Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No. 15, March 2013

Insights into the biodiversity of the Sampur area in Trincomalee

A.Wadugodapitiya, V. Weeratunge, S. de A. Goonatilake, D. Chandranimal, N. Perera and C. Asela.

International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka Country Office i

Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka

The role of IUCN Sri Lanka embodies the overall mission of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature: to help nations throughout the world to protect and use sustainably their natural resources for the benefit of all their people. In serving this mission, IUCN Sri Lanka aims to contribute towards the development and implementation of appropriate conservation policies, based on scientific information in the field of nature conservation.

The Occasional Paper series reports on the outcomes of research and project work conducted by IUCN staff and their collaborators, covering a wide range of subjects related to conservation – from biodiversity assessments to participatory conservation approaches. This objective of the present Occasional Paper series is to share these lessons learnt from the wealth of field experience, amongst a wider audience and to provide scientific information relevant to conservation action. The papers will be kept simple and non-technical. It is intended that the series will contribute towards conservation action and will be used extensively by policy makers, managers of natural resources, researchers, students and the public at large.

The occasional papers are published and distributed electronically (http://www.iucn.org).

ii

Occasional Papers of IUCN Sri Lanka No. 15, March 2013

Insights into the biodiversity of the Sampur area in Trincomalee

A. Wadugodapitiya, V. Weeratunge, S. de A. Goonatilake, D. Chandranimal, N. Perera and C. Asela.

IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature

iii

This publication has been prepared by IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Published by: IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Copyright: © 2013, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non- commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Citation: Wadugodapitiya, A., Weeratunge, V., Goonatilake, S. de A., Chandranimal, D., Perera, N., and Asela, C. (2013) Insights into the biodiversity of the Sampur area in Trincomalee. Occ.pap.IUCN, Sri Lanka. International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka. viii+54pp.

ISBN: 978-955-0205-19-6

Front cover photograph by: Sampath de A Goonatilake @ IUCN Sri Lanka

Back cover photograph by: Vimukthi Weeratunga

Available at: http://www.iucn.org

iv

SURVEY TEAM AND COORDINATION

Flora and fauna Mr. Vimukthi Weeratunga (Principal Investigator) Mr. Sampath de A. Goonatilake (Fauna) Mr. Dilup Chandranimal (Flora) Mr. Naalin Perera (Fauna) Mr. Asela Chandana (Fauna)

Archaeology Mr. Sampath de A. Goonatilake

GIS mapping Mrs. Dilhari Weragodetenna

Editing Ms. Avanti Wadugodapitiya

Photos Vimukthi Weeratunga Sampath de A Goonatilake @IUCN Sri Lanka

v

CONTENTS

Abbreviations------vii

Acknowledgements------viii

1. Introduction ------1

2. Objectives------4

3. Methodology------5

4 Habitats ------8

5. Flora ------11

6. Fauna ------12

7. Sites of Archaeological interests ------16

8. Key Observations and Recommendations ------17

9. References------18

Annexures

Annex 1: List of floral species recorded in the Sampur area------20

Annex 2: List of faunal species recorded in the Sampur area ------33

Annex 3: Photo-catalogue of Sampur area------46

vi

ABBREVIATIONS

BrR - Breeding Resident Species

CoS - Conservation Status

CR - Critically Endangered Species

CSR - Corporate Social Responsibility

DD - Data Deficient Species

EN - Endangered Species

EX - Exotic Species

GBH - Girth at breast height

IAS - Invasive Alien Species

IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature

MI - Migratory Species

NT - Near Threatened Species

Pro: endemic - Provisional Endemic Species

SpS - Species Status

VES - Visual Encounter Survey

VU - Vulnerable Species

WV - Winter Visitor

vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This Occasional Paper is based on work carried out by IUCN Sri Lanka in early 2010.

IUCN acknowledge gratefully the support provided by the Director General of Naval Operations Rear Admiral Jayantha Perera, Rear Admiral Shiranta Udawatte, and the Commander of the Sampur Naval Base, Commmodore Fernando. We are very grateful to Leading Seaman Kumara and Leading Seaman Premasiri for accompanying the IUCN team during field work in the Sampur area, while providing full security to the research team.

viii 1. INTRODUCTION

The Trincomalee District is located in the northeastern region of Sri Lanka, approximately 250 km from Colombo. Trincomalee – referred to historically as Gokanna - is most famous for its secure and deep natural harbour, which is accessible to all types of crafts in all weather conditions, and has been considered an important sea port in the Indian Ocean throughout history. Similarly, the area is renowned for its immense natural wealth, as it supports abundant fisheries resources, as well as large marine mammals such as dolphins and whales. The major economic activities of the district are agriculture and fishing, while Trincomalee also supports a range of recreational activities such as surfing, scuba diving, fishing and whale-watching. One of the largest Dutch forts found in the country is situated in the city of Trincomalee, while a number of military bases, including several major Sri Lanka Navy and Air Force bases, are located in the area at present.

Given its strategic, economic, ecological and recreational importance, Trincomalee flourished in the past, and attracted large numbers of tourists to the area. However, its progress was halted abruptly due to the ethnic conflict, which spanned three decades, and was most intense in the north and east of the country.

Given the appeal of its location, its harbour and its natural resources, to potential investors, several major development initiatives have been planned by the Government of Sri Lanka in the Trincomalee District following the conclusion of the conflict in 2009.

The Sampur area of the Trincomalee District has been earmarked, specifically, for development as an industrial zone. However, the area features several natural terrestrial and marine habitats that have remained undisturbed due, primarily, to the fact that only one small is located in the vicinity, with the lifestyles and agricultural practices of the residents of this settlement having a minimal impact on the ecological integrity of the area. As such, an assessment of the biodiversity of the area is necessary to ascertain the feasibility of planned development work, with respect to the potential impacts of these activities on the biodiversity of the area.

Given the development activities planned for the Sampur area following the end of the war, it is crucial that insights are gained into the natural resources found in the area through an ecological assessment. Such a study can provide basic information on the types of habitats, as well as the floral and faunal species, of the area, while observations can be made with regard to relevant conservation issues and threats to the biodiversity of Sampur. The findings of such an ecological assessment can, therefore, facilitate the development of suitable management plans for the area, and allow the identification of areas suitable for development activities, as well as sensitive conservation areas. Similarly, these findings can be used to inform future development plans, so as to avoid or mitigate the potential environmental and ecological impacts that can arise from these development activities.

The study area

Sampur is located between 8° 29'.88" N - 81° 18'.14" E (Kattaparichchan) and 8° 31'.30" N - 81°19'.26" E (Foul Point lighthouse) at the southern tip of Koddiyar Bay and falls under the Muttur and Kinniya Divisional Secretariat Divisions. It is approximately 4, 000 ha in extent, and

1 is bordered on the west by Koddiyar Bay, on the east by the Indian Ocean, and on the south by Kattaparichchan.

Although the majority of the area falls under state ownership, it has been observed that various anthropogenic activities, including the permanent cultivation of paddy and vegetables, are ongoing within the study area, which consists of scrub forest, mangroves and salt marshes, in addition to settlement areas.

A land use map for the area is shown in Figure 1 below.

Coastal Vegetation

Figure 1. Land use patterns within the Sampur area

The topography of the area is flat, with undulating hills reaching 100 m above mean sea level. The coastal zone of the area consists of rock cliffs made up of metamorphosed sediments of rocks from the Pre-Cambrian age belonging to the Highland Series. The Highland series consist of quartzites, Schists and Crystalline limestones. The tip of the study area consists of Horublende-biotite gneiss and a few layers of impure crystalline limestone, as well as Vijayan Series rocks (Flueler, 1983).

The soil of Sampur consists primarily of Non-calcic Brown Soil on old alluvium. However, non- contiguous patches of Reddish Brown Earths and Low Humic Glay soils can also be observed in the area. The relatively new beaches at the southeastern border of the area (near Koddiyar Bay) consist of Regosols.

The area receives an annual rainfall of approximately 1, 700 mm, and has an average annual temperature of approximately 27 0C. The climatic conditions of the area are influenced primarily

2 by the inter-monsoonal rains in March and April, and an extensive dry period extending from May to September. The long dry spell is followed by a rainy season influenced by the northeast monsoon, between November and January.

In 2006, the permanent residents of Sampur abandoned the area due to the civil conflict. As such, the entire area was free of human settlements at the time of the study in early 2010.

3 2. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the study were as follows:

 To document the terrestrial and aquatic habitat types found in the Sampur area;

 To document the floral species richness in the Sampur area;

 To document the faunal species richness in the Sampur area, including all vertebrate taxa and selected invertebrate groups;

 To document the current threats to biodiversity in the Sampur area; and

 To prepare relevant GIS maps using the data gathered during the study.

4 3. METHODOLOGY

The study was carried out in early 2010. A literature survey was undertaken in order to supplement the findings of the field survey, while field work was conducted over two months, with three seven-day field visits. The field surveys involved the following activities:

. Documentation of the habitats found in the study area; . Documentation of the flora found within the study area; . Documentation of the fauna found within; and . Identification of the threats to the biodiversity of the area.

A one-week reconnaissance visit was conducted at the inception of the project to identify suitable sample sites and finalize the sampling methodology used for the study, based on field conditions. A total of 24 sample sites were used to sample the biodiversity of the area, covering terrestrial and aquatic habitats. The selection of sample sites was random to a large extent. However, the representation of habitats, the spatial distribution of the sites within the area, and accessibility to the sites, were considered in the selection of suitable sample sites. The locations of the sample sites used in the study are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Locations of the sample sites within the study area

The habitats, and floral and faunal species present in the area were documented using standard scientific methods. A belt transect method was employed to document the flora and fauna found in each sample site, with the data from these transects being used, together with species encountered opportunistically in the field, in order to develop comprehensive species lists for the study area. The sample sites were surveyed at different times of day in

5 order to avoid temporal biases, with nocturnal surveys also being conducted during the study.

Habitats The habitat types (synonymous with vegetation types) found in the Sampur area were identified and grouped according to the classification system described in Ministry of Forestry and Environment (1999). In addition to the major habitat types, several sub types were identified and documented in order to accommodate site specific variations of habitats.

Flora The species richness of higher plants within different habitat and vegetation types were studied using standard scientific techniques, with appropriate modifications to suit field conditions. Vegetation dominated by woody flora was sampled using 10 x 100 m belt transects, while other small herbaceous vegetation types were sampled using 5 x 5 m and 1 x 1 m plots (see Table 1 for details).

Table 1. Summary of plot size of the of the flora sampling

Flora life form Method Sampling unit Trees Direct 10 x 100 m transect Shrubs Direct 5 x 5 m plots Herbs, creepers and aquatic plants Direct 1 x 1 m plots

The floral species encountered during the study were identified and classified using the latest standard published guides and keys available in Sri Lanka (see Table 2). In addition, the specimens from the National Herbarium were referred to for the purpose of species authentification, when necessary.

Table 2. List of references used for the identification of flora and their conservation statuses

Subject Source Flora Dassanayake, M. D. and Fossberg, F.R. (eds) (1980 – 1991); Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F. R. and Clayton, W. D. (eds) (1994 - 1995); Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F.R. and Clayton, W.D. (eds) (1995 - 1996); Senarathna, L.K. (2001). National conservation status MOE (2012)

Fauna All vertebrate taxa (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) and selected invertebrate species (dragonflies and butterflies) present in the area were identified and documented during the study. The faunal survey was carried out in tandem with the floral survey, with standard scientific sampling techniques being used to sample the fauna of the area. A Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method was used in the study, with both direct and indirect animal observations being recorded from the transects. In addition, information collected from local residents and security personnel, and verified through field guides and photographs, was used to supplement the data collected by the field team. All efforts were made to document

6 the animals without causing them harm. Details of the sampling methods used are provided in Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of faunal sampling techniques

Group/ taxa Method Technique Fish Direct Cast-net catch (1.5 m x 3 m net) and analysis of the catch of local fishermen Amphibians Direct Transects (10 x 100 m) Reptiles Direct Transects( 10 x 100 m) Birds Direct and indirect Circular spot counting(20 m radius) at 20 m intervals along a 200 m transect (visual and auditory observations) Mammals Direct and indirect Transects (50 x 100 m); animal signs including tracks, faecal matter, feeding signs, scats and calls Butterflies Direct Transects (10 x 100 m) Dragonflies Direct Transects (10 x 100 m)

In addition to the methods described in the table above, the following were used to maximum the scope of sampling: . Night observations along the road network (for nocturnal species including herpetofauna, birds, and mammals); . Mist nets (for small bat species); and . Sherman traps (small mammal such as rodents).

The faunal species encountered during the study were identified and classified using the latest standard published guides and keys available in Sri Lanka (see Table 4). In addition, the specimens from the National Museum were referred to for the purpose of species authentification, when necessary.

Table 4. Some key references used for species identification

Group Source Dragonflies Bedjanic, M., Conniff, K., and Wijeyeratne, G.de S. (2007) Butterflies D’ Abrera, B. (1998) Freshwater fish Pethiyagoda, R. (1991), S. De A Goonatilake, (2006) Amphibians Manamendra-arachchi, K. and Pethiyagoda, R. (2006) Reptiles Somaweera, R. and Somaweera, N. (2009); Somaweera, R. (2006) Birds Harrison, J. (1999). Mammals Phillips, W.W.A. (1935).

7 4. HABITATS

The major habitat types found in the Sampur area are described below.

Tropical dry mixed evergreen forests

Tropical dry zone climax forests are found within the Sampur area. They consist of three recognizable vegetation strata - a high continuous tree canopy (20-30 m), a sub-canopy (up to 15 m), and shrubs (up to 5 m) and herbaceous plants (less than 1 m). The trees in these tropical dry mixed evergreen forests are assembled densely in well developed sites, where poor growth of shrubs and herbaceous forms can be observed in the ground layers. The leaves of the plant species found in this habitat type can be classified as mesophyllous or microphyllous, and are, as such, typical of a dry zone habitat. Exposed ground is common within this habitat type, while forest regeneration can be observed in several sites. However, several degraded tropical dry mixed evergreen forest patches interspaced with open grasslands were also observed in the study area. The dominant species found in this habitat type are Chloroxylon swietenia, Drypetes sepiaria and Manilkara hexandra.

Tropical thorn forests (scrublands)

Scrublands feature thick and impenetrable thorny or spiny, woody vegetation that grows up to 4 - 6 m in height. Two major strata can be recognized within this type of forest - the shrub canopy and the layer of herbaceous plants that grows underneath it (up to 0.5 m), which may be interspersed with larger trees. Many plants in this habitat type have microphyllous leaves, while the exposed shrubs are heavily branched. Herbaceous species are abundant in the ground layer of this forest type, as it receives direct sun light. Many plant species found in tropical thorn forests are well adapted to xerophytic conditions due to the prevailing dry conditions. Adaptations observed include thick leaves with well developed surface structures (which provide protection from strong sunlight and minimise evaporation), and the production of seeds that can remain dormant until the commencement of the rainy season. The scrublands of the Sampur area can withstand heavy structural damage caused by herbivores, as well as tough drought or wind conditions, and have the ability to recover in the wet season. Small grassland patches within the scrublands provide grazing grounds for many herbivore species that inhabit the area. The fruits of Ziziphus rugosa (maha eraminiya), Carissa spinarum (karamba) and Flueggea leucopyrus (katupila) attract many species of birds as well as some large mammal species to these habitats.

Rock outcrop associated forests

Rock outcrop associated forests are a sub-type of tropical dry zone forests, and are found exclusively in close association with rock outcrops. The vegetation observed in these habitats is not dense, and shows a patchy distribution over the landscape of the Sampur area. Rock outcrop associated habitats are a tree dominated vegetation type with a canopy (15-20 m), a shrub layer (3-4 m) and a ground layer consisting of herbaceous plants (0.5 m). The forest canopy is discontinuous and leaf fall can be observed during the dry season (July-September). Many of the shrubs found in this habitat type have thorny or spiny structures, and are well adapted to extreme drought conditions. The understory of these

8 forests is sparse on the rocky substratum. The ground features of rock outcrop forests are relatively heterogeneous since rocky structures and bare ground exist side by side in these areas. Plants can be observed growing among the boulders and rock crevices of these areas, as well as fixed in soil. Groundwater retention is very low given that bedrock is often found directly beneath a thin soil layer. In certain areas, the depressions formed on the open rock surface form natural pools, where rain water can accumulate, supporting animal life. Similarly, forests associated with rock caves provide shelter and safe abode for a range of wild animals. The dominant species observed in this habitat type are Euphorbia antiquorum, Ficus amplissima, Ficus benghalensis and Ficus mollis.

Abandoned paddy fields

A large extent of uncultivated paddy lands was observed in the Sampur area. These lands have been abandoned since 2006, with the conflict in the Sampur area. Abandoned paddy fields serve as grasslands that have a simple vegetation structure. Such areas feature a large expanse grass cover, grown close together and ranging from 0.01 to 0.2 m in height. Often, isolated and scattered trees (up to 20 m) and shrubs (up to 3 m) can also be observed in these abandoned paddy fields. The grassland habitats are interspaced with forest habitats and wetlands, which provide ideal conditions for a range of faunal species, including herbivorous mammals, small carnivorous mammals and grassland birds.

Swamps (flood plains)

Swamps retain a high moisture content for most of the year. However, unlike marshes, swamps are not covered with water for the majority of this time, although the soil within these habitats remains saturated with water (water logged). Water is fed into these habitats through a range of sources, including precipitation, groundwater discharge, and seepage from nearby streams, ponds and reservoirs. Sometimes, water enters these habitats from a combination of these sources. Swamps occur as isolated depressions in the landscape, and their soil is known to be hydric. As such, the soil observed in these habitats is saturated long enough to develop anaerobic conditions that favour the growth and regeneration of hydrophillic vegetation. A large expanse of swamp habitat is located near Illankantei, within the project area. This area is characterized by herbaceous swamps with dominant herb cover of approximately 1–2 m in height. Large flocks of wetland birds inhabit this swamp habitat as the disturbances to these species are minimal in the area.

Tanks and ponds

Tanks and ponds are bodies of stagnant freshwater that are usually shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate through to bottom. Although some of these tanks are man-made and built to collect and store water for the dry season, primarily for agricultural use, they have become semi-natural systems and provide numerous ecological services to the local wildlife, as well as local communities. These man-made tanks have clearly visible water outlet channels, while the body of water is surrounded by a narrow belt of wetland vegetation even during the dry months. A large number of permanent and seasonal water bodies, including freshwater tanks, water holes, lagoons and estuaries can be observed in the Sampur area.

9 These wetlands provide an ideal habitat for migratory waterfowl and other aquatic birds, as well as indigenous wildlife. Twenty of the 22 migratory bird species recorded during the present study were found in and around the wetland habitats of the area.

Mangroves

A small expanse of mangroves was found near the lagoon and estuaries of the area. Although they are very small in extent, these habitats are important for the protection of coastal biodiversity in Sri Lanka. The mangroves that are located towards the interior areas of the lagoon are dominated by Avicennia marina, while areas towards the mouth of the lagoon mouth feature Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata. Thousands of wetland birds, belonging to several species, use the mangrove habitats located towards the northwest of Illankantei (8° 29' 418" N - 81°19' 135" E) as a permanent roosting and nesting site.

Beach vegetation

Well established beach vegetation can be found in a relatively good condition in the coastal zone of the Sampur area. These coastal forests are found in areas where the land slopes gently towards the sea. The physiognomy and floristic composition of the beach flora and associated minor sand dunes depends on the extent and steepness of the shore, and the degree of ground stability. The vegetation is located beyond the direct impact zone of the waves and tides, and supports tree cover (4-6 m), scattered creepers (0.5 m) and small shrubs (1 m), which aid the consolidation of surface soils by restricting wind-induced erosion and the provision of resistance to the removal of sand by sea water. Trees found in the beach vegetation habitats are dwarf forms of the species found in tropical dry mixed evergreen forests. The dwarf feature of these coastal forests can be attributed to the impacts of strong wind action, salt spray and insolation. Depending on the steepness and width of the shore, the beach vegetation zone may extend up to 50 m in the Sampur area.

10 5. FLORA

A total of 334 floral species belonging to 86 families were recorded in the project area during the study, including the species recorded within and outside the transects. This includes four endemic species - Vernonia zeylanica, Cassine glauca, Micromelum minutum and Murraya gleniei. Among the species recorded in the area were one Critically Endangered (CR) species - Sesamum prostratum, five Endangered (EN) species - Basella alba, Cyanotis obtusa, Vigna marina, Salacia oblonga and Spermacoce prostrata and 13 Vulnerable (VU) species – Cynometra iripa, Crinum zeylanicum, Spondias pinnata, Citrullus colocynthis, Strychnos nux-vomica, Strychnos potatorum¸ Tinospora cordifolia, Najas minor, Nymphaea nouchali, Vanda tessellate, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Chloroxylon swietenia and Manilkara hexandra, along with 15 Near Threatened (NT) species.

Seven invasive alien species and 69 exotic species were also recorded in the area.

The dearth of endemic and threatened floral species, as observed in the Sampur area, is characteristic of dry zone habitats that are in close proximity to the coastline.

Details of the floral species recorded in the Sampur area are provided in Annex 1.

11 6. FAUNA

A total of 272 faunal species - 20 dragonfly species, 45 butterfly species, 16 fish species, 8 amphibian species, 29 reptile species, 124 bird species and 30 mammal species - were recorded from the area. This includes 14 endemic species, two proposed endemic species, two exotic species, 22 migrant species and four domestic species. Among the species recorded were two Critically Endangered (CR) species, eight Endangered (EN) species, 12 Vulnerable (VU) species, 13 Near Threatened (NT) species and three Data Deficient (DD) species1.

Table 4: Summary of fauna recorded in the project area (* Proposed endemic species)

Taxon Number Endemic Migrant or Domestic Conservation status of species exotic species CR EN VU NT DD species species Dragonflies 20 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 Butterflies 46 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 Fish 16 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 Amphibians 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reptiles 29 7 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 Birds 124 2 + 2* 22 0 0 1 5 4 0 Mammals 30 2 0 5 0 3 2 3 0 Total 272 14 + 2* 24 5 2 8 11 13 3

Dragonflies

A total of 20 dragonfly species belonging to three families were recorded during the study (approximately 16 percent of the dragonfly species found in Sri Lanka). This includes one Critically Endangered (CR) species - Agriocnemis femina (Whitebacked wisp) - and three Near Threatened (NT) species - Lathrecista asiatica (Pruinosed bloodtail), Indothemis carnatica (Light tipped demon) and Neurothemis intermedia (Paddyfield parasol). Dragonflies were encountered frequently in and around the wetlands of the Sampur area. However, a few species were also recorded in the forest habitats of the area.

Butterflies

A total of 46 butterfly species belonging to five families were recorded during the study (approximately 18 percent of the butterfly species found in Sri Lanka). This includes one endemic species - Appias galane (Lesser albatross). Among the species recorded were one Critically Endangered (CR) species - Tajuria jehana (Plains blue royal), two Vulnerable (VU) species - Papilio crino (Banded peacock) and Colotis aurora (Plain orange tip), one Near Threatened (NT) species - Coladenia indranii (Tricolour pied flat) – and one Data Deficient (DD) species - Rapala iarbus (Indian red flash). Pachliopta hector (Crimson rose), Jezebel Delias eucharis (Jezebel) and Danaus chrysippus (Plain tiger) were the most common species encountered in the field.

1 National threat status given according to MOE (2012). 12 Fish

A total of 16 freshwater fish species belonging to 13 families were recorded in the natural and man-made seasonal and perennial aquatic habitats of the study area (approximately 18 percent of the species found in Sri Lanka). This includes two endemic species - Systomus cf. sarana (Olive barb)2 and Channa ara (Giant snakehead), and two exotic species - Oreochromis mosambicus (Tilapia) and Trichogaster pectoralis (Snake skin gourami). Two brackish water species - Megalops cyprinoides (Tarpon) and Zenachopterus disper (Half beak) were also recorded in the study area. Among the species recorded were two Endangered (EN) species - Wallago attu Shark catfish and Channa ara (Giant snakehead), and two Data Deficient (DD) species - Systomus cf. sarana (Olive barb) and Oryzias carnaticus (Spotted ricefish). Personal communications with security forces in the area revealed that many other fish species are also present in the area, despite the fact that they were observed during the study. As such, a greater sampling effort may be necessary in future to determine, more accurately, the richness of the fish species present in the Sampur area.

Amphibians

A total of eight amphibian species belonging to three families were recorded during the study (seven percent of the amphibian species found in Sri Lanka). The low diversity of amphibians in the area is not unusual given the geographic location of the study and its climatic conditions.

Reptiles

A total of 29 reptile species belonging to 14 families were recorded during the study (approximately 14 percent of the reptile species found in Sri Lanka). This includes seven endemic species - Lissemys ceylonensis (Flapshell turtle), Geckoella yakhuna (Blotch bowfinger gecko), Hemidactylus depressus (Kandyan gecko), Hemidactylus lankae (Termite hill gecko), Eutropis floweri (Taylor's skink), Chrysopelea taprobanica (Striped flying snake) and Xenochrophis cf. piscator (Checkered keelback). Among the species recorded were two Endangered (EN) species - Caretta caretta (Loggerhead sea turtle) and Eutropis floweri (Taylor's skink), two Vulnerable (VU) species - Geckoella yakhuna (Blotch bowfinger gecko) and Echis carinatus (Saw scale viper), and two Near Threatened (NT) species - Crocodylus palustris (Mugger crocodile) and Geochelone elegans (Indian star tortoise).

Geochelone elegans (Indian star tortoise) was relatively common in the grasslands and scrublands of the Sampur area, while Melanochelys trijuga (Parker's black turtle) was observed frequently in the wetland habitats of the area. Hemidactylus brookii (Spotted house gecko) was very common in the buildings that had been abandoned in the study area. Common garden lizard (Calotes versicolor) and Fan throat lizard (Sitana ponticeriana) were the most common agamids in the area, while a total of ten serpentoid reptilian species were recorded during the survey.

2 Recent studies indicate some taxonomic uncertainty with regard to this species and its distrubution (Pethiyagoda et al., 2012). 13 Birds

A total of 124 bird species belonging to 56 families were recorded during the study (approximately 25 percent of the avian species found in Sri Lanka). This includes two endemic species - Gallus lafayetii (Sri Lanka junglefowl) and Pellorneum fuscocapillum (Sri Lanka brown-capped babbler), and two proposed endemic species - Megalaima rubricapilla (Crimson-fronted barbet) and Treron pompadora (Pompadour green pigeon), as well as 22 migrant species. Among the species recorded were one Endangered (EN) species - Coturnix chinensis (Blue quail), five Vulnerable (VU) species - Rostratula benghalensis (Greater painted-snipe), Charadrius dubius (Little ringed plover), Charadrius alexandrinus (Kentish plover) and Leptoptilos javanicus (Lesser adjutant) and Lonchura malabarica (Silverbill), and four Near Threatened (NT) species - Surniculus lugubris (Drongo cuckoo), Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus (Grey-headed fish eagle), Nycticorax nycticorax (Black-crowned night heron) and Ciconia episcopus (Woolly-necked stork).

Columba livia (Rock pigeon) was found in large numbers feeding in the open areas around the lagoons and large water bodies of Sampur. Similarly, Gallus lafayetii (Sri Lanka junglefowl) was distributed widely in the natural habitats of the area. Megalaima zeylanica (Brown-headed barbet) and Merops philippinus (Blue-tailed bee-eater) were the most abundant species in the forested areas of Sampur, while Halcyon smyrnensis (Lesser whistling duck) and Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (Little cormorant) were the most abundant avian species in the wetland habitats of the area.

Mammals

A total of 30 mammal species belonging to 19 families were recorded during the study (approximately 28 percent of the mammal species found in Sri Lanka). This includes two endemic species - Macaca sinica (Sri Lanka toque monkey) and Moschiola meminna (Sri Lanka mouse-deer), as well as five domestic species - Canis familiaris (Domestic dog), Felis cattus (Domestic cat), Bos indicus (Domestic hump-backed cattle), Bubalus bubalis (Feral water buffalo) and Capra hircus (Domestic goat). Among the species recorded were three Endangered (EN) species - Prionailurus rubiginosus (Rusty-spotted cat), Prionailurus viverrinus (Fishing cat) and Elephas maximus (Elephant), two Vulnerable (VU) species – Pipistrellus coromandra (Indian pipistrel), and Lutra lutra (Otter) and three Near Threatened (NT) species - Manis crassicaudata (Pangolin), Felis chaus (Jungle cat) and Rusa unicolor (Sambur).

Elephants were extremely common in the forest and scrub habitats of the Sampur area. The absence of human habitation in the vicinity, the abundance of the fodder and water, and the space available for free roaming create ideal conditions for the elephant population of the area to thrive. Personal communications with local communities in the area revealed that the elephants occupy the area permanently. As such, further research is recommended to determine the population size and the migratory patterns (if any) of the elephants in the Sampur area, so as to avoid or mitigate human-elephant conflicts in the future.

Three bat species namely Hipposideros speoris (Schneider's leaf-nosed bat), Hipposideros ater (Bicoloured leaf-nosed bat) and Pipistrellus coromandra (Indian pipistrel) were abundant in the abandoned buildings found within the study area.

14

Direct and indirect evidence also indicated the presence of Felis chaus (Jungle cat), Prionailurus rubiginosus (Rusty-spotted cat) and Prionailurus viverrinus (Fishing cat) are present in the natural habitats of the study area.

15 7. SITES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTEREST

Trincomalee is one of the largest and safest natural harbours in the world, and has served as a great ancient port since BC. Its ancient name – Gokannatittha - refers to the fact that it is situated at the mouth of the Mahaweli River. According to the ancient cronical, the Mahawamnsa, Trincomalee was the port at which Prince Panduvasudeva and Princess Badrakachyanana landed in Sri Lanka in the fifth century BC. It is mentioned in the cronicals, that several monasteries, including the Therthaka temple and Gokanna Vihara - were situated near Gokanna. It is also mentioned that the God Skanda appeared, riding a peafowl, before Prince Manavamma, who sat near the mouth of the river in the neighbourhood of Gokanna (Nicholas, 1994). As such, it is evident that the area has immensely important, historically. Five sites of archaeological interest were recorded in the Sampur area. Artefacts found at these sites, including stone tools, copper slags, monastic ruins and fragments of pottery, are indicative of the fact that these sites were pre-historic sites and ancient temples. The artefacts found in three of these sites, such as black and red ware pottery and stupas with “chatra”, indicate that these sites belong to the early Anuradhapura period. It is recommended that extensive archaeological explorations are conducted prior to the commencement of any development activities in the area.

16 8. KEY OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

. Elephants are abundant in Sampur given the ideal conditions available for them in the area. As such, it is crucial that a detailed study is conducted to determine the population size and the migratory paths and patterns (if any) in the Sampur area, so as to avoid or mitigate human-elephant conflicts in the future. . Healthy freshwater wetlands in the area support several faunal species, including birds, fish and crocodiles. Therefore, the alteration and degradation of these wetlands can impact these species significantly. As such, these habitats and their biodiversity should be considered in any future development planning. . Through surveys of the wetland habitats Sampur are recommended in order to determine the species richness and diversity of fish found in the area. . Given that security concerns in the area have diminished following the conclusion of the civil conflict, the re-growth of vegetation in clearances alongside the roads of Sampur was observed. These roadside areas are now occupied by small shrubs, which support several butterfly species. The abundance of butterflies and other invertebrates in these areas attracts insectivore birds, enhancing the biodiversity found along the roadside. . The record of floral species, Cynometra iripa, in the Sampur area is noteworthy, as it is the first record of this species on the eastern coast of Sri Lanka, and the first record of the species outside its sole known location in the Puttalam Lagoon area. This species is classified as nationally Vulnerable (VU), and is very rare in Sri Lanka, although it is also found in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Northeast Australia, Papua New Guinea and eastern Indonesia. . Healthy undisturbed coastal forests support a number of threatened faunal species, and acts as a natural barrier to protect the interior regions of the Sampur area from salt spray and sea water intrusion. Therefore, the conservation of this coastal belt will, ultimately, benefit any development activities planned or implemented in the area. . Indirect evidence, including nesting sites and egg shells in the coastal areas of the eastern coastal belt, indicate the presence of turtles in the Sampur area, as well as the use of the beaches and coastal belt of Sampur as a nesting ground. Further research is necessary to determine the species present in the area, as well as to gain insights into the nesting behaviour the sea turtles found in the area, in order to ensure the conservation of these nationally, and globally, threatened species in the long-term. . The mangrove habitat at Illankantei is an important roosting site for wetland birds, including birds from areas outside the Sampur area. As such, it is important that this area is conserved, and that development activities in the area are avoided. . Given that a number of sites of archaeological importance are found in the Sampur area, it is recommended that extensive archaeological explorations are conducted prior to the commencement of development activities in the area.

17 9. REFERENCES

Amarasinghe, M.D. (1997) Ecological functions of mangrove and related ecosystems and their contribution to economic sustainability, Sri Lanka Journal of Aquatic Sciences, 2: 1-20.

Amarasinghe, M.D. (1988) Socio-economic status of human communities of selected mangrove areas on the west coast of Sri Lanka, UNESCO Occasional Papers, 3. 1-19.

Amarasinghe, M.D. (1986) Mangroves of Sri Lanka: Extent, distribution and resources. NARA/ Occasional Papers 86/01. 14-20.

Dassanayake, M.D. and Fossberg, F.R. (1980-2002) A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Vols. 1-9 edited by M.D. Dassanayake, F.R. Fossberg and W.D. Clayton; Vols. 10- 14 edited by M.D. Dassanayake and W.D. Clayton. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.

Das, I. and De Silva, A. (2005). Snakes and other Reptiles of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers, UK.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1953) A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Tetrapod Reptilia, Vol. 2. National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1955) A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Serpentoid Reptilia, Vol. 3. National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

De Silva, P.H.D.H. (1980) Snake fauna of Sri Lanka, with special reference to skull, dentition and venom in snakes. National Museums of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

De Silva, A. (1990) Colour guide to the snake fauna of Sri Lanka. R and A Publishing Ltd, Avon, England.

De Silva, A. (2006) Current status of the reptiles of Sri Lanka. In: Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (ed.): Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. IUCN Sri Lanka. 134–163.

De Silva, A. (2009) Photographic guide to the common amphibians of Sri Lanka. Published by the author.

Dutta, S.K. and Manamendra-Arachchi, K.N. (1996) The amphibian fauna of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Flueler. T. (1983) Man and Mangroves in Sri Lanka, Unpublished M.Sc thesis. 223pp.

MOE (2012) The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora. Ministry of Environment, Colombo, Sri Lanka. viii + 476pp

Ministry of Forestry and Environment (1999) Biodiversity conservation in Sri Lanka - a framework for action, Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Colombo.

18 Manamendra-Arachchi, K. and Pethiyagoda, R. (2006) Amphibians of Sri Lanka (text in sinhala), Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Nicholas, C.W. (1964) Historical Topography of Ancent and Medievel Ceylon. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Soceiety. New Series, 6(special number):232pp.

Pethiyagoda, R., Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Bahir, M.M. and Meegaskumbura, M. (2006) Sri Lanka amphibians: Diversity, Uniqueness and Conservation. In: Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (ed.): Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. IUCN Sri Lanka. 125-133.

Pethiyagoda, R., Meegaskumbura, M. and Maduwage, K. (2012) A synopsis of the South Asian fishes referred to Puntius (Pisces: Cyprinidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 69-95.

Somaweera, R. (2006) Snakes of Sri Lanka (text in sinhala), Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Somaweeera, R. and Somaweera, N. (2009) Lizards of Sri Lanka: A colour guide with field keys. Edition Chimaira, Serpent’s Tail publication.

Sutherland, W.J. (1996) Ecological Census Techniques: A Handbook. Cambridge University Press.

19 Annex 1: List of floral species recorded in the Sampur area

Bold – Endemic species; * - Exotic species; IAS – Invasive Alien Species

Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Acanthaceae Acanthus ilicifolius L. Indigenous Ikili(S) Asystasia gangetica (L.)T.Anders. Indigenous Puruk(S); Peypatchotti(T) Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham.) M.R. &S.N.Almeida Indigenous Neeramulliya, Katu-ikiliya(S) Agavaceae Agava amricana Indigenous Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Indigenous Gas-karal-heba,Wel-karal-sebo(S); Nayururi(T) Aerva lanata (L.)Juss. Ex Schult. Indigenous Polpala(S); Kanpuli(T) Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. Indigenous Mukunu-wenna(S); Ponankani(T) Amaranthus viridis L. Indigenous Kura-thampala(S) ; Araikkirai(T) Amaranthus lividus L. Indigenous Thampala(S) Gomphrena celosioides Mart.* Exotic Crinum asiaticum L. Indigenous Tolabo(S); Vichamunkil(T) Crinum defixum Ker-Gawl. Indigenous Heen-tolabo(S) Crinum zeylanicum (L.)L. Indigenous VU Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L.* Exotic Caju(S); Montin-kai(T); Cashew nut(E) Mangifera indica L.* Exotic Amba(S); Ma,Manga(T); Mango(E) Spondias pinnata(L.f.)Kurz Indigenous Amberella(S); Ampallai(T); Hog Plum(E) VU Annonaceae Annona muricata L* Exotic Katu-anoda(S); Sitha(T); Soursop(E) Polyalthia korinti(Dunal)Thw. Indigenous Ul-kenda, Mi-wenna(S); Uluvintai(T) Polyalthia longifolia (sonn.)Thw. Indigenous I-petta(S); Assathi(T) Apiaceae Centella asiatica (L.) Urban Indigenous Gotukola(S); Vallarai(T) Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L.* Exotic Kaneru(S); Alari(T); Oleander(E) Plumeria rubra L.* Exotic Araliya(S); Temple Tree, Frangipani(E)

20 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Tabernaemontana divaricata(L.)R.Br. ex. Roem & Schult.* Exotic Wathu-sudda(S); Nandi-battai(T); Grape jasmine(E) Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Merr.* Exotic Araceae Pistia stratiotes L.*IAS Exotic Diya-gowa, Diya-paradal(S); Water lettuce(E) Lasia spinosa (L.)Thw. Indigenous Kohila(S) Arecaceae Borassus flabellifer L.* Exotic Tal(S); Panai(T); Palmyrah(E) Cocos nucifera L. Indigenous Pol, Thambili(S); Tennai, Thengai(T); Coconut, King coconut (E) Phoenix pusilla Gaertn. Indigenous Indi(S); Inchu(T) Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantea (L.)R.Br. Indigenous Wara(S); Errukalai(T) Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.)Stapf Indigenous Anguna(S); Kodi-palai(T) Asteraceae Blumea obliqua (L.)Druce Indigenous Muda-mahana(S); Nara-karamba(T) Eclipta prostrata (L.)L. Indigenous Kikirindi(S); Kaikechi(T) Emilia sonchifolia (L.)DC. Indigenous Kadupara(S) Epaltes divaricata (L.)Cass. Indigenous Heen-muda-mahana(S) Eupatorium odoratum L.* IAS Exotic Podisingnomaran(S) Sphaeranthus africanus L. Indigenous Vel-mudda(S) Tridax procumbens L.* Exotic Kurunegala daisy(E) Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Indigenous Monarakudumbiya(S); Chitiviyarchenkalainir(T) Vernonia zeylanica (L.) Less. Endemic Pupula(S); Kuppailay(T) Xanthium indicum Koenig*IAS Exotic Uru kossa(S) Avicenniaceae Avicennia officinalis L. Indigenous Manda(S); Kanna(T); White mangrove(E) NT Azioaceae Sesuvium protulacestrum (L.)L. Indigenous Maha-sarana(S); Vankiruvilai(T) Azolla pinnata R.Br. Indigenous Basellaceae Basella alba L. Indigenous Nivithi(S) ; Pasalai(T) ; Spinach(E) EN Bignoniaceae Dolichandrone spathacea (L.f.) K.Schum. Indigenous Diyadanga(S); Vil-padri(T) NT Stereospermum colais (Dillwyn) Mabb. Indigenous Dunu-madala(S); Padri(T) Ceiba pentandra (L.)Gaertn. Indigenous Pulun-imbul(S); Silk cotton tree(E) 21 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Cordia dichotoma Forst.f. Indigenous Lolu(S); Naruvilli(T) Heliotropium indicum L. Indigenous Eth hoda, Dimi-biya(S); Tedkodukku(T) Cactaceae Opuntia monacantha Haw.* Exotic Katu-pathok(S); Naka kalli(T); Pricly Pear(E) Trichocereus pachanoi Britton & Rose* Exotic Capparaceae Crateva adansonii DC. Indigenous Lunu-warana(S); Navala(T) Caricaceae Carica papaya L.* Exotic Gas-labu, Papol(S); Pappali(T); Pawpaw(E) Caryophyllaceae Polycarpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam. Indigenous Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia L.* Exotic Kasa(S); Chavakku(T); Whistling pine(E) Celastraceae Cassine glauca (Rottb.)Kuntze Endemic Neralu(S); Perunpiyari(T) Pleurostylia opposita (Wall.)Alston Indigenous Panakka(S) ; Chiru piyari(T) Gloriosa superba L. Indigenous Niyagala(S) Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Indigenous Beriya(S); Tipparuthin(T) NT Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. Indigenous Kumbuk(S); Marutu(T) Terminalia catappa L.* Exotic Kottamba(S); Country almond(E) Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa Burm.f. Indigenous Gira-pala(S) Cyanotis obtusa (Trimen)Trimen Indigenous EN Murdannia spirata (L.)G.Bruckn. Indigenous Convolvulaceae Evolvulus alsinoides (L.)L. Indigenous Vishnu-kranthi(S); Vichnu-kiranti(T) Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Indigenous Kankun(S) Ipomoea batatas (L.)Lam.* Exotic Batala(S); Vel-kelengu(T); Sweet Potatao(E) Ipomoea pes-caprae(L.)R.Br. Indigenous Mubu-binthamburu(S) Merremia tridentata (L.)Hall.f. Indigenous Hawari-madu, Heen-madu(S); Mudiyakuntal(T) Cucurbitaceae Bennincasa hispida (Thunb.)Cogn.* Exotic Alupuhul(S); Puchini(T); Ash pumpkin(E) Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Indigenous Penikomadu(S); Peykkomaddi(T); Colocynth(E) VU Coccinia grandis (L.)J.Voigt Indigenous Kowakka(S); Kovvai(T); Ivy gourd(E) Cucumis melo L. var conomon Indigenous Heen kekiri(S); Metukku(T)

22 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Cucumis sativus L. Indigenous Pipinha(S); Cucumber(E) Cucurbita maxima Pang* Exotic Wattakka(S); Pumpkin gourd(E) Lagenaria siceraria(Molina)Standley* Exotic Diya-labu(S) ; Churai(T) ; Bottle gourd(E) Luffa acutangula (L.)Roxb.* Exotic Wetakolu(S); Peypichukka(T) Luffa cylindrica (L.)M.Roemer* Exotic Niyan wetakolu(S); Pikku(T) Momordica charantia L. Indigenous Batu-karavila(S); Pakal(T) Momordica dioica Roxb.ex Willd. Indigenous Thumbakarawila(S); Tumpai(T) Trichosanthes anguina L. Indigenous Pathola(S) ; Podivilangi(T) ; Snake gourd(E) Dilocyclos pelmatus Indigenous Cyperaceae Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.)Kunth ex Clarke Indigenous Uru-hiri(S) Cyperus rotundus L. Indigenous Kalanduru(S); Korai(T) Eleocharis dulcis (Burm.f.)Trin.ex Hensch. Indigenous Boru-pan(S) Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.)Vahl Indigenous Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea tomentosa Koenig ex Spreng. Indigenous Uyala(S) Dracaenaceae Sansevieria zeylanica (L.)Willd. Indigenous Niyada(S); Maral(T); Bow-string hemp(E) NT Ebenaceae Maba buxifolia (Rottb.)Juss. Indigenous Diospyros malabarica Indigenous Timbiri (S) Euphorbiaceae Acalypha lanceolata Willd. Indigenous Croton bonplandianus Baill.* Exotic Mal-miris(S); Kolinge(E) Cynometra iripa Indigenous Opulu(S); Upula(S); Attukaddupuli(T); Kadumpuli VU (T) Drypetes sepiaria (Wight & Arn.) Pax & Hoffm. Indigenous Wira(S); Virai(T) Euphorbia hirta L. Indigenous Bu-dada-kiriya(S); Palavi(T) Euphorbia rosea Retz. Indigenous Mudu-dada-kiriya(S) Euphorbia thymifolia L. Indigenous Bin-dada-kiriya(S); Chittirapalavi(T) Euphorbia tirucalli L.* Exotic Nawa-handi(S); Kalli(T); Milk hedge(E) Excoecaria agallocha L. Indigenous Tala-kiriya, Tela-kiriya, Tel-kiriya(S); Tilai(T)

23 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Mallotus philippensis (Lam.)Muell.Arg Indigenous Hampirilla(S); Kapila(E) Manihot esculenta Crantz.* Exotic Maiokka, Manyokka(S); Cassava, Manioc(E) Phyllanthus amarus Schum. Indigenous Pita-wakkka(S); Kikaunelli(T) Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Indigenous Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Indigenous Wel-kaila(S); Mipullanti(T) Phyllanthus urinaria L. Indigenous Rat-pitawakka(S); Kilkaynelli(T) Ricinus communis L.* Exotic Endaru(S); Chillamanakku, Chittamanakku(T); Castor oil(E) Sebastiania chamaelea (L.)Muell.Arg. Indigenous Rat-pitawakka(S) Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. Indigenous Olinda(S); Kundu-mani(T); Crab's eyes(E) Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth.* Exotic Earleaf acacia(E) Acacia sp. Indigenous Adenanthera pavonina L. Indigenous Madatiya(T); Anaikuntumani(T) Aeschynomene americana L.* Exotic Diyasiyambala(S); Thrnless mimosa(E) Aeschynomene indica L. Indigenous Diya-siyambala(S) Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.)DC. Indigenous Aswenna(S); Kuthiraivali(T) Arachis hypogaea L.* Exotic Ratakaju(S); Nella-kadalai(T); Earth nut(E) Atylosia scarabaecoides (L.)Benth. Indigenous Wal-kollu(S) Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Indigenous Maila(S); Atti(T) Bauhinia tomentosa L. Indigenous Kaha-pethan(S); Tiruvathi(T) Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.)Sw.* Exotic Monera-mal(S); Peacock flower(E) Cassia occidentalis L Indigenous Peni-tora(S); Ponnantakarai(T); Coffee-senna(E) Cassia tora L. Indigenous Peti-tora(S); Vaddutakarai(T) Crotalaria laburnifolia L. Indigenous Yak-beriya(S) Crotalaria pallida Ait. Indigenous Andanaheriya(S) Derris trifoliata Lour. Indigenous Kala-wel(S); Tilankoddi(T) Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.)DC. Indigenous Maha undu piyali(S)

24 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Desmodium triflorum (L.)DC. Indigenous Heen-undupiyali(S); Narankodi(T) Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.)Walp. Indigenous Wetahira,Kona(S); Kona(T) Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.)de Wit*IAS Exotic Ipil-ipil(S); Tangavai(T); Epil-ipil(E) Mimosa pudica L.* Exotic Nidi kumba(S); Tottal-vadi(T); Sensitive plant(E) Pongamia pinnata (L.)Pierre Indigenous Magul-karanda(S); Poona(T); Mullikulam tree(E) Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.)DC.* Exotic Dara-dambala(S); Winged bean(E) Sesbania gradiflora (L.)Poir.* Exotic Kathurumurnga(S); Ajatti(T) Tephrosia purpurea (L.)Pers. Indigenous Gam-pila(S); Kavilai(T) Tephrosia villosa (L.)Pers. Indigenous Bu-pila(S) Vigna marina (Burm.)Merr. Indigenous Karal-li-mi(S); Kodippayaru(T); Field bean(E) EN Vigna mungo (L.)Hepper* Exotic Mun(S); Ulundu(T); Black gram(E) Vigna unguiculata (L.)Walp.* Exotic Cowpea(S); Kodip-payam(T); Cowpea(E) Samanea sarmen Indigenous Tamarindus indica Indigenous Derris scandens Indigenous Falcourtiaceae Casearia zeylanica (Gaertn.)Thw. Indigenous Wal waraka(S); Kakkapalai(T) Gentianaceae Enicostema axillare(Lam.)Raynal Indigenous Vellakuru(T) Goodeniaceae Scaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl Indigenous Heen-takkada(S) NT Hippocrateaceae Salacia oblonga Wall. Ex Wight & Arn. Indigenous Himbutu(S); Chundan(T) EN Hydrocharitaceae Blyxa octandra (Roxb.)Planch. Ex Thw. Indigenous Diya hawariya(S) Hyppocratheaceae Salacia sp. Indigenous Lamiaceae Leonotis nepetiifolia(L.)R.Br. Indigenous Maha-yak-wanassa(S); Kasitumpai(T) Hyptis sp. * Exotic Leucas zeylanica (L.)R.Br. Indigenous Gata-tumba(S); Mudi-tumpai(T) Ocinum americanum L. Indigenous Heen-tala(S); Suvandu-tala(T) Ocinum sp. Indigenous

25 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Orthosiphon sp. Indigenous Lecythidaceae Berringtonia actangula (L.)Gaertn. Indigenous Ela-mudella(S); Adampu(T) Lemnaceae Lemna sp. Indigenous Linaceae Hugonia mystax L. Indigenous Bu-getiya(S); Motirakanni(S) Loganiaceae Strychnos nux-vomica L. Indigenous Goda-kaduru(S); Eddi(T); Nux Vomica(E) VU Strychnos potatorum L.f. Indigenous Ingini(S); Tetta(T); Clearing-nut(E) VU Strychnos sp. Indigenous Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.)Ethingsh Indigenous Pilila(S) Taxillus sp. Indigenous Lythraceae Lowsonia inermis L. Indigenous Marathondi(T); Camphire(E) Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench* Exotic Bandakka(S); Vandakkay(T); Lady's fingers(E) Hibiscus micranthus L.f. Indigenous Bebila(S); Perumaddi(T) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.* Exotic Sapaththu mal, Wada(S); Shoeflower(E) Hibiscus tiliaceus L. Indigenous Beli-patta(S); Artia,Nir-paratthi(T) Sida acuta Burm. f. Indigenous Gas-bevila(S) Sida cordata (Burm.f.)Borssum Waalkes Indigenous Bevila(S); Palampadu(T) Sida cordifolia L. Indigenous Wal-bavila(S); Chevakanpudu(T) Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa. Indigenous Suriya(S); Kavarachu, Puvarachu(T); Tulip tree(E) Abutilon indicum (L.)Sweet Indigenous Anoda(S); Peruntulli(T) Marsileaceae Marsilea minuta L. Indigenous Dwarf waterclover(E) Martyniaceae Martynia annua L.* Exotic Naga-darana(S); Naga-tali(T); Tigers' claws(E) Melastomataceae Memecylon umbellatum Burm.f. Indigenous Kora-kaha(S); Kaya(T); Blue mist(E) Memecylon sp. Indigenous Osbeckia sp. Indigenous Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Indigenous Kohomba(S); Vembu(T); Neem(E) Walsura trifoliolata (A.Juss.)Harms Indigenous Kirikon(S); Chadavakku(T)

26 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Melia azedarach L.s.l. Indigenous Kiri-kohomba(S); Malai-vembu(T); Bead tree(E) Cipadessa baccifer (Roth) Niq. Indigenous Hal-bembiya(S); Pulippan-cheddi(T) Menispermaceae Cassampelos pareira L. Indigenous Diya-mitta(S); Appatta(T) Cyclea peltata (Burm.f.)Hook.f.&Thoms. Indigenous Kehi-pittan(S); Vouthuvullykodi(T) Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.)Hook.f. &Thoms. Indigenous Rasa-kinda(S); Chintil(T) VU Tinospora sp. Indigenous Menyanthaceae Nymphoides indica (L.)Kuntze Indigenous Maha-ambala(S) Molluginaceae Mollugo pentaphylla L. Indigenous Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam* Exotic Kos(S); Pila(T); Jak(E) Ficus amplissima Smith Indigenous Ela-nuga(S); Kalatti(T) Ficus benghalensis L. Indigenous Mahanuga(S); Arla(T); Banyan(E) Ficus microcarpa L.f. Indigenous Ficus mollis Vahl Indigenous Wal-aralu(S) Streblus asper Lour. Indigenous Gata-netul(S); Patpirai(T); Crooked rough- bush(E) Ficus religiosa L.* Exotic Bo(S); Arachu(T); Sacred bo(E) Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam.* Exotic Murunga(S); Murungamaram(T); Horse radish tree(E) Musaceae Musa x.paradisiaca L.* Exotic Kesel(S); Bannana(E) Myrsinaceae Aegiceras corniculata (L.)Blanco Indigenous Heen-kadol(S); Vitlikanna(T) Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L.* Exotic Pera(S); Guava(E) Syzygium cumini Skeels Indigenous Madan, Maha-dan(S); Naval, Perunaval(T) Najadaceae Najas minor All. Indigenous VU Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Indigenous Nelum(S); Tamarai(T); Lotus(E) Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia diffusa L. Indigenous Pita-sudu-pala(S); Karichcharanai(T) Nyctaginaceae Pisonia grandis R.Br. Indigenous Wathabanga, Lechchakotta(S); Chandi(T); Lettuce tree(E) Nyctanthus arbor-tristis L.* Exotic Sepalika(S); Coral jasmine(E)

27 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Indigenous Manel(S); Water lily(T) VU Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Indigenous Olu(S); Water lily(E) Ochnaceae Gomphia serrata (Gaertn.)Kanis Indigenous Bo-kera(S); Katharai(T) Oleaceae Jasminum angustifolium (L.) Willd. Indigenous Wal-pichcha(S) Onagraceae Ludwigia hyssopifolia(G.Don)Exell Indigenous Ludwigia perennis L. Indigenous Ludwigia sp. Indigenous Ludwigia adscendens (L.)Hara Indigenous Beru-diyanilla(S) Orchidaceae Vanda tessellata (Roxb.)Lodd. Ex G.Don Indigenous Anuradhapura orchid(S) VU Vanda sp. Indigenous Habenaria sp. Indigenous Acampe sp. Indigenous Oxalidaceae Oxalis barrelieri L.* Exotic Pandanaceae Pandanus odoratissimus L.f. Indigenous Mudu-keyiya(S) Passifloraceae Passiflora suberosa L.* Exotic Delbatu(S) Passiflora foetida L.* Exotic Dal-batu(S) ; Kodimathulai(T) Pedaliaceae Pedalium murex L. Exotic Et-nerenhi(S) Sesamum prostratum Retz. Indigenous CR Sesamum indicum L.* Exotic Tel-tala(S); Ella(T); Gingelly(E) Periplocaceae Hemedesmus indicus (L.)R.Br. Indigenous Iramusu(S); Nannari(T) Poaceae Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers. Indigenous Ruha(S); Arugam-pillu(T); Bermuda grass(E) Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. Indigenous Bela-thana, Potu-tana(S) Echinochloa colona (L.)Link Indigenous Gira-tana(S); Adipul(T) Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.)Trin. Indigenous Heteropogon contortus (L.)Roem &Schult. Indigenous I-tana(S) Hygroryza aristata (Retz.)Nees Indigenous Go-jabba, Beru-tana(S) NT

28 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Imperata cylindrica (L.)Rausch*IAS Exotic Iluk(S); Varli-pillu(T) Ischaemum ciliare Retz. Indigenous Rat-tana(S) Leptochloa neesii (Thw.) Benth. Indigenous Oryza sativa L. Indigenous Wi(S); Paddy(E) Panicum repens L. Indigenous Etora(S); Inji-pul(T) Panicum sumatrense Roth ex Roem.&Schult* Exotic Heen-meneri(S); Shamai(T) Saccharum officinarum L.* Exotic Uk(S)Karumbu(T); Sugar-cane(E) Spinifex littoreus (Burm.f.)Merr. Indigenous Maha-rawana-ravula(S); Ravanan-meesai(T) Zea mays L.* Exotic Badairingu(S); Makka-cholam(T); Maize(E) Polygonaceae Persicaria attenuata (R.Br.)Sojak Indigenous Sudu-kimbul-wenna(S) Pontederiaceae Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.)Solms-Laub*IAS Exotic Japan-jabara(S); Water hyacinth(E) Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.)Presl Indigenous Diya-habarala(S) Monochoria hastata (L.)Solms-Laub. Indigenous Diya-habarala(S) NT Punicaceae Punica granatum L.* Exotic Delum(S); Madalai(T); Pomergranate(E) Rhamnaceae Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.)Kurz Indigenous Tudari(T) Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Indigenous Debera, Masan(S); Ilantai(T) Ventilago sp. Indigenous Yakada-wel(S); Vempadum(T) Ziziphus oenoplia (L.)Miller Indigenous Heen-eraminiya(S); Churai(T) Ziziphus xylopyros (Retz.)Willd. Indigenous Kakuru(S) ; Nari-ilantai(T) Ziziphus sp. Indigenous Rhizophoraceae Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lamk. Indigenous Mal-kadol(S); Mangrove(E) VU Rhizophora mucronata Poir. Indigenous Maha-kadol(S); Kandal(T); Mangrove(E) Rhizophora apiculata Blume Indigenous Maha-kadol(S); Kandal(T); Mangrove(E) NT Ceriops tagal (Perr.)C.B.Rob. Indigenous Pun-kanda(S); Chiru-kandal(T) NT Cassipourea ceylanica (Gardner)Alston Indigenous Pana(S); Kannu(T) Ruataceae Pleiopermium alatum (Wight & Arn.)Swingle Indigenous Tunpat-kurundu(S)

29 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Benkara malabarica (Lam.) Tirv. Indigenous Pudan(S) Canthium coromandelicum (Burm.f.)Alston. Indigenous Kara(S); Karai(T) Cantunaregam spinosa (Thunb.)Tirv.s.l. Indigenous Kukuruman(S); Karai(T) Mitracarpus hirtus (L.)DC.* Exotic Nauclea orientalis (L.)L. Indigenous Bakmi(S); Atuvangi(T) Oldenlandia umbellata L. Indigenous Saya(S); Chaya(T); Chay-root(E) Spermacoce hispida L. Indigenous Heen-gata-kola(S); Nattaichchuri(T) Spermacoce prostrata Aublet Indigenous EN Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze ex Schumann. Indigenous Tarana(S); Karanai(T) Ixora coccinea L. Indigenous Ratambala(S);Vedchi(T) Ixora pavetta Andr. Indigenous Maha ratambala(S); Kanmuttankirai(T) Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.)Korth. Indigenous Helamba(S); Chelampai(T) Morinda corea Buch.-Ham. Indigenous Ahu(S); Manchavanna(T) Morinda umbellata L. Indigenous Kiri-wel(S) Pavetta indica L. Indigenous Pavatta(S); Pavaddai(T) Aegle marmelos (L.)Correa* Exotic Beli(S); Vilvam(T); Bael Fruit(E) Atalantia ceylanica (Arn.) Oliver Indigenous Yakinaran(S)Pey-kuruntu(T) Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer)Swingle* Exotic Dehi(S)Desi-kai(T); True lime(E) Limonia acidissima L. Indigenous Divul, Diwul(S); Mayaladikkuruntu, Vila, Vilatti(T); Elephant-apple, Wood-apple(E) Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng Indigenous Karapincha(S); Karivempu(T); Curry-leaf(E) Chloroxylon swietenia DC. Indigenous Buruta(S); Muritai(T); Satinwood(E) VU Citrus aurantum L.* Exotic Ambul-dodam(S); Narankai(T); Sour orange(E) Citrus limon (L.)Burm.f.* Exotic Wal Dehi(S); Lemon(E) Citrus sinensis (L.)Osbeck* Exotic Pani-dodan(S); Sweet orange(E) Clausena dentata (Wild.)Roem. Indigenous Weda-pana(S) Glycosmis mauritiana (Lam.)Tanaka Indigenous Dodam-pana(S)

30 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Micromelum minutum (Forst.f.)Wight & Arn. Endemic Wal-karapincha(S); Kakaipalai(T) Murraya gleniei Thw.ex Oliver. Endemic NT Paramignya sp. Indigenous Toddalia asiatica (L.)Lam. Indigenous Kudu-miris(S); Kandai(T) Salvadoraceae Azima tetracantha Lam. Indigenous Ichanku(T) Salvadora persica L. Indigenous Maliththan(S); Uvay(T) NT Sapindaceae Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Indigenous Penela(S) Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Indigenous Eta-werella(S); Virali(T) Allophylus cobbe (L.)Rausch. Indigenous Kobbe(S); Amarai(T) Dimocarpus longan Lour. Indigenous Mora(S); Nurai(T) Filicium decipiens (Wight & Arn.)Thw. Indigenous Pehimbiya(S); Chitteraivempu(T) Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Redlk. Indigenous Dambu(S); Nekota(T) Lepisanthes senegalensis (Juss. Ex Poir.)Leenh. Indigenous Gal-kuma(S); Kal-kuma(T) Sapotaceae Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.)Dubard Indigenous Palu(S); Palai(T) VU Madhuca longifolia (L.)Macbride Indigenous Mi(S); Illupai(T); Mausey mi(E) NT Scorophulariaceae Bacopa monnieri (L.)Pennell Indigenous Lunu-wila(S) Scoparia dulcis L.* Exotic Wal-kottamalli(S) Lindernia sp. Indigenous Lindernia sp. Indigenous Limnophila sp. Indigenous Limnophila sp. Indigenous Dopatrium lobelioides (Retz.)Benth. Indigenous Dopatrium sp. Indigenous Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L.* Exotic Miris(E); Chilli(E) Lycopersicon esculentum Miller.* Exotic Takkali(S); Tomato(E) Solanum violaceum Ortega Indigenous Tibbatu(S)

31 Family Scientific name Species status Common name National conservation status (MOE, 2012) Solanum macrocarpon L.* Exotic Wam-batu(S) Datura metel L. Indigenous Attana(S); Venumattai(T) Sterculiaceae Heritiera littoralis Dryander Indigenous Etuna, Ho-mediriya(S); Chonmuntiri(S); Boat- NT shaped mangrove (E) Waltheria indica L. Indigenous Punnikki(T) Tiliaceae Berrya cordifolia (Willd.)Burret Indigenous Hal-milla(S); Chvandalai(T); Trincomalee wood(E) Grewia carpinifolia Juss. Indigenous Grewia helicterifolia Wall. Ex G.Don Indigenous Bora-damaniya(S); Taviddai(T) Muntingia calaburu L.* Exotic Jam(S); Jam tree(E) Grewia damine Gaertn. Indigenous Damaniya(S); Cadachi(T) Grewia orientalis L. Indigenous Wel-keliya(S); Taviddai(T) Typhaceae Typha angustifolia L.*IAS Exotic Hambu pan(S); Cat-tail(E) Ulmaceae Trema orientalis (L.) Blume Indigenous Gadumba(S); Charcole Tree(E) Verbenaceae Lantana camara L.*IAS Exotic Hinguru, Ganda-pana(S); Wild sage(E) Phyla nodiflora L. Indigenous Hiramana-datta(S); Podutalai(T); Button weed(E) Premna latifolia Roxb. Indigenous Dangra-seya, Maha-midi(S); Pachumullai(T) Tectona grandis L.f.* Exotic Thekka(S); Tekku(T); Teak(E) Vitex negundo L. Indigenous Nika(S); Nochchi(T); Chaste tree(E) Vitex trifolia L. Indigenous Sudu-nika(S); Nochchi(T); Beach vitex(E) NT Vitex leucoxylon L.f. Indigenous Ne-badda(S); Kardu-nochi(T) Vitex altissima L.f Indigenous Milla(S); Kaaddamanakku(T) NT Premna tomentosa Willd. Indigenous Boo-seru(S); Kolkutti(T) Gmelina asiatica L. Indigenous Gatt-demata(S); Kumil(T); Asiatic beechberry(T) Vitaceae Cayratia pedata (Lam.)Juss. Ex Gagnep. Indigenous Gerandi-dul-wel(S); Kattuppirandai(T) Cissus quadrangularis L. Indigenous Heeressa(S); Arugani(T) Vitis vinifera L.* Exotic Midi(S); Grapes(E) Cayratia sp. Indigenous 32 Annex 2: List of fauna species recorded in the Sampur area

Dragonflies

Scientific name English name SpS CoS Family - Coenagrionidae 1 Agriocnemis femina Whitebacked Wisp Indigenous CR 2 Agriocnemis pygmaea Wandering Wisp Indigenous LC 3 Ischnura senegalensis Common Bluetail Indigenous LC 4 Ceriagrion coromandelianum Yellow Waxtail Indigenous LC 5 Pseudagrion malabaricum Malabar Sprite Indigenous LC 6 Pseudagrion microcephalum Blue Sprite Indigenous LC Family - Aeshnidae 7 Anax indicus Elephant Emperor Indigenous LC Family - Libellulidae 8 Lathrecista asiatica Pruinosed Bloodtail Indigenous NT 9 Orthetrum sabina Green Skimmer Indigenous LC 10 Acisoma panorpoides Asian Pintail Indigenous LC 11 Brachythmis contaminata Asian Groundling Indigenous LC 12 Bradinopyga geminata Indian Rockdweller Indigenous LC 13 Crocothemis servilia Oriental Scarlet Indigenous LC 14 Diplacodes trivialis Blue Percher Indigenous LC 15 Indothemis carnatica Light tipped Demon Indigenous NT 16 Neurothemis intermedia Paddyfield Parasol Indigenous NT 17 Trithemis aurora Crimson Dropwing Indigenous LC 18 Pantala flavescens Wandering Glider Indigenous LC 19 Tramea limbata Sociable Glider Indigenous LC 20 Tholymis tillarga Foggy-winged Twister Indigenous LC

33 Butterflies

Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Papilionidae 1 Graphium agamemnon Green jay / Tailed jay Kola papilia Indigenous LC 2 Pachliopta aristolochiae Common rose Podu rosa papilia Indigenous LC 3 Pachliopta hector Crimson rose Maha rosa papilia Indigenous LC 4 Papilio crino Banded peacock Monara papilia Indigenous VU 5 Papilio demoleus Lime butterfly Kaha papilia Indigenous LC 6 Papilio polymnestor Blue mormon Maha nilaya Indigenous LC 7 Papilio polytes Common mormon Kalu papilia Indigenous LC Family - Pieridae 8 Appias albina Common albatross Podu sudana Indigenous LC 9 Appias galane Lesser albatross Kuda sudana Endemic LC 10 Belenois aurota Pioneer Thambiliwan sudana Indigenous LC 11 Catopsilia pomona Lemon emigrant Kaha piyasariya Indigenous LC 12 Catopsilia pyranthe Mottled emigrant Thith-piya piyasariya Indigenous LC 13 Cepora nerissa Common gull Podu Punduru-sudana Indigenous LC 14 Colotis amata Small salmon arab Punchi rosa sudana Indigenous LC 15 Colotis aurora Plain orange tip Podu tembiliwan sudana Indigenous VU 16 Delias eucharis Jezebel Podu Maha-sudda Indigenous LC 17 Eurema blanda Three-spot grass yellow Thun-thith kahakolaya Indigenous LC 18 Eurema brigitta Small grass yellow Punchi kahakolaya Indigenous LC 19 Eurema hecabe Common grass yellow Maha kahakolaya Indigenous LC 20 Hebomoia glaucippe Great orange tip Yoda sudana Indigenous LC 21 Pareronia ceylanica Blue wanderer Anduru nil piyasariya Indigenous LC Family - Nymphalidae 22 Acraea violae Tawny costor Thambily panduru-boraluwa Indigenous LC 23 Ariadne ariadne Angled castor Ruthu pathan-sariya Indigenous LC 24 Danaus chrysippus Plain tiger Podu koti-thambiliya Indigenous LC 25 Danaus genutia Common tiger Iri Koti-thambiliya Indigenous LC 26 Euploea core Common crow Podu kaka-kotithiyaya Indigenous LC 27 Hypolimnas bolina Great eggfly Maha alankarikya Indigenous LC 28 Hypolimnas misippus Danaid eggfly Kela Alankarikya Indigenous LC 34 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 29 Junonia almana Peacock pansy Monera alankarikya Indigenous LC 30 Junonia iphita Chocolate soldier Podu alankarikya Indigenous LC 31 Junonia lemonias Lemon pansy Dumburuwan alankarikya Indigenous LC 32 Parantica aglea Glassy tiger Suduwan nil-kotithiya Indigenous LC 33 Phalantha phantha Leopard Podu thith-thambiliya Indigenous LC 34 Tirumala limniace Blue tiger Podu nil-kotithiya Indigenous LC 35 Ypthima ceylonica White four-ring Podu heen-dumburuwa Indigenous LC Family - Lycaenidae 36 Azanus jesous African babul blue Apricanu neelaya Indigenous LC 37 Castalius rosimon Common pierrot Podu Mal-nilaya Indigenous LC 38 Chilades lajus Lime blue Podu Panu-nilaya Indigenous LC 39 Chilades putli Grass jewel Ran Thruna-nilaya Indigenous LC 40 Rapala iarbus Indian red flash Rathu Kiranaya Indigenous DD 41 Rapala manea Slate flash Anduru Kiranaya Indigenous LC 42 Tajuria jehana Plains blue royal Podu Raja-nilaya Indigenous CR 43 Zesius chrysomallus Redspot Rathu-thith gas-nilaya Indigenous LC 44 Zizina otis Lesser grass blue Podu Thruna-nilaya Indigenous LC Family - Hesperiidae 45 Coladenia indranii Tricolour pied flat Trivarana-kunchika Indigenous NT 46 Caprona ransonnettii Golden angle Ran-mulla Indigenous LC

Fish

Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Anguillidae 1 Anguilla bicolor Level finned eel Kalu aandha / Mada aandha Indigenous LC Family - Megalopidae 2 Megalops cyprinoides Tarpon Ilaya/ mareva/ Reanava brakish NE Family - Cyprinidae 3 Puntius vittatus Silver barb Bandi Titteya Indigenous LC 4 Rasbora microcephalus Carverii rasbora Caveri Randiya Indigenous LC 5 Systomus cf. sarana Olive barb Maspethiya Endemic? DD

35 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Bagridae 6 Mystus gulio Long-whiskered catfish Mana ankutta Indigenous LC Family - Siluridae 7 Wallago attu Shark catfish Walaya Indigenous EN Family - Heteropneustidae 8 Heteropneustes fossilis Stinging catfish Hunga Indigenous LC Family - Adrianichthyidae 9 Oryzias carnaticus Spotted ricefish Thith handaya Indigenous DD Family - Cichlidae 10 Oreochromis mosambicus Tilapia Tilapia/ Koraliya Exotic NE Family - Belontiidae 11 Trichogaster pectoralis Snake skin gourami Vel gurami Exotic NE Family - Anabantidae 12 Anabas testudineus Climbing perch Kavaiya / Pol kavaiya Indigenous LC Family - Hemiramphidaedae 13 Zenachopterus disper Harf beak Morella brakish NE Family - Mastacembelidae 14 Mastacembelus armetus Marbled spiny eel Gan theliya / Oya theliya Indigenous LC Family - Channidae 15 Channa ara Giant snakehead Gan ara Endemic EN 16 Channa striata Murrel Loola Indigenous LC

Amphibians

Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Bufonidae 1 Duttaphrynus melanostictus Common house toad Sulaba geai gemba Indigenous LC Family - Microhylidae 2 Kaloula taprobanica Common bull frog Visituru ratu madiya Indigenous LC 3 Microhyla ornata Ornate narrow mouth frog Visituru muwapatu madiya Indigenous LC Family - Dicroglossidae 4 Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Skipper frog Utpatana madiya Indigenous LC

36 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 5 Euphlyctis hexadactylus Sixtoe green frog SaEangili pala madiya Indigenous LC 6 Fejervarya shyadrensis Common paddy field frog Sulaba vel madiya Indigenous LC 7 Hoplobatrachus crassus Jerdon's bull frog Jerdonge hala madiya Indigenous LC 8 Sphaerotheca breviceps Banded sand frog Tunhiri vali madiya Indigenous LC

Reptiles

Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Crocodylidae 1 Crocodylus palustris Mugger crocodile / Marsh crocodile Hala kimbula Indigenous NT Family - Bataguridae 2 Melanochelys trijuga Parker's black turtle Parkerge gal ibba Indigenous LC Family - Cheloniidae 3 Caretta caretta Loggerhead sea turtle Olugedi kasbaeva Indigenous EN Family - Testudinidae 4 Geochelone elegans Indian star tortoise Mevara ibba/ Taraka ibba Indigenous NT Family - Trionychidae 5 Lissemys ceylonensis Flapshell turtle Kiri ibba Endemic LC Family - Agamidae 6 Calotes calotes Green garden lizard Pala katussa Indigenous LC 7 Calotes versicolor Common garden lizard Gara katussa Indigenous LC 8 Sitana ponticeriana Fanthroat lizard Pulina talikatussa Indigenous LC Family - Gekkonidae 9 Geckoella yakhuna Blotch bowfinger gecko Lapavan vakaniyahuna Endemic VU 10 Hemidactylus depressus Kandyan gecko Hali gehuna Endemic LC 11 Hemidactylus frenatus Common house-gecko Sulaba gehuna Indigenous LC 12 Hemidactylus lankae Termite hill gecko Humbas huna Endemic LC 13 Hemidactylus leschenaultii Bark gecko / Sycamore gecko Kimbul huna Indigenous LC 14 Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Spotted house gecko Pulli gehuna Indigenous LC Family - Scincidae 15 Eutropis carinata Common skink Sulaba hikanala Indigenous LC 16 Eutropis floweri Taylor's skink Taylorge hikanala Endemic EN

37 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 17 Eutropis macularia Bronzegreen little skink Pingu hikanala Indigenous LC Family - Varanidae 18 Varanus bengalensis Land monitor Talagoya Indigenous LC 19 Varanus salvator Water monitor Kabaragoya Indigenous LC Family Pythonidae 20 Python molurus Indian python Pimbura Indigenous LC Family - Colubridae 21 Chrysopelea taprobanica Striped flying snake Dangara danda Endemic LC 22 Dendrelaphis tristis front Spot bronze back Handa haldanda Indigenous LC 23 Oligodon arnensis Common kukri snake Arani dath ketiya Indigenous LC 24 Ptyas mucosa Rat snake Gerandiya. Indigenous LC Family - Natricidae 25 Xenochrophis cf. piscator Checkered keelback Diya bariya Endemic LC Family - Elapidae 26 Bungarus caeruleus Common krait Thel karawala Indigenous LC 27 Naja naja Indian cobra Naya Indigenous LC Family - Viperidae 28 Daboia russelii Russell’s viper Tith polonga. Indigenous LC 29 Echis carinatus Saw scale viper Vali polonga Indigenous VU

Birds

Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Phasianidae 1 Coturnix chinensis Blue Quail Nil Piriwatuwa BrR EN 2 Gallus lafayetii Sri Lanka Junglefowl Sri Lanka Wali-kukula Endemic LC 3 Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl Monora BrR LC Family - Anatidae 4 Dendrocygna javanica Lesser Whistling-duck Heen Thamba-seruwa BrR LC Family - Picidae 5 Dinopium benghalense Black-rumped Flameback Rath-karela BrR LC Family - Ramphastidae

38 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 6 Megalaima zeylanica Brown-headed Barbet Polos Kottoruwa BrR LC 7 Megalaima rubricapilla Crimson-fronted Barbet Rathmhunath Kottoruwa Pro:endemic LC 8 Megalaima haemacephala Coppersmith Barbet Rathlaye Kottoruwa BrR LC Family - Upupidae 9 Upupa epops Common Hoopoe Podu Poroluwa BrR LC Family - Coraciidae 10 Coracias benghalensis Indian Roller Dumbonna BrR LC Family - Alcedinidae 11 Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher Mal Pilihuduwa BrR LC 12 Pelargopsis capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher Manathudu Madi-pilihuduwa BrR LC 13 Halcyon smyrnensis White-throated Kingfisher Layasudu Madi-pilihuduwa BrR LC 14 Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher Gomara-pilihuduwa BrR LC Family - Meropidae 15 Merops orientalis Green Bee-eater Punchi Binguharaya BrR LC 16 Merops philippinus Blue-tailed Bee-eater Nilpenda Binguharaya BrRWV NE Family - Cuculidae 17 Clamator jacobinus Pied Cuckoo Gomara Kondakoha BrR LC 18 Surniculus lugubris Drongo Cuckoo Kawudukoha BrR NT 19 Eudynamys scolopacea Asian Koel Kowula BrR LC 20 Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal Ati-kukula BrR LC Family - Psittacidae 21 Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed Parakeet Rana Girawa BrR LC Family - Apodidae 22 Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift Asiaa Thal-thurithaya BrR LC Family - Hemiprocnidae 23 Hemiprocne coronata Crested Treeswift Silu Ruk-thurithaya BrR LC Family - Strigidae 24 Ketupa zeylonensis Brown Fish Owl Bora Kewul-bakamoona BrR LC Family - Caprimulgidae 25 Caprimulgus asiaticus Common Nightjar Indu Bimbassa BrR LC Family - Columbidae 26 Columba livia Rock Pigeon Podu Paraviya BrR LC 27 Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Dove Alu Kobeiyya BrR LC 39 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 28 Treron pompadora Pompadour Green-pigeon Pompadoru Batagoya Pro:endemic LC Family - Rallidae 29 Amaurornis phoenicurus White-breasted Waterhen Laya-sudu Korawakka BrR LC Family - Scolopacidae 30 Gallinago stenura Pintail Snipe Ulpenda Kaswatuwa WV NE 31 Gallinago gallinago Common Snipe Podu Kaswatuwa WV NE 32 Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit Kalu-penda Gohuduwiththa WV NE 33 Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew Eurasiya Kalikaya WV NE 34 Tringa totanus Common Redshank Podu Rathpa Silibilla WV NE 35 Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper Waguru Silibilla WV NE 36 Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank Podu Palapa Silibilla WV NE 37 Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper Podu Siliththa WV NE 38 Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone Rath Galperaliya WV NE 39 Calidris minuta Little Stint Punchi Hinna WV NE 40 Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper Kalika Hinna WV NE Family - Rostratulidae 41 Rostratula benghalensis Greater Painted-snipe Raja Ulu-kaswatuwa BrR VU Family - Jacanidae 42 Hydrophasianus chirurgus Pheasant-tailed Jacana Savul-penda Diyasaana BrR LC Family - Burhinidae 43 Burhinus oedicnemus Eurasian Thick-knee Golu-kiraluwa BrR LC Family - Recurvirostridae 44 Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt Kalupiya Ipalpawa BrR LC Family - Charadriidae 45 Pluvialis fulva Pacific Golden Plover Sethkara Ran Maha-oleviya WV NE 46 Charadrius dubius Little Ringed Plover Punchi Mala Oleviya BrR & WV VU 47 Charadrius alexandrinus Kentish Plover Kenti Oleviya BrR & WV VU 48 Charadrius leschenaultii Greater Sand Plover Raja Wali Oleviya WV NE 49 Vanellus malabaricus Yellow-wattled Lapwing Kaha-yatimal Kirella BrR LC 50 Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing Rath-yatimal Kirella BrR LC Family - Laridae 51 Sterna nilotica Gull-billed Tern Galuthudu Sayurulihiniya SU NE 52 Chlidonias hybrida Whiskered Tern Alupiya Kangul-lihiniya WV NE 40 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Accipitridae 53 Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite Bamunu Piyakussa BrR LC 54 Haliaeetus leucogaster White-bellied Sea-eagle Kusa-ali Muhudukussa BrR LC 55 Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus Grey-headed Fish-eagle Alu-his Masukussa BrR NT 56 Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle Silu Sarapakussa BrR LC 57 Accipiter badius Shikra Kurulugoya BrR LC 58 Spizaetus cirrhatus Changeable Hawk Eagle Perali Kondakussa BrR LC Family - Falconidae 59 Falco tinnunculus Common Kestrel Podu Ukusugoya BrR/UWV LC Family - Podicipedidae 60 Tachybaptus ruficollis Little Grebe Punchi Gembithuruwa BrR LC Family - Anhingidae 61 Anhinga melanogaster Oriental Darter Abikava BrR LC Family - Phalacrocoracidae 62 Phalacrocorax niger Little Cormorant Punchi Diyakava BrR LC Family - Ardeidae 63 Egretta garzetta Little Egret Punchi Anu-koka BrR LC 64 Ardea cinerea Grey Heron Alu Koka BrR LC 65 Ardea purpurea Purple Heron Karawal Koka BrR LC 66 Casmerodius albus Great Egret Sudu maha-koka BrR LC 67 Mesophoyx intermedia Intermediate Egret Sudu Madi-koka BrR LC 68 Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Geri-koka BrR LC 69 Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron Kana-koka BrR LC 70 Butorides striatus Straited Heron Pala-koka BrR LC 71 Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Night Heron Ra kana-koka BrR NT Family - Threskiornithidae 72 Threskiornis melanocephalus Black-headed Ibis Hisakalu Dakaththa BrR LC 73 Platalea leucorodia Eurasian Spoonbill Handialawa BrR LC Family - Pelecanidae 74 Pelecanus philippensis Spot-billed Pelican Thithhota Pasthuduwa BrR LC Family - Ciconiidae 75 Mycteria leucocephala Painted Stork Lathuwakiya BrR LC 41 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 76 Anastomus oscitans Asian Openbill Vivarathuduwa BrR LC 77 Ciconia episcopus Woolly-necked Stork Padili Manawa BrR NT 78 Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant Heen Bahuru-manawa BrR VU Family - Chloropseidae 79 Chloropsis jerdoni Blue-winged Leafbird Nilpiya Kolarisiya BrR LC Family - Laniidae 80 Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike Bora Sabariththa WV NE Family - Artamidae 81 Artamus fuscus Ashy Woodswallow Alu Wanalihiniya BrR LC Family - Oriolidae 82 Oriolus xanthornus Black-hooded Oriole Kahakurulla BrR LC Family - Dicruidae 83 Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo Kalu Kawuda BrR LC 84 Dicrurus caerulescens White-bellied Drongo Kawuda BrR LC Family - Rhipiduridae 85 Rhipidura aureola White-browed Fantail Bama-sudu Pawanpenda BrR LC Family - Monarchidae 86 Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Monarch Kalu-gelasi Radamara BrR LC 87 Terpsiphone paradisi Asian Paradise- flycathcher Asia Rahanmara BrR/WV LC Family - Corvidae 88 Corvus splendens House Crow Kolamba Kaputa BrR LC 89 Corvus levaillantii Large-billed Crow Kalu Kaputa BrR LC Family - Campephagidae 90 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus Small Minivet Punchi Miniviththa BrR LC Family - Aegithinidae 91 Aegithina tiphia Common Iora Podu Iorawa BrR LC Family - Muscicapidae 92 Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie Robin Polkichcha BrR LC 93 Copsychus malabaricus White-rumped Shama Wana Polkichcha BrR LC 94 Saxicoloides fulicata Indian Robin Indu Kalukichcha BrR LC Family - Sturnidae 95 Sturnus pagodarum Brahminy Starling Bamunu Sharikawa WVa NE

42 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 96 Pastor roseus Rosy Starling Rosa Sharikawa WV NE 97 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna Mayna BrB LC Family - Hirundinidae 98 Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Atu Wahilihiniya WV NE 99 Hirundo smithii Wire-tailed Swallow Kurupenda Wahilihiniya WVa NE Family - Pycnonotidae 100 Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented Bulbul Kondaya BrR LC 101 Pycnonotus luteolus White-browed Bulbul Bamasudu Kondaya BrR LC Family - Cisticolidae 102 Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola Iri Pawansariya BrR LC 103 Prinia hodgsonii Grey-breasted Prinia Grey-breasted Prinia BrR LC 104 Prinia socialis Ashy Prinia Alu Priniya BrR LC 105 Prinia inornata Plain Prinia Sarala Priniya BrR LC Family - Sylviidae 106 Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird Battichcha BrR LC Family - Timalidae 107 Pellorneum fuscocapillum Sri Lanka Brown-capped Babbler Sri Lanka Boraga-demalichcha Endemic LC 108 Rhopocichla atriceps Dark-fronted Babbler Wathanduru Panduru-demalichcha BrR LC 109 Turdoides affinis Yellow-billed Babbler Demalichcha BrR LC Family - Alaudidae 110 Mirafra affinis Rufous-winged Bushlark Rathpiya Akul-thulikawa BrR LC 111 Eremopterix grisea Ashy-crowned Sparrow Lark Kirulalu Gekurulu-thulikawa BrR LC Family - Dicaeidae 112 Dicaeum erythrorhynchos Pale-billed Flowerpecker Lathudu Pililichcha BrR LC Family - Nectariniidae 113 Nectarina zeylonica Purple-rumped Sunbird Nithamba Dam Sutikka BrR LC 114 Nectarina asiatica Purple Sunbird Dam Sutikka BrR LC 115 Nectarina lotenia Loten’s Sunbird Lotenge Sutikka BrR LC Family - Passeridae 116 Passer domesticus House Sparrow Gekurulla BrR LC Family - Motacillidae 117 Dendronanthus indicus Forest Wagtail Wana-halapenda WV NE 118 Motacilla flava Yellow Wagtail Kaha Halapenda WV NE 43 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS 119 Anthus rufulus Paddyfield Pipit Keth Varatichcha BrR LC Family - Ploceidae 120 Ploceus philippinus Baya Weaver Ruk Wadukurulla BrR LC Family - Estrididae 121 Lonchura malabarica Silverbill Sarala Weekurulla BrR VU 122 Lonchura striata White-rumped Munia Nithamba Sudu Weekurulla BrR LC 123 Lonchura punctulata Scaly-breasted Munia Laya Kayuru Weekurulla BrR LC 124 Lonchura malacca Black-headed Munia Hisakalu Weekurulla BrR LC

Mammals

Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS Family - Manidae 1 Manis crassicaudata Pangolin Kaballewa Indigenous NT Family - Hipposideridae 2 Hipposideros ater Bicolored leaf-nosed bat Depata Pathnehe-vavula Indigenous LC 3 Hipposideros speoris Schneider's leaf-nosed bat Kesketi Pathnehe-vavula Indigenous LC Family - Pteropodidae 4 Pteropus giganteus Flying fox Ma-vavula Indigenous LC Family - Vespertillionidae 5 Pipistrellus coromandra Indian pipistrel Indu Koseta-vavula Indigenous VU Family - Cercopithecidae 6 Macaca sinica Sri Lanka toque monkey Sri Lanka Rilawa Endemic LC 7 Semnopithecus priam Grey langur Eli-wdura Indigenous LC Family - Canidae 8 Canis aureus Jackal Nariya / Hiwala Indigenous LC 9 Canis familiaris Domestic dog Balla Domestic NE Family - Felidae 10 Felis chaus Jungle cat Wal Balala Indigenous NT 11 Felis cattus Domestic cat Balala/ Pusa Domestic NE 12 Prionailurus rubiginosus Rusty-spotted cat Kola Diviya / Balal Diviya Indigenous EN 13 Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat Handun Diviya Indigenous EN

44 Scientific name English name Sinhala name SpS CoS

Family - Herpestidae 14 Herpestes edwardsii Grey mongoose Alu Mugatiya Indigenous LC Family - Mustelidae 15 Lutra lutra Otter Diya-balla Indigenous VU Family - Viverridae 16 Paradoxurus hermaphoditus Palm civet Uguduwa Indigenous LC 17 Viverricula indica Ring-tailed civet Urulewa Indigenous LC Family - Elephantidae 18 Elephas maximus Elephant Etha / Aliya Indigenous EN Family - Bovidae 19 Bubalus bubalis Feral water buffalo Kulu Haraka / Wal Meema Indigenous NE 20 Bos indicus Domestic hump-backed cattle Sinhala Elaharaka/ Batu Haraka Feral/ domestic NE 21 Capra hircus Domestic goat Eluva Domestic NE Family - Cervidae 22 Axis axis Spotted deer Tith Muwa Indigenous LC 23 Rusa unicolor Sambur Gõna Indigenous NT Family - Suidae 24 Sus scrofa Wild boar Wal Ura Indigenous LC Family - Tragulidae 25 Moschiola meminna Sri Lanka mouse-deer Sri Lanka Meminna Endemic LC Family - Hystricidae 26 Hystrix indica Porcupine Ittewa Indigenous LC Family - Muridae 27 Mus booduga Field mouse Wel Heen-miya Indigenous LC Family - Sciuridae 28 Funambulus palmarum Palm squirrel Leena Indigenous LC 29 Ratufa macroura Giant squirrel Dandu-leena Indigenous LC Family - Leporidae 30 Lepus nigricollis Black-naped hare Wal Hawa Indigenous LC

45 Annex 3: Photo-catalogue of the Sampur area

Figure 6: Vimukthi Weeratunga All other images: Sampath Goonatilake @ IUCN

Figure 1. A sandy beach and coastal vegetation. Figure 2. A rocky beach near Foul Point.

Fig 03. Mangrove habitats south of Foul Point. Figure 4. A small “ordaya” with mangrove vegetation.

Figure 5. A man-made tank. Figure 6. Aquatic vegetation and Dendrocygna javanica (Lesser whistling ducks) in a tank habitat.

46 Figure 7. Coastal vegetation dominant with Spinifex Figure 8. A broad sandy beach near Foul Point on the littoreus (Maharavana ravula). eastern side of the study area.

Figure 9. Open grasslands. Figure 10. Open grasslands with Andara trees.

Figure 11. Timbiri fruits (Diospyros malabarica). Figure 12. Ingini (Strychnos potatorum), a medicinal plant.

47 Figure 13. Kelani tissa (Tecoma stans), an ornamental plant Figure 14. Ranavara (Senna auriculata), a medicinal plant.

Figure 15. Katu anndara (Dichrostachys cinera). Figure 16. Wara (Calotropis gigantea).

Figure 17. Eth olu plant (Nymphaea pubescens). Figure 18. Giant ambulla (Limnophila aquatic).

48 Figure 19. Sociable glider (Tramea limbata). Figure 20. Oriental scarlet (Crocothemis servilia).

Figure 21. Asian groundling (Brachythmis contaminata). Figure 22. Indian rockdweller (Bradinopyga geminata).

Figure 23. Golden angle (Caprona ransonnettii). Figure 24. African babul blue (Azanus jesous).

49

Figure 25. Common pierrot (Castalius rosimon). Figure 26. Small grass yellow (Eurema brigitta).

Figure 27. Redspot (Zesius chrysomallus). Figure 28. Lime blue (Chilades lajus).

Figure 29. Leopard (Phalantha phantha). Figure 30. White four-ring (Ypthima ceylonica).

50 Figure 31. A long-horned beetle. Figure 32. A whip scorpion (Thelyphonus indicus).

Figure 33. Tarpon (Megalops cyprinoides). Figure 34. Ornate narrow mouth frog (Microhyla ornate).

Figure 35. Indian star tortoise (Geochelone elegans). Figure 36. Common kukri snake (Oligodon arnensis).

51 Figure 37. Fanthroat lizard (Sitana ponticeriana) Figure 38. Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops philippinus).

Figure 39. Brahminy starling (Sturnus pagodarum). Figure 40. Brahminy kite (Haliastur indus).

Figure 41. Bicoloured leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros ater). Figure 42. Schneider's leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros speoris).

52 Figure 43. Jackal (Canis aureus). Figure 44. Feral water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

Figure 45. Grey langur (Semnopithecus priam). Figure 46. Ruined Buddhist stupa destroyed by treasure hunters.

Figure 47. Ancient settlement sites with black and red ware Figure 48. Ancient settlement near Ilankanthei lagoon site pottery fragments. with black and red ware pottery fragments.

53

Figure 49. Buddhist monastic site, with Chatragala Figure 50. A foundation stone. belonging to a stupa.

Figure 51. Foul Point lighthouse, which is characteristic of Figure 52. Fragments of bricks belonging to a destroyed Sampur. Buddhist stupa.

54

IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature

IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature was founded in 1948. IUCN helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. It supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the world and brings governments, non-government organizations, United Nations agencies, companies and local communities together to develop and implement policy, laws and best practice.

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