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Crustal Spreading in Iceland the Dilemma Between Spreading Rate and Rock Age

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Crustal Spreading in Iceland the Dilemma Between Spreading Rate and Rock Age 109 Crustal spreading in Iceland The dilemma between spreading rate and rock age Árni Hjartarson Geological Museum, Øster Voldgade 5-7, DK-1350 Copenhagen K and ISOR, Iceland GeoSurvey, Grensásvegur 9, IS-108 Reykjavík Abstract Iceland is spreading towards the east and the west, away from rifting axes that transect the country. Consequently the oldest rocks, which date from roughly 14 million years BP, are found on the east and west coasts, 480 km apart. This indicates a spreading rate of 3.4 cm/yr, which differs widely from the generally accepted North Atlantic spreading rate of 1.8 cm/yr. A spreading model for North Iceland is presented, and several example calculations of the spreading rate are shown. They all give similar results. Trajectory calculations of the oldest rocks in East and West Iceland, from their origin near the rift axis to their present locations, yield spreading rates of 3.5 cm/yr and 3.4 cm/yr, respectively, the drift of Anomaly 5 towards the east gives 3.5 cm/yr, and the spreading of the Plio-Pleistocene belt in Northern Iceland indicates 3.5 cm/yr. Other examples give similar values, even for historical time. Although the spreading is strikingly uniform along a reference line from east to west, it varies considerably from north to south, reaching a maximum at the centre of the Iceland hot spot, where the spreading rate may exceed 6 cm/yr. The excess spreading decreases gradually along the rift axes, and reaches the normal value of 1.8 cm/yr some 300-400 km from the centre of the hot spot. The given examples of excess spreading rate are strikingly similar in spite of the different time intervals and types of formations. They seem to evince a steady and long-lasting geological process that has been operating during the last 15 Ma of the geological history of Iceland. Introduction During an expeditions to the central highlands west of Vatnajökull glacier in 1924 and 1927, Danish geologist Niels Nielsen observed firsthand the extended volcanic structures and crater rows that dominate the landscape there. Inspired by Wegener's ideas about continental drift, Nielsen proposed that Iceland was being split apart by tensional forces on a regional scale, giving rise to the fissural volcanism and associated linear tectonics that characterize the country (Nielsen 1933). His hypothesis was rejected at the time and remained out of favour for decades, only to reappear in the 1960's within the context of plate tectonics. Since then, it has been widely accepted that Iceland is spreading apart. * In: Árni Hjartarson, 2003. The Skagafjörður Unconformity, North Iceland, and its Geological History. Geological Museum, University of Copenhagen. PhD thesis, 248 pp. 110 The first estimates of the rate of crustal spreading in the Iceland region appeared in a landmark paper by Tuzo Wilson (1963). Since 1966 the spreading rate has been considered to be in the range of 1.6-2.0 cm/yr (Vine 1966). This value was originally determined from the spacing of magnetic anomalies adjacent to the ocean ridges to the north and south of the island, and from radiometric dating. More recently, satellite methods based on the Global Positioning System (GPS) have been used to measure directly the spreading rate and its variations (Sigmundsson et al. 1995, Sella et al. 2002). The magnitudes and directions of the spreading vectors vary slightly from northern Iceland to the southern part of the country, averaging 1.8 cm/yr in the direction N105°E (DeMets et al. 1990, Guðmundsson 2000). Iceland is a volcanic island positioned astride the North Atlantic Mid-Ocean Ridge. It is almost entirely built up of eruptive materials, which originate mainly in the volcanic belts that extend across the country from the southwest to the north. These materials drift in opposite directions, away from the volcanic zone. The oldest rocks are accordingly found at the eastern and northwestern extremities of the 480 km wide island. Radiometric determinations, paleomagnetic investigations, and indirect geological estimates have revealed that the oldest surface rocks date from the mid- Miocene. They are around 15 million years old in Northwest Iceland (Hardarson et al. 1997) and 13 million years old in the Gerpir promontory on the eastern coast (Moorbath et al. 1968, Ross and Musset 1976, Watkins and Walker 1977, Hardarson et al. 1997). Fig. 1. Map of Iceland displaying the current rift axis, the extinct Snæfellsnes - Húnaflói rift axis, the neovolcanic zones, the Iceland hot spot, Tóarfjall and Gerpir and the reference line between them, the Jökuldalur sequence, and finally the alignment of Anomaly 5. 111 These figures immediately present a problem. If we divide the width of the island (480 km) by the average of the rock ages in the northwest and the east (14 Ma), we obtain the spreading rate 34.3 km/Ma or 3.4 cm/yr. This does not agree with the generally accepted spreading rate of 1.8 cm/yr. If the age is accurate, Iceland would seem too large. If the spreading rate is correct, Iceland would appear too young. That the crustal spreading rate appears to be higher on land in Iceland than offshore has been pointed out and discussed previously. Walker (1975, 1976) noted that the aggregate width of the active volcanic zones is greater in South Iceland than in the northern part of the country. Assuming this width to represent the total extent of spreading, he inferred that the spreading rate in South Iceland might be several times higher than in North Iceland and on the adjacent mid-ocean ridges. Searle (1976) voiced what he called "a serious objection to this idea." Such excess spreading would result in either a zone of plate consumption or in major compressive deformation of at least one of the lithospheric plates. Neither has been observed. Pálmason (1981) regarded the inconsistency between spreading and rock ages as an unsolved problem in Icelandic geology. Helgason (1985) discussed the “excess width” of the country and tried to solve the problem by suggesting complex interactive ridge jumps. Bott (1985) on the other hand tried to resolve the matter in his reconstruction of the tectonic evolution of the Icelandic transverse ridge by assuming that ancient crust were hidden somewhere below the surface. Rift jumps The geology and tectonics of Iceland may be explained as a complex interaction between the North Atlantic Mid-Ocean Ridge and the Iceland Plume. While the North Atlantic is spreading symmetrically away from the mid-ocean ridge, the ridge itself is drifting slowly to the northwest with respect to the plume. Table 1. Rift zones and rift jumps Rift zone Time of formation Reference Ma Northwest Iceland rift zone 24 Hardarson et al. 1997 Snæfellsnes – Húnaflói rift zone 15 Hardarson et al. 1997 North Iceland rift zone 6 – 7 Sæmundsson 1979 Reykjanes rift zone 6 – 7 Sæmundsson 1979 Eastern rift zone 2 – 3 Sæmundsson 1979 Skagafjörður rift zone 1.5 Article 4 in this thesis As the ridge migrates over the plume, it repeatedly shifts its spreading axis in a process referred to as rift jumping. Several jumps have been identified in the geological history of Iceland (Table 1), but for the purposes of the following discussion only two jumps and two rift zones need to be considered, the Snæfellsnes - Húnaflói rift zone and the North Iceland rift zone. The former zone was established in the Snæfellsnes - Húnaflói region after a rift jump 15 million years ago. It remained active for 8-10 million years, but 6-7 millions years ago another jump gave rise to the North Iceland zone (Sæmundsson 1974, 1979, Johannesson 1980, Hardarson et al. 1997, Kristjánsson and Jónsson 1998). 112 A rift jump is not a sudden event. The transfer of the rifting activity from the Snæfellsnes - Húnaflói zone to the North Iceland zone here is suggested to have taken ca. 2 million years. Two volcanic zones were simultaneously active in North Iceland during this transition period, mirroring the present-day situation of South Iceland. The old Miocene eruptive rocks in West and East Iceland mostly originate in the extinct Snæfellsnes-Húnaflói zone, but the Plio-Pleistocene and Holocene lavas were erupted in the still active volcanic zone (Sæmundsson 1979). Garcia et al. (2003) state that a paleo-rift, located some 60 km east of the Snæfellsnes- Húnaflói rift zone, was active in the Skagafjörður region between 8.1 – 2.9 Ma. They consider that the Snæfellsnes-Húnaflói zone was only a short-lived spreading centre, if it existed at all. Their suggestion is based on new Ar/Ar dates of dykes, but most age determinations in the Neogene and early Pleistocene regions of Iceland have been made on lavas or hyaloclastite formations. Garcia et al. suggest that when a study focuses on spreading rates and rift jumps, dates from dykes are more reliable than dates from lavas because the lavas might have flowed tens of km from their magmatic sources. By using dykes however, they lose all stratigraphical control, which is a Shortcoming of their method. Another weakness of their work is that their alternative spreading model contradicts the main patterns in the general stratigraphy of the country (Jóhannesson and Sæmundsson 1998a) and the paleomagnetic time scale for North Iceland (Sæmundsson et al. 1980, Kristjánsson et al. 1992). Moreover they do not account sufficiently for the possibility that dykes can be injected into the crust outside the volcanic zones (Walker 1974, Jancin et al 1985). This possibility reduces the reliability of the dataset they use in the spreading discussion. However, it is interesting to see very young dates (< 2 Ma) on dykes in the Skagafjörður region.
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