A Comprehensive Review of Percutaneous Nephrostomy and Suprapubic Cystostomy

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A Comprehensive Review of Percutaneous Nephrostomy and Suprapubic Cystostomy J Korean Soc Radiol 2019;80(4):613-630 Review Article https://doi.org/10.3348/jksr.2019.80.4.613 pISSN 1738-2637 / eISSN 2288-2928 Received February 24, 2019 Revised May 3, 2019 Accepted May 9, 2019 A Comprehensive Review of *Corresponding author Sang Min Lee, MD Department of Radiology, Percutaneous Nephrostomy Gyeongsang National University School of Medicine, Gyeonsang National University and Suprapubic Cystostomy Hospital, 79 Gangnam-ro, Jinju 52727, Korea. 경피적 신루설치술과 치골상부 방광루설치술에 대한 Tel 82-55-750-8211 포괄적인 리뷰 Fax 82-55-758-1568 E-mail [email protected] 1 1 2 Sa Hong Jo, MD , Sang Min Lee, MD * , Jong Joon Shim, MD , This is an Open Access article 1 1 1 distributed under the terms of Ho Cheol Choi, MD , Jae Boem Na, MD , Hwa Seon Shin, MD , the Creative Commons Attribu- 1 3 Mi Jung Park, MD , Soo Buem Cho, MD , tion Non-Commercial License 4 1 (https://creativecommons.org/ Sung Eun Park, MD , Jung Ho Jang, MD licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits 1 Department of Radiology, Gyeongsang National University School of Medicine, unrestricted non-commercial Gyeonsang National University Hospital, Jinju, Korea use, distribution, and reproduc- 2 Department of Radiology, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, tion in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Bucheon, Korea 3 Department of Radiology, Ewha Womans University School of Medicine, Ewha Womans University Hospital, Seoul, Korea 4 Department of Radiology, Gyeongsang National University School of Medicine, ORCID iDs Gyeonsang National University Changwon Hospital, Changwon, Korea Sang Min Lee https:// orcid.org/0000-0001-8614-6753 Sa Hong Jo https:// Percutaneous nephrostomy is widely used for the diagnosis and treatment of various urinary orcid.org/0000-0001-6984-7988 tract diseases, such as ureteral fistula, stenosis, and percutaneous nephrolithotomy, and the relief of urinary obstruction. Suprapubic cystostomy is also known as a good method for blad- der drainage in patients with lower urinary tract obstruction or injury and neurogenic bladder. Despite the frequent use of these procedures, reports in the literature are insufficient for an in- terventional radiologist to understand the procedures easily and thoroughly. In this article, the indication, anatomy, placement, and postoperative management of percutaneous nephrosto- my and suprapubic cystostomy have been described, explaining that the procedures are safe and effective. Index terms ‌Kidney; Nephrostomy, Percutaneous; Urinary Bladder; Cystostomy 서론 경피적 신루설치술(percutaneous nephrostomy; 이하 PCN)은 1955년 Goodwin 등(1) 에 의해 처음 보고가 되어, 제방향신우조영술(antegrade pyelography) 및 Seldinger tech- nique의 발달에 힘입어 본격적으로 이용되었다. 이후 초음파와 방사선 투시장치 등이 발달 Copyrights © 2019 The Korean Society of Radiology 613 경피적 신루설치술과 치골상부 방광루설치술에 대한 포괄적인 리뷰 하면서, 빠르고 최소 침습적인 인터벤션 시술로서 그 적응증이 확대되었다. 경피적 신루설치술은 요로폐쇄 환자에서 가장 효율적인 초기 치료 방법으로 알려져 있으며, 추가적으로 경피적 결석제 거술이나 스텐트 삽입과 같은 복잡한 치료에 선행해서 이루어져 왔다(2). 치골상부 방광루(supra- pubic cystostomy)는 노인과 척추손상 등으로 인해 증가하는 추세에 있는 배뇨장애 환자의 치료 방법 중의 하나로 알려져 있다(3). 전통적으로는 Trocar puncture를 이용한 수술적 방법이 주로 행해져 왔으나 최근에는 Seldinger technique을 이용한 카테터 삽입이 이뤄지고 있다(4). 본 연구 는 경피적 신루설치술과 치골상부 방광루에 있어서 기본적인 술기에서부터 합병증까지 다양한 측면에서 문헌 고찰을 하고자 한다. 경피적 신루설치술(Percutaneous Nephrostomy) 정의 경피적 신루설치술은 투시, 초음파 혹은 전산화단층촬영술(CT) 등의 영상 유도하에 피부와 신 실질을 경유하여 신배(renal calyx)를 무균적으로 천자한 후, 유도 철사와 도관을 이용하여 카테 터를 신우(renal pelvis) 내에 삽입하는 치료술이다. PCN의 기술적 성공(technical success)은 영 상 유도하에서 카테터를 신우 내에 위치시켜 지속적인 요의 배출이 이루어지는 경우로 한다(5). 적응증과 금기 초기에 PCN은 요로폐쇄에서 일시적인 요로전환을 위해 주로 사용되었다. 하지만 시술의 신속 Table 1. Indications for PCN Urinary obstruction (m/c) Benign (eg, ureter stone) or malignant etiology (eg, bladder tumor, prostate tumor, cervical tumor) Urinary diversion Traumatic or iatrogenic ureteral injury Urinary fistula Hemorrhagic cystitis Access for endourologic procedures Percutaneous nephrolithotomy Dilation or stenting for ureteral stricture Ureteral occlusion for urinary fistula Biopsy of a urothelial lesion Endopyelotomy Diagnostic method Antegrade pyelography Ureteral perfusion (eg, Whitaker test) Emergency PCN Pyelonephrosis Acute renal failure secondary to obstructive uropathy (hyperkalemia) m/c = most common, PCN = percutaneous nephrostomy 614 jksronline.org 대한영상의학회지 2019;80(4):613-630 성과 안전성이 높고, 직경이 큰 통로까지도 만들 수 있어서, 그 적응증의 범위가 넓어졌다(Table 1) (6, 7). 가장 흔한 적응증은 주로 요로결석이나 악성종양으로 인한 요로폐쇄이며, 주로 측복부 동통 을 동반한다. 요로폐색이 없는 단독수신증(isolated hydronephrosis)은 임신, 과다수액보충, 당 뇨, 이뇨제 등과 연관이 있으며 보통 PCN은 시행하지 않는다(5). 이 외에 외상이나 의인성의 요관 손상으로 인한 요누출(urinary leak)이 있을 경우와 골반 내 종양, 염증, 방사선치료 등으로 인한 요루(urinary fistula)가 있을 때, 그리고 심한 출혈성 방광염 등이 있을 때에 요로전환술(urinary diversion)의 목적으로 PCN을 시행한다. PCN은 신장의 기저질환을 치료하는 데 필요한 경로를 확보할 때도 필요하다. 예를 들어, 요로결석 치료를 위한 경피적 신쇄석술(percutaneous neph- rolithotomy; 이하 PNL), 요관협착의 치료를 위한 확장술이나 요관스텐트 설치술, 요루의 치료를 위한 요관폐색 등을 하기 위하여 PCN을 시술한다. 화농신장(pyonephrosis)을 동반한 요로폐쇄 나 급성신부전을 동반한 수신증의 경우 응급 PCN의 적응증이 될 수 있다. 화농신장의 경우 패혈 증으로 급격하게 진행할 위험성이 있고, 급성신부전을 동반한 요로폐쇄의 경우 고칼륨혈증 등이 동반되어 생명을 위협할 수 있기 때문이다(8). 절대적 금기사항은 심한 응고장애가 있는 경우로서 국제표준화비율(International Normal- 3 ized Ratio)이 1.5를 초과하거나 혈소판수가 50000/cm 미만일 경우로, 시술상 주의를 요한다. 대 개 혈소판 수혈 등으로 교정 후 시술하고, 가능하면 시술 전에 항혈소판제나 항응고제를 5일 이상 중단 후 시술하는 것이 좋다(9). 상대적 금기사항으로 심각한 고칼륨혈증(> 7 mEq/L)과 같은 전해 질불균형은 시술 전에 투석으로 교정하는 것이 좋으며, 수축기 혈압은 180 mm Hg 이하로 유지하 는 것이 바람직하다. 드물지만 접근경로에 대장, 비장, 간 등이 위치하는 경우 주의를 요한다. 패혈 증의 경우 원인이 화농신장이라면 시술 전에 항생제를 사용하고 최소한의 조작으로 시행하여야 한다. 임산부의 경우 방사선 노출로 인한 태아에 대한 위험성과 시술의 필요성을 비교하여 결정해 야 할 것이다(Table 2). 환자 준비 시술의 이유, 진정제 및 마취제의 사용, 시술 시 발생 가능한 합병증(출혈, 요누출, 패혈증, 사망) 이 포함된 동의서를 받아야 한다. 시술 전 최소 4시간 이상 금식을 요하며 영상 및 병리 검사 결과 를 확인한다. 또한 혈소판을 포함하는 일반혈액검사와 응고검사 결과를 확인하여야 하고, 비정상 적인 경우에는 시술 전에 신선냉동혈장이나 혈소판 수혈을 통하여 출혈 위험성을 줄이도록 한다. Table 2. Contraindications for Percutaneous Nephrostomy Absolute International Normalized Ratio > 1.5 3 Platelet < 50000/cm Relative Severe hyperkalemia or other metabolic imbalance Uncontrolled hypertension Percutaneous approach to kidney that crosses colon, spleen, or liver https://doi.org/10.3348/jksr.2019.80.4.613 615 경피적 신루설치술과 치골상부 방광루설치술에 대한 포괄적인 리뷰 환자의 안정과 통증 완화를 위하여 fentanyl 25~50 µg과 midazolam 0.5~1 mg을 사용할 수 있다 (8). 조영제에 알레르기가 있는 경우 시술 1시간 전에 경구 또는 정맥 내 스테로이드의 투여가 필 요하다. 이미 요로감염이 있거나, 감염의 위험인자[예: 고령, 당뇨, 방광기능이상, 결석, 유치카테 터(indwelling catheter), 요관장관 도관(ureterointestinal conduits)]가 존재하는 경우에는 예방 적 항생제를 투여하는 게 좋다. 일반적인 예방적 항생제요법으로 1) 1 g cephazolin IV, 2) 1 g cef- triaxone IV, 3) 1.5~3 g ampicillin/sulbactam IV, 4) 2 g ampicillin with 1.5 mg/kg gentamicin IV, 5) penicillin에 알레르기반응이 있을 시 vancomycin or clindamycin and aminoglycoside 가 있다(5, 10). 진균류 감염이 의심되면 시술 전에 항진균제를 투여한다. 시술하는 동안 혈압 측정 과 맥박산소측정으로 환자를 감시하며, 기타 활력징후들을 확인한다. 가능하면, 잠재적 합병증을 피하기 위해 시술 전 초음파 또는 CT를 확인해야 한다. 해부학적 유의사항 신장은 후복막강에서 대략 12번째 흉추와 2~3번째 요추 사이에 위치하고, 12번째 늑골이 비스듬 하게 상부에 걸쳐 있다. PCN을 할 때 주의해야 할 인접장기로는 폐, 늑막, 간, 비장, 좌우측 결장이 있다. 경피적 경로로서 가장 안전한 부위는 척추 옆 근육(paraspinal muscle)의 외측 경계이다. 그 Fig. 1. Vascular anatomy of the kidney in the coronal plane. 1 = renal artery, 2 = superior segmen- tal artery, 3 = anterior superior seg- mental artery, 4 = anterior inferior seg- mental artery, 5 = inferior segmental artery, 6 = posterior branch of the re- nal artery, 7 = interlobar arteries, 8 = arcuate artery, 9 = ureteric branch of the renal artery 616 jksronline.org 대한영상의학회지 2019;80(4):613-630 보다 내측으로 접근 시 척추 옆 근육을 관통하게 되어 경로확장이 어렵고 통증을 유발할 수 있으며, 너무 외측으로 접근 시 대장 천공의 위험이 증가한다. 12번 늑골의 상부에서 천자할 때에는 늑막이 나 폐에 손상을 줄 수 있으며, 신장 상부 천자의 경우 간 및 비장 손상에도 주의해야 한다(11, 12). 대동맥에서 나온 신동맥은 크게 앞가지와 뒤가지로 나뉘며, 앞가지는 다시 4개의 위, 위앞, 아래 앞, 아래 분절동맥(segmental artery)으로 나누어지고, 뒤가지는 후분절동맥으로 나뉘고 다시 8~12개의 엽간동맥 (interlobar artery)으로 분지 되며 신장수질과 피질 경계면에서 궁상동맥(ar- cuate artery)으로 분지 되어 피질로 들어간다(Fig. 1). 신동맥과 그 분지는 모두 단동맥(end arter- ies)이고, 서로 교통이 없다. 앞가지는 신장의 75% 이상 부위의 혈류를 공급하고 뒤가지는 신후면 의 중부에만 혈류를 공급한다. 신장에 정중선의 후외측으로 30~45° 각도에 신동맥의 앞쪽과 뒤쪽 구획 분지들이 만나는 분수령 구역(watershed zone)이 있는데 이를 Brodel’s avascular zone이라 하며, 이곳을 통과하여 후방 신배(posterior calyx)를 겨냥하면 PCN의 출혈 합병증을 줄일 수 있 다(13). 엽간 동맥이 소신배의 누두부(infundibulum) 옆으로 지나거나 가로질러 지나므로 천자 시 바늘이 가능한 한 소신배의 원위부 끝인 원개(fornix)를 end-on puncture 하도록 해야 한다 (Fig. 2). 천자의 위치에 대해서 고려를 해보았을 때, 일반적인 경피적 신루설치술에서는 하부 신배 를 천자한다. 신장의 상부 신배를 통해 경피적 신루설치술을 시행할 경우, 출혈, 기흉, 호흡에 의한 카테터 빠짐이 발생할 수 있고 천자할 위치에 늑골이 위치하고 있으므로 천자 시에 늑간 동맥이나 신경의 손상을 줄 수도 있으므로 특별한 경우가 아니면 피하는 것이 좋다(14). PCN 후 신우 및 요 관병변에 대한 순차적 시술(예: 요관 스텐트)이 필요한 경우에는 중부 신배를 천자하여 PCN을 시 행하면 저항을 적게 받는 완만한 각도로 할 수 있어 추가적인 시술이 용이하다(Fig. 3) (2).
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