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Home , Aramaic, Arameans in Israel, Assyrians in Israel, Baz (tribe), Jilu (tribe)

1

THE ASSYRIAN LINGUISTIC HERITAGE AND ITS SURVIVAL IN DIASPORA

Efrem YILDIZ University of Salamanca

Preamble The following pages will address the problem of linguistic survival among the Assyrian groups who settled in the western world, focusing on how and what kind of methods one could use in the conservation of their . But, in order to introduce the reader to the language spoken by the it is important to offer a general vision upon their historical situation. History shows, that probably the Assyrian territory was the first where two were employed at the same time. Such a phenomenon occurred about three centuries before the fall of the Assyrian Empire. As it is well known, the Neo-Assyrian Empire consisted of a multi-ethnic state which included many peoples and states of different origins1 and it remained as such until the very end of the Empire. Such a multi- ethnic society affords the opportunity for many ethnic minorities to keep and conserve their identities in a macro imperial system. Such cases are mentioned in the legal documents proceeding from Aššur, and Dur-Katlimmu dating from the last decades of the Empire, that mention Assyrian citizens with names of different states, that were under the Assyrian power, but which had nothing to do, as some modern author suggests, with ethnic consciousness2. There are cases that could be considered as an exception in those inaccessible areas within the borders of whose people were not fully under Assyrian control. The case of had a special status because of its political features that allowed retaining their traditional institutions and

1 For more information see, J. . Postage, “Ancient Assyria. A Multi Racial State” in I/1 (1989) 1- 10; see also S. Parpola, “Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today”, in www.nineveh.com, p. 1-18; H. D. Baker (ed.) The Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, vol. 2/II, Helsinki, 2001. 2 Cf. R. Zadok, “The Ethnolinguistic Composition of Assyria Proper”, in the 9th-7th Centuries BC’ in H. Waetzoldt und H. Hauptmann, Assyrien im Wandel der Zeiten, Heidelberg 1997, p. 209-216. 2 administrative infrastructures which permitted them maintaining their ethnic identity3. Beside these cases, it’s certain that the assimilation process and integration was undertaken during centuries. Such is the case of the policy of mass deportations initiated by Ashurnasirpal II, Shalmaneser III, Tiglath-Phileser III and the dynasty of Sargon which completely changed the demographic and linguistic map of the . A very elevated number of people from all parts of the Assyrian Empire were removed from their homes and settled elsewhere, mainly in the Assyrian heartland. Such mass movements were originally due to the political and economic goals but finally they had much more social, cultural and especially linguistic consequences.

Assyrian and linguistic coexistence Assyrian and Aramaic languages coexisted due the deportation of many Aramean groups among others, to the Assyrian territory. Many hundreds of thousands of Aramaic speaking people were deported to the Assyrian heartland. Such a phenomenon turned the previously mostly monolingual society of Assyria into a multilingual one. As it is generally accepted, the Aramaic language, after sharing a long period of time with the Assyrian language gradually became the medium of communication among Assyrians4 and other people because of its simplicity. First it started inside the Assyrian administration that used the alongside the script. In the administrative documents Aramean scribes are mentioned as employers who were working with Assyrian scribes as early as the eighth century B.C. At the end of the eighth century, the Aramaic alphabet started replacing cuneiform as the Empire’s system5, especially for the collection of the taxes. So, the vowel system eclipsed the syllabic one, especially after the rise of the Persian Empire, which,

3 See S. Parpola, “Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today”, p. 3 note 9: “Babylonia de facto became part of Assyria in 731 BC, when Tiglath-Pileser III, following a pattern already set by Shalmaneser III (858-824) and Adad-nerari III (810-783), invaded the country at the invitation of the clergy of Marduk and assumed the kingship of . Despite several revolts, the country was allowed to remain nominally independent till the end of the Empire. Parts of it (Dur-Sharrukku, Lahiru, Der, Ur and the Sealand) were, however, annexed to Assyria as provinces already in the eighth century, and the whole country was incorporated into the provincial system in 656 at the latest”; cf. G. Frame, Babylonia 689-627 B.C. A Political History, Leiden 1992, p. 271. 4 P. Garelli, “Importance et rôle des Arameens dans l’administration de l’empire assyrien”, in H. J. Nissen - J. Renger, Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn. Politische und kulturelle Wechselbeziehungen im Alten Vorderasien vom 4. bis 1 Jahrtausend v.Chr., Berliner Beiträge zum Vordern Orient I (1982) 437- 447; H. Tadmor, “Assyria and the West: The Ninth Century and its Aftermath”, in H. Gödicke – J.J. M. Roberts (eds.), Unity and Diversity. Essays in the History, Literature and Religion of the Ancient , Baltimore – London 1975, p. 36-347; I. Eph’al, “The Bukan Aramaic inscription: Historical Considerations”, in Exploration Journal 49 (1999) 116-121. 5 Cf. S. Parpola, The Correspondence of Sargon II, Part I: Letters from Assyria and the West, Helsinki 1987. 3 upon coming to power, adopted not only the Assyrian administration system but also the Aramaic language as their commercial and diplomatic vehicle. In fact the Assyrian people have been bilingual ever since. On the other hand, those groups deported to Assyrian territory were not only integrated into Assyrian society but they were also subjected to an increasing Assyrian influence. It’s well known, that Assyrian royal ideology, religious background and mythology were constantly transmitted to all segments of the population through imperial art, emperor cult worship, religious festivals and the cults of Ištar, Aššur, Sin, Nabû and other Assyrian divinities6. This was the way to convert the annexed provinces into the Assyrian territory and become Assyrian citizens. We could say that, the acculturation process continued for a space of time of more than two centuries and was enhanced by different aspects, like: intermarriages, interaction between all segments of the population in all aspects of daily life, participation in common military expeditions, and business enterprises. These were the main elements that helped the Aramaic language develop into the principle means of communication of the Empire with an increasing use of its Alphabet in its administration. That is why the original heterogeneous population gradually became homogeneous both socially and culturally7.

The Assyrians and Bilingualism. Bilingualism within the Assyrian society was the result of a progressive internationalization by the Neo-Assyrian ruling class. This latter class was carefully educated in Mesopotamian literature and culture. The use of the Assyrian cuneiform script became a distinctive marker of their social class, even their means of daily communication was most probably Assyrian Aramaic. It’s said that the royal family inclusive was fully bilingual by the beginning of 7th century B.C. Most of the Assyrian

6 I. J. Winter, “Art in Empire: The Royal Image and the Visual Dimensions of Assyrian Ideology” in S. Parpola – R. M. Whiting (eds.), Assyria 1995. Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo Assyrian Text Corpus Project Helsinki 1997, p. 356-381; B. N. Porter, ‘For the Astonishment of All Enemies: Assyrian Propaganda and its Audiences in the Reins of Ashurnasirpal II and Esarhaddon’, in Bulletin of the Canadien Society for Mesopotamian Studies 35 (2000) 7-18; Id., ‘Assyrian Propaganda for the West: Esarhaddon’s Steal for and Sam’al’, in G. Bunnens (ed.), Essays on in the Iron Age, Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement 7, Leiden 2000, p. 133-176. 7 J. N. Postgate,”The Land of and the Yoke of Assur”, in World Archaeology 23/3 (1992) 247-263; see also, O. Pederson, Archives and Libraries in the City of Assur, II, Uppsala 1986. 4

Kings had some Aramaic speaking wives8. Thus, Assyria was in the seventh century divided into two major language groups: Aramaic and Assyrian (Akkadian). During this period the inhabitants of Assyria have become bilingual in general, especially the ruling class. As Parpola underlines, the dichotomy was more social than cultural9. This phenomenon continued till the invasion of the Meds and Elamits who massacred the Assyrian aristocracy and from then onward the Aramaic language became the for the whole new empire. Its during this period of coexistence that the Aramaic language takes an impressive list of from the Assyrian one10. With the fall of Nineveh, Assyrian political power ceased but its people, culture and religion survived. As repeatedly stated, the Achaemenids changed neither the administrative system nor the language. They preferred not to interfere in the internal affairs of their satrapies as long as tribute and taxes were ensured. Moreover, the new aristocracy was significantly assyrianized11, thus no changes were undertaken, and there was no need to change a system that was known to them. The just changed the name of the owners but the rest was kept. The Aramaic script was the every day writing system and up to then was called the Assyrian script12. But not only this endured, local religions and cults were retained, as well as the judicial system, the calendar and imperial standards imposed by the Assyrians. These remained in force everywhere13. Such a situation endured till the invasion of the Greeks, when conquered Assyria and imposed the Seleucid Suzerainty with its active policy of but it adopted the administrative methods that were transmitted to the Achaemenids by the Assyrians. Thus the assimilation process to the local (Assyrian) population became a fact. Even their kingdom was a continuation of Assyrian royalty. Although, the Assyrian population was ruled by Achaemenids, with the arrival of the

8 S. C. Melville, The role of Naqia/Zakutu in Sargonid Politics, Helsinki 1999; A. Kamil,”Inscriptions on Objects from Yaba’s tomb in Nimrud”, in M. Damerji, Gräber assyrischer Königinnen aus Nimrud , Jahrbuch des Römisch-germansichen Zentralmuseums 45, Mainz 1999, p. 13-18. 9 S. Parpola, “Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today”, p. 6. 10 For more details see, S. A. Kaufman, Akkadian Influences on Aramaic, in Assyriological Studies S. N. 19, Chigago 1975. 11 S. Parpola, “The Leftovers of God and King: On the Distribution of Meat at the Assyrian and Achaemenid Imperial Courts”, in L. Milano – C. Grottanelli (eds.), Scelte alimentari e identità nel mondo antico, Padova 2002; M. A. Dandamayev, “Assyrian Traditions during Achaemenid Times”, in S. Parpola – R. M. Whiting (eds.), Assyria 1995. Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo Assyrian Text Corpus Project, p. 41-49. 12 R. C. Steiner, ‘Why the Aramaic Script was called “Assyrian” in Hebrew, Greek and Demotic’, in Orientalia N.S 62 (1993) 80-82. 13 Cf. P. Grelot, Documents arameen d’Egypte, Paris 1972 ; I. Eph’al, ‘Syria- under Achaemenid Rule’, in J. Boardman et al., The Cambridge Second Edition, vol. 4, 139-167. 5

Greeks, the territory was called Assyria14, and the empire was officially called the Assyrian kingdom (Assuriôn basileía)15. As one can observe, the Assyrian heritage and continuity persisted from one mighty power to another, even after the fall of Seleucid power caused by the Romans at the end of second century B.C. On that occasion, the western territory was annexed to Rome but in the eastern region and under the Parthian overlordship, many small kingdoms like “Aššur, Hadiab (), Osrohene, ” raised and found their own semi-independence. These monarchies were the inheritors of the Assyrian linguistic, cultural and religious traditions that served as fertile terrain for the Apostles to introduce the Christian faith among the Assyrian peoples16. From then onward, they survived for centuries under different central rulers never losing this trait. When they became Aramaic speaking, they cultivated their “ginza” (treasure)17 in this language throughout history until the rise of the Muslim power. As a literary point of view it was used up to the 13th century AD. The huge religious literary output is one of the important proofs of this statement. From this period onward it was cultivated mainly orally, especially among Assyrian people until the 19th century. Ethnically they are Assyrians18 and use two main Assyrian Aramaic : the eastern and western called suret and surayt respectively.

New phenomenon in Christian era Their adherence to that goes back to the first half of the first century has supposed important changes that must be outlined. First the Assyrian national ideology was mostly absorbed by the religious one. That’s why the Christian identity eclipsed the national one. The religious leader acquired both powers, becoming both the spiritual and political leader of the community. This phenomenon signified a change that gradually enforced a spiritual (Christian) identity on all, and any link to paganism

14 In the (1QM 1, 2.6:[The war Scroll]; R. C. Steiner, “Why the Aramaic Script was called “Assyrian” in Hebrew, Greek and Demotic”, p. 80-82. 15 For more details cf. S. Parpola, “Assyrian Identity in Ancient Times and Today”, p. 15; , Antiquities, 13.6.6: “170 years of the kingdom of the Assyrians, which was after the Seleucos, who was called Nicator, got the dominion over Syria”. 16 For more information see, J.B. Segal, . The Blessed City, London 1970 (rep. in USA 2005), p. 9f.@ 17 The investigation upon the different Assyrian modern dialects presents a panorama that highlights their independence from the gushma or ktawanaya/ktabonoyo, called “syriac”. Especially G. Kahn in his work, “Remarks on the Historical Background of the Modern Assyrian Language,” Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 21 (2007): 4-6, underlines this phenomenon. 18 E. Yildiz, “The Assyrians: A Historical and Current Reality” in Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies 13 (1999) 15-30. 6 was in a certain way, consciously avoided. The first sign of such an attitude was the first official name given to the Assyrian Christian community: mšihaye madenhaye or simply ‘edta d’madenha but the Assyrian people, who were not involved in the political affairs called themselves Suraye/suryoye, which means Assyrian. Probably, the main reason for the official ecclesiastical denomination was to avoid any internal problems that could be raised because of a concrete name. Later on, other groups were part of the ancient eastern church that spread over the Near and Far East. Church history shows that the Assyrians were, after some Jewish community members, the first people to embrace the Christian faith and it is well documented that this early church has many more martyrs than any other Christian community. They were subjected to incessant and terrible persecutions and massacres, first by the Romans, and afterwards at the hands of the , followed by Muslim , Mongols, and finally the Turks. These powers decimated the Assyrian nation reducing their number from many millions to four and a half million people scattered throughout the world. The last two genocides perpetrated against the Assyrians dramatically effected the population. After the 1843-1846 genocide perpetrated by the Kurds and that of the 20th century carried out by both the Turks and the Kurds19, many Syro-Chaldo-Assyrian communities fled to the western world where they tried to maintain their traditions and linguistic heritage with enormous effort. For a better introduction to the language spoken by the Assyrian people it is important to offer a general vision of the Aramaic language according to its locality and denomination.

The classification of the Aramaic language. It may be useful to draft a scheme20 of the Aramaic language because of its variety and evolution in different periods, territories and peoples. In reality, the Aramaic language could be considered, from the third century B.C. on as a linguistic family that could be divided into different languages, according their geographical locality. But generally it is not considered as such, because of its morphological and syntactical affinity of structure. The common word list used in most of the so called dialects is

19 I. Odo, Nbîä߇a…@ ´jíûã…ë@ añ‰Œç…ë@ …ŠÈ…ë@ †ßaë@ a…Šß…@ bäîİˆ…@ bîÏë…‰@ ÝÇ@ añìäiòØß 1915@ .F. A. Aprim, Assyrians: The Continuous Saga, USA 2004, p 23f.; J. Rhéthoré, Les Chrétiens aus bêtes, Paris 2005; J. E. Warda, The Flickering Light of Asia or the Assyrian Nation and Church, Chicago 1990. 20 For more information cfr. E. Yildiz, ‘The Aramaic Language and its classification’, in Journal of Assyrian Academic studies 14 (2000) 23-44. R. Hetzron, (ed.) The , London/New York 1997; J. Huenergard, “Languages of the ”, in The Anchor , vol. 4, (1992) 155-170. 7 impressive, although they had an almost independent evolution. Such a phenomenon started especially from the rise of Greek power in the Middle East, onward21. The oral transmission and written sources of the Aramaic Language22 suggest the following and possible classification according to the different periods.

I. Ancient Aramaic II. Official Aramaic 1. Classical Aramaic 2. III. Middle Aramaic 1. Western a. Aramaic b. Jewish-Palestian Aramaic c. Nabatean d. Official Targumims 2. Eastern: a. "Ancient Syriac" b. Palmyrene c. Aramaic of Hatra d. Arsacid Aramaic IV. Late Aramaic 1. Western a. Galilean Aramaic b. Samarian Aramaic

21 Interesting observations upon bilingualism during the Greek period are available in D. G. K. Taylor, “Bilingualism and Diglossia in late Antique Syria and ”, in J.N. , M. Janse and S. Swain (eds.), Bilingualism in Ancient Society. Language Contact and the Written Word, Oxford 2005, p. 289-331. 22 Upon acient periods cfr. F. Rosenthal, Die aramäistische Forschung seit Th. Nöldekes Veröffentlichungen, Leiden 1939 (repr. In 1964); S. A. Kaufman, “Aramaic” in R. Hetzron (ed.) The Semitic Languages, p. 115-129. E. Yildiz, “Los Arameos: sus orígenes, su ubicación geográfica y su lengua”, in Helmantica 51 (2000) 236-243; K. Beyer, The Aramaic Language. Its Distribution and Subdivisions, Göttingen 1986; P.E. Dion, La langue de Ya’udi. Description et classement de l’ancien parler de Zincirli dans le cadre des langues sémitiques de nord-ouest, Waterloo 1974 ; H. Donner-W. Röllig, Kananäische und aramäische Inschriften, I-III, Wiesbaden 1964-1966 ; R. Degen, Alaramäische Grammatik der Inschriften des 10-8. Jh. v. Chr., Wiesbaden 1978; V. Hug, Altaramäische Grammatik der Texte des 7. und 6 Jahrhunderts v. Chr., Heidelberg 1993; J. Hofttijzer-K. Jongeling, Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions, 2 vol., Leiden 1995. B.E. Martinez, Gramática del Arameo Antiguo, Barcelona 1996; E. Lipinski, Studies in Aramaic Inscriptions and Onomastics, II, in ‘Orientalia Louvaniensia analecta 57, Louvain 1994. 8

c. Christian-Palestinian Aramaic d. Mandaic 2. Eastern a. "Syriac" b. Babylonian Talmudic Aramaic c. Mandaic V. Modern Aramaic 1. Western a. Ma'lula b. Gubb'abdin c. Bax'a 2. Eastern a. Western Assyrian Aramaic a. Touroyo (Tur'abdin) b. Mlasho (Amida=Diyarbekir) b. Eastern Assyrian Aramaic 1. Southeastern: : Harbul, Bespen, Ishi, Mer, Beznaye ... : Bagdad, Zako, , Telkepe, Telesqof… 2. Northeastern: Urmi, Tiari, , Salamas, , Quchanis, Gawar, Tal, , Dez, Walto, Mar Bishu, Shamzdin, Tergawar… c. Fareastern: Mandaic. As we can observe, the variety of modern Assyrian Aramaic, divided into the western and eastern dialects, could be considered as one of the main Aramaic languages and actually one of the most frequently used between the different people and ethnic groups. Most of the Assyrian people live in Betnahren (Mesopotamia) despite the continues persecutions they have been submitted during centuries. A considerable number of Assyrians, due to continuous persecutions and massacres, were forced to flee or emigrate to the Western world. This tragic situation started not at the beginning of the twentieth century, as is regularly stated in most works relating to the Assyrian Genocide, but goes back, in my opinion, to the middle of the ninetieth century (1843-1846), when most of the Assyrians, the inhabitants of north Assyria (from upper and lower Tiyari to Botan, Tur-‘Abdin etc.) were massacred by Kurds who 9 were led by Nurallah, Suleymanbeg and Bedrchan23. From this terrible massacre onward the Assyrian people were not only decimated but they were submitted to continuous persecutions in their homeland. These circumstances forced them to look for other regions to settle in, to live safely, and with more security. Due to this situation, many Assyrian communities were created in the Diaspora, especially in the USA, , and South America. They try to conserve their traditions, language and heritage making a huge effort, in a world immersed in many continuous changes and subject to the globalisation current in the world. In this new era, the minorities have no chance of surviving. Now more than ever, they are in danger of disappearing. From one side they have the possibility of challenge society but from the other view they are in a situation that could damage and perhaps destroy all of what they have kept fighting for over the centuries.

The description of Bilingualism in modern time The Assyrian communities that settled in the western world are gradually loosing their main instrument that keeps them as a distinct group in a western country. The Assyrians are usually bilingual if not multilingual in most cases. A short description of these terms helps clarifying many linguistic aspects in the process of acquiring bilingual or even multilingual competences. The bilingual issue raised a variety of definitions that reflects widely divergent responses to the question of degree. Bloomfield24 in 1933 observed that bilingualism resulted from the addition of a perfectly learned foreign language to one’s own, undiminished native , but as Edwards25 rightly observes, confused the issue by admitting that the definition of “perfection” was a relative one. The aforementioned author implies that any division between monolingualism and bilingualism should occur, as Steiner26 claims, with equal fluency in different languages. Others, like Weinreich27 defined bilingualism as the alternate use of two languages. Haugen28 asserts

23 E. Yildiz, “ Genocidio asirio del siglo XIX”, in Dialogo Ecuménico XLIV/138 (2009) 7-34; G. Yonan, Ein Vergessener Holocaust. Die Vernichtung der christlichen Assyrer in der Turkei, Göttingen- Wien 1989; G. P. Badger, The Nestorians and their rituals, with the Narrative of a Mission to Mesopotamia and Coordistan in 1842-1844, London 1852. 24 L. Bloomfield, Language, New York 1993. 25 J. Edwards, “Foundations of Bilingualism”, in T. K. Bhatia and W. C. Ritchie (eds.), The Handbook of Bilingualism, London 2008, p. 7-31. 26 G. Steiner, Alter Babel, Oxford 1992. 27 U. Weinreich, Languages in Contact, Mouton 1953. 28 E. Haugen, The Norwegian language in America, Philadelphia 1953. 10 that bilingualism began with the ability to produce complete and meaningful expressions in the second language. But the general and most recent opinion suggests that bilingualism must be based not only on the general language dimensions, but rather on many more specific threads of ability. There are four basic language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. There is, thus a significant number of elements here, all of which figure in the assessment of bilingualism; it does not follow that strength in one means intensity in another. Other factors, such as attitude, age, sex, intelligence, memory, linguistic distance between the two languages, and context of testing are all potentially confounding. In relation to the topic of degree of fluency it could be said that a functional distinction can be made between receptive bilingualism, and productive competence, that means the difference between those who understand a language – either spoken of written - but are not able to produce it themselves, and those who can do both29. This topic could embrace many pages but as we focus on a concrete group of people and due to the required editorial limits, it is advisable to concentrate our theme of acquiring bilingual competence. It can be demonstrated that the main part of the global population has at least some level of multilingual competence, which today is not a surprising or remarkable achievement. The experts in this field usually raise the question as to whether a second language acquisition is simultaneous or successive. Simultaneous acquisition is often associated with the one person, one language principle, where the child speaks different languages to each parent. Others suggest a later age although all of them agree that it is of more benefit to start applying the process of bilingualism in an early rather than a later stage of childhood. In other words, a young brain is more flexible than the older one while their cognitive experience, motive and especially necessity can be important features in the acquisition of a second language. It can be demonstrated that in the process of becoming bilingual, native aptitude, intelligence and age are less important than the fact of necessity. Given sufficient motivation and opportunity, the most average person can learn another language. Some elements, like an innate aptitude, capacity, a good ear or memory could be considered as means that makes learning a language easier. The teaching methods applied to any language are of great importance. In the case of the Assyrian people concentration must be placed on the motivational features because of the lack of a specific territory they could develop in as an independent state

29 J. Edwards, “Foundations of Bilingualism“ p. 9s. 11 where the cultivation of the language in different aspects would be much more feasible. It is generally accepted that language is a social activity, and as I outlined, almost everyone is cognitively capable of acquiring a second language; therefore it can be said that the force of the situation and the attitudes it provokes in the potential learner, are of huge importance. In particular, necessity can be considered as the great motivator and determiner of how far this competence develops30. Thus, we could say that, extended linguistic competence is usually determined by necessity but it has also historically reflected and supported upper-class confines. That is why there have always been distinctions between elite and folk bilingualism which can be illustrated in the Aramaic and Arabic languages since the arrival of Islam, especially in northern Mesopotamia.

Bilingualism and Identity Speaking Assyrian Aramaic means belonging to the Assyrian community and this implies that part of the social context in which one’s individual personality is fixed, the context which supplies the raw materials for that personality, will be linguistic. So any cultural package which connects language and thought must also involve all sorts of accompanying communicative gestures and virtually all aspects of the personal repertoire. Usually, in the Semitic environment the individual is linked to a group. Many modern authors31 suggest that the main set of problems which seem particularly characteristic of bilingual speakers are social in nature and not linguistic per se; they are reminding us of a wider set of relationships which place the individual in his or her society32. This process implies a kind of characteristic which marks the identity of a people. In particular this issue could sometimes lead to language tensions that are often most pronounced in immigrant or minority group situations, a fact which suggests that the stresses are essentially not linguistic in origin but, rather, result from broader pressures associated with cultures in contact, with cross-group antagonism and

30 For more information see, O. García (ed.), Bilingual Education. Focusschrift in honour of A. Fishman, vol. I, New York 1991; R. Mitchell and F. Myles, Second-Language Learning Theories, London 1998. 31 C. Baker and S. Jones, Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, Clevedon 1998; J. Hamers and M. Blanc, Bilinguality and Bilingualism, Cambridge 2000. 32 J. Edwards, “Foundations of Bilingualism“ p. 25. 12 prejudice. As Diebold33 underlines, Bilingualism is often, itself, a response to the social contact which also produces psychological pressure among immigrant and minority populations. Therefore, where language issues are central, the essential group is the ethnocultural population that generally emphasizes the simultaneous membership in gender, educational, occupational and socioeconomic categories. The main one is the ethnic grouping that serves as a basis for the rest.

The Assyrian case in Assyria Assyrians, due to their historical situation were in the last few centuries submitted to this bilingual or multilingual phenomenon that reinforced the ethnic link. It is generally accepted, that a continuing sense of ethnic-group identity need not inevitably depend upon the continuing use of the original language in ordinary, communicative dimensions, but at the same time it could be asserted that linguistic continuity is a significant cultural support, if not the main pillar. The basic idea could be enlightened in the following manner: there are many bilinguals whose competence is more deep-rooted and whose abilities go beyond commercial instrumentality. But if the issue touches the socio-psychological relationship, it is convenient to bear in mind the reasons and manner in which the bilingualism occurs. Thus it can be said, that there are two broad and important divisions: the bilinguals who have an attachment to the group and those individuals who have acquired another linguistic citizenship. The Assyrian groups, depending on where they live and with whom they share their space with, could include both features. The Assyrian communities in Diaspora had an experience that started in their own territory that was invaded by different military powers and in a certain way obliged them to become bilingual because of survival issues. The main difference between this first situation and the second one consists on the fact that the Assyrian communities in their homeland had the chance to keep their language and identity in a better way, because of the situation they were and they still are experiencing day by day. Most of them are multilingual because of the necessity that we mentioned before. Once a group is under pressure, it maintains better all those characteristics that strengthen the links on different levels and distinguish it from the dominant group. For example, we could mention the Moslem pressure placed

33 A. Diebold, “The consequences of early bilingualism in cognitive and personality information”, in E. Norbeck, D. Price-Williams and W. McCord (eds.), The Study of Personality, Yew York 1968, p. 253- 263. 13 upon the Assyrian Christian groups in the Middle East. Anybody, who has even a little knowledge or read a short book upon the Assyrian late history, can observe how strongly they have been submitted to unimaginable and unbearable circumstances because of their Christian belief. This and many other features have been the main source of preserving and conserving their ancestral traditions and language during the centuries. This discrimination and persecutions34 made it possible to keep alive a whole ethnic and cultural way of life in their homeland.

The Assyrian bilingualism in Diaspora Now, after the immigration process, many Assyrian groups who settled in the Western world are under greater danger than what they were submitted to in their homeland, which was divided and given to different neighbouring countries by the western political and military powers of the last century. This outrage provoked the immigration phenomenon among Assyrians who were looking for a place where they could live in peace and far from any danger that could cost them their lives again. But as stated, one can die without being shot or fired upon. I mean, the western cultures, especially the European and American, with their assimilation process. The mass migration phenomenon began for the modern Assyrians especially in the last century in the direction of western countries. The process of arriving, settling, adopting and assimilating the western culture can be considered from two different perspectives. It is normal that a group of people immigrating have to face many new elements that allow them to be integrated into a society that not only has a different language but also different customs and mindset that will gradually be absorbed by the immigrant. Such is the case with the different Assyrian groups who settled in Europe, USA, Australia and South America. The first generation was involved and occupied only with those features that were essentially characterised by those elements which could help them survive and live in better conditions as far as daily life was concerned. After being established in their new “home” land, the second generation absorbed so many western social elements that these could be considered as an abandonment of the ideals of the first generation whose goals were to obtain better living conditions for the

34 From their conversion into the Christianity onward the Assyrian people suffered much more persecutions then any other people. Since the beginnings of the Christian era they experienced continuous persecutions under the Persians, and Moslems (Arabs, Mongols, Turks, Kurds). Even now they are being decimated by barbarian persecutions of some radical Islamic groups in Irak. Fore more information see, R. Le Coz, Histoire de l’Eglise d’Orient. Chrétien d’Irak, d’ et de Turquie, Paris 1995, p. 21f. ; J. Yacoub, Le minorités. Quelle Protection ?, Paris 1995, p. 37f. 14 future, without loosing their national or ethnic origins. But less things have been done about the main issue that consisted of conserving their ethnical, linguistic and cultural roots. It’s said that the identity components, the symbols of the group that energize languages beyond their instrumental existences, could create an association between language and nationalism. Given that the nationalism can be considered as a pronounced and often mobilizing sense of groupness, it follows that any language component can also be carefully defined. Now, if we consider what has been done among the Assyrian communities in the Diaspora, and if we compare it with other examples like the Armenians or Kurds35, the Assyrian authorities could have been more efficient creating a network that allows them to cultivate many cultural features, especially their language. In the last decades, a reappearance of attempts have been undertaken but it’s not enough if we submit them to deeper analysis, we realize that keeping and reviving a language needs many elements that could be implemented. A language is sometimes considered endangered even when nearly all group members are still speakers. If dominant-group assimilative pressures are seen to be rising while resistance on the part of a minority group would seem to require resources that are not in evidence, long-term survival of the minority-group language can’t be taken for granted. It’s generally, accepted that if the terrain for the young generation is not prepared and shifting signs have already begun, then the continuity of a language becomes quite difficult. Such a phenomenon can be easily observed if the children of a group prefer using the school-acquired dominant language among each other. The Assyrian communities who settled in western countries are still in a complicated situation. Not only children among them but also parents can commit the same mistake in speaking in a language that seems easier than their own one. The Assyrian people urgently need a change in this mindset, otherwise in two or in a maximum of three generations, the conservation of the Assyrian Aramaic language will have to face big difficulties. Different methods could be applied, but one of the most important ones is the daily use of the language among themselves, first in the Family and then among the group.

Application of bilingualism to Assyrians in Diaspora. Some attempts have been carried out in last two decades, where families, even

35 The creation of Kurdish and Armenian study sections at different European and American Universities could be mentioned as example that should be used for the Assyrian case. 15 without being continually with a big group, achieved some surprising results that could be applied to the rest of the regions, where a considerable number of Assyrian communities live in small localities or delineated areas. Such an activity had as its main goal the creation of two independent linguistic registers by identifying both used languages, each with a different person. This case is based upon Spanish and Assyrian Aramaic spoken not only by the father or the but also with the children themselves, who communicate among one another only in the minority language, in this case Assyrian Aramaic. The daily practice was and is still based on the decision to avoid any kind of mixing possibilities because, if there was even a slight opportunity of shifting, the dominant language would, in the end, eclipse the minor one. This trial started when the babies were born. Both parents started communicating with him/her only in one language. Thus Assyrian Aramaic has become the father’s tongue and Spanish or English or French has become the mother’s tongue. For the sake of the risk of mixing a second path was also undertaken. The parents started using a third language, with the aim of creating two independent linguistic registers, in order that the children could not have a dominant language as reference. Of course, such a procedure cannot be taken as a perfect example because not everybody is fluent in three languages. But the surprising fact shows that it is possible to keep a minority language if, as I have repeatedly mentioned, there is a necessity, a will and constancy during the first years. The rest is a question of firmness and preparation in the main tools of transmitting not only the language but also the whole fund of knowledge with regards culture, history and customs.

Possible difficulties during the progression During this process many inconveniences can be raised but it is possible for them to be neutralised. It can easily provoke an inferiority complex, in certain circumstances, towards the dominant group if the main tools are not applied in a practical and intelligent way. The Assyrian Aramaic language does not belong to the Indo-European branch, therefore it contains many guttural sounds that require previous preparation. It is especially advisable to transmit as far as possible, a positive impression about the ancestral traditions and customs. The Assyrian community, in particular, has a huge amount of resources that can be used in providing the child with symbols, references and so forth that can help him in keeping his own name and language with pride. Such a process is needed, otherwise there can be the risk of being 16 rejected and perhaps be given an inferiority complex. This was the case of an Assyrian child who frequented primary school and after the first weeks asked his father to speak with him in Spanish when he was among his friends36. This was the first fact that alarmed the parents as to a possible inferiority complex that could be intensified and harm all the previous work that was done. Until then, the only preoccupation was transmitting the language to the child but the parents didn’t realize that the child was in need of some references that could make him proud of his own people and culture. Even on these occasions the people involved in these issues should not be shocked because it’s a normal process that must be well dealt with for the sake of the success of the main purpose, that of feeling proud about his/her own linguistic and cultural patrimony. The banal examples we mention in the following cases can serve as leitmotiv for many others. The child or young man should be educated in their language, literature, history and culture considering the simple fact that a historical figure, a personality or an event can provide the person with an attraction that pushes him/her in keeping his/her language and patrimony in a much more enthusiastic way. He/she needs references to be taken in order to encourage him/her to become fluent in his/her own language and continuing with the same task in the future. Simple stories about ancient times, positive descriptions of the emblematic places, cities and monuments can help the child obtaining an ideal that would strengthen the links with community members spread over the world.

Revitalization of the language Most of the emigration communities are much more concerned about what their children will do in their professional future life rather than concentrating on how to teach them their language and heritage. Revitalization efforts must be undertaken otherwise there is no chance to keep the main instrument of continuity which is the language. There are in some Assyrian communities, isolated members that are accomplished learners, either individuals of the relevant ethnic group who were not raised with the ancestral language themselves or outsiders who have married into the ethnic group and learned the traditional ethnic language. Speakers of both classes value the ethnic language the more for having had to acquire it effort-fully, and with their

36 Such cases have been applied in different European countries where Assyrian families are settled, as example we could mention similar experiences that happened in , Sweden, France, Belgium among others. 17 children they progress from being enthusiastic learners to being devoted transmitters37. Thus, the home linguistic transmission implies many fluent parents deeply devoted to home transmission to produce a numerically elevated number of fluent new minority- language speakers. This activity has been taken in those regions, where Assyrians are the majority in their homeland38. The next step would then consist in turn in schooling the community members in their language. A small group of well-trained teachers, using the minority-language at the school could generate scores of minority-language speakers in a relatively short space of time. Such immersion programs have demonstrated their achievement, particularly in cases where primary immersion schooling is followed by secondary immersion schooling. This latter one helps down the second path in founding a new higher educational centre that would ensure the continuity and the basis for teaching future generations. The plans of founding a University in the Nineveh Plans started many years ago but it has not materialised yet, nevertheless, the project may be realized soon. Such an initiative would give this community a ray of hope and help them to regain their language and so one of the most important element of their patrimony. Those, who live in Diaspora, should intensify the teaching activity where even a small group is available. The Assyrian community in the Western World has the possibility and the means of intensifying those activities that could improve in first instance, their language. Schools like the case of the Australian Assyrian community should be implemented by any Assyrian group which settled in Europe, U.S.A., as well as in South America. The community should not depend on ecclesiastical initiatives but rather, should prepare the ground for a better prepared educational system that ensures continuity. Many western countries would implement Assyrian Aramaic classes in those centres, where a reasonable number of pupils would be available. But if they do not see it as a necessity, it will hardly become a reality. It depends on them whether they want to keep their language and culture alive or stop fighting for their common cause. There are many interesting projects that should and need to be supported in moral and material way. The language is the first step and the main basis for the reconstruction of the Assyrian issue. It offers a golden occasion rebuilding their future in different fields that must culminate with their autonomy in their homeland.

37 Cf. N. C. Dorian, “Minority and Endangered Languages”, in T. K. Bhatia and W. C. Ritchie (eds.), The Handbook of Bilingualism, p. 453f. 38 The foundation of schools in Northern Mesopotamia is one of the most important paths that have been undertaken by the Assyrian communities. 18

Conclusion The linguistic aspects outlined in this work show how much a bases is needed for the implement of the Assyrian language in different educational centres. Much more important is the insistence on those aspects that preserve the Assyrian Language in Diaspora. Those elements must be started and cultivated first in the family, then in the community, afterwards at Schools and at the Universities. This process would create a network that could embrace not only the linguistic issue but it would also help them maintaining their cultural and historical patrimony as a separated ethnic group and according the way they best manage. This would allow them to reveal who they really are, what their reality is and how they can develop as people in their homeland and Diaspora. What we know about them, could be considered as a result of well appreciated works, but most of them are done by western scholars. The creation of Assyrian small groups in different fields, as well as a committee of well prepared academics, is urgently needed. Living in Diaspora and cultivating those indispensible aspects that characterize, in this case, the Assyrian people, require, as first and main step, the improvement of the Assyrian language among the community members. Additional initiatives like summer camps or language courses in some monasteries must be supported financially. A common fund should be created for such purposes. The bilingual process applied to the Assyrian community members is an important issue and the responsible members should continuously insist on it and providing the people with the main tools that help them cultivating their language in an efficient way. The points mentioned along these pages underline precisely those aspects that could be useful for the maintenance of their language in an environment that offers many occasions for cultivating their heritage in a whole. Living in Diaspora and preserving the language suppose double effort but it’s not impossible if there is a will and a perspective of becoming a people whose final goal is to regain their autonomy in their homeland. 19

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