Western Africa: maize or sorghum

Will millet and sorghum, Over the past 20 years, the courses of millet and sorghum production development of various cereal crops has been moderately increasing, the dominant food crops (e.g. millet, sorghum, maize and +3.3% per annum from 1974-1977 in savanna areas rice), staple foods in savanna areas to 1989-1991 in the Sahel region and of western Africa, have differed +2.1% in the coastal countries, with of western Africa, markedly. sharp between-year fluctuations. At the same time, maize production be gradually replaced Rice cropping in these parts of Africa took off in the Sahel region, by maize? has long been the focus of govern­ +8.6% per annum, as compared to ment and sponsor attention. Most a rise o f+4.7% in the coastal countries Although maize of the support available for cereal where maize is traditionally grown. production is tapped to fund rice is a productive cereal production in irrigated areas, but These buoyant conditions for maize that is often grown the rising food demand is still not could indicate partial substitution of being met. this crop for sorghum. Here we successfully, attempt to clarify the conditions of its extension Rainfed millet and sorghum are still this progress by assessing the geogra­ the dom inant cereal crops (Figs. 1 phical areas and factors involved. is dependent & 2), accounting for almost 80% in The prospects for these crops are also the Sahel region and 60% in the coastal considered in the light of the current on agricultural policies countries (source: FAO). However, economic setting. and particularly on the future of the cotton sector.

J.-L. FUSILLIER Years CIRAD-CA, BP 5035 Montpellier Cedex 1, France Figure 1. Maize, millet and sorghum production in the Sahelian countries (FAO).

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1 994 Millet > sorghum MAURITANIA Sorghum > maize

SENEGAL \ Maize > sorghum

NIGER

GUINEA 'BISSAU' BURKINA GUINEA

/ \ SIERRA) 1EONE COTE D'IVOIRE LIBERIA GHANA

lure 3. Cereal western Africa

depending on the degree of drought The importance tolerance of the crop (Fig. 3). Annual rainfall in millet cropping zones is of different cereals less than 800 mm, in sorghum in cropping systems cropping zones it is 800-1 000 mm, and maize is dominant when precipitation levels are above Millet, sorghum and maize cropping 1 000 mm per annum. patterns in western Africa generally coincide with climatic zones, It is not easy to investigate variations on a country or regional scale since available data on crop production and components (e.g. areas, yields) are too unreliable for statistical analysis. The problem is further increased by the fact that these subsistence crops are consumed by the producers. A more suitable approach would be to compare local situations, for instance on village croplands. After conducting field sur­ veys, cropping patterns were analysed at the following 11 sites: Syonfan and Karakpo in northern Côte d'Ivoire, Kourouma and Daboura in Burkina, Manga and Waragni in central Togo and Poissongui in the north of the coun­ try, Fonsébougou and Niaradougou in southern Mali, Terres neuves de Koumpentoum-Maka in Senegal, and the cotton belt of southern Chad. Years These geographically scattered sites Figure 2. Maize, millet and sorghum production in the coastal countries do not entirely characterize the (Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria) (FAO). diversity in this savanna area where

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1 994 cereals in Africa

acclimated maize competes with 1980s. Maize has been favored since sorghum. Nevertheless, the sample 1984 on farms equipped for animal was still varied enough to enable us traction or motorized cultivation. to moderate the commonly-held opinion that maize cropping is expanding in these regions. There are Slow expansion of maize, presently three different cropping patterns. dominance of millet and sorghum Expansion of maize, Sorghum is traditionally grown in cropping areas of southern Mali, cen­ marginalization of millet tral-western Burkina (Daboura) and and sorghum in central Togo (Fig. 5). Maize has long been present but its importance In two cropping areas of northern is still only marginal. This crop is Côte d'Ivoire, representative of the generally grown continuously in gar­ contrasting cotton production and dens close to settlements, which mechanization situation, there is means it benefits from careful cultu­ increased cultivation of pure stands ral practices (maintenance, organic of maize (Fig. 4). Millet and sorghum fertilization). The present expansion cropping was marginal in 1*975 and of maize represents a shift of the crop had completely disappeared by from the village gardens to more 1989. remote fields which are usually cropped with millet and sorghum. At Kourouma (Burkina), substitution of maize for sorghum, the traditional The cropping trend in the Daboura crop in this region, is underway. (Burkina) region demonstrates that Farm mechanization is quite advan­ maize is reaching quite northern ced in this cropping area, small trac­ zones. tors were introduced in the early Maize is even intercropped with sorghum, but not in pure stands as occurs at Fonsébougou in southern Mali and at Waragni in central Togo.

The expansion of cotton production is the most striking feature in the development of these cropping systems. The spread of maize seems to be but a secondary phenomenon.

Maize production is stagnant

The situations are very different in the cropping areas of Terres neuves in eastern Senegal, in northern Togo (Poissongui) and in southern Chad (Fig. 6). Eastern Senegal is an immi­ gration zone with substantial avai­ lable funding. In 1974, migrant far­ mers setting up operations in the area as part of a development project ignored recommendations to crop cotton and maize. This rejection seems to have been based on the fact Figure 4. Extension of maize and marginalization of millet and sorghum. Cropping system changes in the savanna zone of western Africa (% of cropland that groundnut production was a in the village lands on which the considered crop is grown). more cost-effective alternative.

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1 994 cereals in Africa

D ab o u ra The respective qualities of maize and sorghum

Producers' choices are based on cer­ tain key elements: productivity, adaptation to climate and soil, flexi­ bility of the cropping schedule, abili­ ty to meet consumer requirements, facility of postharvest processing.

Advantages of maize: productivity and earliness With its higher yield potential maize offers better labour productivity even though the workload is considerably higher for this crop (sorghum easily adapts to low maintenance condi­ tions).

Maize Maize is, however, fully productive Niaradougou Millet and sorghum with sufficient water supplies and fer­ jJ Maize-millet and sorghum tilization, and the needs for these I Other association with maize inputs is much higher than for jlz^ Cotton sorghum. Water requirements for Other crops maize vary according to the length of

1977 1987 In % of land cropped per region the growth cycle of the variety. In the Sudanian zone, it is generally esta­ blished that 600-900 mm per annum Figure 5. Limited extension of maize and steady dominance of millet and sorghum. of evenly distributed rainfall is neces­ Cropping system changes in the savanna zone of western Africa (% of cropland sary. From the mid-1980s, the more in the region on which the considered crop is grown). favorable precipitation levels in this zone were probably instrumental in the northward expansion of maize from the savanna regions.

Maize requires fertile soil, and yield In northern Togo, the introduction of differences vis-à-vis sorghum thus cotton was unsuccessful for other become greater with increased mine­ reasons. In the cropping region of ral fertilization. The different specific Poissongui, soil degradation has uses of farmlands are noteworthy, i.e. occurred as a result of high popula­ the best soils are cropped with maize tion pressure. To an increasing and the poorest with sorghum, which extent, farmers are focusing their means that these two crops are relati­ vely complementary. The superiority efforts on monocropping cereals (but of maize is further enhanced by the not maize) in order to meet basic use of improved varieties. food requirements. Maize cropping would be too demanding in this The yield differences between sorghum and maize also reflect diffe­ situation of declining soil fertility and rences in the cropping systems used low farm mechanization. The lack of (Fig. 7). The overall peak millet/sorg­ progression of maize in the cotton hum yields are 1-1.2 t/ha (excluding basin of southern Chad could be irrigated systems), whereas maize explained by the extensive practices yields are usually 1.5-2.5 t/ha. of farmers. Manure is almost never applied to

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1994 cereals in Africa

Terres Neuves provide funds to surmount the Koumpentoum-Maka Poissongui difficult financial period before cotton revenues come in. Although there are some early and productive selected varieties, they are not w idely used for two reasons: first, there are often problems of seed rot since the panicles are very compact; secondly, consumers prefer tradi­ tional varieties which have more appealing culinary and organoleptic qualities.

The advantages of sorghum: hardiness, easy milling, 1 000 km organoleptic qualities Maize ONDR cotton zone Sorghum is an easy-to-grow plant ■ Millet and sorghum that is fully adapted to the natural 1 Maize-millet and sorghum environments of the region, e.g. Other association with maize ■ extreme climatic variations, low soil g Cotton fertility, etc.. It is a secure crop for Other crops farmers, contrary to maize. The lower □ In % of land cropped per region drought tolerance of this latter crop means that maize farmers run a food Figure 6. Absence of extension of maize. Cropping system changes in the savanna zone of western Africa (% of cropland in the region that is intercropped). risk (self-sufficiency in cereal produc­ tion is often a prime objective of pro­ ducers because of the volatile cereal markets), and a financial risk, espe­ cially for maize grain (repayment of inputs required to obtain high pro­ ductivity). In southern Mali, in 1992- 1993 (before devaluation of the CFA franc), per hectare fertilizer costs fertilize millet and sorghum crops. matched the price of 500-700 kg of Otherwise, there are wide between- maize. country and -year variations in the proportion of fertilized maize area Easy milling is an important criterion monitored by various development since this operation is usually done agencies. There is almost no ferti­ manually by women. Hulling and lized area in central-southern Togo, milling are easier and shorter for 20-50% in Senegal and 50-70% in millet and sorghum than for maize Mali. This explains the wide range of because of the hardness of maize maize yields obtained (from less than seeds (Table 1 ). 1 t to almost 4 t/ha). Maize is not always hulled. However, milling is so difficult that it Some early varieties of maize (90-day is an obstacle to the extension of this growth cycle) are highly beneficial in crop. In northern Cameroon, mills the Sudanian zone during the bet- had to be set up to enable farmers to ween-harvest "bridge" period. switch to maize. Mechanical milling Maize, consumed in the green ear of maize is more costly than for millet stage, is often the best supplementary or sorghum, e.g. 25-50% more crop to bridge the gap before the new expensive in northern Cameroon. harvest of other longer growth cycle food crops. Marketing of this crop as Finally, many food studies in the of the month of September could Sahelian countries indicate that

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1 994 cereals in Africa

J 4

_c Maize diffusion, 3ia: 1 3.5 reflection N0 'o 2 of the economic 3 situation

The institutional support received 2.5 from the late 1970s to the mid-1980s contributed substantially to the spread of maize. Introduction of this 2 crop was seen as a suitable way of boosting cereal productivity. This met with government objectives 1.5 improving national food supplies, while tapping land and manpower resources in order to increase export 1 crops, mainly cotton.

0.5 Parallel development of maize and cotton 0 This support was chiefly provided 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 through cotton companies involved Millet and sorghum yields in t/ha in the overall agricultural develop­ ment of cotton growing areas in Mali, Figure 7. Maize, millet and sorghum yields in the cotton belt during the 1 984-1 992 Senegal, Côte d'Ivoire and period. Each point represents mean maize, millet and sorghum yields for a region supervised by a cotton-producing company, for a given year (sources: CIRAD-CA Togo Cameroon. Maize was the main and cotton-producing companies CMDT, SODEFITEX, SOFITEX). recommended, and sometimes com­ pulsory, rotation crop with cotton and food crop intensification activi­ ties favored maize, i.e. improved seed, fertilization, herbicides (often urban and rural consumers are still on credit). The results varied between very attached to millet and sorghum. countries and according to the These staple foods are appreciated cropping techniques used. for their organoleptic qualities and traditional importance, closely linked Improved maize seeds were widely with positive social values. This high used, as much as 800 t per annum in status is reflected in the fact that the cotton belt of Côte d'Ivoire until millet and sorghum are often inclu­ 1988, representing about 40 000 ha ded in festive dishes, particularly of crops. This contrasted with some varieties such as mouskwari the situation in the other countries sorghum in northern Cameroon. where less than 100 t per annum of Conversely, maize is simply used as improved seeds were used. an "ordinary" cereal in daily dishes The use of fertilizers on maize has (couscous, mash). only been widespread in the cotton belt of Mali. The areas fertilized Tabla 1. Manual processing of maize increased from 10 000 ha in 1981 to and sorghum expressed in kilogrammes The cultural status of millet and sorg­ 70 000 ha in 1992 but the doses were of seeds per hour of work (Agel & Yung, hum probably enhances the cost- reduced. Mineral fertilization was 1985). effectiveness of these traditional initially promoted through incentive Maize Millet and sorghum cereals which are more expensive measures. Mali is the only country to than maize, e.g. producer price Hulling 8-12 9-15 have taken public steps for large differences are 15-25% higher for scale collection of maize crops (up Milling 2-3 4 millet and sorghum in Mali. to 8 000 t collected) at a price that

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1 994 cereals in Africa

makes the use of fertilizers worthwhile. Changes with the cotton The CMDT abandoned this collec­ tion after the cereal market was libe­ crisis of the late 1 980s ralized in 1986. Since then, cropping After 1986, cereal dynamics were patterns on maize croplands have upset by a crisis in the cotton sector clearly changed and many producers subsequent to a worldwide slump in are now intercropping maize and cotton prices. Budgetary deficits for­ sorghum. ced cotton-producing companies to reduce their support to producers. Herbicide use has been increasing in Food crops were immediately affec­ Mali and Côte d'Ivoire, but not in ted by this divestiture. Senegal and Cameroon. Cropland extension, rather than crop intensifi­ Subsidies and distribution for food cation, seems to be the objective crop inputs are now challenged. The here. private sector is still not developed enough to offer an alternative to the Aid for the mechanization of cotton established order. Private involve­ plantations (funds to buy equipment ment will probably be limited to and train planters) has been more easy-access zones that are likely to effective in promoting the extension bring the highest profits, thus neglec­ of maize cropping than crop intensi­ ting many rural communities. fication programmes. Maize has Organizations of producers are benefited considerably from the taking shape, but their represen­ extension of cotton croplands since it tatives will require training, espe­ is a choice rotation crop with cotton, cially in management. and mechanization has further enhanced this progress (Fig. 8). For The crisis has caused a marked drop in profit margins for cotton planters. instance, at Daboura in Burkina, the Input prices have increased with increase in motorized and animal concomitant stagnation or even traction equipment coincided with Photo B. Reynaud decline of cotton prices in some a reduction of sorghum in cropping countries. The situation is jeopardi­ plans. zing maize crop intensification prac­ tices which are generally funded with cotton profits. The market develop­ ment of maize usually does not gene­ rate enough income to cover crop­ ping expenses. For instance, in one of the most advanced regions of Mali 1.4 -i (Koutiala), the marketable share of -Qo the maize crop is too low, i.e. about 1.2 20% in 1992 or 500 kg of seed/ha. In 1993 (before devaluation of the CFA 1 - franc), this was able to cover the CL OCL costs for 50 kg of NPK and 100 kg of 0.8 - urea per hectare.

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1994 cereals in Africa

CMDT supervision was fertilized CAPP-USAID/FAC. Yaoundé, Cameroon, the with NPK (mean 40 kg/ha), 62% French ministère de l'agriculture. received urea (mean 72 kg/ha). COUSINIE P., DJAGNI K, 1992. Rapport annuel 1991-1992 de la section d'agro­ économie. Anié-Mono, Togo, CIRAD-IRCT. Montpellier, France, CIRAD-CA, 81 pp. Devaluation of the CFA DELGADO C. et al., 1987. La dynamique de la consomm ation et la production de franc: an uncertain future céréales en Afrique de I'Ouest. July 15-17 th 1987 Seminar. Dakar, Senegal, IFPRI/IFRA. for maize DUBOIS J.-P., MILLEVILLE P., 1 975. Devaluation of the CFA franc is the Opération Terres neuves. Projet pilote Koumpentoum-Maka. Etude d'accompagne­ latest economic adjustment measure. ment, rapport de fin de campagne 1974-1975. It could penalize crops that Dakar, Senegal, ORSTOM. require imported inputs, such as FAURE G., 1991. Systèmes de production maize but not sorghum and millet. et petite motorisation. Rapport annuel 1990- To what extent will potential cotton 1991. Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina, INERA. Montpellier, France, CIRAD-CA, 53 pp. export earnings be passed on to the FAURE G., 1992. Intensification et séden­ farmers? Cotton could again have a tarisation des exploitations mécanisées. key role in funding maize crop inten­ Rapport annuel 1990-1991. Bobo-Dioulasso, sification if cotton profit margins for Burkina, INERA. Montpellier, France, CIRAD- producers increase significantly. CA, 52 pp. FOK M., 1987. Un cas de recherche-déve- loppement en Afrique de I'Ouest, le projet maïs en zone CMDT. M ontpellier, References France, CIRAD-IRAT, unpublished. FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANI­ AGEL C., YUNG J.-M., 1985. La filière ZATION OF THE UNITED STATES (FAO), maïs au Sénégal. Paris, France, the French 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992. Yearbook pro­ ministère des relations extérieures, 109 pp. duction 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992. FAO, + annexes. Rome, Italy. BENHAMOU J., RAYMOND H., FUSILLIER J.-L., 1993. La filière maïs au VVíÍÉÉ&S*. ; ? ZASLAVSKI J., 1983. Evaluation des filières Cameroun. Quelles perspectives de dévelop­ coton et maïs au M ali. Paris, France, the pement de la production de maïs ? French ministère des relations extérieures, Contribution à l'étude FAC-CAPP/USAID. Photo J. Chantereau 250 pp. Montpellier, France, CIRAD-CA, 60 pp. BENOIT CATTIN M., KEBE D., 1992. DEMBA K., 1989. Les relations agricultu- Modélisation des économies locales Ouest- re-élevage et le devenir des systèmes de pro­ africaines pour évaluer l'impact des mesures duction, Fonsébougou Sud-Mali. Mémoire de d'ajustement structurel : le cas du maïs en fin d'études, économie du développement zone cotonnière du Mali. In Abstracts, 29th agricole agro-alimentaire et rural, Montpellier, EAAE Seminar Food and Agricultural Policies France, ENSAM, 103 pp. under Structural Adjustment, Hohenhein, LE ROY X., 1992. Evolution des systèmes Germany, 21-25 September 1 992, p. 19. agraires de deux communautés Sénoufo du Hohenhein, Germany, University of département de Boundiali dans le Nord de la Hohenhein. Côte-d'Ivoire. Montpellier, France, ORSTOM, BENOIT M., 1977. Mutation agraire dans 26 pp. I'Ouest de la Haute Volta : le cas de Daboura. RAYMOND G., TCHILGUE Y., BELIAZI K., Cahiers ORSTOM Sciences humaines, 14 (2) : 1990. Enquête suivi-évaluation 1989- 95-111. 1990 : 30 villages de la zone soudanienne BIGOT Y., 1983. Le maïs de rente dans Sud-Tchad. N'Djamena, Tchad, ONDR. l'extrême nord de la Côte-d'Ivoire. Montpellier, France, CIRAD-IRCT, 36 pp. Opportunités de production, problèmes de REQUIER DESJARDINS D., 1990. La commercialisation. In Actes du séminaire sur consommation alimentaire à Garoua. les cultures vivrières, élément stratégique du Permanences et changements. In développement agricole ivoirien, Abidjan, Alimentation, techniques et innovations dans Côte-d'Ivoire, 11-15 mai 1982, p. 175-200. les régions tropicales, Paris, France, L'harmat- Abidjan, Côte-d'Ivoire, CIRES. tan, pp. 53-92. CIMMYT, 1991. Réalité et tendances. Le SAUTIER D., O'DEYE M., 1989. Mil, maïs, maïs dans le monde. Le potentiel maïsicole de sorgho. Techniques et alimentation au Sahel. l'Afrique subsaharienne. Mexico, Mexico, Paris, France, L'harmattan, 171 pp. CIMMYT, 71 p. SILVESTRE A., MUCHNIK J., 1993. Quel GIRAUDY F., 1993. L'utilisation d'intrants regard sur la complexité des innovations ? La sur les céréales dans la zone Mali-Sud. diffusion du maïs au Nord-Cameroun. Rapport de suivi-évaluation. Bamako, Mali, Communication au séminaire Innovations et CMDT, 18 pp. sociétés, Montpellier, France, 13-16 CONTE S., FUSILLIER J.-L., 1993. Analyse September 1993. Montpellier, France, économique de la filière maïs au Cameroun. CIRAD, 18 pp.

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1 994 19 cereals in Africa

Abstract... Resumen... Résumé

J.-L. FUSILLIER - Western Africa: maize J.-L. FUSILLIER - Africa del Oeste: ¿maiz o sorgo? J.-L. FUSILLIER - Afrique de l'Ouest : maïs ou or sorghum? El cultivo de maíz está muy extendido en la zona de sorgho ? Maize has been widely cultivated in savanna areas of sabana de Africa del Oeste desde la década del 70. En la Lo culture du maïs s'est largement répandue dans la zone Western Africa since the 1970s. However, in the northern parte septentrional, área de cultivo tradicional de sorgo y de savane d'Afrique de l'Ouest depuis les années 70. Dans part where sorghum and millet are traditionally grown, mijo, la sustitución del sorgo o del mijo por el maíz la partie septentrionale, aire de culture traditionnelle du substitution of m aize for either of these crops appears to resulta no obstante limitada. Por tener exigencias y sorgho et du mil, la substitution du maïs au sorgho ou au be limited. These three species could be complem entary potencialidades muy distintas, estas tres plantas pueden mil apparaît cependant limitée. Ayant des exigences et companion crops since their requirements and presentar ciertos carácteres complementarios en los des potentialités bien distinctes, ces trois plantes peuvent capabilities are quite different, i.e. sorghum and millet sistemas de cultivo: el sorgo y mijo constituyen una présenter une certaine complémentarité dans les systèmes are stable food crops in climatic and economic risk seguridad para la producción de plantas comestibles de de culture : le sorgho et le mil sécurisent la production situations, whereas maize is a high yield crop. The cotton la explotación frente a los riesgos climáticos o vivrière de l'exploitation face aux risques climatiques ou crisis and divestiture of development agencies at the end económicos, mientras que el maíz corresponde a un économiques, tandis que le maïs répond à un objectif de of the 1980s challenges the intensification of cereal objetivo de productividad. La crisis algodonera y el productivité. La crise cotonnière et le désengagement des cropping. This will probably lead to renewed interest in desinteresamiento por las estructuras de desarrollo, que structures de développement, intervenus à la fin des sorghum and millet to the detriment of maize, which se produjeron a finales de la década del 80, ponen en années 80, remettent en cause l'intensification des requires additional inputs such as fertilizers. The future entredicho de nuevo la intensificación de los cereales, céréales. On pourrait donc s'attendre à un regain d'intérêt of maize is now uncertain, due to devaluation of the CFA por lo que habría que esperar que el sorgo y mijo pour le sorgho et le mil, au détriment du maïs, qui néces­ franc, and depends on whether cotton export earnings puedan adquirir nuevo auge, en detrimento del maíz, el site des intrants comme les engrais en particulier. La will be passed on to the farmers. cual necesita insumos como los abonos en particular. La dévaluation du franc CFA laisse une incertitude quant à Key words: maize, sorghum, millet, cotton plant, devaluación del franco CFA deja cierta incertidumbre en l'avenir du maïs, qui dépend de la répercussion du gain à cropping system, farming system, economy, Burkina, cuanto al porvenir del maiz, que depende de la l'exportation du coton sur les exploitations agricoles. Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Senegal, Chad, Togo. repercusión de la ganancia para la exportación del Mots-clés : maïs, sorgho, mil, cotonnier, système algodón en las explotaciones agrarias. de culture, système de production, économie, Burkina, Palabras clave : maíz, sorgo, mijo, algodonero, sistema Côte d'ivoire, Mali, Sénégal, Tchad, Togo. de cultivo, sistema de producción, economía, Burkina, Costa de Marfil, Mali, Senegal, Chad, Togo.

Agriculture et développement ■ Special issue - December 1 994