined response function – amorphous Galliu responsivity reststrahlen band retina level processing retrograde solidus reversing heat flow (RHF) RHEED oscillation Richardson constant Richardson formula ring coating ring write head Ritter–Weiser formula RKKY coupling Rochelle salt rocksalt structure rod-like molecules root mean square (RMS) rotating substrate rotational viscosity – coefficient route formation Ruddelsden–Popper – compound – resonance response resonant – cavity light emitting diode SAM film sample preparation sapphire (Al Ruderman–Kittel–Kasuya–Yoshida Ruthenium Rutherford backscattering Rutherford scattering – substrate saturable absorber saturated – calomel electrode (SCE) – vapor pressure (SVP) 1485 350 1485 232 41 457 231 238 25 90, 631 459 715 1198, 238 1485 228, 491 232 235 238 236 1087 23 712 234 713, 462, 972 236 29, 1119 226, 495 232 34 1218 231 43 861 243 32, 237 1118 1240 422 233, 243 232 224, 23 1485 23 25, 459 1225 24 area (RA) fective 337 ef  223 – index – longitudinal – mixture rule – residual – strain-induced – temperature coefficient – Van der Pauw technique – measurement resistor trimming resolution resistor, thick film – temperature device (RTD) resistive transition – broadening resistivity – – activation entropy relaxation rate – correlation length relaxation time – approximation resistance – contact – metal-semiconductor – constraint hierarchy – distribution shape – extreme value statistics – thermal activation – viscosity reliability of dielectrics remaining challenges in nitrides remanent magnetization residual attenuation residual potential residual resistivity – metal – ratio (RRR) – modulation – – dipole density fluctuation – distribution remanent polarization remote impurity scattering – response – sensitivity – ensemble – ferroelectric – frequency – interactions – susceptibility, frequency-dependent relaxation – defect diffusion 81, 401 1085 939 1485 73, 1174, 619 51, 1331 546, 138 1084, 247 178 1485 48, 682 154 220, 386, 903 1299 1485 1084 347 940 47, 563 989 1382 75 69, 151, 910 154 48, 74 1301 1485 51 330, 716 1288 48, 559, 51 208 684 401 1027 etry 1485 m

683 (RHEED) 1285 1485 (RAIRS) 358 (RED) 221

reflectometer reflow – soldering refractive index – high-energy electron diffraction – humidity (RH) – permittivity refractory layer relative – dielectric permittivity refractory compound recombination – -enhanced diffusion – monomolecular – nonradiative – process – radiative recrystallization rectangular columnar phase reduced – dimensionality – Fermi energy – graphene oxide (RGO) reciprocal lattice – bimolecular refactive index reflectance – interface potential re-entrant phase – -transmittance (R–T) method reflection – adsorption infrared spectroscopy – coating – difference spectroscopy (RDS) – electron diffraction (RED) – high-energy electron diffraction –average – complex frequency-dependent – intensity-dependent – oxide glass – semiempirical – tuning – units (RIU) refracto

Subject Index 1526 Subject Index Subject Index 1527

saturation scintillator 1010 – layer 456 – flux density 1189 SCLC mechanism 694 – nanotube 1168 – intensity 1486 screen printing (SP) 707, 1486 –thinfilm 690 – magnetization 88, 1486 – polymer thick films 713 semiconductor 2, 22, 51, 59, 271, – of absorption 1486 s–d hybridization 102 275, 327, 486, 714, 829, 1016, – parameter 64 secondary 1165 – polarisation 591 – electron (SE) 1486 – alloy 380, 726, 732 scaling 1486 – ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) – amorphous 59 –law 1214 138, 140, 351, 386, 413, 1486 – amorphous organic 1117 – of integrated circuits 615 – ion yields 421 –analysis 413 –targets 616 – photocurrent 153 – band gap 477 scanning Seebeck coefficient 1380 – band picture 1085 – electron microscopy (SEM) 10, – intrinsic semiconductor 1381 – binary compound 135 359, 385, 560, 1285 Seebeck effect 719, 1379 – carrier scattering mechanisms – spreading resistance microscopy seed crystal 377 739 (SSRM) 458 seeded chemical vapor transport – characterization 413 – transmission electron beam 409 (SCVT) 377 – component 462 – transmission electron beam seeded physical vapor transport – conductivity 685 induced conductivity (STEBIC) (SPVT) 377 –crystal 1085 403 segregation 137, 302, 311 – crystalline 38, 133 scanning probe 89 –behavior 274 – density of states 195 Index Subject –microscopy 1486 – coefficient 274 – detector 612, 1486 scanning–tunnelling microscopy – coefficient (k) 1486 –device 453, 685, 898 (STM) 646 – effect 347 –die 1315 scattering – of components 660 –diffusion 133 – carrier–carrier 493 selection rule 1486 – direct-band gap 900 – carrier–lattice 492 selective epitaxy 1486 – electrical characterization 454 – cross section 21 selective LPEE 315 – electron transport 830 – mechanism 464 selective-area vapor-phase epitaxy –film 663, 1284 Schiff’s base 956 (SA-VPE) 1053 – free carrier 455 Schott glass code 80 selenide glass (SG) 1060 –gain 902 Schottky selenium 969 – gauges 1120 – defect 135 selenization 1486 –glass 194 – defect pair 249 self energy, hierarchical modes 239 – diode, Ni-a-Si:H 583 self-assembled monolayer (SAM) – group III–V 144 – emission 698 1288 – group IV 144 – formation energy 250 self-assembly (SA) 1017, 1286, – Hall effect 462 Schottky barrier 691, 790 1486 – impurity 62 – atomic interlayers 189 – inverse opal 1024 – indirect-band gap 486, 900 – H-induced modification 189 self-defocusing 1486 – industry 293 –lowering 1138 self-diffusion 136, 143 – infrared detector 869 Schottky contact 175, 1486 – dopants 141 – interband transition region 739 – barrier height 183 self-focusing 1486 – laser 897 – C=V characteristics 178 self-interstitials 141 – laser, current confinement 908 – graphene 190 – concentration 135 – laser, radiative recombination – I=V characteristic 177 – semiconductor 135 910 – ideal 177 self-organized process 726 –loss 902 – laterally homogeneous 178 self-scanned electronic readout – material 455 –MoS2 190 1126 – microelectronics 615 – patchy 178 self-similar correlation 236 – mobility 462 – real 177 Sellmeier equation 50 – modulator 923 Schottky–Mott rule 175, 1486 semiconduction – nanocrystals 1486 Schroeder van Laar equation 958 –CdTefilm 693 – nondegenerate 22 schubweg 1127, 1140 – filmelectronic properties 1112 – n-type piezo-electric 378 304 628 304 530 1142, 1312 313 59 534 294 534 629 534 142, 298 295 530 628 527 573 142 523, 12, 294 524 1487 , 530 625 528 2 314 59 329, 297 278, 1487 1259 561, 293 526 527, 294 303 ) 12, 305 534 298 4 294 , 1007 141 4 1088 1211 x system, point defects 305 2 142 Ge , enhanced surface diffusion x 3 SiGe quantum structures  579 1201, (SPRITE) = 1 1312 CZ magnetic-field-applied CZ Si Si/SiO silane (SiH – amorphous – bandgap – carbide (SiC) – materials preparation – crystals growth new methods –CZcrystalgrowth – device electrical performance – device power dissipation – dislocation-free – dopants – doping –element – FZ method –growth – hydrochlorination – lattice constant – magnetic-field-applied continuous silica glass –PbO silicon –crystal –crystalgrowth, Si:H conduction tail states Si SiH – alloy – bandgap – density of states – mobility Si-based transistor SiC –growthonSi SiGe –growth – heterostructures – hydrogen passivation – in-situ hydrogen bake – optical properties – pre-epitaxy cleaning – quantum wells sigma bond signage signal decay rate signal processing in the element signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) 497 876, 520 489 1487 1487 138 1487 1100 620 717 503 495 461, 1292 628 1487 324 492 138 248 95 1487 5 1303 455, 494 512 748, 602 1487 912 1284 105 113 421 692 1361 489 875 259 549, 279 1487 1129 279 278, all-effect parameter (SCH) 789 (SCH) laser 877 351 H 488 513 – oxidation kinetics Si/Ge – interstitial – optical absorption spectrum – room-temperature resistivity separate confinement heterostructure sheet resistance Shockley–Queisser limit Shockley–Read–Hall (S-R-H) shape forming shear modulus shell cloak shields shift current shifted-modulation-doped (SMD) Shockley theory – trench isolation (STI) shape anisotropy –trap –traplevel shallow-energy-level dopant shallow – impurity – impurity doping – structures – thick film technology separate confinement heterojunction – oxygen – solid-state – miniaturization – optical absorption – organic vapor – – energy levels of impurities – electrical properties – conduction-band effective mass – diffusion coefficient of electrons – doping effect – drift velocity short wave (SW) short-circuit path diffusion short-circuit paths short-range atomic structure Si short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) shot noise showerhead reactor 922, 380 175, 454 899, 380 1300 1301 900 , 726 433 1299 22 1037 732 1085 1299 707 472 455 455 690 259 923, 1384 1486 756 460 140 1300 184 730 904 1290, 1292 569 454, 140 908 1176 1284 730 1298 416 422 294 1190 3 272 456 1281, mperometric

180 295 1072 a (SIPBH)

– optical amplifier (SOA) – microelectronics – microstructure glass – optical properties – permittivity – properties – pseudo-binary (CdTe–ZnTe) – quantum well – zincblende semiconductor heterostructure – relative permittivity – specific heat – traveling heater method – triode – wurtzite – resistivity – silicon – solid solution – spontaneous emission – spontaneous ordering – tetrahedral – thermal conductivity – thermal properties – wafer – work function – – planar buried heterostructure –bandoffset semiconductor layer –analysis –GaAs – H diffusion – hydrogen – sheet resistivity semi-insulating semiconductor–dielectric interface – electrical characterization semiconductor-grade silicon (SG-Si) semiconductor–insulator interfaces – charge pumping sensing –filament – mechanism – membrane – membrane fabrication sensitivity – relative sensor semimetal Sendust

Subject Index 1528 Subject Index Subject Index 1529

– metallurgical-grade 295 single-crystal diamond 170 sodium nitrite (NaNO2), – microelectronics 1169 single-electron density of states order–disorder ferroelectric 592 – multiplexer 882 1230 SOFC – nitride 695 single-layer – anode 1414 – nitride films 665 – organic photoconductor 1487 – cathode 1413 – n-type 298 – photoreceptor 981 – electrolyte 1415 – -on-insulator (SOI) 463, 794, single-mode 913 – interconnector 1417 1063 single-photon – stack 1417 – optical constants 515 – avalanche diode (SPAD) 1050 soft ferrites 97 – optical properties 515 – emission computed tomography soft underlayer (SUL) 1205, 1212, – oxynitride (SiON) 631, 1069 (SPECT) 1010 1487 – physicochemical characteristics – source 1055 soft-magnetic film, hysteresis 1187 301 single-wall soft-magnetic material 1185 – p-type 298 – carbon nanotube (SWCN) 1263 solar cell 557, 573, 720, 1050, – semiconductor industry 293 – nanotube (SWNT) 1163, 1262 1097, 1487 – silica 294 sintering 98, 603 – a-Si:H-based 582 – single-crystal growth 296, 298 Si–O bond stretching vibrations – c-Si:H-based 585 – solar cell 1101 494 –Si 278 – surface capacitance 468 Si–O bonding network 628 solar energy 1098 – technology 1284 SiO2 solder – tetrachloride 295 – physicochemical properties 628 – alloy 1320 Index Subject silicon-based light emitter 530 – quartz 625 – alternative 1324 silicon-germanium (SiGe) 141, 523 – reliability 631 – conduction 1325 – epitaxial layers 534 – thermally grown 625 – dipping 716 –growth 534 SiON 622, 632, 1069 – electronic interconnect 1317 – physical properties 524 –film 631 – flip chip 1320 – selective epitaxy 535 S-I-S junction 1231 – interconnect 1317 – virtual substrate 528 Si–SiO interface 472 – interconnect reliability 1318 silicon-on-insulator (SOI) 463, 2 size of crystal 280 – intergranular failure 1319 794, 1063 skutterudite 1386 – intermetallic compound 1319 – substrate 794 slab waveguide 1017 –paste 1320 silicon-oxynitride (SiON) 631, slider 1487 – Pb-free product 1320 1069 sliding 880 silk screen printing 708, 1320 –Pb-Sn 1320 – boat 311, 1487 – plating 1320 Sillenite Bi12TiO20 170 silver conductor, thick film 711 – boat method 312 – RF circuit 1320 silver=palladium conductor, thick – boat process 880 – wetting 1319 film 711 sliding-boat LPE 350 solder joint SIMS (secondary ion mass Slonczewski loose-spin 100 – flip chip 1319 spectrometry) 413 slope parameter 1487 – microstructure 1318 –profile 355 slow cooling 276 –strain 1318 – static SIMS (SSIMS) 418 slush 1487 soldering 716 simultaneous unipolar multispectral –growth 345 sol–gel technique 667, 1089 integrated technology (SUMIT) small outline (SO) 715 solid 888 small pixel technology 886 – electrical behavior 256 single crystal 269 small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) – electrolyte 258, 260, 261 –growth 299 560 – ionic conductor 256, 262 – silicon 297 smart sensor 1299 – oxide electrolyte 249 – silicon, CZ growth 299 smart window 262 – oxide fuel cell (SOFC) 252, 260, – silicone, optical constants 515 smectic liquid crystal 963 262, 1409 single electron tunneling 1231 smectic phase 936, 1487 – oxide fuel cell, perovskite oxide single photon counting 1005 smoothing layer 983 1413 single quantum well (SQW) 374 Snell’s law 71, 1356 – polymers 429 single-color device 355 SNR 1209 – silicon, impurity solubility 302 160 576 153 871 418 90 843 567 501 1488 102 661 710 SSPG) 900 835, SSPC) 345, 793 659 659 1186 905 659 61 657 524 344, 657 1121 347 661 274 1209 659 1488 871 657 1488 926 636, 89 573, 1015 273 1488 574 1065 1119 658 658 255 655, 658 1488 verage method (SCM) -co (SRAM) spectrometry (SSIMS) reliability 637 steady-state – electron transport – photocarrier grating ( –plasma Stepanov – technique step – photoconductivity ( – glow discharge – high-energy –low-energy – magnetron – non-oxide film – oxide film – radio-frequency (RF) –rate – reactive –target – triode – yield squareness squeegee SSR crystals stability Staebler–Wronski effect stainless steel substrate staking fault (SF) stark effect static dielectric constant static disorder static random-access memory static secondary ion mass stimulated emission Stirling cryocooler, long term Stirling engine cryocooler stirred melts stoichiometry Stokes Shift Stoner two-band model Stoner–Wohlfarth model stop band storage capacitor, leakage of charge storage time strain – compensated – component – effect – engineering – gauge 104 454, 171 104, 105 872 104, 422 104 1355 104, 104 1488 104 1193 419 106 999 1167 872 104, 872 943 660 1365 903 1192 1488 1488 94, 1197 103 590, 106 942 856 1199 660 346, 900, 911 654, 102, 589, 106 105 1405 726 418, 104 660 104 658 1488 660 98 105 458 er concentration 104, 1218 1218 1218 456, carri – getter – conductivity modulation sputter deposition – deposition (SD) – diode – direct current (DC) sputter depth profile –bias – chemical information sputter-induced roughness sputtering – asymmetric-AC – polarization – oscillator – photo-galvanic effect (SPGE) spin-polarized current (SPC) – pumping – split-off band spin-based logic circuit spin–charge separation spin-Gunn effect (SGE) spin-Hall effect (SHE) spin-Peltier effect (SPE) –valve spin-dependent recombination spinel – structure spin-Hall magnetoresistance (SMR) spin–orbit coupling – emission spectrum – polarization spin-wave guiding splay deformation splay elastic constant split-ring resonator (SRR) spontaneous – emission (SE) –ordering spin-Seebeck effect (SSE) spin-transfer torque (STT) spin-spin scattering spreading resistance technique spintronic – effect spin-valve read element spin-valve read head spin-wave current (SWC) – SPRITE detector 73, 119 344 349 349 262 1243 1288 1372 223 1249 687 1487 256, 1487 1087 43 997 415 1312 1487 1198 731 105 99 105 380, 333 168 1194 1487 247 105 546 1213 105 105 105 345, 579 1286 1218 1487 691 343, 548, agnetic energy

1487 1285 511, 1487 283, 530, 1160 m (SSMBE)

space charge region space transformer solitonic propagation of pulses sonication-assisted liquid exfoliation sonoluminescence space-charge-limited current (SCLC) spacer material spacer resistivity solid–vapor phase relation spacing layer Spear method specific heat spectral broadening spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) solidus solidus–liquidus separation spatial frequency spatial resolutions species conservation equation – III–V binaries solid/liquid/gaseous phase equilibria solid–liquid phase relation – state ionic – state ionic, future trend solid-source MBE – effusion cell solid-state recrystallization (SSR) specular optical activity spectroscopic response specularity parameter spherical aberration spike noise – detection – filtering – injection – spike-timing-dependent plasticity spin – accumulation – coating – coating, film thickness – coherence – current – density wave (SDW) – manipulation – source molecular beam epitaxy

Subject Index 1530 Subject Index Subject Index 1531

– relaxation 374 super-bandgap 1084 – roughness 1063 – tuning 1029 superconducting oxide 1226 – scattering 30 strained bond formation 580 superconducting state resistance – source 650 strained quantum well 1041, 1048, 1228 –tension 1062 1488 superconductivity 1168 – topography 415 strained-layer technique 923 – BCS theory 1230 surface acoustic wave (SAW) 600, strain-induced modulation 1122 – history 1226 718 Stranski–Krastanov (SK) 374 – mechanism 1230 –device 600 –growth 374 –MgB 1245 2 surface alignment 941 – growth technique 904 – organic materials 1226 – director orientation 948 – mode 336 superconductor – technique 1053 – electrodynamics 1229 –energy 942 stray magnetization 1212 – field-cooled 1228 – homeotropic 941 stress 1488 – magnetic behavior 1228 – hybrid 955 strong absorption 77 – metallic 1226 – pre-tilt 944, 953 strong anchoring 1488 – phase diagrams 1233 – strong anchoring 942 strontium bismuth tantalate (SBT) – type I 1488 – uniform planar 941 639 – type II 1488 – weak anchoring 942 structural parameter – zero field-cooled 1228 surface chemical analysis 413 – crystal density 727 supercontinuum 1082, 1087 – ISO TC 201 413 – lattice parameter 727 supercooled liquid 439, 1061 surface mount components 716 Index Subject – lattice-matching condition 727 supercooling temperature 1066, surface mount devices (SMDs) – molecular density 727 1488 1489 structural properties 348 superlattice (SL) 10, 1037, 1040, – component 714 structural relaxation 1065, 1488 1042, 1198, 1488 – thick film techniques 714 STT-MRAM 1215 – avalanche photodiode (SL-APD) surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sub-100 nm (CMOS) technology 1037, 1051, 1488 1293 633 – optoelectronic property 1037 – imaging (SPRI) 1296 sublimation traveling heater method – structure 136 (STHM) 284 – vertical transport 1046 susceptibility 64, 241 submicron machining 1018 superlens 1357 – frequency dependence 237 submicron quantum dot 107 superparamagnetism 1185, 1488 – linear 227 suboxide 627 supersaturation 120, 312, 376, 671, – nonlinear 1082 substitutional impurities 1488 1488 – relative, frequency-dependent substrate 1488 supersaturation versus misfit 311 223 –Al2O3 ceramic 1322 superstrate 1489 – self-similar scaling 237 – basic types 651 superstructure grating (SSG) 915 susceptibility increment 230 –debiasing 881 super-twisted nematic (STN) 951 – dipole contribution 242 – dielectric constant 1322 supramolecular assembly 1289 susceptor 1489 – embedding of components 1323 supramolecule 1282 Swanepoel’s method 77 – flip chip interconnect 1322 surface s-wave symmetry 1235 – lattice-matched 879 – absorption 579 switching current 1219 –LTCC 1322 – analysis, dopant concentrations switching time 617, 1192 – material 1322, 1323 417 switch-off transient 165 – material, underfill 1323 – anisotropy 95 switch-on photocurrent 164 – non-lattice-matched 356 – band bending 467 –organic 1322 –energy 100 switch-on transient 164 – orientation 356 – kinetics 670 SWNT (single wall nanotube) – Poisson’s ratios 1120 – mobility 673 – electrical transport 1166 – rotation 332 – morphology 317 – intrinsic superconductivity 1168 – temperature 321 – passivation 1489 – ropes 1166 subthreshold slope 471 – photovoltage (SPV) 171 synthetic subwavelength imaging 1364 –plasmon 1293 – antiferromagnet (SAF) 1192, super structure grating 915 – reaction concept 575 1195, 1489 1324 711, 711 711 325, 1003 1318, 177 710, 715 715 718 716 713 716 707, 712 720 719 937 1381 1379 713 318 718 1490 712 1490 687, 697 1490 707 713 707 720 711 1324 2 713 719, 716 1325 604, layer 460 711 719 2 1490 438 1380 semiconductor 1490 1490 1284, spectroscopy (PTC) 1003 –grownSiO – stimulated current (TSC) thermionic emission (TE) – current thermistor – positive temperature coefficient – stimulated luminescence (TSL) thermochromism thermocompression – bonding thermodynamic melting temperature thermoelectric energy conversion thermoelectric material, thermoelectricity thermoluminescence (TL) thermomechanical fatigue thermo-photovoltaic (TPV) thick film thermoplastic polymer – adhesive – glass-transition temperature –thickfilm thermosetting – material – polymer, thick film thermosonic bonding thermotropic thick CdF – chemical sensor – component, resistor – component, tolerance – conductor, characteristics – conductor, sheet resistivity – copper – definition – dielectric paste – fabrication – photoconductor – piezoelectrics – platinum – platinum conductor – polymer – resistor material – resistor paste – solar cell 425, 597 433 1072 1489 433 434 432 605 434 918 1174 436 425, 1137 1116 1202 1135 877 664, 1046 1490 887 875 1209 ompound, layering 1121 431 1112 435 927 e insulator 1388 1164 710 158, 431 871, 425 899, 1265 1234 431 1490 433 1489 1332 1088 433 431, 732 431 752, ivated delayed fluorescence ongitudinal scheme 710 act 436, 732 III–V (TADF) l – driven switching theoretical maximum gain thermal –analysis – budget – coefficient of expansion (TCE) – contrast ratio – decomposition thallium bromide thallium-based c – polymer – substrate thermally – – polymeric composite – emission –energy – expansion coefficient (TEC) – expansion principle – generation current – generation rate – imaging – nonlinearities – poling – resistivity – resistivity, group III–V binaries – runaway power load – ceramic – crystalline insulators – crystalline polymers – crystalline semiconductor –glass – glasses – generation – stability thermal conductivity – lattice – metal – metal alloy – noncrystallin – nanotube – expansion coefficient (TEC), group tetrahydrofuran (THF) TFT – fabrication – inverted staggered – tetragonal ferroelectric phase 79 715 1202, 1489 1340 1489 51 640 1021 293 1489 1344 284 275 1489 711, 1489 495 740 449 1347 1489 658 403 1346 904, 686, 616 603 726 1339 1336 1339 1339 1017 1345 297 1489 1085, 25, 345 270 1343 1340 730 282 1340

T (TCR) refractive index (TCRI) scanning calorimetry (MDSC) 446 (TEM-CL) 1489

Tauc gap tail states tandem cell tape-casting target material T nonlinear figure of merit TA Instruments tab automated bonding (TAB) –crystal – ferrimagnetic media (SFM) temperature coefficient of resistivity system-on-a-chip (SOC) temperature coefficient of the tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) –system ternary and quaternary alloys templating tensile strain terahertz (THz) – component – detector – materials – parametric oscillator – radiation – range – parameter temperature profiles temperature-modulated differential template, self-assembled – frequency –gap – source terahertz-frequency photons ternaries – III–V ternary – alloy mobility – cycle time TEM-cathodoluminescence Tauc–Lorentz parameterization Teal–Little (TL) Te-based compounds technology node – method

Subject Index 1532 Subject Index Subject Index 1533

– substrate 710 threading dislocation density (TDD) Tool–Narayanaswamy–Moynihan – technology 708, 714 537 (TNM) 441 – technology, printing 708 three-dimensional atom probe topological insulator 1159 thick film hybrid circuit microscopy (3DAP) 10 total heat flow 447 – active components 714 three-dimensional lattice 426 track density 1210 – manufacturing 707 three-valley Monte Carlo simulation track width 1206 – packaging 717 830 trailing-edge shield 1207 thin dielectric film 690 three-zone model, microstructure transconductance 470, 630 thin film 47, 151, 645, 685 677 transfer reaction 664 – amorphous 674 threshold current, characteristic transferred electron effect 1490 – antireflection coating 680 temperature 913 transformation optics 1361 threshold electric field 943 – deposition 158, 647 transient threshold voltage (V ) 633 – deposition method 646 T – enhanced diffusion (TED) 137 threshold voltage (V ) 470, 1116, – deposition variable 669 th – photoconductivity (TPC) 166 1122, 1490 – dielectric 654 – photocurrent spectroscopy 166 – electrical properties 646, 685 – modulation 1122 Tien model 1063 transient electron transport 834, – Fresnel coefficient 681 847 – fundamental properties 680 tilted anisotropy 1211 tilted perpendicular recording 1211 – characteristics 845 – metallic 674 – drift velocity 843 – mirror 680 time division multiplexing 1490 transimpedance pre-amplifier 166 Index Subject – morphological characteristic 676 time-delay and integration (TDI) 873 transistor 454, 714, 1490 – nanostructure 680 time-dependent dielectric breakdown – channel scaling 620 – optical coefficients (constants) (TDDB) 631 –design 3 681 time-domain charge measurement – design technology, switching time – optical properties 646, 680 (TDCM) 1490 617 – optical thickness 682 time-of-flight (TOF) 165, 168, 564, – electrical characteristics 617 – optics 75, 680 972, 973 –FinFET 621 –organic 1289 – electron mobility 207 – gate dielectric, industry scaling – phthalocyanine 1295 –SIMS 418 622 – polycrystalline 674 – SIMS (ToFSIMS) 418 – gate length 619 – properties 646, 669 time-resolved microwave – non-planar structure 620 – reflectance 682 conductivity (TRMC) 171 – performance 622 – resistivity 31 TiO2 168, 172 – planar structure 620 – roughness 161 tipping 880, 1490 – scaling 618 – semiconductor 1111 – boat 311 –trigate 621 – sputtering 654 – technique 349 – stack transmission properties 683 transit time 1490 Tl (thallium)-based III-V ternary transition – structure 669, 670 alloy semiconductor 544 – dipole 223 – technology 645 Tl-III-As ternary alloy growth 546 – insulator–metal 489 – transducer 1118 Tl-III-P ternary alloy growth 546 – length 1203 – transistor (TFT) 2, 557, 573, 582, Tl-III-Sb ternary alloy growth 546 – metal 100 952, 1111, 1125, 1126 Tl-III-V alloy growth 546 thin metallic films 685, 688 Tl-III-V alloy semiconductor 544 – probabilities, relative 1000 thin organic film 1286 TlInGaAs 544 –region 1187 – island density 1286 – band-gap energy 548 –regionentropy 233 third-harmonic generation 1087, – photoluminescence 547 – shape 1210 1088 – refractive index 548 transition temperature 936 third-order nonlinearities 1089 TlInGaAsN 544, 545 – liquid crystal–isotropic 940 THM MCT 286 – electroluminescence 549 – nematic-isotropic 936 THM technique 285 – photoluminescence 549 transition-metal ions 1000 Thomas–Fermi screening 1243 TlInGaP 544 transmission coefficient 1217 threading dislocation (TD) 793, TOF mobility 168 transmission electron diffraction 1490 toner 969 (TED) 393 535 358 649, 749 1051 1251 1491 1243 523, 574 1491 1240 329, 1491 1491 1040, 789 1232 766 ) 92, c2 449 432 B 1491 1270 1018 1491 1244 1233 1214 669 685 61 1052, 1088 716 716 1243 1323, 669 1247 622 2 U 662 1319 (UAPD) 293, spectroscopy (UVLAS) deposition (UHV-CVD) 1491 resonance-radio-frequency magnetron sputtering (UHV-ECR-RMS) Umklapp process unbalanced magnetron technique under bump metallurgy (UBM) underfill uniaxial anisotropy uniform planar alignment uniformly doped (UD) unipolar avalanche photodiode unit cell upper critical field – cuprate superconductor – iron-based superconductor –MgB ultrahigh-vacuum environment ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) ultrasonic – bonding – micro-spectroscopy (UMS) ultrathin films ultraviolet light absorption upper critical field ( upper shield Urbach law Urbach tail UV lithography UV poling ultrafast nonlinear response ultrafine printing ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) ultrahigh-vacuum chemical vapour ultrahigh vacuum-electron cyclotron type II superconductor – mixed state – pinning – vortex–vortex interaction type of film Tzero technology type II band alignment 597 1491 774, 1413 211 1491 105, 1087 429 861, 1218 295 952 201 986 1491 40, 1040 1086 1233 951 ) 380, 1083, 3 1235 789 360 997 986 324 942 160 1231 659 1015 347, 915 1046 624 167 940 1491 344 1491 1373 1039 343, (lead metaniobate) 927, 1491 616, 289 357 6 lattice O 1218 2 284, 785 -tolylamine (TTA) p 275, 1029 1205, 954 775 335, trichlorosilane (SiHCl triangular triboluminescence traveling heater method (THM) – hole gas (2DHG) – projection – structure two-electron transition (TET) tuning photonic crystal response tunnel conductivity tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) tunneling – conduction – current turbo-disc reactor twin crystal twinning twist deformation twist vector – magnetoresistance (TMR) – transition probability twisted nematic (TN) – magnetoresistive head – single electron – transition of charge carrier – display, chiral dopant twisted vertically aligned (TVAN) two-beam experiment two-beam system two-color detector two-dimensional (2-D) – electron gas (2DEG) trimming triode sputtering triphenylenes triple phase boundary (TPB) tri- TROK model trisazo compound true specific heat capacity tuneable lasers tungstate tungsten bronze –PbNb type I band alignment type I superconductor two-photon absorption two-step absorption 460 1392 878 976 1303 579, 491, 328, 211 324 53, 560, 1114 1293, 513 988 989 1490 202, 1303 211 1337 976 385, 1200 491 899, 1490 514 1490 693 arge-limited 750 461 905, 624 213 69 1117 115, 1178, 1391, 358 1243 731, 454 10, 205, 731 375 683 692 683 1195 561, 1076, 1104, 624

p 1118 transit (TRAPATT) 532, 676, (TLM) (TEM) current density (TFSCLC) concentration 855, 1167

trapping centers – modes tra trap-free transport trap-limited conduction (TLC) trapped carrier density trapped plasma avalanche-triggered – magnetic bias film transverse optical (TO) – test structure transmission line model (TLM) transmittance transparent – conducting oxide (TCO) – transmission line measurement transmission electron microscopy – distribution –fixedcharge –level trap-assisted tunneling (TAT) TRAPATT diode trap-free space-ch – magnetic (TM) – connection layer –film – layer – oxide semiconductor (TOS) transport – agent –chamber – currents –energy – phenomena, low-dimensional transport coefficient – field dependence transport material – oxidation potential – reduction potential transport-limited growth transverse – acoustical (TA) –bias – electric (TE)

Subject Index 1534 Subject Index Subject Index 1535

V Verneuil 271 W – technique 1491 V=G parameter 116 vertical W nonlinear figure of merit 1492 V/I boundary 128, 1491 – external cavity surface emitting wafer scale packaging (WSP) 13 vacancy (V) 113, 1491 laser (VECSEL) 918 Wannier–Mott excitons 62 – aggregate 115 – gradient freezing (VGF) 270, Wannier-type exciton 1331 – concentration 135, 137 275, 283, 380, 884, 1491 waste in electrical and electronic –flux 136 – superlattice 1334 equipment (WEEE) 1321 – formation energy 114 – transport 1491 water-soluble materials 276 vacuum vertical cavity 796 wave function, Bloch-type 486 – deposition 649 – surface emitting laser (VCSEL) wave soldering 716 – distillation (VD) 861 796, 899, 916, 1037, 1048, 1491 wave-function overlap 924 –evaporation(VE) 1089 vertical external cavity surface wavelength 1340 – ultraviolet (VUV) 72 emitting laser (VECSEL) 918 – dispersive x-ray (WDX) 385 valence band (VB) 56, 899, 1083, vertical unseeded vapor growth – division multiplexing (WDM) 1491 (VUVG) 284 543, 1030, 1068, 1492 – amorphous semiconductor 558 vertically aligned nematic (VAN) wavenumber 1340 – deformation potentials 737 954 weak absorption 77 valence change glass 1009 very high mobility 335 –tail(WAT) 61 valence electron 60 very-large-scale integration circuit weak link 1492 valence-alternation pairs (VAP) 559 (VLSI) 801 weak-link behavior, polycrystalline Index Subject valence-band offset V-grove nanowire 1053 cuprate superconductor 1242 –Al1xGaxAs/GaAs 185 VI recombination 118, 1492 web photoreceptors 1492 –core-levelXPS 180 via-hole device 880 Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin (WKB) – GaN and Ge heterostructure 187 vibration dynamics 239 697 –SiO2 and Si heterostructure 186 vibrational mean energy 426 white-light LED 1006 van der Pauw technique 457 videotape 97 wide bandgap van Hove singularities 58 virtual gap states (ViGS) 181, 1492 – compounds 365, 374 vanadium oxide (VOx) 869 viscosity 1061 – epitaxial growth 371 vapor viscosity coefficient – group II–VI compound –growth 278, 281, 284–286, 1491 – Miesowicz experiments 945 semiconductors 367 – phase epitaxy (VPE) 5, 270, 310, – nematodynamics 947 – group II–VI compounds 371 365, 879, 882, 899, 1491 viscous torque 946 – material 743 – pressure constant, precursor 322 visible (VIS) 72 – quantum dot 374 –sensing 1295 visual graphics array (VGA) 949 – quantum well 374 – transport deposition (VTD) 858 V-MRAM 108 wide-band x-ray 863 vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) 325, 799 void 112, 1492 –imager(WXI) 863 –nanowiregrowth 1053 – density 121 widegap compounds 316 vapor-pressure-controlled – morphology 123 width at one-half amplitude PW50 Czochralski (VCZ) 281 volatile organic compound (VOC) 1194 vapor-solid (VS) 799 1282 Wiedemann–Franz–Lorenz law 435 variable-range hopping (VRH) 203, Volmer–Weber (VW) 374 wire bonding 716, 1492 696, 1117, 1168 –growth 374 – digital applications 1315 Varshini 771, 783 voltage noise measurement 475, – materials 1315 VCSEL technology 337 476 WO3 168 Vegard’s law 727, 728, 1491 – low-impedance device 476 work function 635, 690, 1492 vehicle 1491 voltage scaling 618 write velocity–field characteristic 835 voltage-controlled magnetism 107 – efficiency 1492 –AlN 836 vortex –gap 1492 –GaN 836 – property 107 – head 1189, 1205, 1492 – group III–V nitride semiconductor – transistor 108 write-head material 1191 836 VPE growth wrong bond 1492 –InN 836 – group II–VI wide bandgap 372 wurtzite 589, 743, 745 Verdet constant 69 – source materials 372 –GaN 835 1176 1002 260 259 259 316 1493 377 371 1493 87 671 379 , 429 4 ansition 1090 590 Z 1053 resistance (ZTCR) zero-dimensional (0-D) structure zero-phonon tr zinc compound zincblende structure zirconia auto exhaust zirconia based system Zn-based compound ZnO – single crystals ZnSe – epitaxial layer – single crystal zone refining ZBLAN glass Zeeman energy zeolite zero band-gap semiconductor zero temperature coefficient of 1493 1008 1127, 777 105 1492 390 1492 1173, 415 1287 627, 1141, 730 748, 1492 626, 1024 1492 1140, 413, 1191 Y 715 (XPS) 1128 YAG (yttrium aluminium garnet) yellow luminescence (YL) yield strength yoke Young’s modulus – primary excitation yttrium iron garnet (YIG) – semiconductors Y-type construction – storage phosphor (XRSP) – topography x-ray diffraction (XRD) x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy – lithography – photoconductor property – sensitivity 737 738 1492 385, 782 737, 978, 1492 390 1492 372, 1492 971, 969, 969 1153 1286, 968, 1492 1008 314 747 640 1178, 1492

X (XANES) 748 1151,

xerogel xerographic discharge xerographic gain xerography XeroX Copier x-ray – absorption near-edge structure – group III nitride alloy – structure WZ-GaN – group III–V binaries – group III–V semiconductors – absorption spectroscopy (XAS) – detector – diffraction (XRD) – imaging – fluorescence (XRF)

Subject Index 1536 Subject Index Recently Published Springer Handbooks

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