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Thesis Adviser Recommendation Letter

Thesis Adviser Recommendation Letter

THESIS ADVISER RECOMMENDATION LETTER

This thesis entitled “THE APPLICATION OF JAPANESE‟S SOFT POWER IN THE U.S.A: THE CASE STUDY OF AND (2000-2007)” prepared and submitted by Muhammad Aji Barli in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor‟s degree in the School of Humanities has been reviewed and found to have satisfied the requirements for a thesis fit to be examined. I therefore recommend this thesis for Oral Defense.

Cikarang, , April, 2015

Teuku Rezasyah, Ph.D

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DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I declare that this thesis, entitled “The Application Of Japanese‟s Soft Power In The U.S.A: The Case Study Of (2000- 2007)” is, to of my knowledge and belief, an original of work that has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, to another university to obtain a degree.

Cikarang, Indonesia, April, 2015

Muhammad Aji Barli

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PANEL OF EXAMINER

APPROVAL SHEET

The Panel of Examiners declare that the thesis entitled “THE APPLICATION OF JAPANESE‟S SOFT POWER IN THE U.S.A: THE CASE STUDY OF ANIME AND MANGA (2000-2007)” that was submitted by Muhammad Aji Barli majoring in International Relations from the Faculty of International Relations, Communication and Law was assessed and approved to have passed the Oral Examinations on 15 April, 2015.

Hendra Manurung, MA. Chair Panel Examiner

Eric Hendra, Ph.D Examiner II

Teuku Rezasyah, Ph.D Adviser

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ABSTRACT

Title: The Application Of Japanese‟s Soft Power In The U.S.A: The Case Study Of Anime And Manga (2000-2007)

This research attempts to describe about the application of the Japanese cultural diplomacy in the U.S in order to promote understanding of that leads to better image from 2000 until 2010. This research is trying to explore the Japanese government, manga and anime industries efforts by analyzing the markets and American reaction to Anime and manga. However, there were some obstacles that had to be faced by the Japanese in fulfilling their goals which is affecting the market and reactions from the American people. 2000 – 2010 was chosen because it completely shows upside and downside of the anime and manga related market in the U.S. the qualitative research is used to explain the problem discussed. Books, reports, journals from the government, scholars and other eligible individual were used as the primary sources of this thesis. This research showed that the Japanese taking its cultural diplomacy seriously as of their primary tools to spread their culture.

Keywords: cultural diplomacy, Japan, Anime, Manga

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ABSTRAK

Judul: Aplikasi Soft Power Jepang Soft Power di U.S.A: Studi Kasus Anime Dan Manga (2000-2007)

Penelitian ini dimaksudkan untuk menjelaskan tentang penerapan diplomasi budaya Jepang di Amerika Serikat dalam rangka untuk mempromosikan pemahaman tentang Jepang yang mengarah ke citra yang lebih baik dari tahun 2000 sampai 2010. Penelitian ini mencoba untuk mengeksplorasi usaha pemerintah Jepang, industri manga dan anime dengan menganalisis pasar dan reaksi Amerika Serikat pada Anime dan manga. Namun, ada beberapa kendala yang harus dihadapi oleh Jepang dalam memenuhi tujuan mereka yang dimana mempengaruhi pasar dan reaksi dari orang - orang Amerika Serikat. Tahun 2000 sampai 2010 di pilih karena ini menguak semua naik dan turun dari pada pasar yang berhubungan dengan anime dan manga di Amarika Serikat. Penelitian kualitatif digunakan untuk menjelaskan masalah yang di diskusikan. Buku, laporan, jurnal dari pemerintah, peneliti dan individu yang kompeten lainnya digunakan sebagai sumber utama untuk thesis ini. Penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa Jepang sangat serius dalam menjalankan diplomasi budayanya sebagai salah satu alat utama dalam menyebarluaskan budayanya.

Kata kunci: diplomasi budaya, Jepang, anime, manga

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Alhamdulillahirabbilalamin that I finished my thesis. It is thanks to Allah that it made possible to finish my thesis, all praise be to Allah. Indeed, Allah will not change the condition of a people until they change what is in themselves. For I struggle to get my thesis finished and Allah answered and prayer to make it possible to finish my thesis. Also not to forget to mention, this is would not be possible without the support of people who is dear and kind to me. I would like to thanks my parents who are very patient with having a child like me, also not to forget, my brother and sister.

Foremost, I would like to thank my thesis advisor Mr. Teuku Rezasyah, not to mention his knowledge and suggestion will always made my day to write a better thesis. From the beginning of my chapter 1 until the end of my final defense, his support is always be with me. Thank you for your guidance and support. I will never forget your “Good Luck” words in the end of our counseling. It may not be much, but I always need a help that I can get and you always there for me to guide my thesis. Also, without your instruction, it will not possible for me to finish this thesis and fulfilling the college standard. Not to forget, I also would like to thank my second advisor Ms. Nabilla Sabban. Though it is short, you helped me in achieving my goals to finish my thesis.

Secondly, I would like to thank my wonderful International Relations lecturer, Mr. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita, Mr. Eric Hendra, and Mr. Hendra Manurung, Mr. Makmur Widodo, Mr. Bantarto Bandoro, and so forth. Thank you for all the lectures in this 3 – 4 years of my campus life. Thank you for your kindness, patience and your effort to guide us to become one of future leaders. I always glad that I am end up with you all experienced and generous lecturer. Did you know that I always compare you all to others sir? When they complain about their lecturer for being so harsh and illogical, I always said “really ?I am glad that my lecturers is not like that, they are so kind, even when one time I can‟t attend to their class and they gave us an assignment, its already due date, so I ask them whether it is okay for me to work on it, they said “you work on it, submit it on day on my class/cubicle.”” That kind of generosity, I hardly find in other lecturers. Thank you so much, it means a lot to me.

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The last, but by no means least, to all my IR friends, thank you for being such a great companion. Thanks for keeping up with my weirdness and laugh happily with me. Thanks for all the support in sad and happy moments. This college life of mine will never be as awesome as it is without you all. Especially, thanks to my special significant other Koesrina Rahma Faradisa who always supported me and going all kind of situations and conditions with me, from the deepest of my heart, I really am grateful to you. Thanks to my closest friends Rajiv Ambara, Azhar Fuadi, Mahfud Hajrikhan albasyitu, Putri Kuncahyo, Priska Maharani, Wasty Yofa, Ayu Yunia, Reza Virgiawan Sulistio, and others that I cannot spell all of them one by one.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PANEL OF EXAMINER ...... III

APPROVAL SHEET ...... III

ABSTRACT ...... IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... VIII

LIST OF FIGURES ...... X

LIST OF TABLES ...... X

LIST OF PICTURES ...... XI

LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... XI

CHAPTER I ...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1

1.2 Problem Identification ...... 5

1.3 Statement of the Problem ...... 7

1.4 Research Objective ...... 8

1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 8

1.6 Theoretical Framework ...... 9

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...... 10

1.8 Definition of Terms ...... 11

CHAPTER II ...... 13

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LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 13

2.1 Background ...... 13

2.2 Globalizing Manga – From Japan to and Beyond. Japan‟s Postwar Cultural Diplomacy ...... 13

2.3 Japan‟s Postwar Cultural Diplomacy ...... 15

2.4 Cultural Diplomacy As The Means Of Soft Power In The Information Age ... 16

2.5 Anime: From Cult Following To Pop Culture Phenomenon ...... 18

2.6 An Exploration of Japan‟s Soft Power ...... 19

2.7 Japan Brand Strategy: The Taming Of „Cool Japan‟ and The Challenges Of Cultural Planning In A Postmodern Age ...... 20

2.8 Discovering Japan: Anime and Learning Japanese Culture ...... 21

2.9 Chapter Conclusion ...... 22

CHAPTER III ...... 24

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 24

3.1 Research Method ...... 24

3.2 Research Framework ...... 25

3.3 Research Time and Place ...... 26

3.4 Research Instruments ...... 27

3.5 Chapter Conclusion ...... 28

CHAPTER IV ...... 29

ANIME AND MANGA AS THE INSTRUMENT OF JAPANESE CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IN U.S.A ...... 29

4.1 Background ...... 29

4.2 Brief and Manga ...... 30

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4.3 Anime Industry ...... 37 4.3.1 Toei ...... 37 4.3.2 , Inc...... 40 4.3.3 Co., Ltd...... 46 4.3.4 , Inc...... 49

CHAPTER V ...... 52

5.1 Anime And Manga In U.S.A ...... 52 5.1.1 General discussion ...... 52 5.1.2 Anime and manga: Japan – U.S Market...... 53

5.2 Anime Marketing Target In U.S...... 56 5.2.1 Children Market ...... 58 5.2.2 Young Adult Market ...... 59

5.3 The Analysis of Anime and Manga As The Japanese Cultural Diplomacy Tools ...... 60

CHAPTER VI ...... 62

CONCLUSION ...... 62

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 64

APPENDICES ...... 72

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Relations Between Soft Power, Cultural Diplomacy and Anime and Manga.

Figure 3.1 Research Framework

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Nye‟s definition of power

Table 3.1 Research Timeframe x

LIST OF PICTURES

Picture 4.1 The Great Wave by Katsushika Hokusai

Picture 4.2 Tetsuwan Atomu manga by

Picture 4.3 Tetsujin 28-go (alias : 28; )

Picture 4.4 Logo

Picture 4.5 Sunrise Inc. Logo

Picture 4.6 Gainax Co., Ltd. Logo

Picture 4.7 Neon Genesis Poster Anime

Picture 4.8 Studio Ghibli, Inc.Logo

Picture 5.1 Market Sales Comparison Chart 2001 – 2007

Picture 5.2 Details of the Chart

Picture 5.3 Chart of Manga Market In The U.S

Picture 5.4 Segmentation of US Animation Market

LIST OF ACRONYMS

IR International Relations

U.S.A of America

CSGR Centre for the Study of Globalization and Regionalization

JETRO Japanese External Trade Organization

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AKOM Animation Movie Productions

OVA

VHS Video Home System

DVD Digital Video Disc

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

International Relations (IR) is one of the major studies in many countries, it includes the study of the relations between states and other economic and political units in global scale. To be specific, the field of international relations include diplomacy and its history, international organization, law, finance and economics, and international communications.1In terms of IR, power can be categorized as two section, they are Hard power and Soft power. According to Joseph Nye Power means the ability to influence the behavior of other (whether it is a state/individual/organization) to do the bidding of the power holders, whether it is the state interest or influencing the policy. Hard power usually refers to use of military or any other kinds of force to influence others. The use of hard power usually has an aggressive characteristic and can be quite contrast with the use of soft power. Meanwhile, soft power is referring to the use of diplomatic and dialogue to attract your partner to share your goals. As it name suggest, there is no use of force in soft power, in fact through cooperation, cultural exchange and such, soft power refers.2

And thus, the writer will focus on the influence power of the Japanese in the U.S through anime and manga. For the scope limitation, the writer did not try to prove whether the Japanese has achieved their goals or not, but rather, the writer will focus on what is the effect of the Japanese cultural diplomacy tools called anime and manga. Animation itself is a global terms and commonly used as a describing of a method of making a movie by using many drawings, computer graphics, or photographs of objects that are slightly different from each other that when it quickly viewed one after another

1Theories of International Relations : Third edition by Scott Burchill, Andrew Linklater, Richard Devetak, Jack Donnelly, Matthew Paterson, Christian Reus-Smit and Jacqui True, page 1. Retrieved 25 October from http://psi505.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Theories%20of%20IR.pdf 2 Hard power vs Soft power. Retrieved September 13th 2014 from http://pioneers.themarknews.com/articles/895-hard-power-vs-soft-power/#.VCl3-8KSzxc 1 will create appearance of movement.3 Japanese animation, in short: Anime, basically is the same as the animation described above, but what makes it different is the style of the animation. Usually, Japanese animation can be recognized by its colorful style and epic – dramatic story line. Meanwhile manga, literally means man- involuntary, aimless + -ga picture.4 The term manga is known as Japanese comics, comic books that are created by Japanese creators in the .5 Anime and manga are closely related as anime often adapted from manga.

The relation between Japan and U.S.A can be considered as good, seeing the fact many Japanese product were accepted in U.S.A and vice versa. The Japanese government thinks that the good relations will result with many benefit, one of them is to promote better understanding in order to improve the image of the Japanese with spreading its culture. Japan as one of the most developed country in the world and is placed the 3rd largest economy in the world in 20th century, considered as a major aid donor and a source of global capital and credit.6 Geographically, Japan located in northeastern Asia between the North Pacific and the Sea of Japan, with 377,873 square kilometers area and consists of four major island surrounded by more than 4000 smaller island.7 Economically, as mentioned above, Japan is the world's third largest economy.8

In this global and communication era, Cultural diplomacy is one of the most important aspect in soft power. This is why I choose to discuss and elaborate about this topic as my final thesis. Jan Aart Scholte, the professor of politics and international studies and director of the Centre for the Study of Globalization and Regionalization (CSGR), stated that “clarification of the idea of globality that is described here may be obtained by comparing the term with cognate concepts such as „world‟, ‟international‟, and „transnational‟ links.”9

3 Animation. Retrieved 10th October from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/animation 4 Manga. Retrieved 10th October from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/manga 5 Ibid 6 Japan profile. Retrieved October 25th 2014 from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific- 14918801 7 Japan overview. Retrieved October 22nd 2014 from http://www.jnto.go.jp/eng/arrange/essential/overview/ 8Globalization and Japan‟s economy. Retrieved 23 October 2014 from http://www.meti.go.jp/english/report/downloadfiles/2008WhitePaper/2-2.pdf 9Pdf. Scholte, J. A. “Defining Globalization” p.4. Retrieved 13th September 2014 2

Globalization has been quite a topic of discussion for the past few decades in International Relations study. Nowadays, where the technology and information reigns, globalization cannot be averted from our eyes and almost all of the aspect are influenced by the globalization in many ways. Moreover, from Jan Aart Scholte, we can say that globalization has deep relation between world, international and transnational. Since the globalization has a deep ties with international aspect, we can say that it also have similar relationship with soft power. From my analysis, soft power is a fruit of globalization. Hard power, became a past thing that is not really preferable in this new era. Convincing through diplomatic means and dialogue became trendsetter to enhance relationship towards cooperative interest between states.

Democratization, globalization, the Information technology revolution, resulting the increasingly active all of the characteristic of nowadays world, foreign exchange, dialogue, cooperation of culture. The individual characteristic of these activities are quite different from one to another, including domestic and foreign affairs, such as non- governmental organizations, enterprises, mass media, and individuals for example, non- legislative associations, ventures, broad communications, and people including artist, competitors, and researchers. On account of that, the significance of cultural diplomacy is getting to be more prominent than at any other time in recent memory in the international society regarding the advance of mutual interest, worldwide collaboration and forming relationship between others. 10

These cultural trade exhibitions have gigantic effect on the picture of a nation and advancing ultimate serenity and flourishing the world by adding to the arrangements of worldwide difficulties. Clean figure and great relations can advance each actor‟s goal more compelling and proficiently, therefore this will inevitably advantageous to the people of Japan. 11

In this sense, it is desirable for the accompanying objectives to be sought after the cultural diplomacy in the 21st century: Promote understanding of Japan and improve its image; Cultivate mutual understanding and trust between different cultures

10Establishing Japan as a "Peaceful Nation of Cultural Exchange". Retrieved 20 October from http://japan.kantei.go.jp/policy/bunka/050711bunka_e.html 11 Ibid 3 and civilizations for conflict avoidance; Contribute toward the development of common values and principles for all of humankind.12

The development of soft power in globalization can be quite important since the development of soft power means empowering globalization to affect the lives of people around the world. Thus, thesis will only focus on the first goal of the Japanese cultural diplomacy: “Promote understanding of Japan and improve its image”. If parable, soft power it is like friendship, you got friends willing to follow you, willing to sacrifice a thing or two for you, even lending you money, giving you special price when they do business with you and defending you from bully, it is all because they like you. In that understanding, we can also say this soft power is quite powerful and have the ability to promote universal values such as culture and entertainment. Because of that, soft power became one of the diplomatic tools to make the neighboring countries like them and approve their policy or interest. Let‟s take an example of pop culture, it has increased global business, entertainment, and social connections around the world. Seeing opportunity of the culture potential, many countries use it as one of the soft power in this era of globalization. It means that the power of culture as part of the soft power cannot be overlooked. As the discussion of culture goes deep, we can found many elements in the culture such as social structure, customs and traditions, religion, language, forms of government, and economic systems.13 This part of the culture can play significant role to the international community as they are part of the soft power itself.

The definition of culture may vary according to the experts who decipher it. Franz Boas, the father of American anthropology and a pioneer of modern anthropology, in his book stated that :

“Culture may be defined as the totality of the mental and physical reactions and activities that characterize the behavior of individuals composing a social group collectively and individually in relations to their natural environment, to other groups, to members of the group

12 Ibid 13 The elements of culture. Retrieved 14th September 2014 from http://www.ocs.cnyric.org/webpages/phyland/global_10.cfm?subpage=19595 4

itself and of each individual to himself. It also includes the products of these activities and their role in the life of the groups”.14

From that statement, we can conclude that culture reflects the behavior, their way of thinking and habit of the surrounding society who produce that certain particular culture.

As culture cannot be separated to humanity and their elements, culture also cannot be separated as part of international community and globalization. Globalization connects culture and international relations on many aspects such as economy, social and political. In his book, Matthes, D. stated “International relations have used globalization to reach its goal: of understanding cultures. International relations focus on how countries, people and organizations interact and globalization is making a profound effect on International relations. Understanding culture, globalization, and international relations is critical for the future of not only governments, people, and businesses, but for the survival of the human race”.15

1.2 Problem Identification

The fact that Japanese using the pop – culture in this case: anime and manga as their soft power weapon is undeniable anymore.16 The globalization of anime and manga cannot be overlooked as they are part of Japanese strategies to enforce their culture as part of their soft power.17 The worldwide distribution merchandise from manga and anime such as comic books, dolls, toys, has been spread to the whole world to satisfy the desires of people in order to enforce and to spread their cultural diplomacy.

The popular Japanese pop culture, specifically anime and manga have long been popular, in the last seven years they have gained many interest outside of Japan as readers and viewers have been attracted to these two unique culture of Japanese

14Franz Boas, (The mind of primitive man 1911). Retrieved 14th September 2014 from http://varenne.tc.columbia.edu/hv/clt/and/culture_def.html 15Matthes, D. (2010). International Symposium on Cultural Diplomacy. Retrieved 15th September from http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/academy/content/articles/symposium2010/participantpapers/ Danielle_Matthes_-_Usa.pdf 16 Pop – culture diplomacy. Retrieved 20th September from http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/culture/exchange/pop/ 17 Ibid 5 artworks. Japanese External Trade Organization (JETRO) reported Japan anime market sales in 2002 had a significant rise comparing in 2001, 14.8% rise from 186 billion yen to 215 billion yen.18 Andin U.S (2003), anime related market place stood at US$4.84 billion.19 And for another fact, anime and manga joined deals in the U.S. have been figured in 2010 to be over $400 million. As purchaser inclination shift and new innovation incredibly affects the dissemination of the goods. As prove of the success, many festivals in “Japanese” such as (costume play) events20, cherry blossom (sakuramatsuri)21, and Japanese comic book22 has been established in America.

We can see many merchandise are sold in online shopping or in the stall at the events. If they are just mere thing with no meaning behind it, why would it be so famous? that is the question. This thing we spoke of came from specific manga or anime or even games that Japanese entertainment produces. They love the character so much that they are willing to spend their money in order to get the merchandise they want.

As cultural weapon, anime and manga spread mostly through electronic media. The vast sea of information called internet and the magic box in our homes called television, has made this cultural weapon being known worldwide. Thus, modern society with television and internet, anime and online manga successfully export it product, ideas, art and story around the world. With easy access to the site and programs in television, anime also enchant the people from children to adult alike. Different from Hollywood movies, anime from Japan usually utilized with stark bright illustrations delineating energetic characters in action filled with plots frequently with fabulous or advanced technique.23 With epic story line and vigorous promotion, therefore anime holds a greater influence on society opinion than one might realize. The globalization of anime and manga industry have proven to have a great influence

18Japan Animation Industry Trends. Retrieved 22nd September from http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/reports/market/pdf/2005_35_r.pdf 19America's 2009 Anime Market Pegged at US$2.741 Billion. Retrieved 22nd September from http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2011-04-15/america-2009-anime-market-pegged-at-us$2.741- billion 20http://www.otakuusamagazine.com/Events/News1/Japan-Cosplay-Festival-1116.aspx 21http://www.sakuramatsuri.org/ 22http://www.wochikochi.jp/english/topstory/2012/01/animefes.php 23 Anime. Retrieved 22nd from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anime 6 throughout the world.24 In this past 14 years, anime and manga can be considered as a rival to Hollywood movies. As international problem arise, the makers of anime and manga often adjusting the plotlines of the story to express what needed to be said. The art of manga and movies like anime are perfect media to express ones thought about something. Even the cultural studies scholars are optimistic that Japanese anime will take over the global market of entertainment and became one of the centre of globalization because of the rapid development of manga and anime. The writer is aimed to examine how far Japanese animation and manga as part of Japanese soft power and taking part of its diplomacy, have been able to tell the story Japanese way of life and ideology for the sake of Japanese national interest through policy and the activity conducted by the government, corporate and individuals. In this study, the anime and manga including all (romance, comedy, action, psychology, mystery, horror, , and many other genres) are not viewed only in the Japan or by Japanese only however, they are viewed completely by the massive audience around the globe and they are seeing the attractiveness and art of what Japanese have produced. It can be assumed, anime and manga is playing an important role in spreading the policies and enhance the relations between the Japanese and other neighboring states. The writer will be focused on 2000 to 2010 time line, because the rise of animation in that period has many up and down side, some differentiation were significant that it is unable to be unnoticed.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

This research is to determine the application of anime and manga to spread the Japanese culture as their soft power in U.S.A during period 2000 to 2007. Based on what have been identified above, the statement of problem of this research is as follows:

How and what is the implication of Anime and manga in promoting Japanese’s cultural diplomacy in U.S.A?

24An overview of the globalization of manga and anime. Retieved 22nd from http://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/vital/access/manager/Repository/swin:23636 7

1.4 Research Objective

The purpose of this research according to the statement above:

1. To investigate the importance of anime and manga as tools to spread the Japanese culture in U.S.A 2. To find out the importance of anime and manga as Japanese soft power to influence people in U.S.A

1.5 Significance of the Study

The purpose of this study will be explained below:

1. The writer intends to gain deeper knowledge about the role of cultural diplomacy in global system. 2. The writer intends to enrich knowledge about the impact of anime and manga to the world. 3. The writer to know more what kind of methods Japanese use to promote anime and manga culture to the world. 4. The writer would like to understand the Japanese cultural diplomacy. 5. This study aims to add new understanding in research about the impact of

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1.6 Theoretical Framework

Figure 1.1 Relations Between Soft Power, Cultural Diplomacy and Anime and Manga.

Anime and Soft power Cultural Diplomacy Manga

As one of the biggest anime and manga producer around the world, Japan is seen as one of the most influential and entertainment leader in the international societies. While we cannot forget that the globalization also take part in spreading the culture, it is amazing how Japanese animation and manga can spread this fast and grow rapidly over the last 10 years. Through globalization anime and manga spread and boosting Japanese soft power to this extent. And through soft power, Japanese spread their way of life, their culture to the world and making people believe what they told. Therefore, the most suitable theory to describe the Japanese ability to influence the international society through anime and manga is soft power theory.

An American political researcher and previous Dean of John . Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University; Joseph Nye, as the pioneer of soft power theory defines power as “the ability to achieve one‟s purposes or goals” and “the ability to get others to do what they otherwise would not do.”25 To be specific, according to Joseph Nye, “soft power" describe a nation's ability to attract and persuade. Soft power arises from the attractiveness of its culture, political ideals, and policies.26

25Joseph, S, N. (1990). The Changing Nature of World Power, Political Science Quarterly, vol. 105, No 2. Academy of Political Science, pp. 177-192. Cited in http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/pdf/casestudies/Hwajung_Kim_Cultural_Diplomacy_as_the_Mean s_of_Soft_Power_in_the_Information_Age.pdf 26[Joseph_S._Nye__Jr.]_ (nye)_Power_The_Means_To_Success_In_World_politics. 9

Table 1.1 Nye‟s definition of power27

Behaviors Primary currencies Government policies Coercion Coercive Diplomacy Threats Military power Deterrence War Force Protection Alliance Aid Economic Inducement Payments Bribes power Coercion Sanctions Sanctions Values Public Diplomacy Attraction Culture Bilateral and Soft power Agenda Setting Policies Multilateral Institutions Diplomacy

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This research focused on anime and manga as part of Japanese entertainment industries product and part of their cultural diplomacy. The time framework of scope and limitations of this study is during 2000 – 2007. The writer choose that timeframe because during that 20 years period of time, it shows that the development of golden age of Japanese animation and manga. The scope of this study is international levels, focused on U.S.A, and around the world as general studies.

27 Ibid p.31 10

1.8 Definition of Terms

Here will be explained about the definition of terms that used throughout the thesis : 1. Anime: a style of animation originating in Japan that is characterized by stark colorful graphics depicting vibrant characters in action-filled plots often with fantastic or futuristic themes.28 2. Manga: A style of Japanese comic books and graphic novels, typically aimed at adults as well as children.29 3. : (In Japan) a young person who is obsessed with computers or particular aspects of popular culture to the detriment of their social skills 30 4. Weeaboo: Someone who is obsessed with Japan/Japanese Culture/Anime, and attempts to act as if they were Japanese, even though they're far from it. They use Japanese words but usually end up pronouncing them. Synonym of wapanese.31 5. Globalization: a. The act of globalizing, or extending to other or all parts of the world.

b. Worldwide integration and development.32

6. Culture : a. The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively.

b. The customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group.

7. Cultural diplomacy: a type of public diplomacy and soft power that includes the "exchange of ideas, information, art and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding.33

28 Anime. Retrieved 5th October from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anime 29 Manga. Retrieved 5th October from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/manga 30 Otaku. Retrieved 5th October from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/otaku 31Weeaboo. Retrieved 5th October from http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=Weeaboo 32 Globalization. Retrieved 5th October from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/globalization 11

8. Idol: is referred to Japanese Idol which is categorized as being cute. A young star/starlet usually age ranged 14 to 21. Idols are intended to be role models everyone adores and must have perfect image for satisfying the delusions of everyone and be good example to young people. Idols aim to play a wide range of roles as media personalities (talent), e.g. pop singers, panelists of variety programs, bit-part actors, models for magazines and advertisements.

33"Cultural Diplomacy, Political Influence, and Integrated Strategy," in Strategic Influence: Public Diplomacy, Counterpropaganda, and Political Warfare, ed. Michael J. Waller (Washington, DC: Institute of World Politics Press, 2009), 74. 12

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background

in this chapter, the writer will review roughly seven literatures that related to the Japanese, soft power, cultural diplomacy, manga, anime, and short history about the development of Japanese cultural diplomacy that will enhance the knowledge further about the Japanese soft power : through anime and manga. This literature review is consist of seven literature which are; “Globalizing Manga – From Japan to Hong Kong and Beyond, Cultural Diplomacy as the Means of Soft Power in the Information Age, Anime: From Cult Following to Pop Culture Phenomenon, An exploration of Japan‟s soft power, Japan Brand Strategy: The Taming of „Cool Japan‟ and the Challenges of Cultural Planning in a Postmodern Age, Japan: Anime and Learning Japanese Culture.” The writer will reviewing those literature furthermore in this chapter.

2.2 Globalizing Manga – From Japan to Hong Kong and Beyond. Japan‟s Postwar Cultural Diplomacy

The working paper written by Wendy Suiyi Wong with title; Globalizing Manga - fromJapan to Hong Kong and Beyond is picturing the globalization that focused to the manga spreading especially in the world beginning from Hong kong.

Globalization is not a special phenomenon and can be traced back easily through the imperialism historical record. After this imperialism of the , many people in the non-Western countries have experienced varying degrees of colonization once exploration during the last century. Anthony Giddens see globalization as a consequence of modernity in which European countries use their economic and military power to conquer and rule the people from tribal societies and inferior power, so as to

13 obtain raw materials and securing the markets. Because of its historical origins, globalization dominated by the first European and then American later on.34

In connection with this literature, it is mentioned that the anthropologist Harumi Befu has made two sketches of how the globalization of culture runs. The first is through the way these "foreigners, emigrants, students, businessmen, and others." That decided to leave their homeland and settle elsewhere. Harumi believe someone who lived in a place will always adapt to the culture of the place he lives. And the second describes how the "culture committed abroad by migrants were then taken by the locals," and "the spread of the man himself is part of the process of globalization, and the two processes are intricately intertwined.". In short, the two routes have led to a circle uninterrupted between "taking culture" and "cultural administration".35

The process of modernization in Japan began in the Meiji period, when the state began looking for advanced Western models to adapt to all people. Various Western countries influenced modern Japanese comics in manga models.36

Japanese manga publishers enjoy large domestic success throughout the decades after World War II. In spite of that, They therefore had little incentive to develop international licensing system for their manga.37 The first successful export in Asia started in Hong kong, , Korea, and countries in and the black market that operates to distribute pirated copies. For most Asian countries, modern Japanese culture is a hybrid identity of Western and Asian influences, and manga offered the possibility of modernity in a very preferred image38

The Japanese culture such as manga can be easily accepted by the fellow Asian neighbor because it has the “cultural similarity” and “cultural proximity”, different from the eastern, this explanation of cultural similarity cannot be applied to the western societies and non asian cultural markets such as north American and Europe. For an

34Globalizing Manga- From Japan to Hong Kong and Beyond By Wendy Suiyi Wong page 4. Retrieved 15 November 2014 35 Ibid 36Ibid p6 37 Ibid p8 38Ibid p8 14 example, take animation from Japan: sailormoon. The sailormoon anime is considered as an ultimate failure in the U.S markets because it does not achieve the taste and expectation of the American girls and considered as “different” and “weird” in regarding two cultural clash, between the eastern and the western. Because of that, we can conclude that American markets is less tolerant to the alien culture which is very different from theirs and almost all of the cultural products of Japan must be adapted to suit local tastes.39

This studies of how Japanese markets their cultural products invite some critics such as Dal Yong . He stated that "Japanese cultural products have increased in their influencing international communication over the past decades. Nowadays, it is safe to say, "Japan is a manga superpower. It has replaced the United States as the world largest exporter of comics and animation." However, in this Journal stated that it is still impossible for other Japanese cultural product such as drama, pop song, and movies to penetrate the U.S markets without some adaption to suit the local tastes of the westerns.40

2.3 Japan‟s Postwar Cultural Diplomacy

This working paper is written by Kazuro Ougurawith title; Japan‟s Postwar Cultural Diplomacy. This paper is discussing about the condition of the Japanese cultural diplomacy after the world war II and what action of the Japanese to restore their glory in terms of cultural diplomacy after the world war II.

And as a summary, this literature explains that Japanese gone through 4 phases or stages to improve and enhancing their cultural diplomacy which is :

1. First stage : timeline from 1950 to 1960, the main purpose of the Japanese cultural diplomacy in this stage is to change the image of the Japanese from militaristic country to the peace loving country by enforcing the peace

39 Ibid p16 40 Ibid p21 15

loving cultural act such as : tea ceremony and flower arrangements (also known as Ikebana).41 2. Second stage : timeline from the late 1960 to early 1970, here in the second stage, the main purpose of the Japanese cultural diplomacy is shifting the image of the peace loving country to economically advanced country. The Japanese economy growth starts to caught international attention in 1950s. in this period the Japanese products still considered as the cheap imported goods from many neighboring countries.42 3. Third stage : timeline early 1980s to 1990s. in this stage, explained that the Japanese economic condition has been matured compared to when its 1970s. the cultural diplomacy is considered as one of the three Japanese general diplomacy, the first Japan‟s efforts to the peace keeping of the worlds and similar action, and the second being official developmental assistance and economic aid policies.43 4. Fourth stage : timeline 2000s and The year 2000 and subsequent years have ushered in yet another new phase into the history ofJapanese cultural diplomacy. This new phase is characterized by the policy of contributing to thebuilding of peace through cultural exchange.44

2.4 Cultural Diplomacy As The Means Of Soft Power In The Information Age

This working paper is written by Hwajung Kimwith title Cultural Diplomacy as the Means of Soft Power in the Information Age. In general, this literature is discussing about the evolution of the cultural diplomacy to become soft power.

Specifically, this journal analyzed how cultural diplomacy has been developed since the 1930s and expressed about how cultural diplomacy has been adapted to the

41 Japan‟s Postwar Cultural Diplomacy by Kazuro Ogura page 4. Retrieved 20th November 2014 42 Ibid p4 43 Ibid p5 44 Ibid p7 16 information age. in addition analyzing cultural diplomacy in the information age, this journal also addresses how should the future of cultural diplomacy should be directed and improved.45

Cultural diplomacy has become the most important of public diplomacy as a means of spread of globalization in terms of connectivity in the economic and cultural life throughout the world has evolved over the centuries. Cultural diplomacy in the information era as a soft power can be characterized as the capacity to draw in society and belief system or plan of political decision by imparting information and capacities to others through information technology.46

This journal shows that the power in the information age will come not only from the strong military defense, but also on the ability of a country to share and exchange information. Whereas share is not only to improve the ability of other countries to work together, but also create and enhance the possibilities and their tendency to do so and the Internet is an effective weapon for the purpose of cultural diplomacy.

In general, cultural diplomacy means reciprocal cultural exchange between communities to promote their national culture. It is believed that cultural diplomacy will be able to inspire and influence people around the world to understand more and to think positively of a country despite political differences and border regions. Soft power will be enhanced through cultural diplomacy.Furthermore, is expected to improve the involvement of the people-to-people diplomacy is based on mutual understanding of cultural interest.With the arrival of the information age, information technology has sweeping impact on how cultural policy makers will interact with the public. Also affect the national identity as a new culture has been formed in the virtual world and the local identity and the affected individual. Thus, a nation's cultural identity has been mixed because of rapid information technology involving.47

45 Cultural Diplomacy as the Means of Soft Power in the Information Age by Hwajung Kim page 2. Retrieved 17 November 2014 46 Ibid p10 47 Ibid p11 17

This information technology requires cultural policy makers should have a strategic framework for cultural exchange, create major cultural character as per globalization and cultural diplomacy drive to the virtual world by having a group of exceptionally refined information technology. To be sure, cultural diplomacy in the data age ought to be urged to successfully adjust to new advances.

2.5 Anime: From Cult Following To Pop Culture Phenomenon

The purpose of this study is to investigate and to examine the influence scope of Japanese animation had on American people who is born in 80s and 90s. This study reveals that anime actually had a negative impact on young adults as a result from secondary research and example of 107 students but people sees it as a more of an art form than tasteless violent film.

Scholar has found that in the past, anime would not survive in the western market due to the cultural difference between the western and the eastern animation. But nowadays anime is considered as a big cultural industrial product even in the west. The spreading of the anime was begun in the 80s and 90s due to the act. The differences between the eastern cultures and western culture are far too great, many things that are acceptable to the Japanese in anime was not socially acceptable in the America. However, many experts argue that the ability of human mind to develop an understanding of these cultural differences through exposure isapparent.48

According to Dr. Susan J. Napier, a professor of the Japanese Program at Tufts University and acclaimed anime critic, anime did not see its full revival until much later in the 20th century: “Japanese anime was initially very hard to come by in the West. A few series like crossed into American television, but they were almost always Americanized beyond recognition with infelicitous dubs, American names, and sometimes, mangled plot lines. Somehow, however, a few of the viewers began to recognize that they were seeing

48Anime: From Cult Following to Pop Culture Phenomenon by Samantha Nicole Inëz Chambers page 2. Retrieved 22 November 2014 18

something different from American television fare and ultimately became aware of the Japanese origins.”49

In conclusion, the journal made a hypothesis about the research which are:

1. Americans did not aware of the influence of the anime and how it came to the west even though most people in the U.S has been much exposed by the television media. 2. Overall, Anime is still considered as improper by the Americans. This study additionally explored the utilization of soft power in media, for example, anime and how individuals are subjected to this impact.50

2.6 An Exploration of Japan‟s Soft Power

The literature is written by Stefanie Layerwill examine cultural diplomacy in the context of Japan. The focus of this study is to examine the anime and manga as Japan‟s soft power after World War II. As the literature‟s title of an exploration japan‟s soft power, reference will be made to their recent success in , which is about to celebrate the 150th anniversary of its bilateral relations with Japan. Finally, it will briefly assess the effectiveness of soft power when using manga and anime and it will indicate options for its future development.

In order to understand more about the soft power, the writer Stefanie Layer use Joseph nye concept of describing the resource of soft power. Which is:

1. culture and whether it is attractive to others,

2. values and whether the country lives up to them and

3. policies and whether they are regarded as legitimate in the eyes of others.51

Generally, manga and anime characters are characterized by their big eyes, coloured hair and caricatured body. The Japanese artist made it so because it will be easier to tell the personalities of the character by their appearance. The considerable distinction

49 Ibid p3 50 Ibid p4 51An exploration of Japan‟s soft power by Stefanie Layer p 1. Retrieved 17 November 2014 19 between the western comics and manga is that manga were sketched in cheap papers in dark or white shading, because they are discarded once they have been read. They are controlled by feelings, hence, it is usual to find that main character in manga/comics have weaknesses and the antagonist carry on of reasons that can be grasped.52

As the other literature mentioned, the western did not show interest of Japanese manga/anime until 1990s. It is because the Japanese humor were hard to understand by the western or absurd to foreigners because of the idiosyncrasies of Japanese culture or language that can‟t be translated. Nowadays however, the markets of Japanese manga is one of the quickest developing fragments of the German book market, it demonstrated a solid turnover of €70 million in 2005. This equal with an expanding crave to purchase Japanese items, particularly the merchandise. Along these lines, arrangement like "" in 2000 or "Pokémon" in 2001 set off one of the greatest waves of marketing that the German comic business sector had ever seen.53

With the data mentioned above, there is no doubt that the Japanese anime and manga is great source of soft power and their cultural diplomacy will be greatly enhanced by it. For the suggestion, the Japanese government should initiate the understanding of the Japanese culture, especially because they are indeed different with the westerns. This might be possible by expanding its consideration on activities, such as the advancement of uncommon lexicons. These clarify certain signals, jokes or practices utilized as a part of manga or anime to evade perplexity for Western or German crowds and readers.54

2.7 Japan Brand Strategy: The Taming Of „Cool Japan‟ and The Challenges Of Cultural Planning In A Postmodern Age

The literature with the title of Japan Brand Strategy: The Taming of „Cool Japan‟ and the Challenges of Cultural Planning in a Postmodern Age; written by Michal DALIOT-BUL will explain and discuss about the strategy of the Japanese to pass

52 Ibid p2 53 Ibid p3 54 Ibid p5 20 through the phase called “cool japan” and their challenges to succeeding the cultural diplomacy plan in a postmodern age.

In introduction part, it is explained that the definition of “cool japan” is the phase that started in 1990s when the industry of the Japanese weaken and entertainment services, telecommunication, amusement, style and specifically the mixed media culture of anime, manga and PC and video games, including all related goods, collectibles and toys turned into the quickest developing parts and among the best fare businesses of Japan.55

The euphoria of the Japanese global success popular culture made the Japanese scholars to pop culture with other important section such as economic, political and diplomatic power. After the cool Japan phase passed, the media starts to recognize the Japanese pop culture throughout the world, in academiccircles and in government agencies as a national resource of what Joseph Nye labeled „softpower‟.56

It is said that the Japanese intellectual property strategic programs need a grand design to exploit and enhance the symbolic value of Japanese brands by the marketing. This is a real breakaway from the prevailing Japanese trading method up to the late 1990s of offering customer products and media content with no reference to a Japanese lifestyle and even by intentionally eradicating any remainder of Japanese 'cultural essence'. The Japanese private sector especially in the industry and merchandising realize and recognize the growth appeal of the Japanese, and thus, they backing up the strategy proposed by the officials. Therefore, strengthening the symbolic value of the products it sells as Japanese. 57

2.8 Discovering Japan: Anime and Learning Japanese Culture

The working paper of Annie Manion entitled “Discovering Japan: Anime and Learning Japanese Culture” was discussing about the strategy of the Japanese use to

55Japan Brand Strategy: The Taming of „Cool Japan‟ and the Challenges of Cultural Planning in a Postmodern Age by Michal DALIOT-BUL p1. Retrieved 15 November 2014 56 Ibid p2 57 Ibid p6 21 emerge and become one of the super power country in terms of cultural diplomacy through anime and manga. The anime and manga is a useful tool to enhance and actuate the cultural diplomacy especially young people who has interest in Japanese culture. the more they are in to anime, the more they are in to learn more about Japan. Because of that, anime and manga is a resourceful tool to the young people who want to learn Japanese language.58

As a cultural product that rises up out of Japan, it has gotten to be essentially difficult to separate anime from individuals comprehension of Japan. In the examination about Japanese fashioners in the realm of high design, scientist named Kondo went over this difficulty. She found that individuals were not able to process these creators without the name of "Japanese". Over and over Kondo ran over references to the special custom the originators apparently descended from, and she found that regardless of how exceptional the styles of the individual architects were, they were constantly lumped together as "Japanese." 59

Beside privileging the customary, critics additionally habitually contrast Japanese and Western animators, as though by bringing them into a setting where the West is still obviously hegemonic, it is improbable that the Japanese illustrators will be viewed as "better" or "succeed" Western ones. A late article in the LA times that thought about the two executives Miyazaki Hayao and Oshii Mamoru, was brimming with such correlations. Miyazaki was Japan's , while Oshii was animation's Quentin Tarantino and . 60

2.9 Chapter Conclusion

From all of the above literature, the writer can conclude that in the past nobody likes anime and manga in the western because of the culture clash between the western taste and the Japanese jokes are quite hard to understand each other. Without any adaptation, the Japan cannot and will never invade western markets with their cultural

58Discovering Japan: Anime and Learning Japanese Culture by Annie Manion p2. Retrieved 22 November 2014 59 Ibid p18 60 Ibid p19 22 tools. Take an example, sailormoon, it is a 90s anime that considered as a huge fail because they did not meet the local tastes. Next we can take Mononoke for another example. Different from sailor moon, the anime that was directed by Hayaomiyazaki as an author and published by studio gibli made a huge success in the world especially in America and Europe. It is because the anime is not contained deep the “Japanese taste” that are hard to understand, but more to a globalized theme.

The influence of the anime is so great even nowadays, young people will tend to get the sickness called “chuunibyou”. Roughly translated as “Middle School 2nd Year Syndrome” it is a syndrome that described as when you watch too much anime and you were drawn to it, not fully conscious that you are living in a reality or a fantasy world and tend to get delusional as the imagination and effect of the anime affecting the people in real life, for example if a person watch too much fantasy anime, they will tend to and have a delusion that they have a super power. Usually the syndrome will give a huge impact to one lives such as embarrassment in later years. In any other case, such as western, they are not fully aware of the influence of the anime and how it came to the west. For most people in the America, anime is still considered as inappropriate as a whole.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Method

Qualitative research is research using methods such as participant observation or case studies which result in a narrative, descriptive account of a setting or practice. Sociologists using these methods typically reject positivism and adopt a form of interpretive sociology.61 Generally, qualitative scientific research consists of these five pillars of investigation: 1. seeks answers to a question; 2. Analytically uses predetermined set of procedures to answer the question 3. Evidence research; 4. produces findings that were not determined in advance; 5. produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study.62 The researcher of qualitative method positioned him/herself in a situated activity that located the observer in the world. It consists of a set of hypothesis, material practices that makes the world visible for the research purposes. These practices transform the world. They turn the world intoa series of representations, including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. It means that the observer study things in their own point of view attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.63

61 Qualitative Research page 1. Retrieved 1 December 2014 from http://www.sagepub.com/upm- data/48453_ch_1.pdf 62Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collector‟s Field Guide page 2. Retrieved 1 December 2014 from http://www.ccs.neu.edu/course/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf 63 Qualitative Research page 3. Retrieved 1 December 2014 from http://www.sagepub.com/upm- data/48453_ch_1.pdf 24

3.2 Research Framework

Figure 3.1 Research Framework

Japan cultural Observation of the diplomacy (Anime Soft Power impact of Anime and & manga) manga

Source: Processed by the writer

The negative image of a country will always hinder the collaboration between the neighboring countries. Truth aside, people tend to believe what are they want to believe and media is the most influential tools in changing the image. In the Japanese case, it is not a matter of bad image or good image, but more to a “preferable” image and reflection of what is “the rising sun” country like. The Japanese official thinks the old image of military country is not preferable in this new era of peaceful-globalization world. And thus, the Japanese changed the image of militaristic country to a peace loving country by enforcing the Japanese culture product such as Ikebana and tea ceremony in post war age. As the cultural diplomacy within the Japanese official were recognize even more from before, a product called anime and manga were created to assist the cultural act that has already enforced before. As the title suggest above, the writer of the thesis will be focused on the role of application of two byproduct of the Japanese culture: Anime and manga as tool of Japanese soft power to enforce and spreading the Japanese culture in the U.S.A.

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3.3 Research Time and Place

Place of research: - President University Student Library, Jln. Ki Hajar Dewantara, Jababeka Education Park, Cikarang, Indonesia - National Library of Indonesia (Perpustakaan Nasional RI), Jln. Salemba Raya No.28 A, Pusat, Indonesia Name of September October November December January activity 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Research Writing of thesis Submission of final draft Defense Revision of thesis

Name of February March April

activity 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Research

Writing of thesis

Submission of final draft

Defense

Revision of thesis

Table 3.1 Research Timeframe Source: processed by the Writer

26

Time of research: - September 2014 During this month, the writer did a lot of research regarding what kind of topic will be written and the writer did a lot of research regarding the topic that has been chosen by the writer and approved by the thesis advisor. The writer began the research by reading a lot of related journals, articles, books, and other essays related to the issues at hand. The writer also consulted Thesis Adviser about the issue chosen and resources needed to complete this thesis. By the end of this month, the writer starts to write the first chapter of this thesis. - October – March 2014 The research still conducted while writing the thesis along with the guidance of thesis advisor, many revisions of thesis were made here. - March – April 2015 The finalization of thesis was made along with the submission of final draft.

3.4 Research Instruments

- Internet Nowadays as the era of information emerge from the old mouth to mouth and bulletin technique, to the era of Internet when tons of source of information lies, the writer use reliable and primary data source to write the thesis. The internet research gave so much contribution and gives a variety to research as it can enrich the outcomes of the research to the writer thesis : “the Japanese‟s soft power: the influence through anime and manga”. Some of the examples of website used by the writer are; jnto.go.jp, japan.kantei.go.jp, id.emb-japan.go.jp, kemlu.go.id, japan.usembassy.gov. - Books Books, as old as it is, considered as one of the most reliable source for the writer to use as a foundation of many statement used and research base in this thesis. Books gave the writer of the thesis more explanation regarding the chosen topic.

27

For an example, the writer use “Soft Power The Means To Success In World Politics” by Joseph Nye as clear base for the definition of soft power and other related to the topic at hand. For outcome the writer have more understanding about soft power which is described at CH 1 of this thesis. - Reports Reports from governmental institutions are the most dependable and the most important resource for every research, more importantly in international relations studies and of course for the writer himself to engage the legitimate of the news happening around the world. This is a primary data that has to be used in every research to support their argumentations and hypothesis. Congressional Research Service reports provide better explanation as they explained in detail about background of the issue, process, challenges, outputs and recommendation for a better understanding completed with charts, surveys and real situation in the field. The writer also used other reports from JETRO as well as other relevant reports from the Japanese officials. - Publications The publications of important journals, article and newspaper mainly from the Japan and U.S embassy regarding the Japanese cultural diplomacy enforced in the U.S. the publication of the news plays important role in contributing the writer with tons of important information.

3.5 Chapter Conclusion

This research used qualitative method where the Internet, Journal and reports as the main source of information and all of them are primary source. This research took approximately 5 months to finish. The formula of 5W + 1H (What, Who, When, Where, Why and How) is being used as the main research question to be answered.

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CHAPTER IV

ANIME AND MANGA AS THE INSTRUMENT OF JAPANESE CULTURAL DIPLOMACY IN U.S.A

4.1 Background

The Japanese attempts to communicate with the global society with freedom of expression through media of entertainment that is well known as anime and manga. Through anime and manga, Japan has been renown around the world. As a matter of fact, the anime and manga has been developed from a mere form of entertainment, to become one of the most important tools of establishing and maintaining good image and relationship with other countries without diminished the form of entertainment itself. With anime and manga as one the tools of cultural diplomacy, Japanese converted the image of the military based country to a peace loving country.

In this research, the writer will be focused on United States of America as the main case of the study and globally as the side issue. The relations between the two countries had a long history. Even though the relations of both of the country, Japan and America was in great dispute in World war II, we can see now clearly the past did not hinder the good will and peace treaty policy that both country build again from the scratch. anime from studio gibli written and directed by , released in the United States on October 29, 1999. It was a critical and commercial success, becoming the highest-grossing film in Japan of 1997. In 2009, research shows that for 90% of all Japanese TV exports was anime, according to the Internal Affairs and Communications Ministry, and in U.S.A alone, anime and similar business generated $4 billion annually. For the manga itself, U.S. manga sales have grown at a rate unprecedented in the publishing industry-- 350% from $60 million in 2002 to $210

29 million in 2007; they began to decline only with the economic downturn that began in late 2008.64 Thus, this chapter will discuss about anime and manga as one the Japanese cultural diplomacy to promote better understanding in order to improve the image of the Japanese in U.S.A. The brief history of anime and manga will be the starter of the chapter, followed by the brief explanation, fact, information of the famous and selected anime industries, then anime and manga generally in U.S.A and at the last but not least of the chapter will be the explanation of the way how anime and manga gain dominance in the U.S.. At the end of the chapter, the writer will explain the roles and the importance of anime and manga as the Japanese cultural diplomacy tools.

4.2 Brief History of Anime and Manga

Manga literally was made of the word “man” meaning “inspite of oneself” “lax” or “whimsical” and the word of “ga” means “picture”. The manga term itself was created by a prolific artist who lived from 1760 – 1849 and left over 30.000 works named Katsushika Hokusai. Katsushika Hokusai was an woodblock prints painter, his most famous woodblock prints called The Great Wave.65

64 "Japan‟s Illustrated Storytelling”: A Thematic Analysis of Globalized Anime and Manga.pdf, retrieved 15 November 2014, page 1 65 The Beginnings of Anime and Manga. Retrieved dec 30 2014 from http://www.umich.edu/~anime/info_animehistory.html 30

Picture 4.1: The Great Wave by Katsushika Hokusai 66

During the 6th and 7th centuries, Buddhist monk created a picture scroll that might be the closest of what we called manga. They used common symbols such a cherry blossom and red leaved to indicate the passage of time. Choujuugiga (animal scrolls) is the most famous works, a work that depicted animals behaving like humans and satirized Buddhist priests.67 The popularity of woodblock prints were raising greatly in the early 17th century. The most popular woodblock prints were called ukiyo- e (浮世絵, "pictures of the floating world"). These illustration were generally aimed to sold to wealthy merchant in the urbanizing Edo period (1603–1867).

Amongst the popular themes were image of kabuki actors, beautiful women and sumo wrestlers; scenes from history and folk tales; travel scenes and landscapes; flora and fauna; and erotica. These illustrations were generally salacious images of scenes from the red-light district, though they also depicted the age's pleasures, such as the latest outfits and the most popular places to visit.68

At the late of 18th century, Japanese finally opened to the outside world. The artist from Europe introduce shading, perspective and anatomy technique to the Japanese. They also introduced word balloons and separate sequences. Also, new

66 Ibid 67 Ibid 68 Ibid 31 printing techniques were introduced at this time that were more efficent than woodblock prints. With the new founding technique and under the European guidance, Japanese started making humor magazines similar to Punch, the most famous of which was Marumaru Chimbun in 1877.69

Then the World War II occurred, at the end of the Word War II, the powerful publisher before the war were now in ruin, which allowed many tiny new companies to grow. These tiny companies published extremely cheap comics called "red books." One of the red book artists was a medical student named Tezuka Osamu which later will be known as father of manga. Tezuka's first comic was called Shintakarajima, or New , and Tezuka Osamu the most well known manga was called Tetsuwan atomu (English: Mighty atom).70

Picture 4.2: Tetsuwan Atomu manga by Osamu Tezuka 71

Shojomanga genre came when a group of female manga artist called the (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their debut in 1969. The name 24 came from year of they were born in 1949 (showa 24). The exact member of the year 24

69 Ibid 70 Ibid 71 Tetsuwan Atomu. Retrieved 1 January 2015 from http://www.loc.gov/rr/asian/j-display/13- astroboy.shtml 32 group was not precisely defined, but it is includes Ryoko Yamagishi, Yasuko Aoike, Nanae Sasaya, , Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Ōshima, , Minori Kimura, , Toshie Kihara, and Mineko Yamada. Since then, many female manga artist would draw the same genre as the Magnificent 24s; shojomanga targeting the girls and young women reader. From 1975 until present, shojomanga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres Major subgenres include romance, super heroines, and "Ladies Comics" (in Japanese, redisu, redikomi , and josei).72

Nowadays, people of all ages around the world read manga because manga did not come only for the children, manga itself works in a broad range of genres : romance, comedy, action, psychology, mystery, horror, fantasy, action-adventure, sports and games, , and fantasy, suspense, detective, sexuality, and business/commerce, and many other specific genres. Although this form of entertainment originated in Japan, many are translated into other languages mainly English.

Meanwhile the word Anime was originally from English term of “Animation”. When the World War II ended, the Japanese animators were hired to make for the military, this event will be the beginning of the modern anime Japanese produced. At that time, in the west Walt Disney began to produce the popular animation while Japan began to delve into this world of entertainment. In 1950s the animators began to experiment in producing their own animation copying the techniques originates from the west. In 60s the Japanese anime began to take its own original style from western technique.73As we all generally know, the common characteristic of the Japanese anime depicted with large eyes, big mouths and large head. Along with the evolution of the Japanese animation, in 70s the animator brought about genre along with its super sub genre, beginning with “Tetsujin 28-go” that would set the stage for Robot-themed anime. Followed into the 80s, the Japanese societies began to

72 Gravett, Paul (2004). Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics p8. Retrieved 2 January 2015 73 coutte_anime_timeline_poster_2013.pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2015 from http://online.sfsu.edu/rapidviz/523_2013/coutte_anime_timeline_poster_2013.pdf 33 accept anime as of the Japanese culture and experienced a boom in production, this decade is considered as the “Golden Age of Anime.”74

Picture 4.3: Tetsujin 28-go (alias : Iron Man 28; Gigantor) 75

This decade would bring about several famous productions that would have an enormous impact on future animations by introducing many favorite genres like the martial arts genre and sports genre. Within the film industry, several successful films were also being produced, with much success appearing from the now infamous Studio Ghibli and its director Hayao Miyazaki. Now today, we see Japanese animation now moving from its home country and influencing entertainment in other countries around the world.76.

Generally, the development of the Japanese animation as its follows :

- 1930s - 1940s: known as Cultural Nationalism era. Japanese officials enforced cultural nationalism, leading to control of published media and strict censorship. The Japanese animators were enforced by the governments to produce animations that lit the flame of Japan nationalism and spirit.77

74 Ibid 75 Tetsujin 28-go (Iron Man 28 a.k.a. Gigantor). Retrieved 1 January 2015 from http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/g/gigantor.htm 76 coutte_anime_timeline_poster_2013.pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2015 from http://online.sfsu.edu/rapidviz/523_2013/coutte_anime_timeline_poster_2013.pdf

77 Ibid 34

- 1940s – 1950s: as previously followed from governments policy from cultural nationalism era, many animators produced Military-themed anime. In 1943, Geijutsu Eigasha produced an Anime called Momotaro's Sea Eagles animation with help from Navy and Mitsuyo Seo as the animator. And in 1945, nearly at the end of world war II, Japanese film production company called made Momotaro's Divine Sea Warriors (Momotaro: Umi no Shinpei) became the first Japan‟s real feature length animated film. And in 1948, Japan Animated Films studio founded.78 - 1950s – 1960s : in this current period of time, western animation Walt Disney became the most influential references in making anime. In 1956 Japan Animated Films purchased by , Limited and renamed Toei Animation. In 1958, the first colored anime Japanese anime called Hakujaden (English: The Tale of White Serpent). The anime was thick in Disney touch, the tone, musical, and animal sidekicks. However, it is considered as the first “anime” in the modern sense. The The Tale of White Serpent was released in the US in 1961 as Panda and the Magic Serpent.79 - 1960s – 1970s: this decade was considered as the beginning of animation series and Japanese anime take its original form with their own characteristic which different from its predecessor Walt Disney. Thus first anime series Otogi Manga Calender was broadcasted. Following the manga series, Tetsuwan atomu by Osamu Tezuka, in January 1963 premieres on New Year's Day and is the first popular animated Japanese television series that embodied the aesthetic that later became familiar worldwide as anime and this is the first time when anime started to reach U.S. In October 1963 First super robot anime series Tetsujin 28-go broadcasted, this anime is the pioneer of modern super robot. In 1966 First anime series Sally the Witch broadcasted.80 - 1970s – 1980s: the genre of mecha (science fiction genre that centers on or machines controlled by people from inside) begins. Entering the

78 Ibid 79 Ibid 80 Ibid 35

80s, the Japanese animation shifted from super hero oriented to super robot (mecha) oriented. In 1970, (English: Tomorrow‟s joe) became the boxing icon anime. In January 1974, anime called Heidi, Girl of the Alps runs and despite doubt from TV networks for its simple realistic drama and being aimed for chrildren becomes a international success and popular in European countries. In 1979 the first series launched, this anime widely known as “” and is the first Real Robot anime series airs.81 - 1980s – 1990s: this decade is the golden age of anime. Many important events occurred and anime was developed further in order to satisfy the audience. In 1983, many American companies begin to harness the Japanese anime studios in animating on TV series like The Adventures of the Galaxy Rangers, The and G.I. Joe. In 1984, anime studio Gainax is founded after a group of amateur producers called Daicon Films gain popularity within the otaku community for their two anime shorts created for the Nihon SF Taikai conventions in Japan. Also in February 1984, the first anime with porno-graphic content () is released. In march same year, anime named “Nausica of the Valley of the Wind” released, the success and reputation of this anime would lead to many experimental and ambitious projects. After the success of Nausica, Studio gibli founded, lead by and Hayao Miyazaki, under supervision of former editor Toshio . In 1985, mobile suit gundam Zeta made a sequel and became the most successful mecha genre anime in Japan. Many great anime that became the origin of the future animation was released in this current time of period, thus this decade of 1980 – 1990 is called the golden times of anime.82 - 1990s – 2000s: as anime became a huge hit in Japan, the creators and animators start to work even harder and great new ideas came up front. In this decade, many new genre of anime arise. The most notable works of anime in this decade was with martial arts genre, that

81 Ibid 82 Ibid 36

even nowadays still a huge hit and dubbed more than a dozen language all over the world, Evangelion with explicit and epic story line complete with violence and sexuality that forced the TV to put censorship on the anime, sailormoon with the longest running magical girl anime, and also created by Hayao Miyazaki the most expensive anime at that time costing about $20 million to produce. Another fact, Princess mononoke gross revenue approximately ¥14 trillion.

4.3 Anime Industry

Since the post world war II, many of the Japanese animators band together and build their own . As the previous page mentioned, the Japanese anime skills were originated from the west. Since the booming of well known Walt Disney animation, the Japanese tried to copy their style and works, and finally made their own characteristic different from their original predecessor, Walt Disney. Nowadays, hundreds of new Japanese anime industries rise, and the writer will choose most of the well known Industries to be explained.

4.3.1 Toei Animation Toei animation is one of the oldest and one of the biggest shareholders in Japanese animated studio such as in the Japanese anime network, , along with other renown Japanese animated studios and production enterprise such as TMS entertainment, Sunrise (well known for mecha genre such as mobile Gundam series) and Nihon Ad System Inc.83 Toei company works in the field of Produces, markets, and licenses animation. Located in 5F Nakano Central Park East, 4-10-1, Nakano, Nakano-ku, Tokyo 164-0001.84

Over the years since the first founded by Okawa Hiroshi, Toei has grown enormous that already produced over 180 animation titles, and is one of the

83 History of TOEI ANIMATION, retrieved 20 January 2015 from http://www.toei- anim.co.jp/english/history/history.html 84 Outline TOEI animation, retrieved 19 January 2015 from http://corp.toei-anim.co.jp/english/outline/ 37

biggest Japanese animated with operating capital 2,867,000,000 Yen, employees of 548 (consolidated), 325 (non-consolidated), Gross sales up to 31,027 Million Yen as per march 2014 counted.85 During post world war II, Japan began to recover, the first president of Toei film company, Okawa Hiroshi, saw Walt Disney movie “Snow White” (1937). He thinks that the film was so gorgeous and magnificent. Toei animation itself was established in 1948 and inally, in 1956, he purchased studio a white-walled palace with air conditioning and incorporated under the same name, as people called it and founded Toei Doga (now Toei Animation). He wants Toei became Disney of the east.86 Since the studio has been founded, it has created large number of anime series in TV, movies, and also adapted many manga by well known authors to become animated series, many popular worldwide. Famous people in the world of animation such as Hayao Miyazaki, Isao Takahata, and Yoichi Kotabe, was working with the Toei company in the past.87

Toei company produced many anime version worked by many legendary manga artist, including including , , , , , , , Toriyama, Leiji Matsumoto and .88 Furthermore, Toei helped to boost the popularity of the mecha (super robot) and mahou shoujo (magical girl) genres of anime. Amongst many legendary anime Toei produced, include the first magical girl anime series Mahoutsukai Sally the anime adaptation of Mitsuteru Yokoyama's manga of the same name, and Go Nagai's Z, animated adaptation of his manga, which set the standard for Super Robot anime for years to come. Toei also provided animation works for several USA television series and many box office motion pictures, dating back as far as the 1960s, but they mostly provided outsourced production work during the 1980s.

85 Ibid 86 The Evolution of the Japanese Anime Industry, retrieved 20 January 2015 from http://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00043/ 87 History of TOEI ANIMATION, retrieved 20 January 2015 from http://www.toei- anim.co.jp/english/history/history.html 88 http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/english/catalog/index.html 38

The company was widely known as Toei Doga (東映動画株式会社 Tōei Dōga Kabushiki-gaisha) until oct 1998 and change its name to Toei Animation Co., Ltd.89 “Doga” in Toei Doga is a native Japanese language for the word of “Animation” which was widely used by the Japanese until the 1970s. As the company logo and mascot, they choose the name of “cat Pero” from the film adaption in 1969.

Picture 4.4: TOEI ANIMATION Logo

As the writer mentioned above, the president was so mesmerized by the beauty of animation of Walt Disney‟s Snow White, so as the first theatrical feature length film, Toei released "The White Snake" (also known as Hakujaden or The Legend of the White Snake) which is not very different from the Walt Disney‟s Snow White, with so many Disney touch such as the tone, musical, and animal sidekicks. For the preparations, the company sent a research team to the United States and invited several experts to travel to Japan as mentors for making of Hakujaden. As a result, they were able to master the Disney system of “assembly-line production.” They hired a team of new employees who honed

89 Ibid 39

their skills while they produced the film under the supervision of veteran animators like Mori Yasuji and Daikuhara Akira.90 91

In the postwar era from the late 1950s onward, Toei led Japanese animation industry, but since the Japan was in recovering state after the world war II jobs naturally were hard to find, and the new founded company was able to attract an outstanding team of young talents who happy to work for relatively low salaries. The job was typical labor-intensive company. However, in the 1960s the Japanese government officials drive people with double income started to take effect, wages went up and the company soon found itself in the red. The presence of people at the world masterpiece fantasy fairy tale anime series, a manga festival held every year during the springtime school holidays (later will be held at summer vacations as well), were falling. As the condition worsen from time to time, the company financial future was vague.92 Furthermore with the labor movement gaining momentum at that time, thus bringing frequent labor disputes and labor-management clashes, its pool of creators began to shrink in the 1960s as one after another Toei greatest creator left to work in another Animation companies. These creators generally obtained works as key artist and animation position in animation production companies. Because these former Toei creators was trained by the movements of widening Japanese animation industry, it can be said that the certain standard of animation production was established outside of Toei Doga.93

4.3.2 Sunrise, Inc. Sunrise Inc. is a Japanese animation studio and production enterprise. It is a subsidiary of Holdings. Between decades- spanning Gundam franchise and one-shot gems like The Vision of Esca flowne and , sunrise has a great reputation and long history of being one of the Humongous Mecha market trend makers, also being a subsidiary

90 Ibid 91 The Evolution of the Japanese Anime Industry, retrieved 20 January 2015 from http://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00043/ 92 The Evolution of the Japanese Anime Industry, retrieved 20 January 2015 from http://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00043/ 93 Japanese Animation: East Asian Perspectives e-book page 16 retrieved 22 January 2015 40

of Bandai Entertainment (since 1994), many of Sunrise Inc. works (genre : great size mecha category) end up in sooner or later.94

According to the interview of one of the sunrise member, the sunrise studio was founded by the remnants member of that went bankrupt in the 1970s. At that time, many the staff member of Mushi production began to leave as they were thinking the project they worked was too centered at Tezuka‟s ideas of creation and their potential creativity was being hindered and controlled, unable to set free because of following the vision of one man.

The remnants member of Mushi production then banded together to create new environment of work place where their ideas of creation and potential will grow. The new founded studios was called Sunrise Studio, Limited (有限会社サンライズスタジオ Yugen-kaisha Sanraizu Sutajio.) the main goals of their new studio was to create an environment where they could have a variety of original ideas nourished and be brought to TV screens that more focused to the producer rather than the creator itself. Unlike in Mushi production, they were not bound to produce manga adaption anime.95 And finally, in April 1977 the sunrise studio name changed to Nippon sunrise, Inc. June 1987, they established their name into Sunrise, Inc and continued business from Nippon Sunrise.96

Picture 4.5: Sunrise Inc. Logo

94 http://www.sunrise-inc.co.jp/international/ retrieved 30 January 2015 95 Inside sunrise retrieved 30 January 2015 from http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/video/17634/#play- 1 96 Company Outline retrieved 29 January 2015 from http://www.sunrise- inc.co.jp/international/company/outline.html 41

Apart from mecha genre, sunrise Inc. also animated eight episodes of : the animated series. Along with AKOM (Animation Korea Movie Productions), to be taken off the series. Nevertheless, Sunrise later created , a Batman-influenced project with a considerably more positive reception in the West. Sunrise were also responsible for an aborted attempt to create an Americanized Gundam series, known as Doozy Bots, long before any of the actual anime.97

Moreover, sunrise bringing good satisfaction to the viewer by polishing and releasing many HD/Bluray version of their anime such as Code Geass or the HD Editions of Gundam SEED. The Sunrise CG quality cannot be overlooked, this can be seen clearly from the graphic and smooth animation of recent Gundam series and Keroro Gunsou, especially Keroro genshou. From the researcher point of view, this smooth and great quality CG of Sunrise use due to the effort of making the animation looks both “cartoonish” and “real” at the same time, thus creating the result of unique animation combination from 3D and drawn work. Nevertheless, integration has admittedly improved over the years. Anime called Love Live! Is one of the proof that sunrise has been improved over the years.98

Being renown of creating many shows from differ producers and directors with different ideas of visions, sunrise kept growing and created many studios (sub-division). Each sub division of sunrise Inc, lead by set of producer, creative team, theme or style. Below, the sunrise studios will be described briefly.

- Studio 1: as the name of studio 1 stands, studio one of sunrise is the oldest studio sunrise had. Studio one is where the classic and old anime shows were born. It was established in 1972 by working with other studios at that time. Most works were joined with Toei who were leaders in mecha genre

97 Sunrise, retrieve 29 january from http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/company.php?id=34 98 Sunrise studio, retrieved 1 february from http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Creator/Sunrise?from=Main.Sunrise and http://www.sunrise- inc.co.jp/international/ 42

anime in the past. The works in studio one included : Zambot 3, Daitarn 3 , Mobile Suit Gundam, Space Runaway Ideon, , (various), Mobile Police (TV series & OVA), New Mobile Report Gundam Wing (TV series & OVA), After War Gundam X and .99

- Studio 2: studio 2 is considered the best back in 80s and 90s and was created around 1974/75 to take the studio one excessive works off. The studio 2 continued to work with other studios as studio 1 do until 1982, after that, the production was led by . Some key member of Studio 2 left to found Studio , resulting Many of studio 2 workers were migrated to Studio Bones was founded.100 The works in studio 2 included: , Mobile Suit Gundam ZZ, Mobile Suit Gundam: Char‟s Counterattack, Mobile Suit Gundam F91 and . Along with , Combat Mecha Xabungle, Heavy Metal L Gaim, , and .101

- Studio 3: Studio 3 was founded in 1975, with serial anime Kumu – Kumu co produced with Tohokushinsha Film Corporation and Born Free with Tsuburuya Production.102 103 White fang (1981) is the first solo work studio 3 sunrise produced, it was adaptation from manga and uniquely, it is not an anime with mecha genre. Galactic Drigter Vifam, Blue Comet SPT Layzner and the series followed later on after the production of White fang. From there, they produced Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust

99 Sunrise studio breakdown timeline.pdf, retrieved 25 January 2015 100 Ibid 101 Sunrise film works retrieved 27 January from http://www.sunrise- inc.co.jp/international/works/list_year.php 102 Wanpaku Omukashi Kumu Kumu (TV) retrieved 27 January 2015 from http://www.animenewsnetwork.co.uk/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=1431 103 Kyōryū Tankentai Born Free (TV) retrieved 27 January from http://www.animenewsnetwork.co.uk/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=1475 43

Memory, Mobile Suit Victory Gundam and Mobile Suit Gundam: 08th MS Team.104

- Studio 4: it was founded around 1979 with recent notable works Code Geass series lead by Goro Taniguchi. The first work of Sunrise studio 4 was 009. Worked on a few shows from ‟79-87 then nothing for a long time. Of those credited works they include; Dirty Pair, Giant Gorg and the Votoms Big Battle OVA. 105

- Studio 5: the studio 5 sunrise was founded in 1979 not long after the studio 4. Tanser 5 was the first work of studio 5, after that the studio stay void for the next few years. In 1987, the studio came back with project SD gundam serial and the Starship Troopers OVA, followed by Gundam 0080 War in the Pocket OVA, the Eldoran series, Banner/ series, movies, TV series.106

- Studio 6: around 1983, studio 6 sunrise was founded. Xabungle and Dougram was their first works, and the two title were released together. Until 1996, the studio stay silent which is when they got reestablished. Their works included several sequels for City Hunter, Keroro Gunso, Future GPX Cyber Formula and Machine Eiyuuden Wataru before their first original work, The Big O in 1999. several key members of studio 6 left to found studio , who continued working on anime titled Keroro Gunso although Sunrise still got credited in it. Tiger and Bunny became a great hit and it is their first work after studio Brigde‟s creation.107

104 Sunrise film works retrieved 27 January 2015 from http://www.sunrise- inc.co.jp/international/works/list_year.php 105 Ibid footnote 33 106 Ibid 107 Ibid 44

- Studio 7: created in 1985. The first work studio 7 had was American cartoon “the centurions”. The studio 7 is a quite large studio and often worked 2 project at the same time, and around 95-96 when studio 9 sunrise was created, some of the works were transferred to them. Some producers and member of studio 7 left to form the studio in 2002.108

- Studio 8: was established around 1995, and their first works were called Chouja Raideen and Sentimental J. the fun fact of this studio is because it is well known of “” branch of Sunrise, as the studio 8 anime series often feature cute girlish sci-fi settings, included: Mai Hime/Otome Series, Idolmaster Xenoglossia, Love Live! Series, Sora o Kakeru Shoujo and the Votoms: Case Irvine OVA.. Moreover, they also well known for keeping their works well on schedule.109

- Studio 9: was established in 1996 and was branch from studio 7. Studio 9 was famous with their well known works such as , Battle Spirits, Daily Lives of High School Boys Infinite Ryuuvis, Argento Soma, Zegapain and on Gundam SEED over the years. Another fact, anime titled Aikatsu! Season 1 was cooperation between Sunrise and Telecom Animation Film, however, in the middle of making season 2, TAF left and studio 5 took over the production.110

- Studio 10: was established around 1996 and was branch from studio 5. Studio 10 famous works include: , and Phi Brain: Puzzle of God, and their works also include: , Future GPX Cyber Formula Saga series, Gear Fighter Dendoh, Gekito! Crush Gear Turbo, and Onmyou Taisenki. The project they working on usually the type of Saturday/Sunday morning anime types.111

108 Ibid 109 Ibid 110 Ibid 111 Ibid 45

- Studio 11: studio sunrise no 11 is the most recent studio that established in 2009 and branch of studio 8. Their works included: in Kurokami, Natsuiro Kiseki, SD Gundam Sangokuden Brave Battle Warriors series.112

- Studio D.I.D: studio D.I.D sunrise is the CGI studio who handle and creating many CGI assets of sunrise shows. Their most notable works is Tiger and Bunny and Gundam MS Igloo.113

- studio: former name Ogikubo studio or more formerly known as Sunrise Emotion, theirm most notable works include: , , the anime film and .114

4.3.3 Gainax Co., Ltd. The Gainax studio is a Japanese animation studio founded by a group of young enthusiast December 24, 1984. Literally the word Gainax is a between Japanese – English words from means giant in Tottori region dialect, Japan and Max from English, although some other reliable source they add the English suffix –x at the end of the Gaina because it sounded good and was international. The group of young enthusiast in 1980 formed by , , , Takami Akai, , Yasuhiro Takeda and , known as Daicon Film, animated short Film for the 20th annual Japan National SF convention titled Daicon III the short animation had ambitious scope and was rough and low quality. Daicon III is a story of a young girl who fights robots, monsters and spaceships from early sci- fi TV shows and films (including , Gundam, Space Runaway Ideon, , , , and ). 115

Following their success with the Daicon III, they also produced another animation for the 22nd Japan National SF convention titled Daicon IV in 1983.

112 Ibid 113 Ibid 114 Ibid 115 History Gainax retrieved 1 February 2015 http://www.gainax.co.jp/wp/company/ 46

The animation of Daicon IV was much better than the previous. The Daicon IV had a better animation recap, and the Main character moves from the young girl to a grown woman, wearing bunny suit and fighting an even wider range of science fiction creatures. The Daicon IV animation helped the Daicon Film to gain recognition as a talented new anime studio (though they are still small). Later on, the Daicon film changed its name to Gainax in 1984.116

Following the incredible success of amateur short films Daicon III and IV Daicon, Bandai assign them to construction and production of the feature film The Wings of Honneamise. Soon after, the young studio work on a project that will make their fame grow; , Nadia - The Secret of Blue Water and . Gainax then continue their success with adapting a shōjo manga titled with the extravagant OVA series Furi Kuri. Their succession multitude with works more or less significant as - adapted another manga - Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi, This Ugly Yet Beautiful World and Die Buster, then followed by the famous Gunbuster OVA series.117

Picture 4.6: Gainax Co., Ltd. Logo

In 2007, the studio Gainax gives life to a new major producing and has three years later with the delirious television series Panty & Stocking with Garterbelt. Several adaptations are also emerging such as Shikabane Hime, The Mystic Archives of Dantalian or . In 2012, Gainax produced serial , Ea's , parodying the world of

116 Ibid 117 About Gainax, retrieved 2 february 2015 from http://www.gainax.fr/page.php?id=15 47

Tokusatsu. Revolutionizing the world of animation with works that are both original and experimental, the studio Gainax has also been able to diversify by producing renown video games titled Princess Maker, as well as organizing the festival Yonago Eiga Jihen since 2010. 118

Picture 4.7: Neon Genesis Evangelion Poster Anime

In 1995, an anime titled Neon Genesis Evangelion was produced. And that was probably the best known series of all time Gainax produced. The anime was a great success and is well known with many remakes of OAV (Original Anime Video). However, the president of Gainax was arrested and audited by the National Tax Agency at the urging of the Tokyo Regional Taxation Bureau on of committing tax evasion on the massive profits accruing from various Evangelion properties. Later, the Gainax had concealed approximately 1.56 billion yen worth of income (thereby failing to pay 560 million yen due in corporate taxes) which it had earned between the release of Evangelion and July 1997 by paying closely related companies various large fees, ostensibly to pay for animation expenses, but then immediately withdraw 90% of the sums from

118 Ibid 48

the other company's accounts as cash and store it in safe deposit boxes (leaving 10% as a reward for the other company's assistance).119

A major news paper from Japan, Mainichi Shinbun wrote that during 1996 and 1997, Takeji Sawamura, as the president of Gainax and Yoshikatsu Iwasaki, as their tax accountant at that time suspected to avoid paying corporate taxes by reporting fictitious expenses for software companies. The tax accountant Yoshikatsu Iwasaki was also arrested on similar charges. Yasuhiro Takeda, employee and one of the founding member of Gainax, later defended Sawamura‟s action as precaution of the future shaky financial situation in Gainax:

"Sawamura understood our financial situation better than anyone, so when Evangelion took off and the money really started rolling in, he saw it as possibly our one and only opportunity to set something aside for the future. I guess he was vulnerable to temptation at that point, because no one knew how long the Evangelion goose would keep laying golden eggs. I don't think he purposely set out with the goal of evading taxes. It was more that our level of accounting knowledge wasn't up to the task of dealing with revenues on such a large scale."120

4.3.4 Studio Ghibli, Inc.

Studio Ghibli is a Japanese animation founded by Isao Takahata and Hayao Miyazaki, headquartered in Yubinbango184-0002 Koganei, Tokyo Casino-cho, chome No. 4 No. 2. Ghibli‟s number of employees approximately 300 people. Studio Ghibli is famous for creating high quality anime feature films, both animation and its plot. Also, studio Ghibli has produced several short films and television commercial. Studio Ghibli was

119 Gainax, company president admit tax evasion, retrieved 15 february 2015 from http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/1998-11-12/gainax-company-president-admit-tax-evasion 120 “Notenki Memoirs (2002)” p128 retrieved 15 february 2015 49

founded in June 1985 after the success of the animation titled: “Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind” in 1984, funded by , one of the largest entertainment publishers in Japan.121 Ghibli business cover: Animation Film, TV CM, TV movie, planning, production, such as live-action film - various merchandising using the character that appeared in animated films/animated movies, TV shows, video production such as documentary work - animated film business on license with overseas sales, import and export - planning, editing and production of publications - of music, copyright management and acquisition and music promoted.122 Studio Ghibli films are well known enough that they regularly surpass Disney films at the Japanese box office. Recently Disney signed a deal with Ghibli's Parent company, Tokuma Shoten, for exclusive worldwide distribution rights to many Ghibli films.

Picture 4.8: Studio Ghibli, Inc.Logo

The word “Ghibli” was taken from Italian words, which means “hot air blowing”. Also the name was used for an Italian military reconnaissance aircraft

121 Ghibli corporate information, retrieved 2 march 2015 from http://www.ghibli.jp/30profile/000156.html 122 Ibid 50

during the second World War. Miyazaki who is an airplane mania (and ), named his studio after it and hoping that Ghibli will stood up its name and blow the hot air in Japanese animation industry.123 Many of Ghibli‟s work have won the Animage‟s (Japanese anime and entertainment magazine) Anime Grand Prix Award: (1987),124 (1989),125Kiki's Delivery Service (1990).126 Also, won a Golden Bear (the highest prize awarded for the best film at the Berlin International Film Festival) in 2002 and an Academy Award (by Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences) for Best Animated Feature Film in 2003.

The Ghibli studio is also known for its strict “no cuts” policy in licensing their film. The “no cuts” policy was introduced after the unfortunate incident of the “Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind” American release. The film was heavily edited and the name was changed to Warriors of the Wind. The policy was brought up again when Harvey Weinstein, Miramax co-chairman wanted to make changes to the Princess Mononoke in 1997 in order to make it easier to get marketed in the United States when it was released in 1999. The studio Ghibli responded with sending an authentic katana with a simple message: “No cuts”.127

123 The origin of the name of Studio Ghibli, retrieved 1 march 2015 from http://www.ghibli.jp/40qa/000002.html 124 http://animage.jp/old/gp/gp_1987.html 125 http://animage.jp/old/gp/gp_1989.html 126 http://animage.jp/old/gp/gp_1990.html 127 A god among animators; Miyazaki interview, retrieved 2 march 2015 from http://www.theguardian.com/film/2005/sep/14/japan.awardsandprizes 51

CHAPTER V

5.1 Anime And Manga In U.S.A

5.1.1 General discussion This discussion will be explaining about the popularity of anime and manga depicted in the graph in the United States of America, how it influence the U.S. In the previous discussion has been explained about the general history and the studio of anime. It will not be a hyperbolic if the writer states that Japanese anime is a humongous industry even in United States which we can say have a very different culture from the Japanese. Hayao Miyazaki as one of the founder of Studio Ghibli and is one of the most famous anime animator, have won an Oscar for his animated film Spirited Away.128 Also, Miyazaki itself has been working with Walt Disney on occasion, because of his famous name in the Animation world, Miyazaki has been nicknamed the Walt Disney of Japan. Moreover, the Toy story saga director, , uphold Miyazaki in high respect when he found himself inspired by Miyazaki.129

Many great animators such as Miyazaki, Osamu Tezuka, Isao Takahata and the others are responsible for bringing anime in to the U.S and making it accepted despite the culture differentiation. Though many did not believe that anime has been affecting in both animated and live-action American cinema since 1960s and many Americans are either did not believe that this switch in cinema pop culture or are oblivious to the pervasiveness of Japanese culture in what they watch, when television shows such as Astro Boy and made it to the United States. However, it is important to study and understand the implications of the cultural booming through anime and manga in order to understand the animation industry as it stands today. Manga is also mentioned above in terms of understanding the animation industry because the beginning

128 Anime: From Cult Following to Pop Culture Phenomenon, page 1, retrieved 19 February 2015 129 Ibid 52

of great anime was begun with the adaption of Manga “astroboy” which Osamu Tezuka created, to become an anime. Since then, anime and manga cannot be separated as many great anime is coming from the adaption of the manga.130

Also, the Japanese humor is hard to understand by the western people. This due to the frequently used type of the Japanese humor called Manzai. This type of joke mostly consist of 2 people, a straight man (tsukkomi) and a funny man (boke). This kind of joke is considered childish and absurd by the westerners because of the idiosyncrasies of Japanese culture or language that can‟t be translated. Because of that, many anime that goes in to the U.S market was edited and through several times of localization method before broadcasted.131

In the U.S. itself, TV serial animation or for the movies has a quite significant difference from the art of . The animation made by western companies like DreamWorks or Disney focuses on movement, the movement of characters, scenery and the background. Western animators think the more movement will make a better animation. Since the movement in the western animation was required in order to be considered “good”, if there was an adaptation from comic book to an animated movie or cartoon, the character will be simplified so they will be easy to drawn when they required to move from scene one to another scene. That is also why, for example spider-man the animation, batman the animation, fairy odd parents, they all designed pretty simple in a cartoon rather than their appearance in the comic books. Simply said, they did not want to spend too much money to redraw everything in details such as their costume, shading, details every time the character moves.

5.1.2 Anime and manga: Japan – U.S Market. The Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO), the group that affiliated with the official Japanese government, released a report of the content business in North America in its march 30 “State of the Content Market in

130 Ibid 131 An exploration of Japan‟s soft power, page 2,retrieved 28 February 2015 53

North America 2008-2009”. According to the report, the anime-related market in the region was worth US$2.829 billion (about 280 billion yen) in 2007. The data was compiled by Wowmax Media and they used statistics from Nielsen VideoScan, NPD, and other sources in compiling this report for JETRO.132

Picture 5.1: Market Sales Comparison Chart 2001 – 2007.133

Picture 5.2: Details of The Chart.134

According to the data above, we can conclude that the anime-related market in North America was reported at its peak in 2003, where as we can see

132 http://www.jetro.go.jp/world/n_america/us/reports/05001652, retrieved 19 February 2015 133 Ibid 134 Ibid 54

the total from Character goods, VHS, DVD and Film combined estimated at US$4.84 billion. While from 2003 to 2006, the sales of anime-related goods was dropped to the point estimated at US$2.785 billion. The 2007 figure was over 40% smaller. Of that US$2.829 billion in 2007, character goods made up US$2.512 billion, while accounted for US$316 million. By contrast, the character goods market increased from 2006's US$2.41 billion to 2007's US$2.512 billion. The market for packaged videos and DVDs peaked in 2002, when it rose to US$415 million.135

For Manga market in the U.S, JETRO also posted the date from Wowmax media based on data from ICv2 and Nielsen Bookscan:

Picture 5.3: Chart Of Manga Market In The U.S

JETRO reported the Manga market in the United States has rose significantly since 2002, then manga market declined further in 2008 and so forth. Manga market in U.S and suffered 2 years straight in 2008 and 2009, with sales falling 20% from an estimated $175 million in 2008 to $140 million in 2009. It is mainly because the fans of the manga who filled the manga

135 Ibid 55

boom have aged and despite their interest in their old genre, they prefer it to be “adult-like” taste. While the physical manga market shrank in U.S, it is said that the digital comic market (Japanese and domestic books/novels alike) has been growing. JETRO estimates that the digital comic market grew from US$500,000-US$1 million in 2009 (according to ICv2) to US$6-8 million in 2010.136

Even though the manga market has been declined, it cannot be overlooked that manga is still the key of overall graphic market in U.S. Before the manga boomed in U.S, similar event ever occurred before where there was a drop off in sales, but then stabilized at alarming levels. In spite of a 19% drop in the number of releases and a 20% decline in sales, manga titles still represented 35% of all the graphic novels released in the U.S. in 2009 and accounted for a similar percentage of sales in the category.137

5.2 Anime Marketing Target In U.S.

The beginning was back at the old times, when Astro Boy first debuted in 1963 on NBC United States. In success of astro boy, anime was widely known, not only in the U.S.A, but also in the whole world. Since then, anime was introduced in U.S.A through the years and anime was introduced as a subculture of Japan in to the U.S markets. Meanwhile, the Japanese sees anime as tools to dominate U.S markets in its section since the Anime has always received well with that strategy in Japan.138 It became a recognized movement when the success of an anime titled: Akira in 1989. The revenues of box office raised to $553,171 and it successfully grabbed the attention of many American people to learn more about the Japanese culture and its language. (JETRO, 2013) This bring the development of anime market even further since the major distributor and sales channels gains interest in the Japanese animation. The success of Akira then followed by many Anime such as , Sailor

136 http://www.jetro.go.jp/world/n_america/us/reports/07000590, retrieved 24 February 2015 137 a second bad year in a row for manga, retrieved 15 march 2015 from http://icv2.com/articles/comics/view/17292/a-second-bad-year-row-manga 138 Marketing Strategies for Japanese Industry within the U.S. Animation Market.pdf page 1 retrieved 19 march 2015 56

Moon, Dragon Ball and so on, which also obviously supported by the American even though many doubted that as to whether Japanese Animation had truly become a popular in the United States at that time.139

Another anime Hit U.S TV in 1999, Pokemon and again, it repeated that Japanese Anime became part of the American mainstream pop culture. Many Pokemon merchandise such as Toys and trading cards were produced as the effect and demand of the booming. The pokemon booming was so large that not only enthusiastic fans were affected, but also the brand was regained huge recognition in ordinary homes which were rarely exposed to Japanese content. The first pokemon movie was in over 3000 theater screens with box office earnings of $85.7 million. (JETRO, 2013).140

There is two key of market segment in U.S by the Japanese. One for young adult, which is for the people aged 13 and over, and the other is for the children. The anime in U.S.A mostly categorized for young adult consumer, the works is considered as “PG - 13” (Parents strongly cautioned) category. Since the content of the works will be included violence, fear inducing images, nudity, vulgar words, and other sensitive constructs, parents or guardian is highly recommended. Outside of these two segments, there the adult segment with graphic nudity and gay contents.141

139 Ibid 140 Ibid 141 Ibid 57

Picture 5.4: Segmentation of US Animation Market.142

5.2.1 Children Market The children market is easier than young adult market. Children market does not required extensive knowledge or storyline of a subject before to make the children enjoyed the anime. The common age range of children market is from the age of 13 lower. Children most likely being introduced to the anime by seeing their friends and out of curiosity or just see it passing on TV. Children just accept the characters as seen on television, there is often need to connect various forms of exposure of characters, such as retail items. This is due to the characters of the children that they are yet to develop the capability of heavy and critical thinking such as questioning “what is char A point of view in life?.” To maintain the character exposure, usually companies must invest in advertising the characters with many media channels, often a huge financial investment. However, once the children like the character, they usually will be loyal to the anime they will not only watch the show but to go to the movies,

142 Ibid 58

buy DVDs and other related character goods. Once the companies reach this level of success it is highly capable to appeal to mass market.143 For example in this category, Spirited away and Princess Mononoke from studio Ghibli, Japan, can be categorized as success looking at how much it appeals the audience. There are also many success of classic children anime like , maruko – chan, , Pokemon and from the children market‟s segment.144

5.2.2 Young Adult Market The young adult market focused more on their niche interests compared to children market. While the children focused more on the character exposure, the young adult looking for the subject from the plot they are interested in so they can relate the anime they are watching to its characters. The rest of it mostly will be the same as the children market, once they gain interest to the specific anime, they will find franchises they would want to watch and try to find more information on this subject. The franchises are usually heroes or a character from an anime that have been based from pre-existing manga or comics. In this segment for example, the franchise such as , , are very popular among male young adults. When you go to the like Sakuramatsuri (literally: watching sakura in Japanese), you will find many teenagers dressed as the characters from these anime. The story line targeted to the young adults should be more complex than the children and the characters tend to display variety type of personalities depends on their roles.145 Most anime from this segment are based from Manga that are created with the same basis as the young adult market anime in the U.S.A.146

143 Ibid p3 144 Ibid 145 Ibid p4 146 Ibid 59

5.3 The Analysis of Anime and Manga As The Japanese Cultural Diplomacy Tools

Joseph Nye as the former Dean of the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University and American political scientist, stated in his book the means of persuasion can be carried by applying either Hard or Soft power. The term of Hard power used by Nye to describe the use of Military strength or economic incentives, where as the term of Soft power here to describe the use of language, culture, religion, science and technology that convince others because of their attraction. The cultural diplomacy is the center of soft power to determine its success. Cultural diplomacy itself can be defined as "the exchange of ideas, information, art and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples” and therefore soft power is crucial “to foster mutual understanding”.147

It has been explained before in the “brief history of anime and manga” and Introduction section, that the Japanese image in the west cannot be separated from anime and manga since they lost the World War II and shifted the image from the militaristic country to a peaceful loving country by introducing their peace loving culture to the world. If you ask the American people what is the most famous cultural product of the Japanese, mostly they will answer anime and manga. It is due to the long history of anime and manga rooted in Japan and actually became one of the most important key in introducing their culture to the world. In this 21st century, the world wide of Japanese anime and manga popularity boomed, so much that the Japanese officials has introduced policies to promote anime and manga overseas as a way of further developing Japan‟s image abroad.

Also, since the beginning of 21st century Japan has undertaken many attempts to increase the influence of its soft power not only in U.S.A, but also to the whole world. In November 2006, the Council on the Movement of People across Borders, an advisory council to the Foreign Minister Aso, suggested to establish a “Japan Manga Grand Prize” for foreign artists and to appoint cultural anime ambassadors.148 Followed

147 An exploration of Japan's soft power.pdf, p 1, retrieved 20 march 2015 148 Japan‟s Quest for “Soft Power”: Attraction and Limitation.pdf, p 351, retrieved 20 march 2015 60 by the suggestion, Japan held the first International Manga Award in May 2007 and received 146 entries from 26 countries and regions all over the world.149 In Anime section, there is an Inauguration Ceremony of Anime Ambassador in March 2008 and Doraemon has been chosen as the Anime Ambassador by Mr. Masahiko Koumura, the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wished that Doraemon as the Anime Ambassador of Japan would travel around the world to introduce Japan.150 To boost the encouragement of foreign people to gain more interest in the Japanese culture, the Japanese official hosted manga and anime competition. As a side effect, many International manga and anime convention assist the Japanese to gain more popularity.

For the last part, according to the facts above, there is no doubt that the Japanese has great resource of soft power and that its cultural diplomacy is likely to benefit mostly from the manga and anime. Encouragement of understanding the Japanese culture through anime and manga should be number one priority in cultural diplomacy segment which is very different from western culture. The deeper understanding of the Japanese culture can be done by the development of special dictionaries which explaining the common gestures, jokes and behavior of the Japanese to avoid the confusion and closing the gap of cultural differences.151 Also, the Japanese government should be cautious that the influence of anime and manga can be very limited due to the competition with other cultural products from the neighboring countries such as , , and of course from the U.S itself.152

149 First International MANGA Award, retrieved 20 march 2015 from http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2007/6/1174276_828.html 150 Inauguration Ceremony of Anime Ambassador, retrieved 20 march 2015 from http://www.mofa.go.jp/announce/announce/2008/3/0319-3.html 151 Ibid 152 Ibid 61

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

In this globalization era, the image of a country is very important factor to help or crumble their national interest. Good image for a country means that the country is more preferable in doing any kinds of relationship business or cooperation, and a good image can help a country growth because they are liked and trusted enough to make neighboring countries invest or entwine partnership between them. Likewise, a country with bad image tends to be avoided. Mostly, this bad image is the result of a current country condition, for example, they are in a war or that specific country is in chaos. Therefore, countries are using public diplomacy to gain good image in international societies. The traditional public diplomacy is used by diplomats, but as the technology grows and the era of communications prosper, there are new access of boosting the good image of a country, one of them is through internet and television.

For the Japanese case, order to gain good image, the Japanese is using their public diplomacy through cultural aspect. One of them is anime and manga. Though anime and manga are two different product, they are closely related, as many great anime were once a manga.

Through anime and manga, the Japanese culture mostly spread, their way of life, their habit, their image, their other sub culture were reflected in many anime and manga. The Japanese has gone through many problems in marketing anime and manga. One of them is that the gap culture differences between U.S.A and the Japanese were too great. First of all, the eastern culture and western culture is very different. Next is that the Japanese animation jokes mostly consist of Manzai jokes that consist of 2 actors, one is tsukkomi and the other is bokke. This type of the Japanese “specials” are hard to understand by the local American. Because of that, in 1990s, anime called sailormoon is not really that popular in U.S.A.

Responding to the voice of their people and anime manga industries, Japanese government made a policy to spread their culture through anime and manga. in March 2008, Doraemon has been chosen as the Anime Ambassador by Mr. Masahiko

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Koumura, the Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wished that Doraemon as the Anime Ambassador of Japan would travel around the world to introduce Japan. Also in manga section, the Japanese opened International Manga Award in May 2007 and received 146 entries from 26 countries and regions all over the world.

Anime manga related market in U.S.A over the year has through many up and downs, but it is an undeniable fact that the manga and anime are very popular. To expand the market of anime and manga, the Japanese categorized the market as 2 section, the children market, and young adult market. The market of children should be simple enough, entertaining and catchy. However, unlike the children market, young adult market is depicted to be more complex as the young adult has grown to be more critical and capable of thinking complex stuff. They will also tend question the fact related to the anime they are watching. Overall, many anime and manga fans are considered as geek or otaku in the Japanese terms. This hobby of anime manga fans are still considered as weird, they tend to collect goods from everything that related to their favorite shows. From toys, dolls, bed sheets, hugging pillow, mouse pad and t-shirts. Because of that, if one shows too much of an addiction of anime manga culture, they tend to get shunned and avoided, worse, bullied by their surrounding societies. Other is a weaboo, they are people who are obsessed to become a Japanese. They know much and usually their knowledge is deeper than the regular people. Different with , the weaboo usually gain deeper knowledge about the Japanese itself rather than of one anime or specific topic. With that of an addiction, the writer can say that the Japanese has reached their goals in spreading their sub culture and gain more understanding about the Japan.

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APPENDICES

Establishing Japan as a "Peaceful Nation of Cultural Exchange"

Introduction

In order to broaden and deepen the scope of Japanese diplomacy, it is becoming crucial that the citizens of Japan and other countries deepen mutual understanding through cultural exchange and international cooperation in the realm of culture, and that Japanese intellectuals have more of a voice through area studies and intellectual exchange. The Council on the Promotion of Cultural Diplomacy was held in recognition of the significance of these goals, for the purpose of considering the basic modality of these activities.

In addition to seven meetings, this Council held two hearings with international cultural exchange organizations and experts. Lively debates and discussions from a wide range of perspectives characterized each session. This report summarizes their deliberations.

This report states why a perspective based on cultural diplomacy is needed now. It also proposes three basic principles of cultural diplomacy, "transmission," "acceptance," and "coexistence;" action plans to realize these principles; as well as challenges and strategies for promoting cultural diplomacy, including the matter relating to organizational framework and priority areas.

We have strong expectations that this report will serve as an impetus to raise recognition of cultural diplomacy among all of the Japanese people and that entities of cultural exchange from both the public and private sectors will coordinate among themselves to realize the recommendations in this report.

Chapter 1 Why promote "cultural diplomacy" now?

1. "Cultural diplomacy" in the 21st century

As a result of democratization, globalization, and the IT revolution, all of which characterize today's world, cross-border exchange, dialogue, and cooperation in the realm of culture are becoming increasingly active. The entities of these activities are quite diverse, including national and local governments, private organizations such as non-governmental organizations, enterprises, mass media, and individuals such as artists, athletes, and scholars. As a result, the importance of these cultural exchange activities is becoming greater than ever before in the international community, in terms of promoting mutual understanding, shaping international opinions, and laying basis for international cooperation.

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These cultural exchange activities have critical implications on foreign policies both in terms of having huge impacts on the image of a country and promoting ultimate peace and prosperity of the world by contributing to the solutions of global challenges. Therefore, recognizing these implications of cultural exchange activities, Japan as a whole needs to establish clear principles and methodologies to maximize its positive impacts on foreign policies. In this regard, it is important that all entitites, including the public and private sectors, build a horizontal and active partnership. The partnership can promote each actor's objectives more effectively, thus eventually benefiting all Japanese nationals. "Cultural diplomacy" promotes diverse exchanges to realize open national interests, attaching importance to autonomy and diversity in cultural exchanges.

In this sense, it is desirable for the following goals to be pursued for cultural diplomacy in the 21st century:

1) Promote understanding of Japan and improve its image 2) Cultivate mutual understanding and trust between different cultures and civilizations for conflict avoidance 3) Contribute toward the development of common values and principles for all of humankind

(1) Promote understanding of Japan and improving its image: Importance of promoting understanding of Japan and securing trust in Japan through its "attractivity"

For Japan to make any sort of international contribution, it is essential that people around the world, beginning with Asian countries, trust Japan and its people. Without such trust, it would be difficult not only to deepen understanding of Japan but also to enhance stable economic activities globally and have more of a voice on the political stage. In the information age, a country's positive image has a large impact on building trust. As such, an increasingly important challenge of cultural diplomacy is endeavoring to improve the image of Japan while attracting the interest of people around the world through its diverse culture.

(2) Cultivate mutual understanding and trust between different cultures and civilizations for conflict avoidance: Overcoming an era marked by the difficulty of mutual understanding

In no other era has the difficulty of mutual understanding between different cultures and civilizations been more evident than it is today. In a world supposedly connected through globalization and the information super highway, deep "cracks" are everywhere. At times, these cracks burst open as in 9-11. It is, of course, necessary to take a firm stance against terrorism, which poses a threat to humankind. However, at the same time, in order to mitigate and avoid the clashes and conflicts among civilizations and regions which hold contrasting values, promoting mutual

73 understanding and making efforts toward peaceful resolutions is one of the most important tasks that the international community must address today.

Over a long period, Japan has built what would become the foundation of its traditional culture by having exchanges with other cultures and civilizations. In addition, Japan has been modernizing through repeated trial and error processes, vacillating between the modern West and the traditions of Japan. Cultural exchange was an important factor in the process of Japan's modernization. It is Japan's experience in conciliating and mediating the irreconcilabilities and conflicts between different civilizations that enables it to understand the difficulties facing the current non-Western societies that are struggling to achieve modernization.

By taking advantage of its position, Japan can promote mutual understanding between the East and the West, the North and the South, nations, regions, civilizations, or cultures without becoming entangled in clashes between civilizations, ideologies or religions. By so doing, Japan can play an active role in building peaceful and stable international and regional relations as a "peaceful nation of cultural exchange." Furthermore, this is what is expected by the international community.

(3) Contribute toward the development of common values and principles for all of humankind: The increasing need to form common values - cornerstone of diplomacy toward Asian countries

With the progress of globalization, there is growing interdependence and unification in various aspects of a person's lifestyle. Against this backdrop, there is an ever heightening need to formulate common values among people with different cultures or civilizations, while protecting and respecting cultural diversity. In particular, Japan, by promoting mutual understanding and dialogue for its diplomacy toward Asia, must cultivate common benefits and values, build a sense of community as a region, and establish a stable relationship with the Asian region, with which Japan has different perspectives of history, and it is especially necessary that cultural diplomacy be actively carried out to this end.

For all that is said about how cultural exchange is one of the important pillars of diplomacy in parallel with national security, economic relations and economic cooperation with foreign countries, activities to this end have heretofore not necessarily been adequate. To resolve today's imminent challenges, namely the cultivation of mutual understanding and building of trust, however, what is essential is the active development of diplomacy centered on cultural exchange. The reason is that if foreign people correctly understand and trust Japan and the Japanese through cultural exchange, this in itself would become an important factor in Japan's security.

In order to establish Japan as a "peaceful nation of cultural exchange" and transmit Japan's charm to the world, these times require Japan to promote cultural diplomacy efficiently and effectively, taking into account the features of Japanese culture.

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2. The meaning of cultural diplomacy

Improving the national image

Cultural exchanges today have a significant diplomatic meaning quite apart from what they had in the past. Above all, cultural exchanges contribute to boosting the favorable public image of Japan and the Japanese in the international community. In this highly globalized and informed world, good images and favorable impressions of a country held by foreign people form the grand basis of understanding and empathy towards the actions and claims made by that country. This also appears in the form of support and assent given by the international community. There may be instances where effective results may not be adequately achieved on political, security, and economic issues, due to lack of appropriate cultural exchanges among countries. This is because even in diplomatic negotiations in the areas of politics, security and economy, the promotion of intermittent mutual understanding through cultural exchange may lead to increasing support from the public opinion in the negotiating countries and in the international community. Thus it can have a significant impact on actual negotiations. For example, the effects of assistance may not realize their full potential when mutual understanding has not been facilitated by appropriate cultural exchanges, even when one country is making great contributions to another through the economic assistance. Promoting the foreign country's understanding of Japan through cultural exchanges at various levels is an effective and realistic means of smoothing diplomatic issues such as politics, security, international economic relations, and economic cooperation and more.

Promoting mutual understanding at the citizen level

Cultural exchange may seem to be a circumstantial approach to improving the image of Japan. However, as a matter of fact, it is a very effective way in sowing seeds for deepening understanding of Japan in the next generation. In the long run, understanding Japan by the public of a country may be the most influential factor for the government of that country in deciding policies and actions toward Japan. Even when anti-Japan feeling heightens in a country, a stable relationship between the country and Japan may be maintained as long as a good number of people have deep understanding of Japan. For instance, without 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan? and the Hanryu Boom, the huge surge of popularity of Korean pop culture in Japan, Japan - Korea relations might have worsened even more. Many of Japanese people who had become interested in Korea as a result of the Hanryu Boom continued to study Korean or visited Korea amid the culmination of the anti-Japanese feeling in Korea. This should not be regarded as an isolated case. To the contrary, in the 21st Century world, it is necessary to understand that the impact of cultural exchanges may overcome various difficulties between nations and regions.

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Bidirectional exchanges

Cultural exchanges are not a one-way street. Each country must work to learn and accept the other's culture at various levels, in addition to transmitting its own culture. Mutual understanding and respect form a basis for creating favorable international relations. Furthermore, the understanding by one's own countrymen of other countries serves as a basis of domestic support when engaging in diplomacy towards those countries.

Significance of "slow information"

What we must pay attention to in today's age of information and mass media is that there is a strong tendency of information providers to deliver superficial and unidirectional information, rather than to emphasize the objective accuracy of the information. This occurs as these providers compete for the speed at which they distribute information. However, diplomacy, which places cultural exchanges as its pillar in addition to areas such as politics, security and economy is required because of the existence of so-called "slow information." This is information and knowledge that require the understanding of other countries and their people and is acquired over a considerable period of time, even in the areas of politics and security, where normally the speed at which information is acquired is valued. We need to fully acknowledge that diplomatic activities in the form of cultural exchanges are effective in providing such "slow information."

3. Basic understanding for developing cultural diplomacy

(1) Expansion of "diplomatic space"

Today, as a result of broader and closer contact with people of different cultural backgrounds, the meetings or exchanges between different cultures occurring under a wide array of circumstances, including in day-to-day life and in the information arena are beginning to have a large impact as "diplomatic space" in a broad sense. That is, the entities with whom a government conducts diplomacy are not restricted to other states or governments. Japan needs to incorporate into its purview, various entities including people of other countries, media, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), non-profit organizations (NPOs), and educational and research institutions.

(2) Importance of transmitting the diverse culture of contemporary Japan

It is these various entities to which Japan is now most strongly urged to accurately transmit the wide-ranging and diverse culture of contemporary Japan-from matters of our day-to-day lives to traditional arts-in order to effectively convey the attractive aspects of Japan and deepen global understanding of Japan.

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Although the interest, attention and attraction directed toward all aspects of contemporary Japanese culture today, from the Japanese way of life to art, emerge from the innate attractiveness of the Japanese culture, such interest, attention and attraction are not something that can be generated any time they are wished for. Japan must firmly acknowledge this as a kind of "tailwind" toward Japanese contemporary culture and use it to promote understanding of Japan. In addition, Japan must not overlook this chance to promote understanding of Japan, improve its image, as well as build a favorable and stable international environment. Therefore, Japan should consider ways to not allow this kind of interest to end in a momentary boom, but to lead to deeper understanding of Japan.

(3) Dialogue and exchange forum for mutual understanding: creation of "public space" through cultural exchange

As cultural exchange refers not only to exchanges between different cultures or civilizations, but also the passing down of ancestral cultural heritages for the diverse and creative development of the cultures of future generations, cultural exchange also has the role of bridging the past and the future. Cultural exchange and fora for dialogue between different cultures and civilizations are precisely international "public spaces." Japan should not only actively engage in the creation of this type of "public space" for cultural exchange, but also strongly convey to the world its image of a "peaceful nation of cultural exchange" by becoming an open country and society that accepts diversity of cultures.

If Japan does not recognize the vital importance of cultural diplomacy as stated here, does not develop a framework that will maximize the potentials of Japan's intellectual, human and material resources and does not make earnest efforts toward enhancing cultural diplomacy right now, Japan's influence in the international community will quickly deteriorate.

Promoting understanding of Japan and securing trust in Japan in and of themselves are not the ultimate objectives of cultural diplomacy. Beyond these, Japan has the far greater challenge of playing an active role in the pursuit of peaceful coexistence and development of the international community, as well as a desirable society for the generations to come. Although this is a difficult challenge requiring steady and continuous efforts, Japan must have a long-term and strategic outlook and take steady and effective steps forward to realize peace and development of humankind. The first step is step forth in new endeavors of cultural diplomacy.

Chapter 2 Three principles of cultural diplomacy-transmission, acceptance, coexistence-and the three pillars to serve as action guidelines for their realization

Striving to realize the "coexistence" of multicultural values through "transmission" of one's own culture, "acceptance" of other cultures and mutual exchanges form the basis

77 of rich and truly valuable "cultural exchanges." In today's world, where the global situation surrounding "cultural exchange" has undergone a drastic change with the progress of globalization and informatization, in what type of "transmission," "acceptance" and "coexistence" should Japan engage itself for its cultural exchanges?

The "three pillars" to serve as guidelines for Japan's action towards the realization of the three "basic principles" of cultural exchanges-transmission, acceptance, coexistence-in a detailed and effective manner, while leveraging the characteristics and strengths of the Japanese culture and society, are discussed below in addition to the specific challenges Japan faces for this realization.

The "three pillars" to serve as the action guidelines and its specific challenges

Three basic principles 1. Transmission: Presentation of the "21st century-style 'cool'" through cultural transmission 2. Acceptance: "Creative acceptance" that leads to the development of a place for creation of culture 3. Coexistence: Contribution as a "bridge between diverse cultures and values"

1. First pillar: Action guidelines for the principle of transmission

As a measure to pursue the "21st century-style 'cool,'" Japan should try to actively cultivate a "Japanese animation generation" across the globe, seizing interest in the Japanese language and pop culture as an opportunity to encourage further interest in other aspects of diverse Japanese culture.

Pursuing a social model through cultural exchanges: "21st century-style 'cool'"

Japanese pop culture such as manga (comic), animation, game, music, movie and TV drama, as well as modern art, literature, theater arts and others are referred to as "Japan cool." It is gaining popularity among the younger generation around the world. Japanese lifestyle represented in its cuisine and fashion has also widely spread in other countries. However, the attractiveness of Japanese culture transmitted and spread through cultural exchanges cannot simply be classified as being "cool." As shown by the fact that Japan is the very country of the cradle of "Japanimation," Japanese contemporary culture's coolness is founded in and derived from its traditional culture. The integration of environment and cutting-edge technology as seen in hybrid technologies, the beautiful and human-friendly technologies such as in robot technologies, as well as policies concerning the environment like the realization of a recycling society are social models that the world should pursue and develop into the future, and they are goals to be pursued by mankind in the 21st century. These technologies and policies, while being closely related to the pursuit of happiness in daily lives, such as amusement, enjoyment, beauty and health, are, at the same time,

78 harmonious with nature and the environment, and create a physically and mentally rich society in a sustainable manner. This social model should be presented as the "21st century-style 'cool.'" And a clear message should be sent out through various media that Japan is willing to support such a model through cultural exchanges and cultural transmission.

Japanese pop culture such as manga (comic), animation, game, music, movie and TV drama, as well as modern art, literature, theater arts and others are referred to as "Japan cool." It is gaining popularity among the younger generation around the world. Japanese lifestyle represented in its cuisine and fashion has also widely spread in other countries. However, the attractiveness of Japanese culture transmitted and spread through cultural exchanges cannot simply be classified as being "cool." As shown by the fact that Japan is the very country of the cradle of "Japanimation," Japanese contemporary culture's coolness is founded in and derived from its traditional culture. The integration of environment and cutting-edge technology as seen in hybrid technologies, the beautiful and human-friendly technologies such as in robot technologies, as well as policies concerning the environment like the realization of a recycling society are social models that the world should pursue and develop into the future, and they are goals to be pursued by mankind in the 21st century. These technologies and policies, while being closely related to the pursuit of happiness in daily lives, such as amusement, enjoyment, beauty and health, are, at the same time, harmonious with nature and the environment, and create a physically and mentally rich society in a sustainable manner. This social model should be presented as the "21st century-style 'cool.'" And a clear message should be sent out through various media that Japan is willing to support such a model through cultural exchanges and cultural transmission.

Japanese pop culture such as manga (comic), animation, game, music, movie and TV drama, as well as modern art, literature, theater arts and others are referred to as "Japan cool." It is gaining popularity among the younger generation around the world. Japanese lifestyle represented in its cuisine and fashion has also widely spread in other countries. However, the attractiveness of Japanese culture transmitted and spread through cultural exchanges cannot simply be classified as being "cool." As shown by the fact that Japan is the very country of the cradle of "Japanimation," Japanese contemporary culture's coolness is founded in and derived from its traditional culture. The integration of environment and cutting-edge technology as seen in hybrid technologies, the beautiful and human-friendly technologies such as in robot technologies, as well as policies concerning the environment like the realization of a recycling society are social models that the world should pursue and develop into the future, and they are goals to be pursued by mankind in the 21st century. These technologies and policies, while being closely related to the pursuit of happiness in daily lives, such as amusement, enjoyment, beauty and health, are, at the same time, harmonious with nature and the environment, and create a physically and mentally rich society in a sustainable manner. This social model should be presented as the "21st century-style 'cool.'" And a clear message should be sent out through various media that Japan is willing to support such a model through cultural exchanges and cultural transmission.

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In this regard, the following active and clear policies and measures are necessary for its realization: (1) work for further dissemination of the Japanese language to respond to the diversifying interest in Japan and increasing demands for the study of the Japanese language; (2) respond to the increasing interest in Japan through actively transmitting information on contemporary Japanese culture including Japanese pop culture such as manga (comics), animation, games, music, movies and TV dramas as well as modern art, literature, cuisine, fashion in order to nurture the "Japanese animation generation," to foster a group of people around the world that has a good understanding of Japan in the future; and (3) develop human resources and strengthen efforts to transmit culture by fully taking advantage of Japanese technologies in Japan as a whole, in order to transmit the attractiveness of Japanese culture effectively.

The first pillar is cultivating a wide and deep interest of foreign countries towards Japan through strategic and focused cultural transmissions by positioning contemporary Japanese culture as a gateway.

(1) Japanese language and contemporary Japanese culture as a gateway to understanding Japan

・ The efforts to enhance the transmission of contemporary Japanese culture include presenting Japanese traditional culture. For instance, just as the traditional techniques of making goods are carried on in manufacturing Japanese automobiles, traditional skills have been passed down in the intricate and assiduous contents created in Japan such as manga (comic), animation and games. The contents including pop are a new form of expression of Japan's tradition and skills. In this regard, traditional Japanese culture, which serves as a source of new ideas and expressions must be maintained and promoted. ・ So far, Japan has tended to place its focus on the exchanges and transmission of traditional culture in its cultural exchange activities. However, it is more effective to increase the number of "gateways" for foreigners to take interest in Japan by actively transmitting information on contemporary Japanese culture, and thus create diverse paths that will lead these people to gain deeper understanding of Japan. "Gateways" are not limited to culture in a narrow sense. For instance, personal exchanges in industrial sector and industrial sightseeing are effective in transmitting Japanese skills and the spirit of making goods. ・ Furthermore, Japan should develop a system in which people who have developed an interest in Japan through these various "gateways" can experience other aspects of Japanese culture. ・ Learning the Japanese language is the most basic and effective tool in learning about Japan. In Japanese language education, it is necessary to respond to diversifying purposes, motives and interests in learning the Japanese language. Expanding the targets of Japanese language education, instead of limiting them to a certain class of people including researchers and artists, will contribute to cultivating the potential class of people who may be interested in Japan.

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(2) Transmission with "power to attract"

・ It has never been as difficult as today to conduct effective cultural transmission. Not to mention the content of the information to be transmitted, unless the method of transmission in itself has a power to "attract" people, the information will not be effectively conveyed, as the world today is flooded with information. ・ In order to transmit information with the power to attract people's attention, it is indispensable to know what people want. Therefore, Japan should develop a system which provides information attractive to each country and region in an accurate manner by gathering and analyzing their demands. ・ Japan should place as its priority issue the creation of attractive information, attractive human resources, and attractive fora for that transmission. Japan as a whole should work together to strengthen the appeal and effect of transmission by taking full advantage of its diverse culture, such as utilizing the designing skills of Japan for buildings of Japanese overseas establishments, using pop culture in developing Japanese language courses, and collaborating in transmitting attractiveness of Japanese culture with people who work both in Japan and abroad in the areas of art, academia, sports and pop culture. ・ Specific and hands-on cultural exchanges where ways of thinking, goods, words and actions are integrated must be developed and implemented as a distinct form of Japanese cultural exchange. It is frequently said that in Japan, goods and actions have a strong impact and power of transmission, but Japan is not good at expressing and conveying its thoughts through "words." Therefore, while promoting hands-on cultural exchanges leveraging on its strengths, further efforts must be made so that Japanese culture can be logically explained through "words" and "concepts." ・ No aspect of the system of Japanese overseas cultural establishments is sufficient when compared with those of the advanced European nations. It is necessary to use existing facilities more effectively and further develop the system for enhancing transmission of Japanese culture.

(3) Specific measures to be taken

(a) Dissemination of the Japanese language through the enhancement of its education

・ Currently, approximately 2.35 million people in 127 countries are learning Japanese, with their purposes and motives ever diversifying. ・ Japan should enhance Japanese language education in order to respond to the diversifying purposes, motives and interests of people in acquiring the Japanese language. This includes development of attractive textbooks and improvement of the quality of education by developing human resources and expanding the opportunities to learn. ・ In this regard, Japan should consider holding of a "Japanese Language Summit (tentative)" in order to appreciate the beauty of the Japanese language and discuss

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how to effectively convey the appeal of the Japanese language. ・ Detailed consideration should take place at the "Cultural Diplomacy Promotion Board (tentative)" discussed below in order to establish a comprehensive strategy for Japanese language education and examine organizational frameworks for the transmission of the Japanese language.

(b) Promotion and transmission of contents as intellectual and cultural assets

・ The contents of Japan as well as cuisine, fashion and other aspects of Japanese lifestyle should be positioned as one of the main intellectual and cultural assets of Japan, and such contents and related information should be actively transmitted. ・ In this regard, contents industries in various fields should strive to develop their international operations with a goal to maintain and expand their share in the long- run and not place focus on securing their income in the short-run, while taking into consideration the need for measures with a long-term perspective when expanding cultural exchanges. ・ Full advantage should be taken of the strength in technology and methods of expression in the area of contents when transmitting various cultural information, such as in Japanese language education. In particular, the transmission of information through images should be utilized more actively as an effective tool to attract people's attention. ・ Related industries should make vigorous efforts to promote tourism related to pop culture. The government should consider concrete measures for enhancing the transmission of contemporary Japanese culture, including allowing working holidays related to pop culture, designating a "Year of Japanese Pop Culture (tentative name)," and dispatching pop culture "ambassadors." ・ Japan should provide active cooperation for the participation in international film and music festivals, in order to transmit Japanese culture's appeal overseas.

(c) Enhancement of functions of transmission of information

・ Efforts should be made to put in place appropriate human resources and create an attractive space in Japan's overseas establishments including diplomatic establishments abroad and overseas offices of the Japan Foundation, so that they may serve as effective centers for transmitting the attractiveness of Japanese culture. In particular, the diplomatic establishments abroad and overseas offices of the Japan Foundation should enhance their capabilities relating to cultural exchange including art management and networking with academics, in order. to promote more specialized and effective cultural exchanges.

(d) Enhancement of the transmission function of messages to foreign countries and PR activities

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・ Japan should promote a comprehensive website on Japanese culture ranging from traditional to contemporary and including lifestyle and regional culture. The website should be attractive and easy-to-use and should be made through cooperation among various entities such as governmental and regional organizations and those that engage in cultural exchanges. ・ The government should cooperate with relevant organizations to promote the exchange of information and coordination among the diverse entities involved in cultural exchange. In addition, the government should develop a system for the comprehensive transmitting and sharing of information on Japanese cultural exchange activities, so that people abroad will be able to easily learn about Japanese cultural exchange activities and participate in them. ・ A number of methods can be used to help gain foreigners' understanding of Japanese culture, in particular traditional culture such as Noh, Kyogen, tea ceremony, flower arrangement and martial arts: translations into relevant languages, utilization of visual aids and images, as well as giving descriptions of performing arts. In order to effectively carry out such "translations" in a broad sense, the government should cooperate with relevant entities, gather knowledge and ideas from both within Japan and abroad, and consider more specific measures to be taken. ・ When transmitting information, Japan should keep in mind that deeper understanding of Japan can be obtained by not leaving its interpretation up to its receivers, but explaining the perspective and view of Japan. In this regard, logical expression through words, represented by print media, is indispensable. The government should cooperate with relevant organizations to enhance mechanisms for transmitting messages overseas, taking into account features of various media.

(e) Hands-on transmission of Japanese culture at fora for international exchange

・ In effectively transmitting Japanese culture, Japan should increase the number of opportunities for foreign visitors to Japan to acquire a hands-on Japanese cultural experiences, such as provision of Japanese foods and performance of Japanese culture at official events of the government and other occasions.

2. Second pillar: Action guidelines for the principle of acceptance

Japan should take initiatives to accept cross-cultural exchange principals in various areas and transform Japan into a dynamic "space of cultural creation" through "creative acceptance."

Ultimately, understanding of cultures and creation of new cultures arise from people meeting, then living and working together, and sharing experiences. Sharing of the "place and experience" has all the more significant meaning and weight because we live in an era where a network of people across borders can be formed easily with the advancement of information age and globalization. Creation of a new culture is a

83 driving force to develop a rich future for all of mankind and the international community. Thus, the creation of a space in which exchanges of cultures can be freely conducted is in itself a great contribution to the international community.

In addition, a society that is open to various ideas and people is one that has the creativity and energy to bring about new things.

Japan has until now created its own new culture through actively taking in the knowledge, technology and other cultural elements of foreign countries and developing them uniquely. However, Japan should not restrict itself to this type of "acceptance" alone, but instead create and provide a "public space" in which cultural exchanges may be actively conducted. In this space, people with various backgrounds will deepen their mutual understanding of each other and develop a sense of unity through living together and sharing experiences. Furthermore, there is a need for Japan to shift itself to a country of "creative acceptance" where exchanges with people with various backgrounds promote changes in its society and serve as an engine for revitalization.

To realize this, Japan should develop itself into a "center of cultural creation" in the 21st century by actively accepting the cross-cultural exchange principals in various areas including artists, researchers, exchange students, news media people, and pop- culture related people, and creating a space for cultural exchanges open to both the international and regional communities. This is the second pillar.

(1) What is creative acceptance?

・ The "creative acceptance" discussed here does not only refer to the unidirectional "acceptance" of knowledge, technology and other cultural elements. Instead, it refers to the "acceptance" of people and culture in a creative manner that includes creation of a public space that enables cultural exchanges to be conducted freely, development of shared values and a sense of unity through these exchanges, and promotion of changes and revitalization of the regional community.

(2) Formulation of a new system that supports cultural exchanges as a public activity

・ In actively accepting foreign cultures, it is vital to take a step further from just cooperation among diverse entities such as the government, companies, academia and citizens. It is necessary for the general public to become aware that efforts must be made to create and develop a "public" with a broader perspective in order to support such public activities as cultural exchanges and creative development of culture. ・ In order to do so, the government needs not only to more effectively cooperate with the existing entities such as various regional, private and volunteer groups, but also to create proper environment to support their activities. On the other hand, it is vital that the public actively reforms their own way of thinking, as the mentality and practices in Japan continue to work as a barrier against accepting foreigners into Japan, in particular in the scheme of daily life including housing.

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・ Under the general policy to promote the acceptance of foreigners in order to realize "creative acceptance," Japan should actively promote acceptance of foreigners into Japan, thereby inducing the formulation of a system to support public activities and promoting changes in domestic consciousness.

(3) Premises of creative acceptance

Unless Japan becomes a society which is rich in culture and creativity, it will not be able to attract people who will carry on cultural exchanges and induce them to come to Japan, regardless of how vigorous its efforts may be. Furthermore, without the Japanese people themselves understanding and appreciating the inherent values in their own culture, truly rich and creative exchanges may not be realized regardless of how many people Japan may accept into its borders. Efforts for cultural development and creation in Japan, as well as promoting the understanding of Japanese people towards Japanese culture, form the basis of the foundation for and are the premise behind "creative acceptance."

(4) Specific measures to be taken

(a) Active acceptance of exchange students

・ Exchange students will, in the future, not only become people knowledgeable about Japan as they understand Japanese culture, but they are also resources that will carry on Japanese culture into the future with their knowledge and energy supporting the Japanese society, and spreading of the Japanese language and culture to the world. As Japan has now achieved the goal stipulated in the "Plan to Accept 100,000 Foreign Students," Japan should promote acceptance of foreign students by putting its effort into attracting students who have even higher qualifications, taking into account the situation in the US and the UK. ・ The industrial, public, academic and private sectors should work together to enhance scholarships and dormitories to attract more prominent students so that the students will be received with a warm welcome and will have a productive time during their stay in Japan. As for housing, in particular, each relevant entity should promote more effective and efficient acceptance of foreign exchange students. This includes reviewing their housing rules so as to have more flexibility in using existing buildings for the purpose of dormitories and making efforts to coordinate between the entities. In addition, necessary measures should be taken so that the Japanese people will be more willing to accept exchange students in their homes.

(b) Promotion of residence-type programs

・ "Residence-type programs" (including so-called "artists-in-residence") for persons from all fields, such as cultural figures and artists, as well as persons involved in

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sports, writers, and researchers, should be designated as a priority task for cultural diplomacy. ・ When implementing residence-type programs, existing organizations and structures should be actively utilized so that they will contribute to the revitalization of communities. In particular, assistance measures should be implemented under a flexible partnership among industrial, public, academic and private sectors including the local authorities so that housing and spaces for cultural activities may be secured and effective exchanges and creative activities may be developed.

(c) Enhancement of human exchange

Initiatives should be taken to provide key figures who would become pillars of future exchange with opportunities to stay in Japan, conduct research on Japan, and have intellectual dialogue. In particular, priority should be placed on promoting the provision of such opportunities to media-related persons.

(d) Promotion of intellectual exchange

The networks of research institutions should be enhanced in order to strengthen the international presence of existing Japanese research institutions in the areas of policy research and regional studies. It is also necessary that the research institutions take measures to enhance academic exchanges and promote coordination with research institutions abroad. This includes such measures as the employment of foreign personnel and the publication of international academic journals.

3. Third pillar: Action guidelines for the principle of coexistence

Japan should serve as a "bridge between diverse cultures and values" by conveying to the world "a spirit that respects wa and coexistence" as Japan's universal message.

As the protection of cultural diversity is raised as one of the priority issues by the United Nations (UN) and the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), paying respect to each country's and society's culture, which is rooted in its history and tradition, and appreciating its diversity have become a basic rule in today's world. At the same time, in an age where more frequent and closer mutual communications between people with diverse cultural backgrounds are developing more and more, the need to discover potential common values between different civilizations and cultures is reaching an unprecedented height. The "coexistence of multiple cultures and sharing of values through dialogues" is an issue that is most expected of cultural exchanges today.

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However, in spite of the progress of informanization, we often face difficulties in ensuring a place and environment for a "dialogue," as we continue to have differences in political systems and ceaseless conflicts of various forms in today's international community. In such a world, in what aspect is Japan's unique contribution possible?

Japan can contribute based on "a spirit that respects wa and coexistence," which Japan has heretofore been carrying on and developing. Japan has the responsibility to convey to the world the universal significance that this concept would have in today's world. Furthermore, as a "bridge between diverse cultures and values," Japan is responsible for actively playing the role of protecting and creating the public space of culture in order to realize a "dialogue" which aims for the coexistence of different cultures and values. This is pillar.

(1) What is "a spirit that respects wa and coexistence"?

・ The word "wa," broadly encompasses meanings such as harmony, peace, equality, sense of compassion, fusion and coexistence. Through cultural exchanges, Japan has been learning from the Asian region, in earlier days, and more recently from Western countries. By absorbing and fusing these various cultures and civilizations, Japan has established the basis of Japanese culture today. Therefore, "wa" is the very origin of Japanese culture. Furthermore, "a spirit that respects wa and coexistence" has been incessantly passed down in the thinking and lifestyle of the Japanese people, regardless of it being the traditional or modern culture and has been serving as the source of ideas that promote the development of industrial technologies and people's lifestyle. This can be seen in the concept of a recycling society that takes good care of products, creation of technologies and designing of lifestyles that can coexist with nature and the environment, such as hybrid cars, as well as traditional Japanese sports including martial arts which not only focus on the results, but also value compassion for others. ・ At the same time, the concept of "peace" and "coexistence" are values that Japan has learned from the lessons of its past history of war and something that Japan has reflected on and pursued till this day. In that sense, "a spirit that respects wa and coexistence" is something that Japan has inherited from its past, but is also a value that it will pass on down, develop and be newly created in the future. ・

・ At the same time, the concept of "peace" and "coexistence" are values that Japan has learned from the lessons of its past history of war and something that Japan has reflected on and pursued till this day. In that sense, "a spirit that respects wa and coexistence" is something that Japan has inherited from its past, but is also a value that it will pass on down, develop and be newly created in the future.

(2) Japan as a bridge between diverse cultures and values

・ What need to be arbitrated, mediated, and intermediated today are not confined to conflicts and confrontations between countries and societies with different cultural

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or civilization backgrounds. It has now become a big challenge to arbitrate and mediate the contradictions and conflicts that lie between differing values in various domains, including the intergenerational gap, contradictions and inconsistencies between technology and nature, traditional and modern worlds, and between meeting the needs of globalization and protection of indigenous cultures. ・ As a member of a non-Western society, Japan is in the position to serve as a bridge between various cultures and values by sharing its unique experience with others (1) that Japan struggled between its own traditional and Western values as a pioneer in the Asian region for modernization; and (2) that it has improved the quality of life, while maintaining harmony with nature. Furthermore, it should not be forgotten that the world is expecting Japan to make this kind of contribution.

(3) Japan that creates and protects a "public space of culture"

・ All cultures can be viewed as an asset shared by all mankind, surpassing the aspect of indigenousness. All fora for dialogue among different cultures and civilizations, as well as for cultural exchanges, should be protected and developed as an international public space that will support and facilitate the creative development of the future generations of mankind, regardless of the difficulties that may exist in international political situations or political relations. ・ Culture creates something new, building on something carried down from the past. The destruction of the Buddhist monuments at Bamiyan and the plundering of museums amid the confusion of the Iraq War not only resulted in the physical loss of cultural heritages and works, but of the past history and memory of the regions concerned, and thus greatly damaged the foundation for the development of a rich culture of the future generation of all mankind. In order not to incur similar losses ever again, culture's nature as public property must be widely recognized by the international community. ・ Japan, while looking at both its past and future, needs to ensure a place and an opportunity for dialogues and exchanges between cultures and civilizations, in order to prepare an environment and conditions for the succession and creative development of culture, and serve an even more active role for the protection of historical heritage for all mankind as well as development of a new culture. ・ When Japan, as a country adopting the principle of a "peaceful nation of cultural exchange" provides international contributions, in particular reconstruction assistance for conflict areas, cultural assistance and contributions including cooperation for cultural properties should be provided as a part of a package, in addition to economic cooperation and humanitarian assistance, so as to render them more effective. This should be adopted as a principle in providing international assistance. ・ In particular, when considering the unstable nature of today's international situation, it is necessary to develop a flexible organizational framework that is useful not only while at peace, but also at times of conflict or emergency so that it may contribute to the protection and restoration of historical heritages in an agile manner.

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(4) Specific measures to be taken

(a) Promotion of dialogues among civilizations

・ Japan should position itself as a place for dialogues among civilizations. Dialogues among civilizations at various levels should be promoted by drawing strategies and deciding on target regions and agenda. To do so, a forum where these dialogues among civilizations may take place should be established in Japan and meetings for the "dialogues among civilizations" should be held as necessary. ・ There is no doubt that sports, art, pop culture, as well as architecture, are all important components of civilization. These elements themselves demonstrate the fusion levels of civilizations. Distinctive dialogues among civilizations should be realized while comprehensively and vigorously using opportunities of these specific activities.

(b) Transmission of the basic principles of Japan's international cooperation

Japan has promoted its international cooperation under its basic principles of pursuit of peace and coexistence with nature. Japan has made efforts to this end, placing "contribution to the peace and development of the international community" as its goal for the government's official development assistance (ODA). Japan also has the experience of serving in a leading role in the drafting and adoption of the Protocol, which obligates the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as a part of the measures addressing global warming. These principles and positions of Japan need to be widely understood and spread further in the international community. Thus, Japan should strongly transmit and effectively convey that these principles are Japan's stance and messages, backed by the concept of "a spirit that respects wa and coexistence."

(c) Development of a network to promote sports exchanges

・ In today's world, sports play a major role in deepening the mutual understanding between different cultures. For instance, teaching traditional sports like martial arts not simply provides technical guidance, but serves as a tool to share Japan's spirit and to deepen participants' interest and understanding of Japan. ・ One such case is that as part of the reconstruction assistance to Iraq, Japan provided intensive training and practice for the Iraqi athletes and their coaches, who were to take part in international tournaments such as the Olympics Games in Athens. This effort led to good performances and results by the Iraqi athletes, thus becoming a psychological support to the people of Iraq who were working to rebuild their country. ・ Japan should clarify the significance and role of sports exchanges including those of Japanese traditional martial arts in promoting mutual understanding among different cultures and use sports exchanges as one of the methods to promote peace diplomacy. In this regard, Japan should develop a network to encourage effective sports exchanges with the cooperation of relevant agencies and organizations,

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corporations, universities and other entities.

(d) Establishment of a Consortium for the International Cooperation on Cultural Assets （Tentative）

In order for Japan to provide international assistance through provision of more effective protection of tangible and intangible cultural properties, as well as conservation and restoration of cultural heritages, Japan must deepen its partnership among relevant ministries and agencies, and various research institutions with properly demarked roles for each entity. Japan must gather, exchange, and effectively use information possessed by relevant institutions, and develop an organizational framework that takes into account the agile provision of assistance for the protection and restoration of cultural assets during times of emergency. For this purpose, a mechanism to realize a sustainable, agile and effective international cooperation should be established. In this regard, the realization of the "Consortium for the International Cooperation on Cultural Assets (tentative name)"should be considered.

Chapter 3 Creating a clear strategy for cultural diplomacy

1. Development of organizational framework for promoting cultural exchange

(1) Establishment of the "Cultural Diplomacy Promotion Board (tentative name)"

・ In order to implement various policies based on the premises of the three pillars laid out in this report and develop strategic policies to facilitate effective and efficient development of cultural exchange, specific proposals need to be formulated from a comprehensive perspective. In this regard, it is extremely important to strategically formulate effective policies which take into consideration the needs and circumstances of each overseas region and major country. Moreover, presently, the parties involved in and responsible for cultural exchanges are diversified, making it of vital importance to develop cultural diplomacy by making full use of the various strengths of the different principals, including expertise and organizational networks. The Government of Japan should establish a Cultural Diplomacy Promotion Board (tentative name)" that would undertake policy coordination, taking into account domestic and international viewpoints. The Board is to frame strategic policies and implement them effectively through coordination among the diverse entities concerned. Its membership should be drawn from government ministries and agencies, and government-related institutions, in addition to experts and academics involved in cultural exchange from the corporate and civil sectors.

(2) Enhancement of system for cultural exchange and utilization of the Japan Foundation

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・ Japan is positioned to take on a significant role in contributing to the international community through its cultural diplomacy, and the international community's expectations are correspondingly high. It is perhaps for the effects of cultural exchange to become apparent in the short-term. However, if the public and private sectors do not work together to advance efforts in the medium- to long-term and invest resources on a continual basis in areas where Japan can bring out its appeal, it is unlikely that Japan will enter a new and dynamic era by becoming an attractive country where people around the world would like to visit, work, and live. ・ In order to create a proper environment for increasing inputs of resources from the public and private sectors for cultural exchange, Japan should put emphasis on the areas where need is increasing more than ever, including Japanese language education and pop culture. ・ In order to implement strategic and effective cultural exchange, it is particularly necessary to utilize high-level expertise, accumulated knowledge, and networks. It is vital to enhance the function of the Japan Foundation and utilize the Foundation at full capacity given its role as an organization which links the government and the private sector.

(3) Creating structures to support development and effective use of human resources

- Current issues for cultural diplomacy cover an extremely broad array of topics, from peace and coexistence, through to the effective transmssion and reception of cultural information and creative development of culture. In order to promote cultural exchange while keeping this range of topics in mind, the creation of partnerships among the industry, government, academia and civil society to create educational programs is one of the measures urgently required to develop expert human resources. - Japan should vigorously assist, including decorate and give honorable mention, to foreigners who are transmitting the attractiveness of Japanese culture overseas and who have contributed to developing Japanese culture because they can be regarded as "missionaries" of Japan's charm. - In order for the whole of Japan to transmit culture-related information that highlights Japan's attractiveness, it is necessary for Japan to obtain cooperation from experts in various fields. Japan should create an environment which allows the effective and flexible use of human resources-for example, the private and public sectors should cooperate in the creation of a structure whereby experts who have been dispatched abroad to engage in cultural exchange activities can easily come back to their original workplaces upon their return to Japan.

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Priority areas

(1) East Asia

In Japan's cultural diplomacy, it is essential to promote active and strategic cultural exchange in the East Asian region, positioning the region as one of its highest priorities.

Among the countries in this region, there exist many difficult problems including the ones arising from historical issues. On the other hand, Japan and other nations in the East Asia region have a lot of cultural aspects in common and share a set of values as a result of long-standing exchanges of philosophy, knowledge, and technologies, among others. It is indispensable for the stable development, not only of Japan but of the whole world, that the nations of this region develop in peaceful coexistence. Japan needs to explain with sincerity that Japan has contributed to the international community as a peaceful nation for 60 years after WWII, based on the lessons learned from the past history and that Japan is resolved to continue to contribute to the peace and prosperity of the international community, sharing respect and mutual trust with other countries. Moreover, through cultural exchanges and dialogues, Japan should promote greater understanding of Japan and deepen mutual trust with the nations of East Asia, and help to bring forth mutual benefits, commonly shared values and a sense of unity among East Asian countries, so as to lay the foundation for coexistence in the future.

Therefore, it is desirable for the following measures to be implemented.

(a) Reaching out to the Internet generation

Japanese pop culture and lifestyle are gaining popularity among young people (or the so-called "Internet generation") in the East Asian region due to improvements in living standards and the development of city culture. Hence, Japan should make efforts to expand the object of these peoples' interest from the superficial aspects of Japanese culture to deeper ones.

(b) Strengthening cultural activities in provincial areas

While opportunities for exposure to Japanese people or Japanese culture are extremely limited in the provincial areas of East Asian countries, this is not to say that there is little potential interest in the Japanese language or Japanese society. Japan should therefore attach priority to cultural activities to introduce Japan in these areas.

(c) Developing a network of people knowledgeable about Japan

In the East Asian region, amongst people active in various fields, there are many who have experienced Japan for such reasons as research and study abroad. The whereabouts of these persons should be researched and efforts should be made to create a network of these people because they could become a nucleus of people who are knowledgeable about Japan. Furthermore, while many citizens have extended efforts at the grassroots level for exchanges and cooperation between Japan and East Asian

92 countries, they are not widely known. Therefore, Japan should conduct activities that would reevaluate these kinds of achievements.

(d) Strengthening of student and educational exchange

An expansion of cross-border exchange among young people through student and faculty exchanges is important in order to strengthen the foundation of mutual understanding and friendship within the diverse East Asian region and promote the building of a sense of community. Concrete efforts should be made to promote student and faculty exchanges and joint research within the East Asian region, keeping in mind the goals of mutual understanding between East Asian countries and ultimately, the formation of the "East Asian community" (EAc) in the future.

(e) Promoting dialogues on common issues

The East Asian region shares various issues in common including issues of the environment, welfare and gender equality. Therefore, Japan as a "partner in Asia" should promote dialogues and exchanges in order to contribute to the creation of Asia's new era and community. In this regard, Japan should promote exchanges and dialogues between young and mid-level leaders in fields in which there have been few exchanges thus far, including those between NPO/NGO-related people, people involved in international exchanges and cooperation in provincial areas, reporters for local papers and up-and-coming artists.

(2) and Islamic Region

Japan should continue to place Middle East and Islamic Region as a priority area next to East Asia, taking into account the fact that the two Middle East Cultural Exchange and Dialogue Missions and a series of the Japan Arab Dialogue forum were fruitful.

Finally, this Council strongly hopes that the recommendations included in this report will heighten the awareness of all Japanese people, both in public and private sectors, and that they will be steadily implemented by various entities.

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Pop-Culture Diplomacy

August 14, 2014

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, aiming to further the understanding and trust of Japan, is using pop-culture, in addition to traditional culture and art, as its primary tools for cultural diplomacy. Among young people, pop-culture, such as Manga and Anime, has been popular worldwide in recent years.

As part of the Ministry's efforts, "the International MANGA Award" was created in 2007. For the 6th award in 2012, it has received 245 entries from 38 countries and regions.

The International MANGA Award was established in May 2007 upon the initiative of then-Minister for Foreign Affairs Mr. Taro Aso with the aim of awarding MANGA creators who contribute to the spread of MANGA culture overseas.

From 2008 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs began the "Anime Ambassador" project, with the aim of increasing the interest of the people overseas in Japan through Anime. In March 2008, then-Minister for Foreign Minister Koumura handed "Doraemon" a letter of assignment, making the character the Anime Ambassador of Japan. The theatrical release "Doraemon the Movie Nobita's Dinosaur 2006" was translated into 5 languages (English, French, Spanish, Chinese and Russian) and shown in screening events in 55 countries and regions worldwide. Approximately 28,700 people participated in these events.

In February 2009, young leaders pursuing remarkable activities in pop-culture, particularly in the field of fashion, were selected as Trend Communicators of Japanese Pop Culture, (or "カワイイ Ambassadors") to carry out publicity activities.

"Cosplay" enjoys strong international popularity in recent years. Ministry of Foreign Affairs has been conferring a Foreign Minister's Prize for the best costume-player in "the ", the biggest annual Cosplay event in Japan, since 2007.

(END)

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Japan Animation Industry Trends

Japanese Economy Division

Summary

Japanese animation is in the spotlight not only in Japan, but overseas as well. Amid an expanding domestic market for films, television and videos, Japanese animation film producers have also been turning their eyes toward overseas markets. At the same time, new developments have been seen in terms of diversified funding methods for film production. Against this background, the Japanese animation industry is working hard to deal with shortages in certain human-resource skills, reductions in domestic film-production sites and the challenge of expanding operations overseas.

1. Market Overview

Japanese Animation Market in 2004 The talk of the Japan animation market in 2004 was Studio Ghibli‟s smash hit, Howl‟s Moving Castle, the studio‟s first new release in three years, which opened in November. Director Hayao Miyazaki‟s work exceeded 10 million viewers in just 44 days, faster than any movie in Japan. Its popularity continued thereafter, with viewers rising to 14.23 million as of March 8, 2005, breaking the mark set by Miyazaki‟s Princess Mononoke and placing it number two in Japanese film history. The question now is how close it will get to Japan‟s all-time record of 23.5 million set by Spirited Away. Howl‟s Moving Castle has also been shown in South Korea and other countries, including 60 cities across the U.S. beginning in June 2005.

Market Environment Japanese animation (“anime”) has been acclaimed worldwide for its original, Japan- based culture and content, to the extent that it is called “Japanimation.” Director ‟s animated film Innocence was nominated for an award at the 57th Cannes film festival in 2004. Innocence is the sequel to Ghost in the Shell (1995), which reached number one on Billboard‟s video chart in the United States. Miyazaki‟s Spirited Away won the feature length animation Oscar at the 75th Academy Awards in 2003, reprising its capture of the Golden Bear at the 2002 Berlin Film Festival and proving once again Japan produces world-class animation. Many American and Asian animators reportedly want to work on Japanese anime productions, indicating that Japanese animation is viewed by professionals as leading its field. Spirited Away‟s commercial success, however, demonstrated Japanese anime‟s merits and international competitiveness among the global general public as well. The world clearly views Japanese anime as having potential for big business. Nonetheless, the industry has not yet shifted its posture sufficiently to respond to overseas acclaim. Moving forward, the Japanese anime industry not only must expand overseas, it also must develop the necessary production/distribution systems and personnel to capitalize on the global business opportunities for anime and other content. Production systems have in fact been set up, but the industry still has many glaring weaknesses in domestic/overseas distribution and rights, such as licensing and international business expertise in general. In the field of personnel development, animators do not have a suitably high social standing, so the exodus of such personnel to other industries and countries has become a large problem.

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2. Shifting Market Size

Japan‟s domestic anime market can be broadly divided into three categories:

1) Feature-length films 2) TV shows 3) Video and DVD versions of the above two, and original productions

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According to the Media Development Research Institute, Japan‟s anime market sales fell 10.4% to 191.2 billion yen in 2003, including box office revenues for anime films, TV animation production fees and profits from sales and rental of video and DVD titles. This was the first decline in two years (Fig. 1). The substantial gains realized in 2001 and 2002 were largely due to Spirited Away‟s success at the box office (30.4 billion yen) in 2001 and then in DVD form in 2002. The lack of this sort of hit led to market contraction in 2003, but sales are estimated to have grown in 2004 due to the success of Howl‟s Moving Castle. The market for anime content, including character licensing/merchandising, selling rights to use character images on other products and the sale of character toys, is estimated to be worth about two trillion yen.

Fig. 1 Anime Market Size (Film, TV and Video) 250 (billion yen) 213.5

200 186 191.2

161.1 158.8 163.7 165.1 159.3 151.9

140.8

150 132.7 133.8

100

50

0

92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

Source: Communication Institute Inc.

3. Industry Structure

Figure 2 provides a simple description of the anime industry‟s structure. The diagram below is an actual example of television animation in general. Of course, circumstances can vary for each TV program or film, especially in the planning stage. Television stations, ad agencies, toy companies and anime production houses form production consortiums to undertake joint planning. Toy companies join at this point because they are indispensable to the secondary use of characters in the case of TV anime. Actual production is undertaken by a prime contractor supported by numerous subcontractors in every phase of production. Statistics regarding anime specialists, entrepreneurs involved with anime, and employers are unclear, but there are said to be around 430 anime production houses in Japan. Of these, 264, or 61.4%, are concentrated in Tokyo‟s 23 central wards, with Nerima and accounting for particularly high percentages. Enterprises that primarily produce feature anime for theater release are the exception, as most anime production companies produce for TV. Financing for the anime industry is diversifying. Content such as anime was previously considered unable to offer any guarantees, so backup financing was difficult to obtain. In 2004, however, Japan‟s first anime fund was founded by , Japan Digital Contents, Securities, and JET Securities, and in 2005 Japan Digital Contents and the Organization for Small & Medium Enterprises and Regional Innovation, an independent government agency, pooled 500 million yen each to start an investment financing fund for content production. Also, the banking industry has altered its comparatively conservative stance and Mizuho Bank is now aggressively extending financing to content creators.

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Fig. 2 Anime Industry Structure

Planning Production Distribution

Production consortia Movie Distribution companies for joint production theaters

Anime production (Films for theater release)

TV stations & film companies (Prime contractor)

Ad agencies TV stations TV stations

(TV anime) Sponsors:

Toy, game software companies Retailers

Anime production Video software makers Sales

Original authors: (Subcontractors) (Video anime) companies

Publishers & game software Rental

Additionally, the production consortium system of funding procurement has also gained favor. This is because each of the main players cooperates financially to split the risk. This has already worked well in cases such as Spirited Away and Innocence. Diversification of capital procurement is thus playing a key role in anime‟s growing success.

Human Resource Limitations and Reliance on Outsourcing

While Japanese anime has been in the spotlight overseas, the industry is struggling to overcome problems with production cost cutbacks, a lack of animators and a dependence on production outsourcing.

a. Production cost cutbacks A 30- minute TV animation production generally costs nearly 10 million yen, although there are cases in which production companies have received only around five million yen. Most TV animations run a loss that the production companies attempt to overcome through secondary uses of content, such as sales of videos, DVDs and character products. As such, low wages in the anime industry have led to a steady exodus to the game industry and elsewhere. Employees in many smaller enterprises are not paid monthly salaries or do not have guaranteed stable incomes. Particularly in the case of production companies that subcontract work from TV stations, unstable work volume and funding are leading to lower production quality and a drain of superior personnel.

b. Moves to outsource production and train personnel Production has increasingly been outsourced in recent years. This includes sending original prints and other digital data to production companies in China, South Korea and elsewhere, which return content all the way up to the stage of coloring. Toei Animation retains around 130 people at its studio in the . Ghibli subcontracted part of the work on Spirited Away to Korean companies, reflecting the fact that titles produced solely in Japan are becoming rarer. While planning, directing and other processes requiring advanced expertise have remained in Japan, animating, coloring and other simple operations are being shifted to other countries. Processes in which young staff acquire basic animation skills are declining in Japan, which has set off alarms regarding the domestic industry‟s own production capabilities. Moreover, South Korea, which previously served as a subcontractor for Japan, has been laying plans for a national policy to promote its domestic anime industry as a result of rapidly accumulating expertise in recent years. Almost all animation on South Korean television used to be from Japan, but now about 30% to 40% is produced locally. It is feared that the hollowing out of Japanese production sites and the concomitant increase in the competitiveness of other countries and regions is undermining the foundations of Japan‟s anime industry. Moves are being made to establish forums for animators who possess high levels of expertise and to train people in needed skills. At Production IG, which worked on Innocence, competitiveness is maintained by supervising the entire production process in-house to ensure the output of high-quality titles. Under this system, many animators are reportedly earning annual

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incomes of 10 million yen. Japan‟s first anime vocational graduate school is scheduled to open in April 2006, serving as a location for training personnel in the advanced skills required by today‟s animation industry. This is a venture directed by Wao Corporation, which set up the first vocational school to train animators in 1997.

Studio Ghibli: Model of Success for Feature Anime Studio Ghibli‟s titles serve as models for the production of feature anime. Studio Ghibli has an established method for creating major pictures with the backing of TV stations, publishing houses, ad agencies and others under the production consortium formula, which is credited with stabilizing capital procurement while generating high-quality works. For Studio Ghibli‟s representative work, Spirited Away, the production consortium formed with Tokuma Shoten Publishing, Nippon Television Network, Dentsu (Japan‟s largest ad agency), Tohokushinsha Film and others came up with approximately 2.5 billion yen for production costs. The companies participating in the consortium split the costs and divided the profits in proportion to their respective investments. Because three-tiered income from the box office, video/DVD and TV was anticipated, it was not surprising that firms of this type took part in the consortium and that their participation strengthened the marketing of the film. Spirited Away‟s production cost was an extraordinary amount, given that a Japanese film that grosses one billion yen at the box office is considered a major hit. Ghibli‟s success has spurred companies such as Toei Animation to renew their interest in feature-length anime movies. Other companies are also considering producing higher-quality films for theaters, even if the costs are higher, and releasing these and other anime overseas.

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4. Product Trends

Feature-length anime box Fig. 3 Estimated Box Office Revenues office revenues in 2003 came to 33.7 for Feature-Length Anime 60 billion yen, the second consecutive annual 53.3

(billion yen) decline (Fig. 3), according to estimates by 50 the Dentsu Communications Institute. But 37.9 37.7

Spirited Away helped the market grow in 40 33.7 both 2001 through 2002, and the trend has 30 25.3 been generally upwards since the mid- 22.1 20.1

90s. Further, the record 165 first-run films 20 that debuted in 2003 (Fig. 4) was a big 10 from the previous year. The number of first-run imported anime movies 0 increased, but did not result in higher box 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 office revenues because there were fewer Source: Dentsu Communication Institute Inc. big hits than in the year earlier. Fig. 4 New Feature-Length Anime Releases Anime movies produced by 180

(Number) 165 film production/distribution companies 160 and video sales companies in 2001 totaled 133 Japanese 140 Imported 346, an eightfold increase from 1998 120 115 83 according to the Ministry of Economy, 94 Trade and Industry‟s (METI‟s) survey of 100 90

72 72 82 selected service industries (Fig. 5). 80 71

38 34 A separate survey of selected 60 31 44 35 service industries (Fig. 6) found that 20.36 40 82 million theatergoers saw anime at theaters 56 31 56 51 in 2004, which was 18.7% of the total 20 41 37 44

13 theater attendance that year. Theater 0 attendance has been growing since 2002 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 due to the increased number of screens at Source: Dentsu Communication Institute Inc. new cinema complexes. Although anime Fig. 5 Number of Films Produced and Videos Sold Annually attendance declined in 2003 due to a lack Change 2001 Ratio from 1998 of outstanding hits, it rebounded in 2004 on the strength of Howl‟s Moving Castle. survey Number of films produced annually 4,904 100.0% 11.4%

For theater release 571 11.6% 35.6%

Television Anime Feature films 225 4.6% -40.9%

The amount of animation broadcast on TV in Japan has been production Animation 346 7.1% 765.0%

growing in recent years. According to a Educational films 265 5.4% -29.5%

m Fil

company called Video Research, TV Documentaries 2,726 55.6% 154.3%

anime programs broadcast in 2003 totaled Other 1,342 27.4% -47.0%

2,850, up by 102 for the year, which was Number of videos sold annually 64,408,548 100.0% 15.1% the second consecutive annual rise. Most For theater release 35,054,436 54.4% 41.0%

of the programming was domestic. Japanese 14,317,939 22.2% 100.2%

Sixty percent of TV anime is Feature films 3,935,652 6.1% 17.4% broadcast after six p.m., mostly targeting

sales Animation 10,382,287 16.1% 173.3%

preschoolers and other children during

Imported 20,736,497 32.2% 17.1%

o . But programs for adults Vide

Feature films 15,987,108 24.8% 78.9% shown after 11 p.m. have also contributed to the high ratio of post-six p.m. Animation 4,749,389 7.4% -45.8% broadcasts. In addition, 30% of the anime TV programs 8,295,120 12.9% 8.4% is shown in the morning and 10% between Original videos 21,058,992 32.7% -10.1% noon and six p.m. Source: Ministry of Ecolnomy, Trade and Industry

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Video and DVD Anime Sales of anime videos fell 5.5% to 92.59 billion yen in 2004, according to a survey of Japan Video Software Association member companies (Fig. 8). This consisted of 80% Japanese anime and 20% imported animation. Imports for general audiences increased rapidly in 2004, probably due to the Disney hit Finding Nemo. The Nomura Research Institute estimated that, based on the number of DVDs sold, the anime market was worth 20 billion yen in 2004. Anime fans, who spend substantial portions of their disposable incomes on anime, accounted for about 13% of the total.

Secondary Uses: The Character Business Character merchandising is a growing category. Licensers, such as production companies and investors, obtain fees from licensees who use characters to create products. Licensees in fields including finance, toys, automobiles, airlines, food and others employ anime character dolls/figurines and the characters themselves as corporate or product mascots. Anime‟s value has thus appreciated as a promotional tool. This is why toy and game manufacturers are increasingly working with advertising agencies to plan anime production .

Fig. 6 Theater Attendance (Viewers) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Total attendance 45,870,073 48,764,386 90,321,473 90,947,473 109,813,470 Japanese 8,962,164 7,832,728 13,458,378 22,033,875 28,787,320 Imported 29,066,717 28,529,076 60,472,744 57,380,488 60,366,971 Animation 7,841,192 12,402,582 16,390,351 11,533,110 20,659,179 Number of screens 584 577 1,087 1,089 1,376 Times shown 1,066,459 991,649 2,017,865 2,018,911 2,512,897 Source: Ministry of Ecolnomy, Trade and Industry

Fig. 7 Number of Anime Programs Aired Annually

3,000 2,748 2,850 (Number)2,454

2,500

1,620 1,658

2,000 1,505 (59.0%) (58.2%)

1,500 (61.3%)

1,000 209(7.6%) 253(8.9%)

182 (7.4%)

919 939 500 767

(33.4%) (32.9%) (31.3%)

0

01 02 03

5 a.m. to noon noon to 6 p.m. after 6 p.m.

Source: Video Research

Fig. 8 Anime Video Software Profits in 2004 (million yen) Genre Total earnings Ratio YoY Tapes DVDs Japanese (general audiences) 58,785 63.5 88.7 5,999 52,786 Imported (general audiences) 17,211 18.6 186.3 2,073 15,138 Japanese (for children) 13,401 14.5 83.3 5,372 8,029 Imported (for children) 3,193 3.4 82.6 334 2,859 Total 92,590 100 94.5 13,778 78,812

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5. Import and Export Trends: Overseas Releases

Japan Has Top Share of Global Market Japanese anime broke into the world market beginning in the 1980s, after which it steadily established a leading position. TV cartoons such as Astro Boy, broadcast in the U.S. from 1963, and A Dog of Flanders broadcast in Europe have long been accepted by viewers outside Japan without any conscious recognition that these works were made in Japan. Doraemon has been a popular anime in Asia and Sailor Moon, Dragonball and other TV anime features that were popular in Japan have also gained popularity in Europe. In the U.S., Akira and Gundam and Studio Ghibli titles have enjoyed success. Ghost in the Shell made news in 1998 when it topped Billboard‟s video sales chart in the U.S.A. International sales data is not exact, but around 60% of the anime shown worldwide is made in Japan, according to a METI report issued in January 2004. Twenty Japanese anime programs were being broadcast on American TV as of March 2003. While Japan supplies anime to markets around the world, its animation imports are primarily American or European titles.

Production Reflects Overseas Market Considerations Shogakkan‟s Pokemon, the animated version of ‟s portable game software, was the first huge success by a Japanese anime overseas. Released in 45 countries and regions around the world, as of the third installment of the series it had generated overseas box office revenues of 38 billion yen, or double that in Japan. Gross global earnings, including related products, are estimated at three trillion yen. Pokemon was noted for the enormity of its character-related business, bolstering the impression that anime was an extremely important element in generating appeal for characters. The general rule in the past was that TV anime or movies that enjoyed a certain degree of popularity in Japan would be offered overseas, but titles produced recently have increasingly borne overseas markets in mind from the outset. In addition, most export titles through the 1990s were TV programs, but Spirited Away‟s success has prompted attempts to develop artistically appealing feature-length works for overseas release. TV stations are also actively trying to move overseas; NHK announced in April 2004 that it would produce , an original work of Osamu Tezuka, and sell it overseas.

Interest in Japanese Anime Increases The Disney Group has set up an entertainment content purchasing division within its Japanese organization, which until then had focused on distributing Disney animation in Japan. It is now buying Japanese anime with games and other products for distribution in 54 countries. Joint film and anime productions in Japan are also being considered. There are now examples of overseas TV stations and distribution companies investing in anime produced in Japan and becoming involved from the planning stage, joint productions with overseas production companies being broadcast in both countries, and overseas production houses investing in anime production companies in Japan. There has also been increasing praise for Japanese anime in Hollywood. American film production companies have bought the remake rights for Japanese anime such as Akira, Dragonball, and Lupin III. The Wachowski brothers, who turned The Matrix into a hit, approached several Japanese directors about producing an animated version of their film. And, of course, Spirited Away won the Academy Award for feature-length animation in 2003. Given these developments, the global market for the Japanese anime market is expected to expand further.

Content Business Issues As noted, the extreme shortage of personnel well-versed in international legal affairs related to intellectual property rights has resulted in low profitability for Japanese anime overseas. When video software is sold in the U.S., for example, the distributor generally provides a minimum guarantee and also makes payments if sales exceeded the minimum. Japanese anime rights owners need people who can negotiate with U.S. counterparts on equal terms, and also audit sales performance, to ensure equitable, profitable arrangements in overseas markets

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Bandai Visual‟slost royalties in overseas markets are estimated at tens of millions of yen annually. Aiming to expand its overseas sales from 700 million to two billion yen in a three- year plan implemented from February 2004, the company began stressing thorough oversight of overseas copyrights. Japanese with experience in European markets are being hired to supervise marketing and product designing for Europe. The company is making sure these people keep a close watch on sales performance in Europe and audit sales agents‟ data to identify when titles exceed their minimum guarantees. Japanese production houses that have been able to bargain over joint productions on equal terms with American counterparts have been the exception up to now. While they have been relatively successful with their subcontracting arrangements, it would help if they possessed stronger planning and negotiating abilities. Production IG, whose productions Ghost in the Shell and other titles have won overseas fans, has a U.S. subsidiary that retains lawyers and accountants familiar with local business practices and legal affairs when the Japanese headquarters negotiates sales and joint production contracts with American distributors. On the other hand, equitable copyright income has been difficult to obtain in Southeast Asian countries and other regions where video piracy is rampant. As in other content businesses, pirating has become a large issue in overseas product releases.

6. Industry Topics

Yu-Gi-Oh! Scores Big in U.S. The feature-length film of Yu-Gi -Oh Duel Monsters, a popular Japanese TV anime, opened in Europe and the U.S. in September 2004. It was shown in 2,400 theaters in the U.S. and achieved box office revenues of around 2 billion yen, second only to Pokemon. Besides being a popular TV program, Yu-Gi- Oh! was also featured in ‟s weekly magazine, Shonen Jump, and was a popular card game. Once it began airing on TV in the U.S. in 2001, toymaker began selling dolls. The popularity of the TV cartoons and character products helped pave the way for the film‟s success.

TV Tokyo‟s Naruto to be Released Overseas TV Tokyo, seeing the successes achieved overseas with Pokemon and Yu-Gi-Oh!, has decided to export its popular television anime feature Naruto. Broadcasts on American cartoon channels will begin in September 2005. Licensing negotiations are also under way in Europe and the anime is already scheduled to air in the U.K. and Italy, although the timing has yet to be decided.

Howl‟s Moving Castle a Hit in Japan and Elsewhere Studio Ghibli‟s first new film in three years, Howl‟s Moving Castle, has been a hit in Japan and other countries. Howl‟s Moving Castle was released in November 2004 and reached 10 million viewers in just 44 days, a record for a Japanese film. It also will likely break Spirited Away‟s box office record of 30.4 billion yen. Interest overseas is strong because Spirited Away won an Academy Award. Released in South Korea in December 2004, it is scheduled to open in 50 countries in 2005.

Director Hayao Miyazaki to Receive Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement at Venice Film Festival It has been announced that Hayao Miyazaki, director of Spirited Away and Howl‟s Moving Castle, will be awarded a Golden Lion for achievement at the 62nd Venice Film Festival that begins in August 2005. This award, bestowed on directors who have given the world many excellent films, has been awarded to masters such as Steven Spielberg and Stanley Kubrick. Miyazaki is both the first Japanese and the first director of animated features to receive the prize. Howl‟s Moving Castle was shown in competition at the 61st festival in 2004 and the producer, Studio Ghibli, received the Osella prize for best technical contribution.

Animated Features Perform Well in Worldwide Markets Director Mamoru Oshii‟s Innocence, the sequel to Ghost in the Shell (produced in 1995 and topped Billboard‟s video sales chart in the U.S. in 1998) was released in Europe and the U.S. in

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Industrial Report (C) JETRO Japan Economic Monthly, June 2005

2004. Yu-Gi-Oh!, an anime feature based on a TV program, was released the same year. Considering that overseas distribution had not even been decided when Pokemon was released in 1998, after which it earned 17 billion yen in the U.S. and in Canada, the times have certainly changed since then.

TV Anime Distributed Overseas Toei Animation established a U.S. subsidiary in March 2004. Gashbell began airing in Hong Kong and Taiwan the same year, with American broadcasts starting in March 2005. One Piece began showing in the U.S. in September 2004. Planning and production now reflect anticipated overseas distribution and related tailoring to the tastes of foreign viewers. Pictures Entertainment has produced Astro Boy for TV. Now showing on Fuji Television affiliates in Japan, it aired in Asia in the fall of 2003 and in the U.S. from the beginning of 2004. Scenes with specific types of violence, religion or other themes that could have become impediments to broadcasting overseas were deleted in advance. GDH joined to form GO-N Productions, a French animation joint-venture company, in the summer of 2004. The plans is to combine strengths on joint production projects and actively seek to enter the respective partners‟ markets. ‟s Hunter X Hunter is already airing in three Asian countries and broadcast rights have been granted to TV stations and program distribution companies in , Italy, , and elsewhere. A further goal is to broadcast the program in Germany, and the U.S., and joint efforts regarding video sales and rentals, as well as granting character merchandising rights.

Distribution via Internet is Brisk Major anime production house Toei Animation has begun using the Internet to distribute anime titles from its archives. Hokuto no Ken and other programs shown in the past can also be viewed. Sets of four or five episodes cost 420 yen and all episodes of a given title can be viewed for 2,100 to 5,250 yen. This has indeed attracted attention as a secondary use for content. Hal Film Maker is exploring the Chinese animation market and has already set up a joint venture with a company in Dalian for anime production, programming and character merchandising.

Reference Dentsu Communication Institute Inc. and Media Development Institute Inc. Information Media White Paper 2005: Research on Information and Media Society. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry Commerce and Information Policy Bureau, Current Content Industry Situation and Issues (translated title) Japan External Trade Organization. “Cool” Japan‟s Economy Warms Up, May 2005 (in English), http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/stats/survey/pdf/2005/20050509_cool_japan.pdf Japan External Trade Organization. Japan Film Industry , May 2005 (in English) http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/trend/industrial/pdf/jem0505-2e.pdf Note: This article is a revised version of the April 2004 report, Japan Animation Industry Trends (translated title). It was compiled by JETRO from research done by Yano Research Institute. Industrial Report (C) JETRO Japan Economic Monthly, June 2005

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First International MANGA Award

June 29, 2007

1. The International MANGA Award, which was established in May this year, received 146 entries from 26 countries and regions all over the world. As a result of the recent screening, the winner of the first International MANGA Award was confirmed as follows: (For the introduction of the works and artists, see this site.)

The International MANGA Award (best work)

Name of Artist: Lee Chi Ching, (China (Hong Kong), 43), Name of Work: Sun Zi‟s tactics

“Shorei” Award (three excellent runners-up)

Name of Artist: KAI (China (Hong Kong), 28), Name of Work: 1520

Name of Artist: Benny Wong Thong Hou (, 30), Name of Work: Le. Gardenie

Name of Artist: Madeleine Rosca (, 26), Name of Work: Hollow Fields

(Note 1) The countries and regions of the artists in order of their number are:

China (including Hong Kong) 24, U.K. 15, Germany 14, Malaysia 11, France 10, Taiwan 9, ROK and Spain 8 each, 7, Philippines 6, U.S. and Indonesia 5 each, etc.

(Note 2) Of the 146 entries, 19 works (12 countries) were selected for the final decision.

2. On July 2 (Mon), an award presentation ceremony and a reception will be held at Iikura House. The award winners will be presented with trophies designed by designer Taku Sato. The Japan Foundation will invite the winners to Japan for a 10-day visit that includes the award presentation ceremony, meetings with Japanese MANGA artists, and visits to related organizations.

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Inauguration Ceremony of Anime Ambassador

March 19, 2008

1. On March 19 (Wed), the inauguration ceremony of the Anime Ambassador took place at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Mr. Masahiko Koumura, Minister for Foreign Affairs, handed Doraemon a letter of assignment to inaugurate the character as Anime Ambassador. 2. Then Mr. Koumura told Doraemon that he wished people around the world to know more about the positive side of Japan through Japanese anime that are universally popular, and he hoped Doraemon, as the Anime Ambassador, would travel around the world to introduce Japan. 3. In response, Doraemon said, "I hope through my cartoons I will be able to convey to people overseas what ordinary Japanese people are thinking, what sort of life we are leading and what sort of future we are trying to create!"

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