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Journal of Ecological Engineering Received: 2020.08.15 Revised: 2020.08.30 Volume 21, Issue 8, November 2020, pages 198–206 Accepted: 2020.09.15 Available online: 2020.10.01 https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/126967

Some Aspects of Reducing Gas Emissions by Using

Olga Litvak1*, Serhii Litvak1

1 Admiral Makarov National University of Shipbuilding, 54024, Heroiv Ukrainy Avenue, 9, Mykolaiv, Ukraine * Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT The article is devoted to a study of the issues related to the processes of reducing the emissions using different types of biofuels. The dynamics of emissions in the global energy sector were ana- lyzed and it was determined that a stable level of the CO2 emissions in the last three years is due to introduction of the technologies with the use of sources by developed countries. It was proven that the assess- ment of total requires an analysis of emissions throughout the life cycle of a . The impact of a biofuel on the change depends on the raw material from which it is produced, and which has a decisive influence on its chemical composition and performance. It was established that a significant role in ensur- ing energy security and preventing is attributed to the development of biotechnologies, unrelated to the risks of agricultural production. The use of a biofuel from lignocellulose raw material may be more efficient in terms of reducing the greenhouse gas emissions. A biofuel, obtained from the processing of microalgae, also has important prospects. The ability of microalgae to bind atmospheric carbon dioxide may have a positive effect on solving the problem of greenhouse effect.

Keywords: global warming, carbon dioxide emission, low carbon economy, bioethanol, biodiesel, lignocellulose raw materials, microalgae.

INTRODUCTION affect the . Contribution of these long-lived greenhouse gases to the global warm-

The question of climate change and global ing is as follows: carbon dioxide CO2 – about warming is an important issue for all countries 66%; CH4 – about 17%; nitric ox- of the world and requires serious solutions. The ide N2O – about 6.2% [WMO, 2019]. These greenhouse effect phenomenon is very complex three gases, together with chlorofluorocarbons and constitutes one of the essential climatic fac- (CFC-12 and CFC-11), account for approxi- tors. The presence of greenhouse gases creates mately 96% of due to the long- the conditions for biological diversity, exist- lived greenhouse gases [Butler et al. 2019]. ing on the . After many millions of years, The main source of the anthropogenic CO2 the content of greenhouse gases has been set emissions into the atmosphere is energy. Most at a value, permitting to maintain thermal bal- of the energy, needed to produce electricity, heat ance on the planet. These gases differ greatly in buildings and operate transport, is provided by terms of their concentration in the atmosphere. fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal), the com- Growing total concentration of greenhouse gas- bustion of which results in 95% of all anthropo- es in the atmosphere leads to an increase in the genic carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere greenhouse effect and, as consequence, to a rise [Arutyunov 2001]. A considerable amount of CO2 of the global temperature. is released during combustion and decomposition The principal long-lived greenhouse gas in of wood, upon , as a result of land the atmosphere is carbon dioxide (CO2). Howev- use change, erosion and in the process of er, methane and also significantly farming. Small amounts of methane and nitrous

198 Journal of Ecological Engineering Vol. 21(8), 2020 oxide are released into the atmosphere during GLOBAL TRENDS IN REDUCING CARBON the combustion of fossil fuels. The main source DIOXIDE EMISSIONS IN THE ENERGY of anthropogenic emissions of methane is cattle SECTOR breeding; it is formed in rice fields as well as in the process of decomposition of manure and The EU countries place ever increasing de- household waste in dumps without the access to mands on environmental safety standards, and oxygen. Nitric oxide is released into the air dur- their efforts are aimed at finding an alternative to ing tillage with use of mineral and organic nitro- traditional . Dependence on energy im- gen fertilizers. ports, high energy prices thereof, political factor, In proportion to the growth of fossil fuel and climate changes also encourage the use of an consumption, the volumes of greenhouse gas alternative fuel. emissions increase as well, which has a negative According to the International Energy Agen- impact on the climate of the entire planet. There- cy (IEA), in 2019 the carbon dioxide emissions fore, the main strategy of reducing global warm- in the global energy sector constitute 33.3 billion ing is aimed at reducing the use of fossil energy tons. The carbon dioxide emissions in the world carriers. The humanity is compelled to look for have not increased as compared to the previous replacement of traditional energy sources with year of 2018. Stable emissions are due to the ef- ecologically cleaner fuels. forts made by developed countries to abandon The overall long-term strategy of preventing the coal-based energy production and switch climate change is set out by Paris Climate Agree- over to renewable energy sources and natural ment. This document, adopted at the 21st Confer- gas (Figure 1). The most significant reduction in ence of the parties to the United Nations Frame- emissions among countries was observed in the work Convention on Climate Change (COP21), United States: the index decreased by 140 mil- demonstrates unity and determination of the en- lion tons, or 2.9%. Currently, the level of CO2 tire world community to solve the global problem emissions in the United States is almost 1 billion [ 2015]. tons below the peak value, recorded in 2000. The The most effective technological solutions level of carbon dioxide emissions in the European to the problem of climate change are: transition Union decreased by 160 million tons, or 5%, in to the use of low-carbon or non-carbon fuels; 2019, while in Japan, the index decreased by 45 decarbonization of the electricity production; in- million tons, or about 4%, which became the fast- creasing the efficiency of energy production and est decline since 2009 [IEAa, 2020]. consumption; application of carbon capture and Increased CO2 emissions are observed in the disposal technologies; use of biofuel and other re- countries rich in fossil fuel, and in the develop- newable energy sources. A special role is given to ing countries. In 2019, the figure increased by the task of preserving and increasing the potential about 400 million tons, with almost 80% of emis- for CO2 absorption in forestry and land use. sions falling on the countries of Southeast Asia, In the transition to a low-carbon economy, the where the coal-based electricity production con- use of biomass, which may serve as a renewable tinues to grow. energy source, including thermal energy and elec- tricity is deemed to be an attractive alternative. Biomass can be used to produce motor fuels, the POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF REDUCING use of which reduces the emissions of carbon di- THE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS BY oxide, sulfur and heavy metals and also increases USING FIRST GENERATION BIOFUELS energy security as a result of replacing coal, oil and natural gas with a biofuel. Thus, the main motivations for implementing At the same time, a number of researchers policies to encourage use of alternative fuels are connect the use of biofuel with possible negative energy security and urge to reduce the greenhouse consequences. In the first place, it is an aggrava- gas emissions. A wide range of biomass sources tion of the food problem. This implies limitation can be used for bioenergy production. Biofuel of agricultural land and, consequently, inevitable is obtained from forestry, agricultural or fish- competition of food and energy crops for land re- ery products or from municipal waste; from by- sources, negatively affecting the food security of products and wastes of the agricultural and food countries and entire world. industry.

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Figure 1. СО2 emissions in the energy sector of the world [IEAb 2020]

Liquid biofuels are recognized as one of the and oilseeds (biodiesel) is usually called as the promising renewable energy sources. Increased production of the first-generation biofuel. interest in this type of biofuel is due to the grow- Raw materials, proposed for the production of ing needs of the transport sector of the economy. first-generation biodiesel, were agricultural crops The most important types of such fuel are bioeth- – wheat, rapeseed, soy, sunflower, corn, sugar anol and biodiesel. The world bioethanol produc- beets, from which oils were obtained for further tion is growing by about 5% annually. Accord- processing. Currently, the leading countries in the ing to experts, the steady growth of fuel ethanol industrial production of biodiesel mainly use as production will continue at least until 2030. The raw materials rapeseed (EU), soybean (USA, Ar- main area of bioethanol use is a component of gentina, Brazil) and oil palm (Malaysia, Philip- motor fuel or even – a stand-alone motor fuel. pines) [Kocar et al. 2013]. The growing interest in bioethanol is also due Just as different crops have different biofuel to the fact that it has many advantages: it is biode- yields per hectare, the energy balance indices and gradable and does not contaminate the natural wa- greenhouse gas emission reductions also vary ter systems during spillage; it is a highly efficient greatly, depending on the raw material, place of fuel with octane number of 113 and significantly its growing and the processing technology. Intro- increases the octane number of gasoline-ethanol duction of biofuels into energy supply depends fuels; it also reduces the amount of harmful sub- on the energy intensity of biofuel and the ener- stances in a car , keeping the engine clean. gy spent on its production. Thus, the net effect The 10% addition of ethanol to gasoline reduces of biofuels on the greenhouse gas emissions can the greenhouse gas emission by 12–19%, carbon vary significantly. monoxide – by 30%, particulate matter in exhaust Biofuels are produced from biomass and gases – by 50%, carcinogenic aromatic hydrocar- therefore should theoretically have a neutral bons – by at least one order of magnitude. The level of carbon dioxide emissions, as its com- only disadvantage of bioethanol as a motor fuel bustion only returns to the atmosphere carbon, is relatively low energy-output ratio (21–22 MJ/l) removed by plants from the atmosphere during as compared to gasoline (32–33 MJ/l) [Matkovs- their growth. This is in contrast to fossil fuels, kiy et al. 2010]. which release the carbon that has been stored for The production of ethanol may use any raw millions of years below the earth surface [EISA material, containing a significant amount of 2007]. sugar, or the materials that can be converted into However, an estimate of total greenhouse sugar, e.g. starch or cellulose. Ethanol, supplied gas emissions requires the analysis of emissions to biofuel markets today, is produced as based on throughout the life cycle of biofuel: sowing and sugar or starch. Raw materials, traditionally used harvesting of agricultural crops; processing of for production of bioethanol are grain, sugar beet, raw material into biofuel; transportation of raw sugar cane and sugar sorghum. material and final fuel; storage, distribution and Modern production of liquid biofuel, based retail sale of biofuel, including the impact of re- on sugar and starch-containing crops (bioethanol) fueling the vehicle and emissions, resulting from

200 Journal of Ecological Engineering Vol. 21(8), 2020 combustion. In addition, any possible by-products Another disadvantage of agricultural raw materi- that may reduce emissions, should be considered als is their high cost, which is up to 80% of the as well [HLPE 2013]. Therefore, it is obviously cost of first-generation biodiesel [Sadeghinezhad clear that the energy balance of fossil fuel is only et al. 2013]. Considerable costs will be incurred one of several determining factors of biofuel im- for obtaining of agricultural raw materials, pact on emissions (Figure 2). caused by the need to use agricultural machinery, The most important factors, associated with pesticides, fertilizers, regular work to restore the the process of agricultural production, include the fertility of soils, selective and genetic engineer- use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation technology ing work to improve yielding capacity. The cost and tillage. Land use change, related to the expan- of liquid biofuel of the first generation varies sig- sion of biofuel production, may have a consider- nificantly depending on the yielding capacity of able impact. For example, conversion of forest ar- industrial crops. The above-mentioned economic eas to produce crops for biofuel or replacement of and environmental problems, related to produc- crops with raw materials for biofuel in some areas tion of first-generation biofuel, curtail the devel- may bring about the release of large amounts of opment of this energy sector. carbon dioxide, and it will take years to restore In the EU countries, the requirements to crop the original state through the reduction of emis- suppliers and biofuel producers are regulated by sions by replacing fossil fuel with biofuel. Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parlia- The potential effects of reducing the green- ment and Council of Europe of April 23, 2009, on house gas emissions in use of biofuel, based on encouragement of use of energy, generated from different raw materials, are shown in Figure 3. In renewable sources (RED I) [Directive 2009]. The it, consideration is given to: first, the direct ef- main requirements of the Directive are: control fect of reducing the greenhouse gas emissions; of the actual greenhouse gas emissions through- secondly, the indirect effect with consideration of out the life cycle of crops from which biofuels changes in use of agricultural land areas [Valin are produced (growing and harvesting, drying, et al. 2015]. Excluding the indirect effects, the storage and shipment), as well as provision of reduction of emissions reaches or exceeds 50%, established reporting. The share of renewable en- and varies depending on what raw materials are ergy sources in the energy balance in 2020 should used to produce biodiesel and ethanol. If indirect reach 20% in total energy consumption and 10% effects are taken into account, then on the con- in the transport sector. trary, it will lead to the exhaustion of all resources The biofuel production should meet all stabil- for traditional production of biodiesel under the ity criteria. For example, the RED Directive ex- program of development of renewable energy cludes the following categories of lands from the sources [Meyer et al. 2015]. possible ones for targeted cultivation of energy Involvement of new lands in agricultural biomass: cycles may have extremely negative ecological •• lands with a high level of biodiversity: pri- consequences: reduction of the areas of natural mary forests; , lowering of biodiversity, extinction •• protected environmental territories or of certain types of plants and animal species. plots, designated for the protection of rare,

Figure 2. Life cycle of liquid biofuel with consideration of greenhouse gas balance [FAO 2008]

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Figure 3. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union as a result of biofuel use [Laborde 2011]

endangered or threatened ecosystems or spe- The number of such plants includes woody plants cies, natural or artificial pastures with a high with a short vegetation period, e.g. willow, hybrid level of biodiversity; poplar and eucalyptus, or herbaceous species, •• lands with a high level of carbon reserve: wet- such as miscanthus, millet pampiniform [AEBI- lands, peatlands, forested lands. OM 2013]. These plants have important advan- tages over the first-generation crops in terms of From July 2021, the restrictions on the green- their ecological . They all are able house gas emissions from biofuel production in to produce more biomass per hectare of land, be- the EU will be more stringent in accordance with cause the whole plant may be used as raw mate- Directive 2018/2001/EU of the European Parlia- rial for fuel. Moreover, some fast-growing peren- ment and of Council of Europe on encouragement nial woody and herbaceous plants can grow on of use of energy from renewable sources (RED poor, depleted soils, where the cultivation of food II) [Directive (EU) 2018]. In use of biofuel, the crops is disadvantageous due to erosion or other greenhouse gas emissions should be at least 50% restrictions. Both of these factors can reduce the less than when fossil fuels are used. After 2020, competition for land with food and fodder pro- only biofuel production, contributing to the reduc- ducers (Figure 4). tion of the greenhouse gas emissions and based on The second-generation raw materials and non-food plants and biomass, will be financed and biofuels can also be more efficient in reducing supported by the state in EU countries. Therefore, the greenhouse gas emissions. Most studies pre- production of second and third generation biofuel dict that environmentally friendly biofuel, pro- is becoming increasingly important. duced from energy crops, as well as wood and agricultural waste, may considerably reduce the greenhouse gas emissions, associated with the BIOFUELS FROM LIGNOCELLULOSE life cycle of the first-generation petroleum fuels BIOMASS: ADVANTAGES AND and biofuels [Kuptsov et al. 2015]. This is due DISADVANTAGES to higher energy yield per hectare and choice of other fuel for processing. In modern production The second-generation biofuels may be pro- process of ethanol from first-generation biomass, duced with use of lignocellulose biomass pro- the energy, used for processing, comes from fos- cessing technologies. The potential source in- sil fuels in almost all cases (except for ethanol, cludes all wastes, including agricultural and for- obtained in Brazil from sugar cane, where most estry wastes, processing wastes and organic com- of the energy for processing is provided by sugar ponents of municipal wastes [Naik et al. 2010]. cane cake) [IEA, 2013]. In the case of the second- Special energy crops are very promising as raw generation biofuels, energy for processing may be materials for the second-generation technologies. provided by plant residues, mainly lignin.

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Figure 4. Advantage and disadvantages of the use of lignocellulosic raw material for the production of biofuel [Larchenko et al. 2008; Rodkin et al. 2019; Shulga et al. 2013]

The processing of cellulose into bioethanol [Sidorov 2010]. The costs of creating and main- includes two main stages: breakdown of cellulose taining open ponds are relatively small, but there and hemicellulose components to sugars; fermen- is low biomass yield. In this case, effective cul- tation of the obtained sugars to obtain bioethanol. tivation of algae in open is possible only The cellulose from biowaste is the most attrac- in the regions with warm climate and intense tive raw material for the production of high qual- insolation. In its turn, the technology of grow- ity biofuel by fermentation. However, traditional ing microalgae in photobioreactors can achieve biomass processing is an economically ineffec- significantly higher biomass yield, but has high tive multi-stage process [Orzhel et al. 2019]. The costs for creation and maintenance [Chisti 2007]. main technical problem of cost-effective produc- In bioreactors, along with the need for recircula- tion of biofuel from lignocellulose is the need to tion and gas exchange in the cultivation medium, reduce cost of enzymes that destroy walls of plant an optimum temperature should be maintained. cells, being necessary for the production of sugar Currently, there are several plants for the produc- from biomass. tion of bioethanol from microalgae, cultivated in photobiorectors (USA, Brazil). An additional benefit is that during cultiva-

CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS AND tion, algae do not emit, but absorb CO2, being an USE OF MICROALGAE FOR BIOFUEL important nutrient for them (building material) PRODUCTION in photosynthesis. Extremely high ability of mi- croalgae to bind atmospheric carbon dioxide may The third-generation biofuel is obtained from have a positive effect on solving the problem of the biomass of microalgae or heterotrophic mi- greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is becoming croorganisms. Open and closed ponds, as well as the most important resource that may be pro- photobioreactors are used for growing microalgae duced on industrial basis [Choudri et al. 2015].

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With the use of carbon dioxide at minimal water on the development of an optimal technology. consumption, on the land unsuitable for farming, There are about 200 companies around the world it is possible to obtain significant amounts of liq- that concentrate on producing fuel from algae. uid biofuel (Figure 5). Still, greater attractiveness in terms of energy The production of biodiesel from the biomass efficiency and potential is offered by -the tech of microalgae is considered to be very promising nologies for the production of the 4–5th genera- from the ecological point of view, which serves tion biofuels, being mainly in the experimental as an incentive for seeking and developing the stage of development. A notable feature of the 4th technologies to reduce its cost [Susanu 2019]. generation technologies is the production of liq- The main disadvantage of using open or closed uid fuels from carbon dioxide and water, based method of microalgae cultivation is high energy on use of the genetically modified photoautotro- consumption (as compared to the production of phic bacteria (e.g. cyanobacteria) in the process motor fuel from traditional raw materials), as- of photosynthesis. sociated with such stages of biofuel production The 5th generation liquid biofuel is now con- as mixing, moving suspension to the reactor, ex- sidered as the most promising technological area traction, purification and the like [Kuchkina et al. of biofuel production. Its outstanding feature is 2014]. Other reasons for low economic efficiency use of microorganisms, capable of using electric include the lack of optimal economically sound current. This electrobiosynthesis technology may cultivation technology permitting to obtain in- be used under conditions, where effective process dustrially significant volumes of microalgae bio- of photosynthesis is impossible due to adverse mass and processing technology of the obtained climate (e.g. under the Arctic conditions) or there raw material. is no possibility to use large areas for the growth In order to improve the properties of micro- of photosynthetic microorganisms (remote and algae, genetic and metabolic engineering may be hard-to-access areas, cosmic space, etc.) [Strate- used. The attention of many researchers is focused gic Research Program 2014].

Figure 5. Use of microalgae for biofuel production and solution of greenhouse effect problem [Solodova et al. 2010; Amin-ul Mannan et al. 2017; Gouveia et al. 2009]

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