Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 3 Issue 3 Fall 2013 http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252

Individualism- and Cultural Dimensions: How Each Influences Parental Disciplinary Methods

Karen Walker Schwab University of the Incarnate Word

Abstract

This paper is a literature review using the Douglas-Widavasky Grid/Group theory as a framework to examine, from a cross cultural perspective, preferred parental disciplinary methods. The four rival defined in the Grid/Group theory mirror the cultural dimensions of -collectivism and power distance described by . Each of these rival cultures has distinct parenting styles, including disciplinary methods. When trying to predict a preferred disciplinary method based on a parent’s country of origin, knowing the country’s score under Hofstede’s dimensions allows easier assignment to one of the four cultures in the Grid/Group theory. Once assigned to one of the Grid/Group’s four cultures, the preferred disciplinary method can be easily identified. For this review, the Global Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness (GLOBE) study’s ten societal clusters were used as a starting point to identify countries with similar individualism-collectivism and power distance rankings. Findings of this review reinforce the proposed approach. However, the review is limited by the small number of studies focusing specifically on disciplinary methods. Most examine parenting style and do not take into account “modernized” disciplinary methods secondary to immigration.

Keywords: Child abuse, parenting, cross-cultural, child, child maltreatment, multi- cultural, parenting, and discipline.

The United Nations Convention of the the child” (Convention on the Rights of Rights of the Child (CRC) in 1990 ratified Children, 1990, pg 1). and put into action one of the primary C. Henry Kempe (1982) maintains a documents used world-wide to protect the basic element in any is the use of rights of children and families. In the specific parenting practices to teach children document, fifty-four articles outline child, cultural values. Furthermore, parenting parent and family rights. The preamble of practices also serve to develop traits in the this document also emphasizes “taking due children considered valuable by others account of the importance of the traditions living in the same . In contrast, and cultural values of each people for the disciplinary methods are used as a means to protection and harmonious development of discourage behaviors not valued in the child’s society. These methods are deeply Parental Disciplinary Methods Schwab rooted in culture and are not easily changed allows cultures with similar values to be even if shown to be ineffective or as having grouped together. However, countries detrimental outcomes (Westby, 2007; Giles- sharing similar cultural dimensions do not Sims, 2005). necessarily discipline children the same Professionals working with children in way. The purpose of this paper is to explore the fields of health care, social services and literature discussing cross-cultural education are dealing more often with cross- disciplinary methods and how cultural cultural issues in child development (Jenni dimensions influence which methods are & O’Connor, 2005). The European Union preferred by parents. has globalized Europe and opened borders allowing people to move easily into new Search Strategies countries (Festini et al, 2009). Though Database EBSCO host and Med-Line immigration has increased into Europe, the were searched using key words such as child continues to be the most maltreatment, child abuse, parenting, cross- common destination of immigrants cultural, multi-cultural, discipline, and child. (Lejeune-Kaba, 2010). Several websites were accessed for Immigrant parents have the right to use statistical data and definitions. Journal disciplinary methods common to their articles, reports, commentaries, and books culture. However, professionals must be were reviewed. The majority of these were able to recognize and judge when a published within the past ten years. These disciplinary method is actually child search strategies identified numerous studies maltreatment. When training is lacking, discussing parenting methods of immigrants professionals will rely on their own cultural in the United States and a moderate number values to make judgments (Jenni & of studies discussing cross-cultural parenting O’Connor, 2005). These ethnocentric styles. Few studies discuss cross-cultural judgments on the part of professionals can disciplinary methods. Of those discussing lead to mistaken referrals to child protective the topic, fewer related the influence cultural services. Though the professional’s intention dimensions have on the parent’s preferred may be to protect the child, a false allegation disciplinary methods. Finally there is no of abuse can inflict substantial harm consistent theoretical framework among (Westby, 2007). Just as well, professionals studies (Stevenson-Hinde, 1998). with a poor understanding of culturally accepted disciplinary methods may fail to Theoretical Considerations report child maltreatment. At times, a One theory bringing a better harmful act may be rationalized by understanding of cultural dimension’s professionals as tolerable since it is thought influences on parental disciplinary methods to be a necessary part of the child’s culture is the Grid/Group theory (Westby, 2007). (Kempe, 1982). The Douglas-Wildavasky Grid/Group theory These reporting errors to child protective describes hierarchical, egalitarian, services can be avoided with a better individualistic, and fatalistic cultures. These understanding of cross-cultural disciplinary four cultures are rival cultures. Each is methods. It is a daunting task to understand thought to have distinct and contrasting thoroughly all disciplinary methods from all concepts of parenting and disciplinary cultures. An alternative solution is to methods. These distinctions are said to consider which cultural dimension the explain why different disciplinary methods child’s home country falls under. Doing so

2 Parental Disciplinary Methods Schwab are used across cultures (Giles-Sims & 2010). For this literature review, these Lockhardt, 2005). clusters will be a starting point for Relying on patterns of socialization and identifying countries with similar interactions, two dimensions are used to individualism-collectivism and power measure each culture. The first dimension is distance rankings. Grid. Grid is high when societal roles are ranked strongly along gender, color, lineage, Body of Review and age. When the same roles are based on Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican abilities, skills, and qualifications, the Grid Republic are a few countries from the is low. The second dimension is Group. GLOBE’s Latin American cluster. These Group strength is strong when there is countries have in common a high power strong commitment to a group and low when distance index and low individualism index an individualistic approach is preferred score per Hofstede (Geert Hofstede Cultural (Westby, 2007). The two dimensions Dimensions, 2009). These scores match the combine into four life styles: low-grid/low- Grid/Group Hierarchical culture. This group (individualistic); low-grid/high-group culture’s parenting style is the most common (egalitarian); high-grid/high-group among countries reviewed. Parent’s in this (hierarchical); and high-grid/low-group culture tend to be authoritarian; use corporal (fatalistic). The life style in each of these punishment; and are concerned with groupings is different including parenting teaching children to follow a specific set of style and preferred disciplinary methods. standards (Westby, 2007). A child’s opinion The Grid/Group dimensions mirror the is not invited and unquestioned obedience is cultural dimensions of individualism- expected (Calzada, 2010). collectivism and power distance described Research findings do not fully support by Geert Hofstede (Geert Hofstede Cultural this description. A recently published study Dimensions, 2008). Grid is similar to power of Mexican and Dominican immigrants to distance and Group is similar to the United States does support a preference individualism-collectivism. Hofstede was for authoritarian parenting and spanking as a able to form empirical profiles of countries necessary means to reinforce obedience. by studying cultural dimensions, including This is in part due to their primary goal of the two dimensions mentioned previously. teaching respect, also called Respeto When trying to predict a preferred (Calzada, 2010). It is important to note the disciplinary method, first knowing how the subjects were immigrants. Another study parent’s home country scored in the reported no differences in authoritarian Hofstede’s dimensions of individualism- parenting style between non-immigrant collectivism and power distance may allow Mexican and Caucasian parents. In the same easier assignment to one of the four rival study, Mexican immigrant parents used cultures described in the Grid/Group theory. authoritative parenting practices more often. The Global Leadership and The study’s authors suggest ethnic minority Organizational Effectiveness (GLOBE) status, not affiliation with Mexican culture, study using nine cultural dimensions influences parenting style (Varela et al, (including individualism-collectivism and 2004). Furthermore, focus groups from power distance) defined ten societal clusters. Puerto Rico and the Dominicans felt Each cluster included several countries parental controls must be reasonable and sharing similar languages, religion, explanations should be provided to older geography, and history (Gannon & Pillai, children. The mothers felt this approach was

3 Parental Disciplinary Methods Schwab better than just giving orders (Guilamo- 2008). Japanese mothers, however, feel less Ramos et al, 2007). satisfied with their parenting skill. If a child Countries in the Confucian Asian cluster fails to develop correctly, the mother’s effort have low individualism and high power is questioned. This is thought to be the distance index scores. South Korea, , reason contemporary Japanese mothers do and are part of this cluster. Japan’s not indulge their children even if the mother individualism index score is notably highest desired to do so (Bornstein et al, 1998). This of the three countries yet remains lower than emphasis to accomplish set goals is reflected countries falling in the Grid/Group in academics. Among school-aged, Japanese . Like the Latin children have reduced amounts of sleep. American cluster, the Confucian cluster Children will often take short naps after Hofstede index scores fit the Grid/Group school; awake to snack; and study into the Hierarchical culture. Unlike the Latin night even after their parents have gone to American cluster, literature does partly bed (Jenni & O’Connor, 2005). support the Hierarchical parenting Few studies can be found concerning the description. remaining GLOBE clusters. Of the few, one A study of Korean immigrants to the study of Nigerian parent-child interaction United States reports harsh discipline is used seems to agree with the Grid/Group theory. to control their child’s behavior. The Nigeria is part of the Sub-Saharan Africa adolescents in this study perceived their cluster. It also shares Hofstede index scores parent’s control as a sign their parents did similar to (almost identical to China) not accept them. Yet, Korean adolescents Confucian and Latin American clusters. still living in Korea viewed a high level of Therefore, it is also a Hierarchical culture in parental control as confirmation of their the Grid/Group. The study examined parent- parent’s acceptance (Kim, Cain, McCubbin, child speech and language interactions. 2006). Another study, conducted in China, Authors of this study found emphasis is found Chinese parents do use authoritarian placed on full obedience (without and authoritative parenting styles. explanation) and attainment of specific Authoritative parents were shown to use goals. Mother’s speak to children often and harsh punishments to discipline children. At continually through the day as a means for times, these same parents used authoritarian communicating expectations and teaching parenting methods of reasoning and correct behavior. The authors report responsiveness to discipline. Parents also Nigerian parent-child interactions and used minimizing reactions (e.g. “you’ll be speech more closely resembles teacher-pupil fine”) as a means of socializing their talk (Burns & Radford, 2008). children to regulate their . Unlike is a part of the Southern Asia Western cultures, Chinese children who cluster. Based on Hofstede scores, it is also a were shy and reserved scored higher on Hierarchical culture. This country is the social competence and adjustment tests subject of a disturbing article. Sadly, girls (Tao, Zhou, & Wang, 2010). are seen as a burden to their family. Sons, Contemporary Asian fathers still consider who will be responsible for caring for raising children to be the mother’s job but elderly parents, are the preferred gender. are willing to share child care duties. Despite studies showing girls get sick as Japanese fathers desire friendships with their often as boys, girls are hospitalized at lease children and complete obedience is not once a year 35.4% of the time while boys always expected (Yun-Shan & Verklan, were hospitalized 64.6%. In addition, boys

4 Parental Disciplinary Methods Schwab were immunized more often; breast-fed Individualistic culture in the Grid/Group longer; and allowed to eat before their theory. In this parenting culture, group sisters. Sex-selective abortions have led to is less of a concern. Discipline an unequal sex ration of 927 girls to 1000 can be permissive. Children are praised for boys. The world-wide average is 105 girls good behavior yet corporal punishment is per 100 boys (Sumner, 2009). sometimes used (Westby, 2007). American Turkey is part of the Middle East cluster. mothers prepare themselves to parent and It scores relatively lower on Hofstede’s view parenting as a personal achievement. individualism index and higher for power They are also highly invested in their distance. This fits the Grid/Group’s children’s upbringing (Bornstein et al, Egalitarian culture. Families in this culture 1998). Emotional security is provided view humans as equal; desire quality willingly through the day. However, during relations with children; rarely use corporal the night, American children are expected to punishment; and allow children to develop independently sleep in their own room their own way (Westby, 2007). (Jenni & O’Connor, 2005). Unfortunately, this description cannot be The Grid/Group theory’s fourth culture accepted or rejected due to an absence of is Fatalistic culture. There is not an obvious studies for this topic. One study of Turkish cluster fitting this culture. Families falling mothers did conclude mothers have a lack of into this culture have little group affiliation knowledge regarding basic child and avoid society at large. There is a development milestones. However, mothers tendency to follow hierarchical practices as with higher education and fewer children did a means of achieving order through rules. score higher on caregiver knowledge tests Corporal punishment is used most often to (Ertem et al, 2007). The study does not discipline children. These parents are discuss parenting practices or disciplinary inconsistent, impulsive, and stern in their methods. parenting style (Giles-Sims & Lockhart, Another country fitting into the 2005). Immigrant and refugee parents often Egalitarian culture is which is part fall into this culture (Westby, 2007). of the Nordic European cluster. Sweden’s However, when asked, refugee parents index of Individualism is high compared to explain their strict rules and isolation from Turkey. However, it is a horizontal society as the best way to keep their children individualism reflecting an affiliation with safe in an unfamiliar country (Dumbrill, groups (Gannon & Pillai, 2010). Swedish 2008). co-sleeping practices were examined for a better understanding of parental theories Summary about co-sleeping. Swedish parents shared As more and more cultures come in responsibility for child rearing duties. contact with one another through Children are considered to be immigration and globalization, ethnocentric with rights, including the right to access view of parenting may lead to conflict. A their parents day or night (Welles-Nystrom, disciplinary method unfamiliar to some may 2005). Again, discipline methods were not be mistakenly viewed as abusive. More discussed. worrisome, real abuse may be dismissed as The Anglo cluster is most often an acceptable . It is difficult represented in literature by the United to learn what is considered acceptable States. With high individualism and low disciplinary methods for every country power distance scores, this country is an through-out the world. The Grid/Group

5 Parental Disciplinary Methods Schwab theory describes four cultures with distinct were reported to parent differently once parenting styles and disciplinary methods. resettled in their new country. Consistently, The theory considers individualism- the immigrant parents were described as collectivism and power distance. Geert more controlling and stern (Kim, 2006; Hofstede and the GLOBE study can be used Varela, 2004). Finally, it is suggested cross- as a guide to identify which Grid/Group cultural research should focus on one culture a country may fit into. particular issue at a time such as sleep or A review of literature reinforces this idea. feeding (Stevenson-Hinde, 1998). However, the review is limited by the small A deeper understanding of preferred number of studies focused specifically on disciplinary methods in all GLOBE clusters preferred disciplinary methods. The majority will help those professionals serving of studies focus on parenting styles and children and their parents preserve the child values. Also, modifying variables require and family rights established by the United further study. Many studies describe the Nations. Furthermore, knowing what is traditional parenting methods for their culturally accepted as a disciplinary method study’s location yet go on to state many of will help professionals protect the children these methods have been “modernized”. they serve. Also, immigrant parents in several studies

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Understanding Global Cultures : How one country’s culture Metaphorical Journeys through 29 is destroying the girl child. Nations, Cluster of Nations, International Journal of Nursing Continents, and Diversity. United Practice 15, 65-68. States: SAGE. Tao, A., Zhou, Q., & Wang, Y. (2010). Geert Hofstede Cultrual Dimensions. Parental reactions to children’s (2009). Retrieved December 4, 2010 negative emotions: Prospective from Itim International: relations to Chinese children’s http://www.geert-hofstede.com psychological adjustment. Journal of Giles-Sims, J., & Lockhart, C. (2205). Family Psychology 24(2), 135-144. Culturally shaped patterns of Varela, R., Sanchez-Sosa, J., Riveros, disciplining children. Journal of A., Vernberg, E., Mitchell, M., & Family Issues 26(2), 196-218. Mashunkashey, J. (2004). Parenting Cuilamo-Ramos, V., Dittus, P., Jaccard, styles of Mexican, Mexican J., Johansson, M., Bouris, A., & American, and Caucasian-non- Acosta, N. (2007). Parenting hispanic families: Social context and practices among Dominican and cultural influences. Journal of Puerto Rican mothers. Social Work Family Psychology 18(4), 651-657. 52(1), 17-30. Welles-Nystrom, B. (2005). Co-sleeping Jenni, O., & O’Connor, B., (2005). as a window into Swedish culture: Children’s sleep: An interplay Considerations of gender and between culture and biology. healthcare. Scandinavian Journal of Pediatrics, 115(1), 204-216. Caring Sciences 19, 354-360. Kempe, C. (1982). Cross-cultural Westby, C. (2007). Child Maltreatment: perspectives in child abuse. A global issue. Language, Speech, Pediatrics 69(4), 497-498. and Hearing Services in Schools 38, Kim, E., Cain, K., & McCubbin, M. 140-148. (2006). Maternal and paternal Yun-Shan, T., & Verklan, M. parenting , and young (2008). Father’s in situational crisis: adolescents’ psychological A comparison of asian and western adjustment in Korean American cultures. Nursing and Health families. Journal of Child and Sciences 10, 229-240. Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing 19(3), 112-129. Author Bio Lejeune-Kaba, F. (2010). Number of forcibly displaced rises to 43.3 Karen Walker Schwab, Doctoral million lastyear. Retrieved Student, Department of Education November 16, 2010, University of the Incarnate Word 4301 fromUNHCR:http://www.unhcr.org/ Broadway, San Antonio, TX 78209, print/4c176c969.html [email protected]. Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1998). Parenting in different cultures: Time to focus. KAREN WALKER SCHWAB works Developmental Psychology 34(4), full time as a primary care pediatric 698-700. nurse practitioner where she also serves Sumner, M. (2009). The unknown as preceptor to numerous graduate nurse practitioner students. She is also a

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Clinical Assistant Professor for The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio- School of Nursing (UTHSCSA) teaching undergraduate nursing students. Mrs. Schwab has her Masters of Science in Nursing from UTHSCSA, and is currently a doctorate student at the University of the Incarnate Word, in Organizational Leadership.

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