Muhammad `Abduh and Islamic Reform

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International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 8, Issue 7, July 2017, pp. 902–910, Article ID: IJCIET_08_07_097 Available online at http://http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=8&Issue=7 ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316

MUHAMMAD `ABDUH AND ISLAMIC REFORM

Muslich Shabir State Islamic University Walisongo Semarang, Indonesia

ABSTRACT Muhammad 'Abduh's interest in Islamic reform was prompted by the declining condition of the Muslim communities. This paper attempts to provide some descriptions on Muhammad 'Abduh's ideas on Islamic reform. The findings reveal that. The doctrine of 'Abduh emphasized equally two elements: the need to hold fast to what was unchanging in Islam and the need to change what might be changed. Moreover, in the context of science advancement in Islamic world, the basis for ‘Abduh thought was his belief that reason and revelation were complementary, and that there was no inherent contradiction between religion and science. Key words: Muhammad ‘Abduh, biography, disciples, Islamic reform, ijtihad. Cite this Article: Muslich Shabir, Muhammad Abduh and Islamic Reform. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 8(7), 2017, pp. 902–910. http://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJCIET?Volume=8&Issue=7

1. INTRODUCTION Muhammad 'Abduh (1849-1905) was a prominent leader of Islamic reform in Egypt whose writings and fame spread widely in other areas of the Muslim world. The extent of his reputation is evident in the large number of postcards, telegrams and letters of condolence that were sent to his relatives, associates and pupils on the occasion of his death. These were sent not only from Egypt, but also from Algeria toJava, Indonesia. (Rida, vol.3, 1324 AH, 284-298). The most extensive record of Muhammad 'Abduh's life andwork is Tarikh al-Ustadh al- Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad 'Abduh, written by Muhammad Rashid Rida and consisting of three volumes. The book Muhammad Abduh by Osman Amin, which was translated from Arabic into English by Charles Wendell, is another important source on 'Abduh's life. Among Western authors, Charles C. Adams, in his book Islam and Modernism in Egypt, provides a detailed biography of Muhammad 'Abduh and account of his doctrines. He also deals with al-Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Rashid Rida, one of 'Abduh's prominent disciples, and the "Manar" party as well as the younger Egyptian modernists. Also, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798-1939 by Albert Hourani is a significant source, especiallythe chapters entitled "Muhammad 'Abduh" and "`Abduh's Egyptian Disciples: Islam and Modem Civilization." This paper attempts to provide some descriptions on Muhammad 'Abduh's ideas on Islamic reform.

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2. BRIEF SKETCH OF MUHAMMAD 'ABDUH'S LIFE Muhammad 'Abduh was born of pure Egyptian stock, in the peasant class, in the village of Mahallat Nasr, Shubrakhit district, Buhayrah Province. The exact date of his birth is unknown; the date most commonly accepted is 1266 AH, which corresponds to the year 1849 AD. He began studying reading and writing at home. After reaching the age of ten, he was sent to the home of a hafiz (professional reciter of the Qur'an), so that he might learn to recite the Qur'an from memory. He accomplished this feat in two years, which was regarded as unusual. (Adams, 1968: 19-20). At the age of about thirteen, in 1862, he was sent to the school of the Ahmadi Mosque in Tanta to perfect his memorization of the Qur'an. After spending almost two years in this study, he was initiated into the mysteries of Arabic grammar. The method of instruction at the Mosque demanded the students memorize technical terms and rules of syntax of which they had no understanding. Frustated with this pedagogy, he ran away from school and hid for three months with some of his uncles, but one of them brought him backto Tanta. He felt that he would never succeed in his studies; therefore, he returned to his village determined never to take them up again. At the age of sixteen, in 1865, he was married. (Rida, vol. 1, 1350 AH: 20). Forty days after the wedding, his father demanded that he return to the Ahmadi Mosque. On the way, he escaped and hid himself among relatives in the village of Kanayyisat Awrin. In that village he met one of his, father's uncles, Shaykh Darwish Khadr [1] who introduced him to the practice of tasawwuf (Islamic mysticism). This meeting was the turning point in 'Abduh's religious life and created in him a love for knowledge. Shaykh Darwish's influence was to be the most decisive factor in 'Abduh's life before that of Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[2] In October 1865, 'Abduh went back to Tanta. He continued his studies in al-Azhar [3] in Cairo from 1866 to 1877. After he had attended lectures in al-Azhar for three years, he felt that he did notbenefit at all because of the traditional method of teaching there. His opinion of al-Azhar was no higher than that of the Ahmadi Mosque. The teacher gave his lecture on what he knew or what he did not know without concern for the proficiency of his students. At one time `Abduh was supposed to have said, "I used to listen to the Shaykh as he taught, and I thought he was speaking a foreign language." (Amin, 1953: 13).He turned away from al- Azhar's tutelage and began to seek out new fields of study. (Amin, 1965: 24-25). In 1869, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani came to Egypt for the first time. 'Abduh and a number of al-Azhar students paid him a visit. Al-Afghani drew his visitors out on the subject of Qur'anic interpretation and Islamic mysticism. His personality stirred the hearts of his audience. Unfortunately, he stayed only a short while in Egypt. When he returned to Cairo from Constantinople in 1871, 'Abduh and his friends of al-Azhar regularly attended study sessions at the lodging of al-Afghani. al-Afghani introduced them to selected passages from me- dieval Arabic writings and various European works which had been translated into Arabic. Al-Afghani discussed philosophy, mysticism, history, politics and sociology with a free and liberal spirit much different from the traditional methods of al-Azhar. He also gave them training in journalism and public speaking. Furthermore, his general ideas of reform were emphasized. 'Abduh soon became his devoted friend arid pupil, "clinging to him like his very shadow." (Adams, 1968: 51-57, Amin, 1953: 12). In 1877 'Abduh finished his studies with the degree of `alim and began teaching in al- Azhar. He gave lectures on theology, logic, ethics and the history of European civilization, employing the methods of reasoning and logical proof which he had learned from al-Afghani. He also gave lectures in his home to the students who gathered about him. In 1878 he was

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 903 [email protected] Muhammad Abduh and Islamic Reform appointed teacher of history in Dar al-'Ulum and that of Arabic Language and Literature in the Khedivial School of Languages. (Rida, vol. 1, 1350 AH: 135-136). In the following year, September 1879, Àbduh was removed from Dar al-'Ulum and the School of Languages by the Khedive Tawfiq. This disappointed 'Abduh's hope for a liberal policy of reform. In September 1880, through the influence of Riyad Pasha, the Prime Minister of Egypt, 'Abduh was appointed one of the three editors of al-Waqa'i’ al-Misriyyah (The Egyptian Events), the official organ of the government. Later he was made editor-in- chief; and held this position until May, 1882. (Adams, 1968: 51). Meanwhile, the movement that had become associated with the name of Ahmad 'Arabi Pasha had been gaining momentum in Egypt. This nationalist movement had a large following among the Egyptians against the privileged position and dominant influence of foreigners in the country. As editor-in-chi ef of al- Waqa'iàl-Misriyyah,'Abduh supported the 'Arabi movement through his writings. He also delivered speeches in which he urged the sons of Egypt to defend their honor and the independence of their country. On June 11, 1882, the British fleet bombarded Alexandria; and on September 13, the British occupied the country. The 'Arabi revolt utterly collapsed and the ringleaders of the movement were either put to jail or sent into exile. 'Abduh was arrested and tried in September, 1882; banished from the country for three years and three months; and then went to Beirut. (Adams, 1968: 51-57). In 1884, while in exile, 'Abduh received an invitation from al-Afghani to join him in Paris. In this city together they founded an organization called Jamìyyat al-Ùrwat al-Wuthqa (Society of the Indissoluble Bond) with a principal aim "to unite the scattered Muslim peoples, to wipe out the causes of their disunity and arouse them from their sleep." (Amin, 1953: 49). They published al-Ùrwat al-Wuthqa, a journal in which articles of a radical and aggressive nature appeared. In this year, 'Abduh visited London to hold conversations on Eastern affairs with British political leaders. After eighteen issues the journal was suppressed because of its radical character; but, in spite of its brief history, it exerted great influence throughout the Muslim world. After that, thetwo friends separated: al-Afghani went to Russia, and Àbduh, after traveling incognito to Tunis, Egypt and other countries in the interests of secret agitation, returned to Beirut in 1885, where he engaged in teaching and writing. His famous book, Risalat al-Tawhid (Treatise on the Unity of God), was based on his theological lecturesduring this period.(Adams, 1968: 58-65). In 1888 Àbduh was allowed to return to Egypt bythe Khedive Tawfiq. In the same year he was appointed judge in the Egyptian courts. Actually he wished to return to his teaching, but the Khedive was unwilling to place him where he could influence the students with his political ideas. He succeeded in his job until he reached the highest position, Counsellor in the Court of Appeal. He was a judge concerned with justice and equity, not a judge of laws and impositions; or, to use a different terminology, he was a mujtahid judge (a judge exercising ijtihad, individual interpretation), not a muqallid judge (a judge employing taqlid, adopting the already established fatwa, legal opinion).(Rida, vol. 1, 1350 AH: 320). On June 3, 1899, he was made Mufti of Egypt, becoming the official interpreter of the canon law of Islam for Egypt. His fatwas and decisions were authoritative and final. During his incumbency in this office he enlarged its scope by giving decisions on personal and individual questions as well as on all official matters. Because of his decisions, his renown spread throughout the Muslim world, and his fatwaswere sought for in many quarters. His fatwasmanifested a spirit of liberty and of freedom from bondage to tradition, and a genuine desire to render Islam adaptable to the requirements of modem civilization. On June 25, 1899, he was appointed a member of the Legislative Council, which at that time exercised only advisory powers and, in numerous ways, showed its lack of experience in the field of representative government. His activities also embraced the founding and development

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 904 [email protected] Muslich Shabir of the Muslim Benevolent Society in order to encourage cooperation in good works and public service, and to promote organized charity. Among its activities was providing financial assistance for Muslim children of the poor who could not pay their educational fees. (Rida, vol. 1, 1350 AH: 719-726). He founded, too, the Society for the Revival of Arabic Sciences in 1900 to bring about a literary revival; he was its president. Besides those activities, he found time to deliver lectures in al-Azhar on theology, Qur'anic interpretation, rhetoric and logic. He was also a member of the Administrative Committee, a Committee he proposed to the Khedive for reforming al-Azhar. He died in the midst of these varied activities on Jumada al-Ula 8, 1323 AH, which corresponds to July 11, 1905 AD, leaving many plans and projects incomplete.(Adams, 1968: 82-92).

3. MUHAMMAD 'ABDUH'S IDEAS ON ISLAMIC REFORM Muhammad 'Abduh's interest in Islamic reform was prompted by the declining condition of the Muslim communities. According to him, the greatest single cause of decline in these communities was despair; people were unable to see any prospect of improvement in their institutions, and they tended to see the disease of society as incurable and to believe that each following day would be worse than the previous day. This state of mind is the result of ignorance of the teachings of the Qur'an and the hadith (prophetic traditions), coupled with reliance on unauthentic hadith, or on misinterpretation of correct hadith. The Qur'an calls this frame of mind false and faithless when it saysthat "none despair of the spirit of Allah except the unbelievers”. (Rida, vol. 2, 1344 H: 458-459). 'Abduh was concerned with the nature of Islam in general. To him, Islam is compatible with the demands of time and circumstances; one of his major goals was to prove that Islam can be reconciled with modem thought and to devise a method for this reform.(Hourani, 1970: 458-459).His ideas on Islamic reform, according to his own statement, involved two aspects: the reformulation of the Islamic faith, which would be in harmony both with the beliefs of the early Muslims and with the teachings of modem thought; and the improvement of the Arabic language. In his biography, he mentioned those points as follows: I raise my voice for advocating two big matters. First, to liberate thought from the shackles of taqlid and understand religion as it was understood by the elders of the community before dissension appeared; to return, in the acquisition of religious knowledge, to its first sources, and to weigh the mon the scales of human reason, which Allah has created in order to prevent excess or adulteration in religion, so that Allah's wisdom may be fulfilled and the order of the human world preserved. For this reason, religion must be accounted a friend to science, pushing man to investigate the secrets of existence, summoning him to respect established truths, and to depend on them in his moral life and conduct. Secondly, to reform the styles of writing Arabic language .(Rida, vol. 1, 1350 AH: 11). The first point is the most important of his activities. To him, such a synthesis was not only possible but desirable as well. He attempted to liberate Islam from whatever rigidity it might have had and make it compatible and in harmony with actual worldly conditions. He was convinced that Muslims could selectively appropriate aspects of Western civilization that were not contrary to Islam. The Muslims could adopt the institutions, social customs, methods of education and ways of thought of modem Europe; but they should justify the changes in terms of principles set forth in Islam.(Ahmed, 1960: ix; “Preface” by Albert Hourani). Those changes should be linked to the principles of Islam, by showing that Islam could serve both as a rubric for change and a salutary control over it. Islam would not approve of everything that was done in the name of progress. Islam was a principle of restraint; it would enable Muslims to distinguish what was good from what was bad among all suggested directions of change (Hourani, 1970: 140-141).

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The doctrine of 'Abduh emphasized equally two elements: the need to hold fast to what was unchanging in Islam and the need to change what might be changed. He believed that the religion of Islam consists of two major parts. The first part embraces clearly stated laws that every Muslim must know and abide by. These laws are clearly stated in the Qur'an and are explained in detail in the sunnah (traditions) of the Prophet and have been transmitted by the Muslims through practice. These are indisputable, and there is no place for ijtihad regarding them. The second part consists of rules not derived from clearcut texts nor ijma' (consensus of majority of the Muslims); and for this part, the ijtihad is permitted. (Rida, vol. 1, 1350 AH: 940).His conception of true religion is that there was a distinction between what was essential and unchanging in it and what was inessential and could be changed without damage.(Hourani, 1970: 145). The basis for his reformist thought was his belief that reason and revelation were complementary, and that there was no inherent contradiction between religion and science. He considered that reason and science were the twin sources of Islam. They neither possess separate spheres nor conflict with each other in the same sphere. Therefore, the mark of the ideal Muslim society is not only law, but also reason. As Hourani writes, The ideal society is that which submits to God's commandments, interprets them rationally and in the light of general welfare, obeys them actively, and is united by respect for them. (Hourani, 1970: 145-149). 'Abduh was of the opinion that if the Muslim nations wanted to become strong and prosperous again, they should reinterpret their laws and adapt it to modem problems. For this purpose, two principles were necessary: maslahah (interest) and taffiq (piecing together, or following more than one school of thought in the performance of one or more actions). As for the concept of maslahah, 'Abduh gave it a more general meaning than it had had previously. Maliki jurisprudence, for example, which had always accepted this principle, defined it as nothing more than a rule for the interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith, but 'Abduh made it a principle for deducing specific laws from general principles of social morality. Concerning the concept of talfiq, 'Abduh gave it too a broader application. Traditionally, it meant that in a particular case a judge could follow more than one school of thought in the interpretation of law. 'Abduh defined it as “ . not simply the `borrowing' of a speficic point from someother code, but a systematic comparison of all four, and evenof the doctrines of independent jurists who accepted none ofthem, with a view to producing a`synthesis' which wouldcombine the good points of all.”(Hourani, 1970: 151-152). The actual foundations of his teachings came primarily from the school of Ibn Tayrniyyah and his pupil Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, al-Ghazali and al-Afghani. From Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim he learned of the necessity of returning to the first sources and principles in everything, to fight against the bid`ah [4]and to call the right of ijtihad. From al-Ghazali he learned the importance of an ethical conception of religious life for the maintaining of the moral strength of the faith. And from al-Afghani he learned the need for adaptation to the demands of modern progress. (Adams, 1968: 202-204). As such, he was indeed a practical man, a man who was to empirically select the best out of the treasuries of his faith in order to meet the needs of the time. Even though he espoused the same, ultimate goal as al-Afghani; i.e., the liberation of the Muslim peoples and the renaissance of Islam by its own strength, there was an essential difference between 'Abduh's plan and that of al-Afghani. The latter believed that revolution was the way to achieve this goal, while the former thought that educational reform, especially moral and religious, was preliminary to progress. (Houtsma et all, vol. 3, 1936: 678). Therefore, 'Abduh endeavored, through his acts and writings, to bridge the gulf

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 906 [email protected] Muslich Shabir within Islamic society, and, in so doing, to reform its educational system and strengthen its moral roots. (Hourani: 1970: 226).

4. MUHAMMAD 'ABDUH'S DISCIPLES By "disciples of Muhammad 'Abduh" the author means those who studied with him formally or informally and/or were influenced by his ideas. In general, they can be classified into two different groups. The first group consisted of those who focused their attention narrowly on ' Abduh's emphasis on the unchanging nature of the central doctrines of Islam and lost touch with the spirit of his thought. This group moved in the direction of Hanbali or Wahabi fundamentalism and was led by Muhammad Rashid Rida. However, the second group was comprised of those who emphasized the necessity of change in the law, custom, and institutions of Islamic society. They tried to work out, in different spheres of life, the implications of the moral principles of Islam for the modem world. In doing, they tended (consciously or not) to move in the direction of secular nationalism and of a distinction between the realm of religion and that of social utility, farfrom the spirit of Islam or the intentions of 'Abduh. To this second group belonged the more distinguished of Àbduh's Egyptian followers, like Muhammad Farid Wajdi, Qasim Amin, Lutfi al-Sayyid, Mustafa 'Abd al-Raziq and 'Ali 'Abd al-Raziq. M. A. Zaki Badawi names the first group as "the Muslim wing," and the second group as "the Western Wing." He indicates that the Muslim wing of Àbduh's supposed disciples became, in a manner of speaking, more Muslim; while the Western wing became more Western than Àbduh.(Badawi: 1978: 88). Following is a brief description of some of these disciples thoughts and ideas. One of the most outstanding disciples was Muhammad Rashid Rida. He assumed the role of 'Abduh's liege man: the mouthpiece of his ideas, the guardian of his good name and his biographer. (Hourani, 1970: 226). He was born in 1865 at a village called al-Qalamun, near Tripoli, Syria. His father sent him to Kuttab school at Tripoli and he continued his studies at al-Madrasat al-Wataniyyah. His father was a regular subscriber of al-’Urwat al-Wuthqa, through which Rida knew and followed al-Afghani and 'Abduh's thoughts. Before he was influenced by the ideas of those Muslim reformers, he had fallen under the influence of al- Ghazali through Ihya' Ùlum al-Din, which led him into joining the Naqshabandi order. (‘Adawi, n.d.: 34-36). After reading that journal, his outlook changed completely. He sent a letter to al-Afghani in 1893, requesting to be accepted as a student; but, unfortunately, his wish to join al- Afghani did not become reality because the latter died in 1897. However, the influence of al- Afghani upon him was soon overshadowed by that of 'Abduh. He met 'Abduh for the first time in Tripoli when the latter returned from Europe. In 1894, 'Abduh visited Tripoli again, and Rida met him for the second time and talked at length with him. Three years after that, in 1897, Rida emigrated to Cairo to join 'Abduh. In 1898 he published al-Manar (The Lighthouse), a journal that was the organ of reform according to the ideas of Àbduh. (Hourani, 1970: 226). The aim of it was to continue the tradition of al-Ùrwat al-Wuthqa, except in the area of political policy. It aimed at social, religious, and economic reforms, to prove the suitability of Islam as a religious system under present conditions and to demonstrate that the Shariàh (Divine Law) was still a practical instrument for modem government. It aimed also at purifying Islam from prevailing superstitions and combatting fatalism, narrow partisanship as regards the schools of law, saint worship and the harmful innovations of the sufi orders. Further more,it aimed at encouraging tolerance and unity among the various sects, promoting public education, reforming textbooks and methods of education, encouraging progress in the sciences and arts, and to stimulate Muslim nations into competing with other nations in all matters that are

http://iaeme.com/Home/journal/IJCIET 907 [email protected] Muhammad Abduh and Islamic Reform essential to their progress. (Rida, al-Manar, vol. 1, 1327 AH: 11-12).From the third year onwards al-Manar started publishing 'Abduh's Commentary on the Qur'an, which was known as Tafsir al- Manar. This journal circulated regularly in areas as distant as Morocco and Indonesia. (Badawi, 1978: 99-100). Even though Rida is considered as the mouthpiece of 'Abduh's ideas, in some cases he had some differences with his master; for example, regarding the concept of the salaf (ancestors). According to 'Abduh, the salaf were the Muslims from the Prophet until al-Ghazali (the twelfth century); while Rida's opinion was that they were those of the first generation who had known the Prophet Muhammad. Another difference between them is that `Abduh did not restrict his thought in any madhhab, while Rida was inclined to follow Hanbalism. (Hourani, 1970: 230-231). 'Abduh was more liberal than Rida, perhaps because the former was acquainted with the West and its civilization more than Rida was. 'Abduh once stayed in Paris, visited London and communicated with Westerners. However, Rida did not learn any foreign language and his understanding of Western ideas were of second- or third-hand nature. (Badawi, 1978: 135). Concerning Rida's views on education, they were almost the same as those of 'Abduh. Rida regarded education as the main instrument of social change and stressed the importance of religion in the educational system. He established the School for Propagation and Guidance (Dar al-Da’wah wa al-Irshad), which was aimed at training propagators (du'ah) who would carry Islam to the non-Muslims. The school also trained guides (murshids) who would work within the Muslim community to guide it into the right path and to combat religious deviation. Included in the curriculum f this school, besides the religious subjects, were geography, hygiene, economics, psychology, sociology, biology, introductory mathematics and astronomy.(Rida, al-Manar, vol. 14: 1329 AH: 812-816). As for the Westernizing wing of 'Abduh's disciples, they were deeply immersed in Western ideas. Here it is useful to note how far two disciples deviated from 'Abduh on the concept of civilization. First, Muhammad Farid Wajdi, who wrote al-Madaniyyah wa al-Islam (Civilization and Islam), stressed two important and independent ideas: Islam with its truths and laws revealed by God, and modern civilization with its own laws discovered by sociology. He had an opinion different from his master's according to which true civilization is in conformity with Islam. Wajdi held the opposite view: true Islam is in conformity with civilization. Thus, the primary criterion for judging society for the former was Islam; for the latter, civilization. Wajdi "accepts the claim of modem Europe to have discovered the laws of social progress and happiness, and goes on to maintain that these laws are also those of Islam. (Hourani, 1970: 162). Secondly, another disciple, Qasim Amin, held the opinion that the perfect civilization is based on scientific principles, so, since the civilization of Islam began and ended before the true sciences were established, it cannot be taken as the model of a perfect human civilization. (Amin, 1987: 116). His opinion was so different from that of the majority of Muslims who believed that the best was already past, and that their duty lay in keeping that past intact and unaltered.(Ahmed: 1960: 50).

5. CONCLUSIONS Islamic reform emerged as a response to the decline of Muslim communities. The decline was caused by the intellectual anarchy among the Muslims; they regarded the door of ijtihad as closed, accepted the idea of taqlid, and tolerated the practice of bid`ah. Such reform appeared in the late nineteeth century, and one of its most prominent advocates was Muhammad 'Abduh (1849-1905) from Egypt.

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Among 'Abduh's ideas on Islamic reform is the call for Muslims to return to the Qur'an and the hadith; the belief that the door of ijtihad is still open, and the rejection the idea of taqlid and bidàh. He believed that religion and reason are complementary and that there is no inherent contradiction between religion and science. He was a thinker who attempted to reconcile Islam with the attainments of modern science and adapted it to the requirements of modem civilization. He wrote a number of books and articles embracing a variety of subjects. His ideas also were spread by his most prominent disciple, Muhammad Rashid Rida, through a journal named al-Manar. 'Abduh's writings and the journal were read by many Muslims in some areas in the world. ‘Abduh’s thoughts were followed by some scholars and they can be classified into two different groups. The first group consisted of those who focused their attention narrowly on ' Abduh's emphasis on the unchanging nature of the central doctrines of Islam and lost touch with the spirit of his thought. This group moved in the direction of Hanbali or Wahabi fundamentalism and was led by Muhammad Rashid Rida. The second group was comprised of those who emphasized the necessity of change in the law, custom, and institutions of Islamic society. They tried to work out, in different spheres of life, the implications of the moral principles of Islam for the modem world. In doing, they tended (consciously or not) to move in the direction of secular nationalism and of a distinction between the realm of religion and that of social utility, farfrom the spirit of Islam or the intentions of 'Abduh. To this second group belonged the more distinguished of Àbduh's Egyptian followers, like Muhammad Farid Wajdi, Qasim Amin, Lutfi al-Sayyid, Mustafa 'Abd al-Raziq and 'Ali 'Abd al-Raziq. M. A. Zaki Badawi names the first group as "the Muslim wing," and the second group as "the Western Wing." He indicates that the Muslim wing of Àbduh's supposed disciples became, in a manner of speaking, more Muslim; while the Western wing became more Western than Àbduh.

REFERENCES [1] Shaykh Darwish Khadr was a Sufi (Muslim mystic) of the Shadhilibrotherhood. He hadmemoiized the Qur'an and understood it, as well as al-Muwatta'and large portions of works on the hadith (propetic traditions). In formeryears he had travelled to some extent in the Libyan desert as far as Tripoli,and there he had taken up studies with Sayyid Muhammad al-Madani. Aftercompleting his studies, he came back to his village and engaged in agriculture.See: Rida, vol. 1,1350 AH:21-22. [2] Al-Afghani was bom in 1839 AD (1254 AH) at As'ad-Abad, near Kabul inAfghanistan (this is according to his own account; but according to the Persian account, he was born in a village of the same name near Hamadan in Iran. He studied in Afghanistan, Iran and India. In 1866-1869 he served asvizier in Afghanistan; in 1882-1884 he lived in Paris; further travelled; diedin Istanbul in 1897. For further detailed of his biography, see: AbuRayyah, 1966. [3] Al-Azhar was founded in the year of 359 AH/970 AD. by the Fatimid general, Jawhar al- Siqilli. It was built to serve as the congretational mosque aswell as a center for Islamic learning. The reputation of al-Azhar came to bewidely acknowleged throughout the world of Islam. For general descriptionabout al-Azhar see: Houtsma et al., vol.1, 1913: 532-539. [4] Bid`ah means some view, thing or mode of action the like of which has not formerly existed or been practiced, an innovation or novelty. See: Houtsma et al., vol. 1, 1913, 712. [5] Adams, Charles C., 1968.Islam and Modernism in Egypt: A Study of the Modern Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad Abduh. New York: Russell & Russell. [6] Al-`Adawi, Ibrahim Ahmad, no date. RashidRida: al-Imam al-Mujahid. Egypt:al- Mu'assasah al-Misriyyah al-'Ammah.

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[7] Abu Rayyah, Mahmud, 1966. Jamal al-Din al Afghani: Tarikhuhu wa-risalatuhu wa- mabadi'uh, Cairo: al-Majlis al-A'la lil-Shu'un al-Islamiyyah.Amin, Muhammad 'Abduh, tr. Charles Wendell, Washington, D.C.: American Council of Learned Society. [8] Ahmed, Jamal Mohammed, 1960. Intellectual Origins of Egyptian Nationalism. New York: Oxford University Press. [9] 'Amarah, Muhammad, ed., 1972.Al-A`mal al-Kamilah lil-ImamMuhammad Abduh, vol. 3. Beirut: al-Muassasah al-Àrabiyyah lil-Dirasat wa al-Nashr. [10] ______,Tajdid al-Fikr al-Islami: Muhammad Abduh wa Madrasatuh, 1980. Cairo: Dar al-Hilal. [11] Amin, Osman, 1953. Muhammad 'Abduh. Translated from Arabic by Charles Wendell. Washington, D.C.: American Counsil of Learned Societies. [12] Amin, Ùthman, 1965.Ra'idal-Fikral-Misri: al-ImamMuhammad Abduh.2nd ed. Cairo: Maktabat al-Anjalu al-Misriyyah. [13] Badawi, M. A. Zaki, 1978. The Reformers of Egpt. London: Croom Helm. [14] Dodge, Bayard, 1961. Al-Azhar: A Millennium ofMuslim Learning. Washington, D.C.: The Middle East Institute. [15] Gibb, H. A. R., 1947.Modern Trends in Islam. Chicago: The University ofChicago Press. [16] Heyworth-Dunne, J., 1968.An Introduction to the History of Education inModern Egypt. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1968. [17] Hourani, Albert, 1955. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798-1939. London: Oxford University Press. [18] Houtsma, M. Th.; Wensinck, A. J.; Gibb, H. A. R.; Heffening, W;and Levi-Provencal, E, 1913. The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 1, Leiden: E. J. Brill. [19] ______.The Encyclopaedia oflslam, vol. 3. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1936. Israeli, Raphael, ed., 1982.The Crescent in the East: Islam in Asia Minor, lst ed. London: Curzon Press. [20] Kerr, Malcolm H., 1966.Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theoriesof Muhammad 'Abduh and Rashid Rida. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. [21] Rida, al-Sayyid Muhammad Rashid, 1327 AH,Al-Manar, vol. 1,2nd ed. Cairo: Mat-ba'at al-Manar. [22] ______, 1329 AH. Al-Manar, vol.14, 1st ed. Cairo: Matbaàt al-Manar. [23] ______, 1350 AH.Tarikh al-Ustadh al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad Àbduh, vol. 1, lst ed. Cairo:Matba'at al-Manar. [24] ______, 1344 AH.Tarikh al-Ustadh al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad 'Abduh,vol. 2, 2nd ed. Cairo: Matba'at al-Manar. [25] ______, 1324 AH. Tarikh al- Ustadh al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad Abduh, vol. 3. Cairo: Matba'at al-Manar. [26] Savory, R. M., ed., 1976.Introduction to Islamic Civilization. 1st ed. NewYork: Cambridge University Press. [27] Smith, Wilfred Cantwell, 1957. Islam in Modern History. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [28] ‘Uthman Amin, 1965. Ra'id al-Fikr al-Misri: al-Imam Muhammad Abduh, 2nded., Cairo: Maktabah al-Anjalu al-Misriyyah.

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