NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin

Bodiesacross borders - and trafficking in women

NIKK - Nordic Institute for Women´s Studies and Gender Research Photo: Morten And The misery behind the fantasy Trafficking in young and women from the Baltic States to W also present a newly concluded IOM research survey in the Western European countries including the Nordic countries is a Baltic states exploring and describing the magnitude, the mechanisms growing problem - not least for the victims. Moderate EU estimates and the actors of the prostitution and trafficking business. One of the say that 120.000 women and children are being trafficked from conclusions drawn in this study is that while the main trafficking flows Central and East European countries into Western each year. from the Baltic states some years ago were directed to The Middle This special issue of NIKK magasin on prostitution and trafficking in East, Greece and Turkey, the trafficking for prostitution now has women is a contribution to a Nordic-Baltic information campaign on turned to Central European countries – and the Nordic countries. the same subject involving eight countries. For this reason all the arti- The Russian prostitution across the border in Northern cles are in English. The contributions come from , , is discussed in a historical framework, and the stereotype of the Norway and Finland as well as from and the Baltic States. Russian as associated with prostitution is seen in an urban- The eight countries behind the The Nordic-Baltic campaign has rural/centre-margin perspective in another article in this issue. The different policies on the issue of prostitution but have agreed to base ’grand old man’ in prostitution research in the Nordic countries, pro- the campaign on the UN definition of trafficking in women described fessor Sven-Axel Månsson, has been fighting for criminalizing the cus- in article 3 of the so-called Palermo-Protocol, the UN Protocol to tomer in the sex trade for over 20 years and finally succeeding. In The Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women Interview he tells how he has identified some of the reasons why men and Children. This Protocol is the first international instrument that buy sex, which is necessary knowledge in order to create measures to mentions the men who create the demand for prostituted women All combat sexual exploitation of women and children. New Russian state parties that sign and ratify the protocol must adopt or strength- research into how women in prostitution see themselves and explain en legislative or other measures to discourage the demand.The most their motivations for entering into prostitution is presented in one controversial aspect of the Protocol is the definition of trafficking.This article. Other articles deal with important issues like racism in the sex definition takes into consideration the actual reality of women who trade and abuse of minors in the sex trade. are trafficked for prostitution. Trafficking can take place by means of In this issue of NIKK magasin we present some samples of new force, deception and abduction, but traffickers who abuse power or a research within this field. But trafficking in women and children for victim’s vulnerability, will also be criminally liable.The Protocol specif- prostitution purposes is a multifaceted problem which requires much ically mentions that the consent of a victim is irrelevant to the prose- more interdisciplinary research with gender perspectives than what is cution of traffickers. Even if some trafficked women know they will actually going on in the Nordic region. Such research ought to consti- have to prostitute themselves, they do not know that they will often tute the knowledge basis for social, economic and legislative measures be kept in conditions corresponding to slavery, being unable to escape for combating this growing criminal transnational trade, which is based from their exploiters, as the opening article in this issue from the on gender discrimination and . Danish scene reveals. NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 3

BODIES ACROSS BORDERS During one year two Danish journalists investigated the criminal networks behind the trafficking in young women to Denmark. They wanted to find out who the agents are, how they target the women and how they organise the travel across borders avoiding the attention of the authorities. Ulrikke Moustgaard reveals the hidden pattern behind the criminal trade of trafficking in women and young girls. PAGE 4

“YOU WILL BE SOLD LIKE A DOLL” Public awareness of the trafficking problem is low in Lithuania as well as in the other Baltic countries. Most people are not aware of the dangers of trafficking. The findings of the public opinion survey done by IOM indicated the urgent need for an information campaign. The main concept-image was this "human marionette" hung in her bare skin. PAGE 10

contents: WHY DO MEN BUY SEX? Professor Sven-Axel Månsson has studied prostitution since the mid-70’s, starting with an investigation into the nightclub culture. From the mid-80’s he has mainly focused on men as ersen/Samfoto buyers of sex and their motivations. In 1999 the law about sexual services came into force in Sweden, criminalizing those who buy sex. PAGE 22

Nordic-Baltic campaign Racism in the sex trade against trafficking in The eight countries behind the campaign How women of different nationalities are have different policies on prostitution but presented to potential sex clients. PAGE 33 NIKK magasin 1-2002 ISSN 1502-1521 have agreed to join forces to combat PUBLISHER: trafficking in women. PAGE 16 Abuse of minors in NIKK – the Nordic Institute for Women’s Studies and Gender Research the sex trade EDITOR: Between suppression and The extent of against Trine Lynggard independence minors in the sex trade in Finland is not [email protected] REFERENCE GROUP: When prostitution is a hidden act, the adequately recognised. PAGE 37 Maria Eriksson (SE), Marjut Jyrkinen (FI), balance between suppression and indepen- Aase Rieck Sørensen (DK), Hanne Størset (NO),Fride Eeg-Henriksen (NIKK) dence becomes very narrow. PAGE 18 “The Palermo Protocol” TRANSLATORS: A UN protocol with a controversial Heidi Granqvist, Sarah Bannock How women in prostitution definition of trafficking. PAGE 40 GRAPHIC DESIGN: Alien Design see themselves PRINTING: has a tendency to be Open borders – open bodies CDDU Repro an alternative occupation for women in The opening up of the borders between PRINTED IN: 17 000 copies low paid jobs, students and needy . Norway and Russia created an opportunity COVER PHOTO: PAGE 26 for the exchange of power and sexuality. Mikkel Østergaard/BAM/Samfoto PAGE 43 Free subscription Victims of trafficking A journey into the world New publications of Katya and Zenya. PAGE 30 PAGE 46 4 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002 Photo: Morten Andersen/Samfoto

Bodiesacro

By ULRIKKE MOUSTGAARD

Young women from the Baltic countries increasingly come to the Nordic countries to find jobs in the sex business – at the same time, there is an increasing number of hairdressers, house wives, managing directors and other “ordinary” people who have seen the financial opportunities offered by the business and therefore establish themselves as agents for sexual services. NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 5

ss borders

"Girls wanted for work preferably in . She, along at home. in Denmark" with hundreds of her fellow Latvians, The Danish advert on the Latvian On a morning in July 2000 in the would like to go abroad to a rich coun- site looks for young women who can Latvian capital Riga, 25-year-old Aija try for a couple of months to earn good dance. And Aija knows how to dance. sees a job advert on a Latvian website money. There are plenty of opportuni- She immediately gets a reply. specialised in contacts between people ties for this, Aija knows. For a long "You can come at any time", replies who offer jobs and people who are look- time, many Danish, Swedish and a woman who calls herself Luna. Luna ing for work. Norwegian clubs, bars and private indi- asks Aija to call her on a mobile number Aija quickly replies. "I have seen viduals have been advertising on the in order to get detailed information. your advert and I am a 25-year-old internet, in newspapers and through woman, tall and slim. I have experience Latvian agencies for young women who Club 8 as a dancer." are willing to leave Latvia for a few Luna manages a club in a suburb of Aija is a beautiful, red-haired months for a job that will give them far . Club 8 is "a place where Latvian woman looking for work, more money than it is possible to earn many different forms of entertainment 6 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

are offered for the customers to enjoy in tries to Denmark is carried out - a trade that the women were referred to by the a pleasant environment", as it says on which nobody can give exact numbers agents as goods with individual product the club’s website. Cars roar past on a for, but which experts say, is growing codes. "These girls can be moved four-lane road outside the club. Every drastically. around as we like, and go back home now and then one of them will slow According to a report published by when we like. If all goes well, we make down on sighting the simple wooden the Danish police last year - after a fact- money", was the description of the busi- sign saying "club" and then turn down finding mission in Estonia, Latvia and ness between two Danish agents accord- the gravel drive to the red brick villa Lithuania - Denmark and Sweden are ing to the taping of phone calls by the that houses it. Here, a small white arrow the main destinations among the police. points the way to the club’s main Nordic countries for organised prostitu- entrance with shaded windows. Inside, tion from the Baltic countries. The Instructions in what once was the living room of the police describe the scope of the traffic as It is these agents, and their methods, house, red bulbs and mirrors create a "considerable". that Information and the BBC want to sleazy atmosphere appropriate for the This is confirmed by the latest cases know more about. How they target the club’s daily striptease show. There is also that have come to light in Denmark. women who are suitable for their trade, a sex cinema, a live sex show, a lesbian In the summer 2001 the Danish how they organise the travel across bor- show and a weekly sex party. But the police carried out the country’s largest ders, and how they manage to get the most important feature of the club is raid so far of places where Baltic women women into the country without "the girls". They usually come from Eastern Europe. They are available every day between 9 in the morning and 11 in the evening, providing, for a fee, various forms of sex in the double beds on the top floor of the house.

But Latvian Aija gets no informa- Photo: Morten Andersen/Samfoto tion about all this. "What exactly will I be doing?" she asks Luna when she calls on the mobile number Luna has sent her. "Actually, nothing in particular," Luna answers. "Just socialising with the customers, dancing and taking part in the live show and so on, that sort of thing. And a lit- tle bit of dancing…" Luna also tells Aija that she can look forward to living in an area, which is "very, very rich". Aija will be able to work as prostitutes. The police found an attracting the attention of the authori- "buy everything", since there are a lot of organised network of 40 agents in the ties. good shops. In reality, the only shops in whole country, which since 1999 has The agent Luna already has a long the area around Club 8 are some sec- transported 78 women – mainly from experience of trafficking in women ond-hand car dealers, two petrol sta- Latvia and Estonia – into Denmark and when she gets in touch with Aija. Her tions, one of which is unmanned, a then around the country for organised club has existed for two years and has kiosk, a veterinary clinic and a hair- and controlled prostitution. had a constant flow of women from dresser for dogs. The network had connections to Eastern Europe – lately especially from agents in the Baltic countries and traded Hungary. Now Luna wants to get Main destinations sex to a total value of two million women from Latvia. What Luna does not know when speak- Danish crowns in two years. "I might get some girls from there ing to Aija, is that the mobile phone The Latvian and Estonian women next month" she says on the phone to calls are being taped. The fact is that were mainly supposed to be available Aija. Aija has applied for the job in Denmark around the clock as escort girls. They "I have a good contact." as part of an agreement with the Danish were moved between different Danish In this way, Luna has invited women newspaper Information and the BBC, cities according to demand and cus- to her club in Copenhagen several who together want to reveal how the tomers. The police monitored around times. She knows exactly how to avoid traffic in women from the Baltic coun- 20.000 telephone calls, which showed the Danish authorities. The first obsta- NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 7

often under the cover of jobs as au pairs, models, waitresses or dancers. "Hi, I’m looking for a cute and attractive for au pair work and pos- sibly to be a "play mate". Your salary depends on your flexibility," writes a Photo: Morten Andersen/Samfoto Danish woman who looks for girls from Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Others openly admit that the work involves professional sexual services. This is the case with the Danish pimp, Spike, who on a Latvian website adver- tises for women between the age of 18 and 30 for work in his Danish escort agency. "The reason why I resort to advertis- ing on the net is to avoid all the greedy Eastern European agents," Spike says. Women who are interested in work- cle is the Danish police at Kastrup air- tourist, on a camping holiday’". ing for him can send a letter with pic- port. Here, two things are absolutely Luna also tells Aija that she must tures to a post box address. Spike then necessary. Firstly, Aija must have a cred- not carry Luna’s address with her. She is assesses whether he wants to employ it card to document that she has enough to take a taxi and ask the driver to call them for three months – the length of a money to live on in Denmark. Luna’s mobile number. Luna herself will tourist visa in Denmark. He pays for the Secondly, Aija must not say one word then tell the driver where to take Aija. flight tickets, salary and a flat. about her plans to work in Denmark. Others try personal advertisements "When you arrive at the airport, and Contact in local newspapers, where they offer a they ask about money, you show them Aija gets in touch with Luna on the job – or marriage. Many of these offers the credit card… If they ask you what internet. And Luna is by no means the of marriage are completely genuine. But you plan to do in Copenhagen, you say only one who uses the net to recruit for some women who are looking for ‘I’m here on a camping holiday’, just say women for sexual labour. The internet happiness abroad through marriage, this ‘I’m going to travel around the country, has become a Mecca for agents, as was is their first step on the road to a life as camping, I’m here as a tourist’. And if recently documented by the British a prostitute. Crisis centres both in they ask whether you know anybody in intelligence agency. Direct recruitment Denmark and Norway report that an Denmark, you answer ‘No, I’m here as a of women takes place on the internet, increasing number of women who have married in good faith but have been forced into prostitution once they have arrived in Norway or Denmark turn to them. An employee at a Danish crisis centre describes the experience of a Polish woman. "He had a special room in the Photo: Morten Andersen/Samfoto house. When she was to enter this room, she would be called something else than her real name. Then a number of men would arrive. And that’s where her vocabulary ended." However, the experience of this Polish woman is far from a typical example of a woman who enters the Danish sex industry. A great majority of the women who come to Denmark know very well that they are going to work in sexual services. A day in June 1999 Yveta from the 8 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

Czech republic for the first time stepped being sentenced is small. In addition, known criminals. On the contrary, the into a car in Denmark to a man who the mafia groups are very brutal in their hard core of the network consisted of a wanted to buy sex from her. He was ways of doing business. There have, for managing director and an IT expert, a "old, dirty and ugly" and it was her very example, been reports and eyewitness married couple with a dog kennel, a bus first sex job. testimonials of prostitution concentra- driver and his wife, an artist and a hair- "I have a second-hand shop and tion camps in Poland, Albania and Italy dresser. there were simply so many things that among other places, where women from in Denmark who need had to be paid," explains Yveta two Eastern Europe, the Baltic countries and employees can thus also pay and use an years later in her cosy flat in the Czech Russia have been kept imprisoned increasing number of agencies and pri- republic. behind barbed wire, raped, starved and vate persons in the Baltic and Eastern "I was desperate. I didn’t know what even branded by the mafia, until they European countries who specialise in to do. And then one day I went down to either have got a chance to flee or have finding young women who want to go a café near my shop, where a lot of girls been resold at an auction to local broth- abroad. These local agents speak the were sitting and talking about how they els. women’s language; they find them in, had been in Denmark and made "The brutality used is something we for example, discos, or spread the word money." in the Nordic countries would find dif- on the opportunity to work abroad in Yveta got in touch with the man ficult to conceive of" says Norwegian the local community, and then offer who had organised the trips for the girls. Jan Austad, who is expert on trafficking "help" in arranging the trip and in And then she took off for Copenhagen. at Interpol. many cases also loans for paying the "I got used to it. Of the perhaps 12 The large-scale networks character- tickets etc. The next time the Danish customers you have, 10 will sometimes istically have solid political and financial needs more women the contact take only a few minutes each," she says. contacts both in the countries where the is easily available. This is why the activ- women originate and the countries they ities can be called trafficking: the organ- Networks are transported through, as well as those ised shipment of women from one Several of Yveta’s friends have since gone where they finally end up working. country to the sex industry in another. to Norway, Sweden and Denmark by These contacts mean that they are able means of "good contacts". And every- to falsify documents that make the Sold several times where in Denmark these good contacts transportation easier. The networks get in touch with each can be seen in action. New offers for The medium-scale networks, on the other, for example, via the internet. On sexual experiences with foreign women other hand, specialise in trading women several Baltic, Russian and Eastern appear constantly – in closed-down from a certain country, and they do not European websites local agents offer to farms in the countryside, in flats and act as intermediaries. Instead, they take recruit local women to interested par- basement rooms in the cities, and in vil- care of everything themselves: they ties. las that have been converted into sex recruit and transport women, and they "We are an agency in Moldova. We clubs, such as Luna’s house on the out- have their own brothels where the have girls who are interested in sex skirts of Copenhagen. women work. work," writes an agent on one of these The people behind the sexual enter- But even if organised prostitution in sites. prises are typically organised in interna- the Nordic countries most probably can Later, in a private message, he says tional, criminal networks. Europol, who be ascribed to both large and medium- that he can get women in two weeks and for several years has worked with study- scale networks, the dominant ones are is able to help transporting them to ing the criminal networks trading in the small networks of agents. Typically, Denmark. women, groups the networks into three the small-scale networks are not run Other networks are created on the categories: large-scale, medium-scale from the top. There is no big, autocrat- basis of the criminal environment in the and small-scale. ic mafia boss who sits in his chair place where the women come from. The large-scale networks are the pulling the strings. On the contrary, Within these networks a woman can be most ‘mafia-like’ and today control these networks consist of a myriad of "sold" several times, before she crosses about 60 per cent of prostitution in individuals across country borders, who the border and finds herself in a Danish, Western Europe. They belong to the have mutual contacts and sell and buy Swedish or Norwegian brothel. Russian and Albanian mafia and trade women off each other. They are usually 19-year-old Marcela from the Czech many women at a time. The large net- so-called ordinary people, who have republic came to Sweden through such works typically have a history in drugs seen the financial opportunities offered a network. She had just met a new guy, trafficking, but have chosen to also by a steadily growing sex market. The Ivan, whom she was very much in love trade women as goods since the profit 40 people who were arrested last sum- with. He invited her to stay in a hotel in margins are high - there is a great mer by the Danish police, were thus the city of Teplice in the Czech republic, demand and supply, and the risk for neither muscular mafia types nor where he had some friends. NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 9

"One night Ivan took out a pistol 20 minutes later she is standing in are working as prostitutes voluntarily or and pointed it at me. Then he said that Luna’s Club 8. It is completely empty. A not. What the police, on the other he owed some people money and that few hours before Aija landed at Kastrup hand, have focused their investigation they would kill him, if he didn’t pay airport, the police had conducted a raid on, is whether somebody else has profit- them. Then he suggested that I would at the club and arrested the Hungarian ed from the women’s prostitution. In prostitute myself," says Marcela. She women working there. They are now Denmark, working as a prostitute is not had never sold sex before, but agreed in being questioned at the police station, a criminal act, while , that is, order to help Ivan. Soon after this, Ivan where they report that, among other making money from somebody else’s persuaded Marcela to go to Sweden to things, they have been working as pros- prostitution, is illegal. But when it continue working as a prostitute there. titutes and have paid 50 per cent of comes to this, the problem lies with the Marcela was introduced to one of Ivan’s their salary to Luna. The police prose- courts of law, the police say. At the friends, Ota, who could help with the cute the women for working without a Danish courts of law, documented travel arrangements. work permit in Denmark and put them proof of actual financial profit from "I saw Ivan give Ota 10.000 Czech on a flight back to Hungary. Luna, on procuring is needed in order for some- crowns," Marcela reports. the other hand, is not arrested. A few one to be able to be sentenced as a pro- Ota then introduced Marcela to a weeks later, Club 8 reopens – this time curer. man, Milan, who lived in Sweden but with new women from Eastern Europe, "We can go into a brothel and find was visiting the Czech republic. as the answering machine of the club working schedules and accounts, which "Milan told me that he had bought reports. This the police comment: document that a person has made, for me from Ota for 3.000 German marks," "We have been in touch with the example, a million crowns in a year. But she explains. club, and they say that they show films, when the defendant stands before the Three days later Marcela was in but that there is no prostitution going judge, he can deduct costs for toilet Stockholm. on." paper, coffee and what not and thus "We had sex in the customers’ cars Until recently, statements and lines prove that the actual profit wasn’t that or in their homes. Afterwards we hand- of action like these were the norm with- big in the end. And so he is let off, since ed over all the money we had earned," in the Danish police. The reason for this he hasn’t made any money out of the she says. was partly the Danish legislation – and prostitution," says criminal inspector Marcela herself never got any money partly the beliefs within the police force Kurt Jensen at the Copenhagen police. for her prostitution. Milan took every- about what constitutes trafficking in On these grounds, there have been very thing. women. few court trials of procuring in "But it was never said that I would Denmark in relation to the number of not be able to keep the money myself," Procuring pimps that probably operate in the she says. Until recently, the Danish police country. claimed that no actual organised use of However, with the latest case, where Fifty, fifty prostituted foreign women takes place the police revealed a network of 40 Aija from Latvia, on the other hand, will to any great extent in Denmark. The agents who trafficked in Baltic women, not be cheated of a good salary, Luna main reason for this was that foreign this trend is now undergoing a change. promises her on the phone. women who were arrested for working For the first time in Denmark, the "In two weeks you can make per- as prostitutes did not give information police chose to charge the suspects with haps 30.000 Danish crowns," Luna that they were victims of what that the smuggling of people and empha- says. police normally take to be activities sised in their prosecution that the She also explains to Aija that she will associated with trafficking in women: women, in spite of their voluntary par- take half of Aija’s salary for board and i.e., actual forced labour, physical vio- ticipation, had been treated as goods lodging: "Let’s say fifty fifty… (…) … lence and theft of passport and personal according to the whims of the agents You get half and I get half." documents. The women have arrived in and had not been able to set their own So a few weeks later Aija sits in the the country voluntarily; they are basical- working conditions. The case resulted blue chair of Air Baltic’s flight BT 113 ly able to move around freely, as they in a sentence of a total of ten years and headed for Copenhagen. When she choose, and they even get paid for their six months imprisonment for five peo- arrives at Kastrup airport she carefully work. How the women have entered the ple. However, this did not help the follows Luna’s advice. She has a credit country, who has arranged their travel Baltic women. They were, as is custom- card, a hotel room and her good expla- and whether the women are paying off a ary, sent back home. nations at hand. Aija passes through the debt to these people are questions that ULRIKKE MOUSTGAARD works as reporter at the Danish passport control without any have not been the primary concern of Danish daily newspaper Dagbladet Information and has written the book Kroppe over grænser – når kvinder handles til problems. She gets into a taxi, asks the the police, since they have assumed that Danmark [Bodies across borders – when women are traded to driver to call Luna’s mobile number and the crucial issue is whether the women Denmark] Informations Forlag, Copenhagen, 2001. 10 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

Principal image of the IOM Anti-trafficing campaign in the Baltic States, financed by SIDA. NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 11

"You will be sold like a doll"

by AUDRA SIPAVICIENE

"You will be sold like a doll" – warns a puppet-girl in outdoor posters currently displayed all over Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian cities. "Do not trust easy money abroad" – she urges again, appearing on TV screens. This human marionette hung from her bare skin is used as the main image in an information campaign launched to prevent trafficking in women from the Baltic States and is designed to convey the situation of a trafficked girl – manipulated, coerced, helpless and in pain. The coordinator of the campaign – the International Organization for Migration (IOM) - says that more and more women from the Baltic States find themselves in the traps laid by traffickers. Research by the IOM indicates that, besides other western European countries, the Nordic countries have recently also become a destination for trafficking of women from the Baltic region.

he issue of trafficking in Unfortunately, until recently implement the Project "Research, women in the Baltic States research on this subject was significant- Information and Legislation on T and especially in Lithuania ly lacking. Any available information Trafficking in Women in the Baltic has recently attracted a great deal of pertaining to the trade - which was States". In this framework, a pilot proj- attention from the media, government quite fragmentary - usually reflected the ect was carried out, consisting of studies agencies, NGOs, and certain interna- attitude of the organisation from which on legal and social aspects of trafficking tional organisations. This complex, sen- it originated. For example that emerg- in women in the Baltic region and a sitive and hidden phenomenon is a fair- ing from law enforcement institutions public opinion poll on the issue. The ly recent issue in the Baltic States, owing was rather negative whilst that of the project was carried out with the finan- its novelty to the newly acquired free- NGOs was very sympathetic. Too little cial contribution from the Finnish and dom of international travelling from was known about the phenomenon in U.S. governments and further support- these parts, and the introduction of a order to be able to deal with it effective- ed by SIDA (Swedish International market economy. Despite the recent ly, to prevent and combat trafficking in Development Cooperation Agency). emergence of the issue in the Baltic women. This situation, as well as the The aim of the sociological element region, it is an urgent and increasing address by the Baltic governments was of the research project was to explore problem, especially in Lithuania. the rationale for IOM to initiate and and extensively describe the magnitude, 12 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

Lithuanians involved in prostitution "(…) They took us to Warsaw business locally and those returned from and then already in Poland abroad; also foreign women working as one guy explained: "Stupid women in prostitution in Lithuania; girls, what housemaids could c) Practical experiments – telephone you be. There are enough inquiries to escort/call-girl agencies as local housekeepers. You will well as inquiries among employment have to make love." Then agencies about labour opportunities for Photo: Christophe Rohart/BAM/Samfoto they gave us bus tickets and women, including jobs in the entertain- put us on the bus Warsaw – ment business and employment (legal Barcelona." and illegal) abroad; d) Media analysis and secondary VICTIM OF TRAFFICKING, (IOM, 2001). data analysis (available articles, reports and materials of other organizations, including materials for needed actions). The results of this study, applying mechanism and actors of the prostitu- the methods listed above, revealed that tion and trafficking business: factors only an indirect evaluation or perhaps leading to employment in the sex busi- more accurately "guesstimates" can be ness. Below are some major results of made regarding the magnitude of the this study (IOMa 2001)1. problem. Although it is impossible to state the exact number of cases of traf- Methodology ficking in women in the Baltic region, It is rather difficult to describe the scope the study revealed the mode of the phe- and dynamics of trafficking in women, nomenon and its mechanisms - i.e. due to its largely clandestine character. "how" and "why". The nature and complexity of the prob- lem predetermined that several data The magnitude of trafficking gathering techniques and research in women in Lithuania methods should be applied. Apart from According to Lithuanian Interpol infor- statistical/archival data analysis (official mation, there is no doubt that traffick- institutions’ statistics on migration, ing in women conducted by organised labour force, missing persons, deported criminals is on the increase. Some indi- citizens etc.), the methods applied were rect evaluation of the scope and espe- predominantly qualitative, as itemised cially the dynamics of this phenomenon below: can be derived from the data pertaining a) In-depth expert survey. This to missing people, including young included such professionals as: those women/girls and on the data about providing shelter, assistance or service to deportations of Lithuanian citizens the victims of trafficking and/or sex and from other countries. entertainment industry workers; recep- Data from the Lithuanian Ministry tion centres personnel; experts from of the Interior shows that since the state institutions dealing with traffick- beginning of 1990 the number of miss- ing matters, such as the police, border ing people in Lithuania has increased guards, social workers, special medical significantly and for the past few years it personnel, etc. The experts referred to in has stabilised at a rather high level. what follows are from these institutions. Regrettably, the number of those "not Even though the experts represented found" has also stabilised at about 400 very different spheres and organizations, persons per year. With regard to missing interviews were carried out based on young women under 30, the tendency is general guidelines, so as to achieve com- similar - over the past few years the parability and a balanced view of the numbers of missing women have different aspects related to trafficking; increased, including those who have not b) Interviews with victims of traf- been found. ficking and sex workers – both Of course only a portion of all the NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 13

missing women are victims of traffick- ing. In fact, most of the victims of traf- “I’ve heard all these stories ficking do inform their relatives/friends about trafficking, but it did about their departure (usually not men- not even occur to me, that I tioning or not themselves knowing the was going to fall into that real purpose of travel). Therefore the trap. I did not trust all these above data may be relevant only in a few advertisements, I did not cases. move with unknown people, I Data from the Lithuanian Border thought I knew where I Guard Service (Ministry of the Interior) myself am going and what I on deportations of Lithuanian citizens will do there. I moved to from abroad may appear more informa- Germany together with my tive, since the majority of "friend". On arrival 4 prostitutes/trafficking victims detained Albanians met us and my abroad are deported. First of all, a sig- "friend" sold me for, I think, nificant increase in numbers over the 1,000 USD. He took the past few years can be observed. money and left me without According to this information, in 1999 saying a word. Later these the total number of deportations to Albanians explained that I Lithuania amounted to 1,928 people. was sold and I would have to In 2000 it nearly doubled (3,498). The work as a prostitute to repay year 2001 continues this tendency of the debt. Of course I opposed increase – 4,133 persons from Lithuania and wanted to leave, so they were deported by foreign countries dur- beat me so severely that I ing the last year. recovered only after 10 days. The actual number of expulsions of During all those 10 days they Lithuanian citizens from foreign coun- kept me at their place and I tries may be much higher, since only was raped many times. I was expulsions with formally issued depor- alone and no one could help tation documents are registered. Most me.“ people are deported due to overstaying, or their presence becomes illegal MARIJA, 24-YEAR-OLD LITHUANIAN, HIGHER EDUCATION, PLUS SECRE- because of illegal employment. TARY’S DIPLOMA. (IOM 2001) Trafficking as a reason for expulsion is never mentioned, even if it is known about the person. Therefore numbers of deportation may only suggest tenden- Germany alone, the number of criminal cies, not provide statistics. cases which deal with women trafficked The United Kingdom and Germany from Lithuania has doubled during the are the absolute leaders among the year 1999-2000. In trafficking cases in countries comprising trafficking desti- German courts Lithuania has taken a nations, followed by the Nordic coun- lead over much bigger countries such as tries and the Netherlands. If, some years Russia, the Ukraine and Poland, which ago the main trafficking flows were are considered the main suppliers of directed to , Greece, the United women for working in prostitution in Arab Emirates and Turkey, recently the Germany. According to experts at the prostitution business has turned to Vilnius Airport Border Guard service Germany, Holland, UK, France and every second flight from Germany now Sweden. According to the latest infor- brings women who are suspected of mation from the Police Department, being engaged in prostitution. Spain is rapidly becoming the new tar- In sum, it is possible to assert that get country. The increase in trafficking most official numbers are quite contra- cases has also been noted in some "tra- dictory. On the one hand, they do not ditional" reception countries, such as include a large part of returned traffick- the U.K., Denmark and Germany. In ing victims; on the other hand, foreign- 14 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002 Photo: Morten Andersen/Samfoto

ers holding false Lithuanian passports money makes people forget and disre- managed to escape from the trap of are included. Despite all these contra- gard moral standards of intercommuni- pimps, dare take their case to the courts. dictions, experts interviewed in this cation: nobody thinks of the harm done They are ashamed of what has hap- IOM study express the opinion that to others. As compared with other pened to them; frequently they are trafficking in women from Lithuania is countries in central Europe, Lithuanian frightened and threatened. It takes a increasing and becoming a real, urgent women are frequently cheaper and do long time for the case to be investigated problem. not know their rights so well, so they in court and the traffickers often man- cannot defend themselves. Therefore age to get away unsentenced. Out of 27 The reasons for women’s they are in great demand. trafficking cases which reached the migration and for trafficking In the opinion of some of the courts in Lithuania over more than in women experts, the old patriarchal culture of three years, only one trafficker was sen- According to the experts, the main rea- Lithuania has a significant effect on the tenced. sons for women’s migration are eco- development of the business of trading Expanding prostitution, and enter- nomic. Firstly there is a high level of in women in Lithuania as well. It seems tainment business in general, in the unemployment in Lithuania. Poverty quite normal for a man to have the right countries of destination (i.e., demand) makes them look for any, even elemen- to dispose of a woman in any way he as well as in countries of origin (supply) tary source of income, and, as was indi- wants, as he feels superior to her. Hence, may be evaluated as additional factors cated by one trafficking victim "one if he thinks that a woman can provide stimulating cross-border trafficking. would clutch at straws to survive". pleasure to a man, he finds it quite nat- Secondly there is an absence of any ural to make use of the fact, simply to The recruitment realistic prospects for a better life. Even sell her. Women from asocial families of trafficking victims people with employment hardly have appear to be in the most disadvantaged Currently one of the main ways of enough means for a modest living. situation. involving women in the prostitution Wages are low (and further, women earn Though officially discrimination of business abroad is by means of decep- a 1.4 times lower salary than men) and women does not exist in Lithuania, it tion or promises. Girls are offered a young girl without higher education can be observed in everyday life, for employment in foreign countries as au has very few possibilities to earn the example, in employment situations. pairs, nurses, or to do agricultural work. kind of money, for example, required Lithuanian Labour Exchange statistics They find such offers either in newspa- for buying a flat. Stories abound about indicate that in general women earn less per ads or through acquaintances. Upon how much one can earn abroad during than men working at the same job. The arriving by themselves, or having been a summer, a year. This is also an incen- Law on Equal Opportunities of Women trafficked to the country of destination, tive to go and look for a better life in and Men came into force on December they find out that the work they had foreign countries. The effect of success 1st, 1998 in Lithuania. Nevertheless, been offered is in reality prostitution. stories is not tempered by awareness of the deep-rooted patriarchal attitudes to Women, who prior to being taken away, the difficulties experienced by women women as inferior members of society "suspect" that they might be offered to entering the trade. do not change very quickly. work in prostitution abroad, are lured More over, criminal interests are Another fundamental reason is the by high wages and the possibility to see involved. According to the research unaccountability of traffickers: practi- the "wide world". results, the main reason for criminals cally nobody is punished for it. The Methods of recruitment of women engaging in women’s trafficking is number of cases against traffickers in from the Baltic countries are now money, big money. All the experts were the court is really insignificant. It is changing. Several years ago the main of the same opinion: a craving for quite seldom that women who have way of finding women for traffic were NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 15

advertisements in newspapers whereby speaking about their families and rela- ficking in women. Therefore, the infor- some non-existent firm offered non- tives (however, even such a small por- mation campaign was launched by existent legitimate work abroad. tion would produce quite significant IOM to prevent further growth of the However, this type of recruitment is absolute numbers). Furthermore, many trafficking in women from the region. becoming less and less popular. more of such cases were indicated con- Nowadays recruitment becomes more cerning respondents’ acquaintances. Providing information about delicate and more personalised. Almost one in every ten young persons the dangers of trafficking Traffickers try to establish a personal in Lithuania has come across the prob- Based on the findings of the research contact with a prospective victim, to lem of trafficking in women more or project, an anti-trafficking information "become friends" and only then offer less personally: 8,8 per cent of young campaign was launched in the Baltic some "good job abroad and only for persons say that they have come across States by IOM in October 2001, and it you, since we need a reliable person". attempts to traffic girls with the purpose will go on until October this year. The Trafficked girls’ stories indicate that it of prostitution and these cases appeared purpose of the project is not only to was people quite close to them who among their acquaintances, colleagues, increase the awareness of the dangers of offered them a "job" abroad – an friends, relatives or family members. trafficking among the general popula- acquaintance, friend or even a so-called Among the general population of tion, but also to educate potential vic- boyfriend. When recruiting women, Lithuania 5,6 per cent of all people have tims to give a proper response to traf- traffickers now tend to offer precisely personally come across trafficking in fickers: what to do/not to do before those forms of contact and recruitment women. These findings are alarming. going to work abroad and when already which most people would consider to be Meanwhile, public awareness of the in a foreign country. the most innocuous – people intending problem is low in Lithuania as well as in The main concept-image of the to work abroad would first rely on the the other Baltic countries. According to campaign – the "human marionette" recommendations of friends, acquain- the research data, most respondents are hung from her bare skin – warns: "You tances or relatives. This peculiarity was not aware of the dangers of trafficking may be sold like a doll if you blindly revealed by analysing the results of the and would not know where to appeal believe in easy money abroad". The public opinion poll carried out by IOM for help in a difficult situation. Nearly information campaign began with the in the Baltic States (IOMb 2001). one quarter of the Lithuanians, a slight- distribution to public advertising spaces ly higher proportion of Latvians and in Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian Public perceptions one third of the Estonians consulted cities and went on with TV and radio of trafficking in women mentioned that they would not know spots. Print media, indoor posters, One of the most important tasks of the what to do (or would not do anything) leaflets, fact-sheets and other printed public opinion survey was to establish if a close relative was forced to engage in materials are being prepared. In order to the respondent’s personal experiences prostitution abroad. The findings of the further increase public awareness of the related to women trafficked by force. public opinion survey indicated an issue, special lectures on the dangers of According to the respondents, such urgent need for informing people in the trafficking and appropriate responses to cases comprise tenths of a per cent Baltic region about the dangers of traf- these dangers are given to the most vul- nerable groups during country-wide GERMANY: Country of origin of trafficking victims tours at secondary and special schools, (number of cases in courts, 1999-2000) orphanages, and other educational insti- tutions. The project also includes net- working activities - workshops, meet- ings and seminars aimed to strengthen co-operation between government organisations and NGOs involved in the issue, as well as increase the partici- pation of journalists and media coverage of trafficking in women.

AUDRA SIPAVICIENE Ph.D., Head of International Organization for Migration (IOM) Vilnius Office REFERENCES: IOMa 2001: International Organization for Migration SSIA "Trafficking in Women and Prostitution in the Baltic States: RU Social and Legal Aspects", 2001. POLAND CZECN LATVIA LITHUANIA UKRAINE THAILAND IOMb 2001: International organization for Migration: Public Perception and Awareness on Trafficking in Women in the Baltic States", 2001. 16 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002 Nordic-Baltic campaign against trafficking in Women

By TRINE LYNGGARD During the Women and Democracy ation. This article obliges the member Conference in Vilnius, Lithuania in states to co-operate through education, June 2001 the Nordic and Baltic social, cultural and legislative measures - Daily I pick up leaflets Ministers responsible for questions con- to stop the demand which creates all at the university campus cerning decided to run a forms of exploitation of human beings, joint information campaign against traf- of women and children, and especially and at bus stops adver- ficking in women. Later the Ministries young girls, and which lies at the root of tising for girls to highly of Justice also joined in. Although there trafficking in human beings. paid, easy jobs abroad are differences in policy on the issue of – In this way, the information cam- prostitution among the eight countries, paign can be a first step in co-operation where no skills are the Nordic-Baltic working group has on concrete measures to combat the required, not even fluen- agreed to base the campaign on the def- criminal activity of trafficking in cy in English. The salaries inition on trafficking in women women. I also want to emphasise the described in article 3 of the so-called importance of this inter-disciplinary co- that are being promised Palermo-Protocol, the UN Protocol to operation between gender equality units for these "easy" jobs can Prevent, Suppress and Punish and the justice and police units. The Trafficking in Persons, Especially problem of trafficking in women has a be up to six times the Women and Children. This definition social and a gender equality dimension average salary in Estonia, takes into consideration the actual reali- that must be integrated with the legisla- says Kristiina Luht, co- ty of women who are trafficked for pros- tion and law enforcement measures. titution. Trafficking can take place by The impact of , which ordinator in Estonia for means of, among others, force, decep- makes women into sexual objects, must a joint Nordic-Baltic tion and abduction, but traffickers, who be understood by the different authori- abuse their power or a victim’s vulnera- ties involved, such as immigration, information campaign to bility, will also be criminally liable. The police and the judicial system in order combat trafficking in definition specifically mentions that the for them to treat the women with women. The Nordic coun- consent of a victim is irrelevant to the respect and as victims of criminal activ- prosecution of traffickers. ity, and not as means for investigating a tries are more and more criminal case, says Anne Berit Mong frequently the destina- Stop the demand Haug. tion for young girls being The Nordic-Baltic working group responsible for the campaign is led by Targeting potential buyers trafficked for the pur- Norway, which now has the presidency The campaign’s project co-ordinator pose of prostitution, and in the Nordic Council of Ministers. Gunilla Ekberg from Sweden is a lawyer Anne Berit Mong Haug from the with international NGO-experience in many of these girls and Norwegian Ministry of Child and combating trafficking in women; she women come from the Family Welfare is chairing the working works closely with the national co-ordi- Baltic and Eastern group. She refers to article 9,5 in the nators in each of the eight countries. UN/Palermo Protocol as an important She says that each country will carry out European countries. guideline for this Nordic-Baltic co-oper- an information campaign adjusted to NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 17

the specific situation in their country. approached in this sensitive issue. into prostitution abroad. – As, roughly speaking, the Baltic – Because of the poverty and some- – One typical example of women states are ’sending’ countries or coun- times lack of educational opportunities recruited by traffickers is girls from rural tries of origin and the Nordic countries it is only natural that young people villages, who come to Riga hoping to are recipient countries, the target groups dream of starting a good life somewhere find a job in the capital and start a new and the profiles of the campaigns will else. Therefore, it is very important how life. Usually the newcomers gather near differ. In some of the Nordic countries we approach the young girls. We must the central bus station in Riga. And the focus will be on the buyer of sexual realise that the girls want to go abroad there the girl accidentally meets a very services. In Sweden, for example, we anyway, either for the adventure or for gentle guy who becomes her friend and will target the men who exploit women the good money. So we will have to tell spends money on her, and she starts to and girls sexually and men who travel to them and people who can affect them, trust him. In most cases girls are traf- neighbouring countries and other coun- such as teachers, youth workers and job ficked with the help of so-called job- tries to buy women and girls. The cam- counsellors, how to work or study offering organisations. At first they ask paign will also be directed to potential abroad as safe as possible. Information the girls what they are expecting and buyers among younger men and teenage about what rights they have and how to would like to do. The girls speak very boys. This raising of the awareness get in touch with institutions that can openly and naïvely and then the organ- among potential buyers is crucial to be of help is also important, says isation, surprisingly, has the right offer combat trafficking and prostitution, Kristiina Luht, herself a M.A. student in for her! since, as long as men see it as their right Information Science. Every day she to buy women, prostitution and traf- experiences the active recruitment 6 years imprisonment ficking will go on, says Gunilla Ekberg. efforts of the traffickers. for trafficking She also underlines as an important pur- – Daily I pick up leaflets at the uni- According to the International pose of the campaign in all countries the versity campus and at bus stops adver- Organisation for Migration (IOM), raising of the awareness among the gen- tising for girls to highly paid, easy jobs Lithuania has now taken the lead in eral public and the increasing of the abroad where no skills are needed, not trafficking cases in German courts over knowledge on prostitution and traffick- even fluency in English. The salaries much bigger countries like Russia, the ing in order to strengthen the efforts of that are being promised for these "easy" Ukraine and Poland, which are consid- both governments and NGOs. jobs can be up to six times the average ered the main suppliers of women for salary in Estonia, says Kristiina Luht. . The Mapping the situation Unfortunately too many girls eagerly Lithuanian co-ordinator for the Nordic- The Nordic-Baltic campaign will be grasp this possibility to go abroad and Baltic campaign Kristina Grachauskaite launched at a seminar in Tallinn in earn good money. says that the problem with young girls Estonia at the end of May. The first part being trafficked to western European of the campaign in Estonia will concen- New law criminalizing countries is increasing, and that the sit- trate on what co-ordinator Kristiina traffickers uation in the rural regions is especially Luht calls ‘mapping the situation’: Also the Latvian campaign co-ordinator serious. Here, the high unemployment – The awareness and attitudes Elina Laiveniece points to the extensive rate combined with lack of information among key groups will be investigated, prostitution in Latvia itself as part of the about the problems and risks connected such as the police, border guards and problem. Latvia has an estimated num- with travelling abroad makes the need female high school students. Our overall ber of 10 000 women in prostitution for an information campaign acute. The aim is to introduce the concept of traf- out of which 75 per cent are Russian government of Lithuania has newly ficking in women, its reasons and con- women. Prostitution is regulated by law adopted a National program on preven- sequences. There is a widespread igno- in Latvia and five cities have specific tion and control of trafficking in human rance and lack of public debate and streets appointed for prostitution. In beings and prostitution. Already in media coverage analysing the roots of 2000 Latvia got a new provision to the 1999 the first law cases were filed the problem. After Estonia’s independ- criminal law, which criminalizes the against traffickers and since then the ence pornography was in a way seen as sending of a person to a foreign country amount of cases has increased every part of the freedom, since it was forbid- for the purpose of sexual exploitation year. The first verdict came this year den under the Soviet regime. So there is even if the person has given her or his when a trafficker was sentenced to six a certain culture of normalisation and consent. The trafficker can be convicted years of imprisonment for trafficking in social acceptation of pornography and to up to 4 years of imprisonment. women. prostitution. In the capital Tallinn Elina Laiveniece points to the lack alone, there are between 70 and 80 of information and experience among TRINE LYNGGARD is editor of NIKK magasin brothels, says Kristina Luht who is con- young girls coming for the rural areas to cerned with the way young people are Riga and how easily they can be tricked 18 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002 Photo: Morten Andersen/Samfoto

Between Suppression and Independence - Transnational Prostitution of BLACK

By MARLENE SPANGER

Is it adequate to approach women who migrate to richer parts of the world in order to earn money for themselves and for their families by prostitution as victims? Are there other aspects, besides the social and psychological damages, which are important to take into consideration? NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 19

ifferent views on prostitution the position as the women with liberat- titution to be legalised. I find the term exist in Denmark. The most ed sexuality. women-who-prostitute more precise for Dprevalent view on prostitution This article draws on oral sources: five my study, because it reflects an act or can be described as one of double stan- interviews with black female migrants- some discursive practice of the women’s dard: That prostitution is a private affair who-prostitute (Spanger 2000). life. The women regard prostitution as a for both buyer and seller, and further hidden survival strategy, which gives prostitution is considered as a natural Prostitution as an identity or them an opportunity to increase their thing, but at the same time the prosti- a strategy income. tute is condemned (Järvinen 1989). Prostitution is not a neutral term for the Another approach to prostitution, selling and buying of sexual services. The construction of black which is not so prevalent, but has made The term evokes certain notions on how woman’s sexuality progress within the last 10 years, con- women should express and use their sex- Even if my empirical evidence does not siders prostitution as a socio-political uality. Prostitution must be understood clearly document that various notions problem: That prostitution is rooted in in relation to a specific society and cul- of race, gender and sexuality influence social need and that women in prostitu- ture in which it exists (e.g. Nencel the prostitution of black women in tion incur social and psychological dam- 1997). More specifically, women-who- Denmark, I assume that this is an ages. Despite the slight research in prostitute should be understood from a important perspective to take into Denmark on prostitution a number of number of gender related perspectives: account. The icon of the black woman reports and books have been written the social organisation around the sexu- has changed and has been reproduced in during the last ten years, which repre- al-economic exchange between men and different discourses during the last cen- sent this view (e.g. Bechmann et al women; the production of knowledge turies (Gilman 1985). Pieterse (1992) 1990, Bjørnholk 1994, Koch 1987). about prostitution; women’s working and Gilman (1985) argues that the Furthermore, this approach has shed opportunities, etc. These are all condi- notion that black women, possessing a light on inequality between men and tions that influence the regulation of the more wild and natural sexuality and women, but in the same time the practices of prostitution and the way in having a need for sex with many men, women are often approached as victims which prostitute women are seen. was a quite common picture in the late of social misery. According to Pheterson (1996) of the 19th to the early 20th century. The subject of this article is African women-who-prostitute are often per- This notion of the sexuality of black and Central American female migrants- ceived as a homogenous group, an women still exists today, when black who-prostitute in Denmark. I approach understanding which both Kempadoo women prostitute themselves to white, this subject by focusing on two themes: and Doezema (1998) and Pheterson western men (e.g. Davidson and Taylor 1) migration and 2) notions of ‘the (1996) finds critical, because it neither 1999, Thorbek 1997). When female black woman’, which in different ways gives a complete picture nor a nuanced black migrants represent ’the foreigner’, enclose the living conditions of these representation of the women’s lives. this can simultaneously seem both women. Here gender, sexuality and race Inspired in general by the social con- attractive and dangerous; the fear for will be considered as social construc- structivist approach, and more specifi- sexually transmitted diseases, especially tions linked to specific contexts in cally by Lorraine Nencel’s (1997) disser- AIDS, but also fantasies about the sexu- which both prostitutes and clients are tation on prostitution in Peru, I should ally unknown play a role in this. These acting individuals in the construction of like to emphasise that I will not refer to notions of black women are, for exam- the so-called special ‘authentic’ sexuality the women as prostitutes, because the ple, used in travel advertisements and of the black woman. It is my intention term prostitute reflects an identity more contribute to the stimulation of ’the to destabilise or hopefully draw a more than an act. The women I have spoken white western mens’ desire for the sexu- nuanced picture of coloured women, to do not recognise themselves as prosti- ally Other. which not necessarily keep them in the tutes but rather as women who occa- That the black women-who-prosti- position as the victimised woman or in sionally sell sex. Nor do they wish pros- tute advertise themselves in the Danish 20 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

newspapers and magazines under the Between South Africa, Århus, Amsterdam together with her husband term: ‘exotic’, ‘mulatto babe’ or ‘choco- Ålborg and Copenhagen: and four-year-old daughter. She is the late-brown’ reflects an emphasis on the Julia is in her late 30’s and comes from only one out of a family of nine children colour of their skin, on how they look, Johannesburg in South Africa. She has who managed to get some education and on their body, which may be under- five children who live with her in before her father died, and therefore it is stood in relation to a certain discourse. Johannesburg. When her first husband her duty as the eldest and the only edu- This discourse can be traced back into died in an accident at work, she was left cated child to help her brothers and sis- the past. as sole breadwinner of the family and her ters in financing their education. Later, The fact that black women exist as a salary as a teacher was not enough to when some of the other children have specific category within the sex industry support her and her five children. found work, it will in turn be their duty points to certain notions of sexuality When Julia came to Denmark, she to help the rest of their siblings. Sarah’s connected to the prostitution of black got a resident permit for two years. She husband is also from Ghana and works women. Notions, which can be very emphasises that she chose to migrate as electronics engineer in Holland. She denouncing and racists towards the because of financial reasons, and that told me that she has close contact with black female migrants, but at the same she did not have a certain kind of work her relatives in Ghana - sisters, brothers time these notions can give the women in mind when she moved. Through her and mother - and she takes on an eco- a kind of anonymity, because through uncle, who lives in Denmark, she learnt nomic responsibility towards her family, their mobility they can hide and hope- about the country. It was also through which means that she sends remittances fully live an undisturbed life. him that she met her present Danish back to them. The women I have spoken to during husband. They live in Århus. It was in In Amsterdam, Sarah got a job at the my fieldwork did all define themselves Denmark that Julia first started to work post office, but her salary was not suffi- as black towards me despite that they as a prostitute, when a Danish woman cient to cover her family’s expenses for came from different African or Central introduced her to it. Julia makes it clear school fees, hospital visits, etc. This is American states. That is also a reason to me that her profession is not that of a why she started doing this ‘thing’, as she why I have chosen to use the term black prostitute, but of a teacher. However, described her work in Copenhagen. She instead of refering to them as for exam- she is not proficient enough in Danish works for about one to two months at a ple Ghanian or South African women. to be able to teach in Denmark. time in Copenhagen, then goes back to At no point during the interview Amsterdam and returns to Copenhagen Transnational prostitution does she use the term prostitute, but after two or three months. She cannot Transnational prostitution is global. It is refers to prostitution as ‘that’. Several work for a longer period at a time since a concern, it involves women from poor- times she underscores the economic she is also responsible for the running of er parts of the world, with limited oppor- aspect as her only reason for working as their household and taking care of their tunities for increasing their income but a prostitute. Apart from the prostitu- daughter. Sarah emphasises ‘that’ ’the with a duty to support a large part of tion, she cleans for a few hours in vari- way in which she makes money’ in their family. More or less voluntarily they ous places and the cleaning work func- Copenhagen is not a permanent or full- choose to migrate to a richer part of the tions as a cover for the prostitution. time job, and therefore she does not world, where the opportunities for an Julia has contacts at several massage par- regard herself as a prostitute, but increased income are better. For these lours both in Århus and in Copen- describes prostitution as that, which she women, prostitution becomes a more or hagen, which means that she commutes only does every now and then. Her hus- less deliberate survival strategy. between Århus, Copenhagen and Ål- band knows that she works in Copen- During my interviews with the borg. Julia underlines that neither her hagen, as a kind of hostess, but she has interviewees, I focused on their life con- uncle, her husband nor her family in not told him about the prostitution. dition in general and not specifically on South Africa know anything about the This part of her work is easier to hide prostitution because I wished to place prostitution. She simply says that she when she works far away from her home prostitution in a broad context. My works as a cleaner, which she actually base. Working in another city in Europe questions are divided into three themes: does a few times a week. gives her better opportunities to become 1) Migration process 2) Everyday life 3) anonymous. The deliberate choice of Conditions of prostitution (also called: Between Copenhagen, Ghana working place illustrates that she is hid- the way they earn money). By focusing and Amsterdam: ing from her family, relatives and friends on their situation in general, I hoped to Sarah lives in Amsterdam, but works how she earns the money. avoid denouncing the women, and periodically as hostess in a bar in Copen- simultaneously show interest in under- hagen. She talks to the male guests and Mobility standing why they prostitute. Below, I solicits her customers among them. These two stories represent different will present two cases. Sarah is in her early 40’s and comes migration patterns and at the same time from Ghana. Today she lives in the stories contain similar features. Both NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 21

women have a certain duty to support women have to increase their income. meant a greater independence. Their their children, parents and/or brothers For some, prostitution serves as a step- income from prostitution has made and sisters, and both had personal con- ping-stone to improving their living them breadwinners, which has given tacts in Denmark before migrating. The conditions; others never succeed in them greater esteem and an improved women’s economic responsibility to- breaking out of it. position within their family. However, wards their families and the involve- the size of the income from prostitution ment of the family members in the Between suppression and does probably vary among the women. migration process make the migration a independence At the same time, prostitution may family strategy and not an individual For both Sarah and Julia, prostitution is very easily place the women in a vulner- strategy despite the fact that only one something that is not talked about, but a able position, since they have no rights person actually moves. In Sarah and hidden act that is carried out in secret. to plead in case of abuse and violence by Julia’s cases, their migration happens Furthermore, neither of the women customers and pimps. On the other between several bases and across one or refers to themselves as ’prostitutes’. The hand, their anonymous position enables two country borders, which denotes a fact that prostitution is not mentioned them to avoid bureaucratic systems and relatively high degree of mobility. This among the women in the interviews can the duties imposed by these. However, contributes to securing their anonymity. be seen as a kind of cover mechanism, this also means that it might be difficult Migrants engage in more than one which aims at ’anonymising’ the prosti- for the women to receive the help that society, but at the same time they feel tution for themselves, their family and the Danish public system can offer. that they are not fully part of either of friends. Thus, these women are fully Thus, the women are anonymous in the societies, since they have neither aware of the action itself - the selling of various ways and for various groups, but totally left their ’original’ society nor sexual services - but by not mentioning at the same time their appearance as fully integrated into their new society it, they presumably hope to avoid the black women means that they are also (Smith 1994, 20). On the other hand, stigma of being ’socially deviant’. Their elementarily visible in Danish society. migrants create social spaces between mobility enables the women to create MARLENE SPANGER the sending and the receiving countries, and maintain a social network across M.A. in History and Int. Development Studies, ass. editor of the where meaningful social practices are country borders. For them, prostitution Danish journal for gender research "Kvinder, Køn og forskning. produced and identities constructed is exclusively a hidden survival strategy, REFERENCES (Malkki 1992, 37-38). The women which not only concerns the individual Bechmann, Torben et al. (1990): Prostitution i Danmark []. Socialforskningsinstituttet. move between two or more social sys- women, but several family members. Bjørnholk, Janne (1994): Daphne-syndromet. Om følger af et liv tems, languages, cultures etc., while The earlier notion of the sexuality of i prostitution [The Daphne syndrome. On the consequence of a life in prostitution]. Sydjysk Universitetscenter, Socialområdet, they also often have different statuses black women as more ’natural’ and phys- 18/1994. and positions in the respective coun- ical still exists today within prostitution. Davidson, Julia & Taylor, Jacqueline Sanchez (1999): "Fantasy Islands: Exploring the Demand for ," in Kamala tries. In Denmark, they are ’the prosti- The idea of the sexuality of black women Kempadoo (ed.): Sun Sex and Beach. Rowman & Littlefield pub- tute’, ’the foreigner’, while they are often contributes to the anonymisation of the lishers. Gilman, Sander (1985): Black Bodies, White Bodies: Toward an regarded as ’the rich and privileged women for their customers. Presumably, Iconography of Female Sexuality in Late Nineteenth-Century Art, member of the family’ in the sending the anonymity can be tempting for the Medicine, and Literature, in Critical Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 1. Järvinen, Margaretha (1989): "Prostitution - et samfundsprob- community. When the women’s chil- women, since they can thus conceal lem," [Prostitution – a social problem] in Sex & Samfund, dren live with their family in another themselves and ensure that no outsiders 7/1989. Kempadoo, Kamala and Doezema, Jo (ed.) (1998): Global Sex city in Europe or in the sending com- interfere with their private affairs. On Workers. Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition. Routledge. munity, and the women regularly send the other hand, this racial stereotype Koch, Ida (1987): Prostitution -Om truede unge og socialt arbe- remittances back and stay in close con- reduces black women (in general) to sex- jde. Munksgaard. Malkki, Liisa (1992): "National Geographic: The Rooting of tact, they are creating social spaces ual objects and keeps them in a degraded Peoples and the Territorialization of National Identity Among across national or regional borders. position. Scholars and Refugees," in Cultural Anthropology, vol. 7 (1). Nencel, Lorraine (1997): Casting Identities, Gendered Enclosures. Even if the women are part of a larg- When prostitution is a hidden act, Women who Prostitute in Lima, Peru. [Forthcoming]. er group of women from the poorer the balance between suppression and Pheterson, Gail (1996): The Prostitution Prism. Amsterdam University Press. parts of the world, where the possibili- independence becomes very narrow. Pieterse, Jan Nederveen (1994): Hvidt på sort. Illustrerede for- ties to generate capital are limited, they Despite their socially, financially and domme ]White on black. Illustrated prejudices]. Mellemfolkeligt Samvirke. are able to maintain the connection to mentally demanding lives the women Smith, Michael Peter (1994): "Can You Imagine? Transnational their family in their home country by interviewed have a relatively high degree migration and the globalization of grassroots politics," in Social Text, 39/1994. using technological means of transport of autonomy in the organisation of their Spanger, Marlene (2001): Mellem anonymitet and synlighed. Om and communication. Thus the geo- own lives, since they are not dependent sorte kvinders transnationale prostitution i Danmark, in Kvinder, Køn & Forskning, 3/2001. graphical distances do not prevent the on pimps. They have also been able to Spanger, Marlene (2000): Transnational prostitution blandt sorte women from earning money. Prosti- influence their own migration process, in kvinder i Danmark [Transnational prostitution among black tution in Denmark is an example of one spite of their limited opportunities. For women in Denmark). Speciale, IU og historie, RUC. Thorbek, Susanne (1997): Human Rights and Bodies: Sex, Race, of the few opportunities that the some of the women, prostitution has Sexuality. Paper for the Researcher Training Course. 22 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002 Why do men buy sex?

The Interview: Professor Sven-Axel Månsson, Sweden Photo: Johan Hedenström

By MARIA JACOBSON

During the spring of 2002 he has appeared almost weekly in the Swedish media, where, with patient didacticism he has defended a Swedish law criminalizing the customer in the sex trade. Sven-Axel Månsson, Professor of Social Work at Gothenburg University in Sweden, has been fighting for this law for over 20 years. The Interview NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 23

his law has been on the statute Månsson, the Swedish grand old committee for the first Swedish state books for three years now. It man in research on gender, violence, investigation into prostitution. T was challenged both before sexuality and prostitution has used the – The state investigation caused and after it was introduced, as well in concept of invasion: we are invaded by some commotion. It analysed prostituti- Sweden as internationally. Two years conservative, "phallocentrically whore- on in a new way: on one hand, it was after its introduction, however, 80 per fied" sex. seen as a reflection of the normal relati- cent of Swedes said that they were satis- ons between men and women in society fied with the law. The 1970’s: Black Business as a whole; on the other, it emphasised Today though, many are beginning Sven-Axel Månsson has studied prosti- the role and responsibilities of men in to question the extent to which the law tution since the mid-70’s. It all started the sex industry, says Månsson, is actually being enforced. Investigations with an investigation into the nightclub But the Chair of the committee, a into the legal system have revealed that culture of Malmö for the social authori- right wing politician, disagreed with the the law’s guardians - the police - are ties of the city, which he carried out experts on this viewpoint. Each of the actually far more likely to act to protect together with his colleague Stig Larsson. members of the investigation except one those who buy sex than they are to do was fired. Supported by feminists and justice to this law. women’s associations, Sven-Axel Sven-Axel Månsson gives us his Månsson and others subsequently pub- explanation: "The female body and lished an alternative report with sug- – The effects of male bonding play a sexuality would have to gested actions, which came out simulta- part in creating this situation. The poli- be exploited even more neously with the official investigation ce force is a male dominated institution, in a legalised market: report in 1981. In the same year, he which is being asked to enforce a law, competition would be as published his doctoral thesis on "the which threatens traditional male values. intense as it is in any Relation between Pimp and Prostitute". Their ability to fulfil this duty is com- other legitimate promised by the fact that policemen will commercial market." From 1984: Focussing on men be far more likely to identify with the So far, Månsson had studied the ‘sellers’ buyers of sex than with its vendors. of sex. His next book (also in Swedish) The morning following my meeting The result was Svarta affärer (Black came in 1984 focusing on men as buy- with Sven-Axle Månsson, I am con- Business), a report which indicated that ers of sex. Since then, he has explored fronted by hand painted signs which the sex industry had become a signifi- this theme in several books and projects, have been fastened on to the lights reg- cant social problem. The report gave rise a recent one in English called Men’s ulating the traffic on the main road I to concerns about the role and responsi- Practices in Prostitution: the Case of have to cross on my way to work: bility of Sweden’s Welfare State in this Sweden, published in 2001. A couple of STRIPTEASE! Phone 1234 56 78 90, area, which so far had regarded prostitu- times Sven-Axel Månsson has returned they exclaim. The signs are facing the tion as a question of law and order – to the women involved in prostitution flow of the traffic. A sex entrepreneur, and therefore best dealt with by the and the Malmö project, also resulting in typical for our times, has obviously police - and women involved in prosti- books and reports. Trafficking, violence identified the marketing niche of bored tution as deviant characters, as social against women, HIV and homosexuali- drivers in a traffic jam and thought: why dropouts. ty are some of his other research topics. not get them to phone a stripper while The report led to a further four-year When the second Swedish investiga- waiting for the lights to change? project on prostitution in Malmö, tion into prostitution suggested that where Sven-Axel Månsson was both both customers and prostitutes should We are spared nowhere. researcher and social worker. The aim be criminalized, Sven-Axel Månsson Sex tourism, trafficking, porn, prostitu- was to persuade women in prostitution resigned in protest. tion, Internet sex, popular sex – the to give up their activities. In 1977 – Men facing problems in their rela- world seems to have entered a sex spiral. Månsson was also asked to join the tions with women solve these by buying 24 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

sex. Thus, prostitution is a male pro- der buying sex to be a crime – but in blem. It would therefore be totally various ways they do protect men who wrong to punish women," he argues. "Men facing problems buy sex. I think this is a question of And finally in 1999 the law about sexual in their relations with identification with those men. services came into force, criminalizing women solve these A few days after my meeting with those who buy sex. by buying sex. Sven-Axel Månsson I heard him again, Thus, prostitution this time on the radio. He commented Pro-feminist law against is a male problem. on a suspected case of procuring violence It would therefore through ads in pornographic magazines, – This is a pro-feminist legislation be totally wrong which a journalist had revealed but against violence, which protects the to punish women." which the police had neither discovered most exposed women. The law is also a nor investigated. As a reaction to this, way of forcing men to stop regarding the police in Stockholm soon afterwards the female sex and the female body as a tem. Journalists are more frequently announced that a group of 15 police – a view many men have asking how the law is being enforced, officers would be assigned to work full not yet given up or come to terms with. rather than questioning the law itself. time on the hidden sex trade. The silent acceptance among the great Sweden’s second largest newspaper, mass of men is a bigger problem than Göteborgs-Posten recently showed in a Legalisation strengthens individual anti-feminists. series of articles that the police and stigmatisation – Prostitution is a specific relation prosecutors are imposing buyers of sex Internationally, the new law has caused and situation which resonates with lighter punishments than other crimi- both scepticism and curiosity. The general relations between the sexes," nals. lobby for legalising prostitution is influ- says Månsson. - Regardless of variations When the law had been in force 33 ential within the EU. The Netherlands over time and between cultures in the months, 249 men had been charged with and Germany equate prostitution with expression of dominance and subordi- buying sex – most of these for buying sex other enterprises. An absurd conse- nation, they all contain the shared view in the street. 26 had confessed and been quence of this can, for example, be that of the male right of possession of the fined without trial. 33 men had been unemployed people maybe directed to female body. In our society this is mani- sentenced to pay a fine by the court. this "profession", in the same way they fested in, amongst other things, the are to other jobs. crime of rape and other forms of violen- Identification with the buyers – One of the arguments for the lega- ce, pornography and the buying of sex. of sex lisation of prostitution is that a social The Swedish law can seem provoca- – The police are making efforts to stop recognition would free women in pro- tive, precisely because it challenges the . It is questionable stitution of the stigma and shame atta- idea of men’s freedom from responsibil- however whether this is an appropriate ched to what they do. Those who use ity and, at the same time, it problema- action. The law on buying sex is part of this argument do not consider the evi- tises masculinity - positioning men as a larger group of laws on violence dence of what it means to continually bearers of gender. against women, the so-called kvinnofrid be used for somebody else’s lust, to be As was stated at the beginning of legislation. The legal system needs to continually invaded and regarded as a this article, this law has been the object co-ordinate actions aimed at fighting all dehumanised sex. And stigmatisation is of lively debate both before and after its forms of violence against women. not the only problem associated with introduction. An opinion poll in the Furthermore, a change in attitudes prostitution, says Månsson. He is con- beginning of 2001 showed that 80 per needs to happen in male environments, vinced that legalisation strengthens stig- cent of the Swedes were satisfied with Månsson underlines. matisation of the women involved in the law. It was also revealed that if men asked prostitution. During 1999 the amount of street not to have their mail from the court of – The female body and sexuality prostitution was halved – but the trade law sent to their home address, the would have to be exploited even more in itself was not curtailed. Instead, it authorities made an exception to their a legalised market: competition would moved into flats, brothels, hotels and routines out of consideration for the be as intense as it is in any other legiti- massage parlours, a state of affairs, fact that the man was married or cohab- mate commercial market, where to be which can be used to argue that the law ited and had children. successful means screaming the loudest, is in fact a failure. However, recently – I see this as a case of male bonding offering the most dangerous, the most there has been some suggestion that the acting in the situation: the police force original products. The whore/Madonna movement of the sex industry from the is a male, homosocial, conservative envi- concept, which is to say the view of streets may be interpreted not as a fail- ronment. Of course, the police can female sexuality as bad and good, would ure of the law but rather of the legal sys- never say out loud that they don’t consi- be strengthened. The stigma of a whore NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 25

would be made into a legalised com- on to certain historically male ideals. one, which has already been completed. mercial tool. The relation between supply and • Men who abuse sex, for whom feel- demand will also be explored. Why do men buy sex? ings and certain behaviours are chan- – It is not a simple fact that demand Women in the sex market are profiled in nelled through sexuality. is the driving force, Månsson says. a stereotypical way, often with racist Other categories have been formu- – The exploitation of poor women leads overtones, "wild, untamed" African lated by, for example, the Norwegian to a large supply and competition. This, women are an example of animalisation, sociologists Prieur and Taksdal: in its turn, increases the risk of exposu- whilst representations of "humble" re and as a consequence, more "extre- Asian women are designed to stimulate • "Losers" – traditional men who are me" services are offered, among other the fantasies of the customers. Men, on frustrated with the fact that the conven- places, on the Internet. the other hand, appear as more anony- tional relations between men and – It is the market that is the driving mous. Sven-Axel Månsson has inter- women are changing and seek the well- force. Demand is defined by the services viewed many men and identified some known model of dominance and subor- produced, not vice versa, which contra- of their reasons for buying sex, placing dination. dicts certain popular traditional market them into categories as follows: theories. • "Fiddlers" – usually younger men He sees the Internet as a good exam- • Men who live in a relationship and who are not capable of maintaining real ple of how the logistics of the sex indus- seek something different. relationships and who regard sex as any try have changed during the latter half – These men feel that the relations- other form of consumption, a kind of of the 20th century. hip does not function and that their sex McSex without context. Their view of – The breeding ground for the sex life is dissatisfying. Buying sex gives a sexuality is defined by pornography and trade lies in poverty and the suppression moment of undemanding diversion. violence. of women. Package tours, and later This group also includes men with business travel, has led to sex tourism. sexual wishes and fantasies that they For many women in poor countries this cannot, or dare not, express to their "The boundary was the first step on their way to brot- partner. Fantasies of the "whore" seem between the supply hels and sex trade in Europe, the USA as important as the actual encounter of sexual services and and other countries. The boundary bet- with a prostitute. The whore is always household services is ween the supply of sexual services and available for male satisfaction. She is very vague within household services is very vague within both attractive and repulsive, which international trafficking international trafficking in women. arouses excitement and curiosity in in women." Together with researchers from these men. India, Thailand and Italy, Sven-Axel Månsson is involved in an additional • Men who experience problems in their Sex on the Internet research project focused on trafficking contact with women – they "cannot get – why and how? in women. women in any other way". – For the latter group the Internet – The other week I watched a pro- – The basic reason for failure in rela- means that sex is more easily available gramme on television, which investiga- tionships for these men may be shyness, than before," says Sven-Axel Månsson. - ted the au pair system. To work as an au fear, old age, physical or mental dys- Nowadays there is no need to go out pair is supposed to involve exchange function. They talk, above all, about into the streets. One can sit at home or and language learning. The programme longing for a woman, not specifically a in the office and buy sex or consume showed that the majority of au pairs in prostitute. The prostitute becomes a pornography. Sweden come from poor Eastern comfort and the purchase of sex is more According to a survey of one month European countries and work for rich an expression of loneliness and contact in 2001, every fifth Swedish man under families in the posher areas of large citi- problems than of lust. Behind all this the age of 35 visited a website directly es. They are commonly sexually haras- might also lie a wish for control of and related to sex. Sven-Axel Månsson, sed and forced to provide sexual servi- revenge on women in general. In all, together with a research team at the ces. This is a totally unregulated market this is an expression of powerlessness Department of Social Work in – and Sweden is part of it, even if we and fear, and probably confusion, rather Gothenburg, has this year started a proj- would rather ignore this fact. that desire and lust. ect looking at sex on the Internet – And what about the STRIPTEASE – These men may think that exploring why and how it happens. The signs by the traffic lights? I tore them modern women have unrealistically group co-operates with two American down on my way home. high expectations of the pace and extent researchers and the study will be com- MARIA JACOBSON of change in their attitudes, as they hold parable to a corresponding American freelance journalist, Sweden 26 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

How women in prostitution see themselves and explain their motivations

By NATALIA KHODYREVA Photo: Born/Samfoto Ketil

Massive-scale dismissals of women from large businesses, unemployment, gender discrimination when recruiting employees to highly paid jobs, as well as the commercialisation of education and health care have resulted in a feminisation of poverty during the recent period of economic trans- formation in Russia. Ousting women from the well-paid labour market has been supported by an ideology which holds that it is the "natural" fate of women to stay at home and care for the family. This renaissance of patriarchy in Russia has, naturally, affected the specificity of interpersonal relations there. In the first instance, this has resulted in a rise in the number of women specialising in the provision of sexual services to men. NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 27

ccording to different expert Another aim of the project was to exam- quately. Rather, the roles of mother, stu- opinions, there are between ine in more detail the emotional back- dent, unemployed, wife, daughter, A20 000 and 130 000 prosti- ground to prostitution and to address grand-daughter, friend, etc. are more tutes working in alone. At the the reality of the epistemological phe- pertinent to their lives. While perform- same time it is estimated that Russian nomena – so called ‘free choice’ and ing their main roles, they sometimes, and foreign men in Russia buy sexual ‘work’ – which are used to rationalise often, or from time to time, "make services for moe than 700 billions dol- the decision to take up prostitution money" by prostitution. For that reason lars per year (Khodorych & Golikova, (Davidson, 1998; Jeffrews, 1997). we introduced a new concept – "a 2001). It is alarming that prostitution in woman involved in, or earning by pros- Russia has a tendency to be: (1) the Research methods titution" (WIP). By means of this new alternative occupation for women from In our research we used both quantita- concept we would like to emphasise that the low-paid sector – such as medical tive and qualitative methods. We used prostitutes are not just an isolated, nurses, teachers, sales clerks, librarians; questionnaires with both closed and impersonal group of women. We would open questions to a large group of also like to underline that there is no women from various social groups (not borderline distinguishing the prostitute primarily identified with prostitution); from the so-called respectable woman. and non-directive in-depth interviews with eight women involved in prostitu- Opinions about prostitution tion. Parts of the questionnaire contained The questionnaires were distributed questions about the frequency, quality to 1,200 young women (13-30 years of and development of sexual relations age) which represent a quantitative rep- with unloved partners. The experience resentative sample from this age group of girls and young women answering of women living in St Petersburg. They the questionnaire demonstrates that one came from a range of social groups, in five has already had experience of including students, pupils, clients of emotionally non-reciprocal relations women's hospitals and STD clinics, with undesired partners, with the women working in bars and as strippers, respective figure of 5 per cent during the unemployed women, heterosexuals and past year (0,5 per cent of respondents lesbians etc. refused to answer this question). The eight women interviewed were The women tried to explain the rea- of different ages (from 21 to 40 years sons for their forced, alienated or unilat- old), had various levels both of educa- eral sexual relations with an unattractive tion (secondary and higher) and materi- partner. The women have built a rating al status (low and middle class). We of material and other values which, in (2) (for students) the way to pay both would like to note that we chose a group their opinion, "justify" their entering for one’s education and recreation; and of women who predominantly work into sexual relations with an unloved (3) the main source of income for needy without pimps and are not dependent partner (in past or in future). The mothers and their children, drug- on drugs. Some of these women had motives include: 1) escape from the addicts and single women. One may their first experience in prostitution threat of violence directed at herself or conclude that young women have by through the agency of various pimps her family members; 2) some noble now lost access to the culture of self- (some of them were their lovers) and intentions, such as earning money to preservation and the values of recognis- later worked independently. At the time pay for the medical treatment of family ing that health is a priority that were of interviewing, most of them worked members; 3) consideration for funda- widely available to them before the peri- independently. One of our interviewers mental material values – their own pri- od of economic transition in Russia was a former prostitute who now works vate accommodation, stable earnings, (Shilova, 2000). as a psychologist. Thus, the personal well-paid job, lots of money to spend; 4) The purpose of our research was to experience of the researcher was includ- then "the child" is mentioned, followed explore the phenomenon of prostitution ed in the process of interviewing. by 5) "the desire to take revenge on in present-day Russia and to highlight it We tried to avoid the term "prosti- some other man". The sixth motive on a broader scale as a problem which tute" as this notion does not charac- mentioned is that of moving abroad for concerns gender relations generally. terise our research participants ade- permanent residence or entertainment 28 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

trips abroad. All this is an indirect indi- we tried to focus on the decision-mak- extremely accessible, publicly open and cation of the fact that the stated needs ing process leading to the person's widely disseminated amongst the popu- are not otherwise accessible to women "choice" to engage in prostitution. All lation. and that they wish to obtain all this by of these interviewees also filled in the way of entering into relationships with questionnaire asking for their opinions men they do not love. about prostitution. 2. Multiple violence from part- Only a small group of women The following issues were detailed in ners, clients and other men (below 0,25 per cent) noted that they their responses: violence from partners Most of our interviewees suffered repeat- would enter into such contact purely for and clients, initial experience of the ed physical and sexual violence from their getting their own sexual satisfaction. work, sexual relations, gender attitudes, husbands and their clients. We also asked an open question on attitude to prostitution, risks, feelings, "If you want to talk about violence - it the definition of prostitution, which coping strategies, etc. (Khodyreva, has always existed." yielded a variety of answers. Over a 2001). Also, the multiple risks include, in third of the respondents (35 per cent) the first place, the ignorance of men, regard prostitution as a form of com- 1. Reasons for choosing their lack of responsibility for the health modity-money relation, where the prostitution and the initial of their partners, direct physical and sex- woman's body and her sexual services circumstances leading to ual violence and violation of client's are offered in exchange for money, other this choice agreement on payment for the services. material goods or services. The second All the interviews show that the reasons most common definition was of prosti- of taking up prostitution are not only 3. Sex with the clients tution as a phenomenon proceeding related to poverty, but also to the lack of We did not find that the WIPs' work from poverty, dependence and other opportunity for combining maternity provides much pleasure for themselves. social and economic conditions un- with work, or studies with work, as well The very process of their work aroused favourable for women (10 per cent). as the fact that it is often impossible to disgust in the women, if they still had any Next in priority is the definition of earn enough money to support a satis- feelings left. These women prefer to avoid prostitution as a job and profession (7,5 factory standard of living if a woman the subject in question and to evade any per cent). Next, sharing the fourth and takes up a normal profession and description in proper language of what is the fifth positions, are definitions obtains a good education. In general, it denoted by the term "prostitution" and including moral judgement of this phe- is so easy to become a prostitute: every- what specific functional and emotional nomenon (negative mostly) and psycho- thing around invites you to take it up. experience lies behind it. The WIPs are, logical reasons and motives inducing There are plenty of consistently ready in fact, devoid of real sexual pleasure in women to take up prostitution (7 per and willing clients - those just driving their lives. cent). Sexual relations with a person for around in their cars; those specifically "Sex was never a joy for me." whom the woman has no affection, but watching for you; drivers engaged in "Prostitutes don't get pleasure from it". has entered into for the sake of con- carrier's trade and long-distance drivers. " It seems to me, this is virtually impossi- sumer benefit, are regarded as prostitu- All the newspapers are full of ads look- ble". tion by every third woman who partici- ing for girls: "Girls wanted, good prices pated in the study. offered!!!", etc. 4. Attitudes to prostitution There is a certain correlation The process of involvement in pros- One participant in the study suggested between the level of income and the titution also takes place through the her own way of solving the problem of individual’s assessment of prostitution. numerous agencies of the pimping insti- prostitution in Russia. She wishes to see The smaller the income, the more often tution – relatives, friends, acquaintanc- much fewer women engaged in prostitu- prostitution is regarded as a profession es, casual acquaintances. tion in our country: within commodity-money relations. "My first young man (now I recognize "Women must have better salaries; The older the respondents, the more that he was a pimp) forced me to sleep their problems should be taken care of; they they subscribe to "liberal" views of pros- with him when I did not want to and should never be denied employment, even titution. The acceptance of prostitution then gave me money for it". when they have children. Very often I was as a trade or job is related to a past expe- There is an impression that knowl- neglected because I had small children. This rience of sexual relations for money. edge of the different aspects of prostitu- society should treat women who are mothers In the in-depth interviews with the tion - regarding places, terms, relations better". eight women involved in prostitution with the police and criminal gangs - is NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 29

5. The feelings had adopted sexist views with respect to or clients. Moreover, they described neg- At the initial stage of entering non-pro- women, or they had adopted protective ative or suppressed feelings. The model fessional prostitution women still make mechanisms in order to rationalise away of patriarchal sexuality is traditionally efforts to have some feelings, but very the experience of the social disapproval characterised by the suppression of feel- soon they develop protective strategies of prostitution. One may suppose that, ings, emotions and a resultant alien- and become similar to experienced pros- as a consequence of experiencing the ation. One may say that a discourse of titutes working for hard currency. growth of prostitution at the personal liberalism and pseudo-freedom in Russia "All the feelings died away, atrophied." level, the activity will be treated more seems to have changed nothing in "There is no room for sincere feelings in the and more as a normal profession: prop- respect of traditional masculine sexuali- world of prostitution if you wish to earn erly valued within the professional ty. well." sphere. However, in this situation the Thus the very phenomenon of pros- The anonymous participants of our fact that many women experience an titution as a mechanism supporting study and the anonymous co-author of impossible choice in respect of paid patriarchy and traditional gender rela- this article had made efforts to withdraw employment is being ignored. tions has expanded and strengthened its from prostitution. Some of them suc- The criterion of free choice supposes position in Russian society. No emanci- ceeded in this attempt, others did not. that there are opportunities to earn the pation or liberation has taken place in The perception of and reflection on this same amount of money for the same this sphere. The predominant position experience was a very important factor period of time on the same terms. In of patriarchal sexuality, the promotion of for an enhanced understanding of their order to have a real equity between pros- it on the market, the forming of enor- real situation during the period of trans- titution and ordinary professions, one mous groups of male consumers enjoy- formation, and this is a first step towards has to have a broad range of adequate ing this system of entertainment is pos- further social action. alternatives. None of our women in sible only because of a certain policy prostitution (WIPs) mentioned any pos- towards the Russian and NIS women. Strengthening patriarchal sibility of choice between prostitution The destruction of the socially oriented gender relations and standard jobs. They had either been (welfare) state in Russia and the social This study indicates that many women rejected when trying to get employment, polarisation of gender promote the fem- enter into sexual relations with men they or they had failed to combine studies inisation of poverty. This policy has do not love. One in every five women and work. The salaries offered them had resulted in women being entrapped by reported having such experience in her been insufficient to meet even a subsis- the system of prostitution, both locally life. 46 per cent of these cases are related tence standard of living. They evidenced and transnationally. to initial violence from the men. On the the actual absence of any state or public other hand, about 20 per cent of the infrastructure that could provide any young women reported the experience alternatives to prostitution for girls and NATALIA KHODYREVA is researcher at the St. Petersburg of entering into sexual relations with young women. Though we cannot talk State University, Russia. She also works for the INGI Crisis unloved partners for some material and about any direct physical pressure forc- Centre for Women in St. Petersburg. non-material benefits. About a third of ing a woman to take up prostitution, REFERENCES the young women shared the point of one may conclude that in a situation Davidson, Julia O'Connel (1998). Prostitution, Power and view that trading of the female body for where the opportunity for a more or less Freedom. Cambridge, Polity Press. Jeffrews, Sheila (1997). The Idea of Prostitution. N. Melbourne, the provision of sexual services may be equivalent choice is missing, a woman Spinifex. interpreted within the framework of the can feel that she has to get involved in it. Khodorych, Alekcei & Liza Golikova (2001). "Footway and Love" (Panel da Lybov). In Money, No. 17-18, 45-51, Commersant present market relations. It is not clear, Research shows that the social profile Press. however, if they regard their own body of women in prostitution has expanded Khodyreva, Natalia (1996) " and sexual abuse in Russia". In Chr. Corrin (ed.) Women in a violent world: Feminist analyses as a commodity for that purpose. Only tremendously - from a young uneducat- and resistance across Europe. Edinburgh University Press, 27-40. one in ten women can see any relation ed mother to a student at a prestigious Khodyreva, Natalia & Maria Cvetkova (2000). "Russian Women between prostitution and women's situ- university, and including women over and the Traffic Phenomenon". In Sociologicheskie Issledovania [Sociological Research], No. 11, 141-144. ation in society. About 8 per cent 40 with higher education who neverthe- Khodyreva, Natalia (2001). "Tolerance for What? Sexuality for defined prostitution as work and a pro- less have found themselves without jobs. Whom?" Paper presented at the conference "Sexuality in Transition – 2001", Dubrovnik. fession. Most of these women have expe- Most of our respondents (excluding Reinhartz, Shulamit (1992). Feminist Methods in Social Research. rience of having sexual relations for 0,25 per cent) did not mention any N.Y., Oxford. Oxford Univ. Press. Shilova, Ludmila (2000). "Women’s Model Transformations of Self- some benefit. One can make different actual involvement or pleasure from preservation Behavior". In Sociologicheskie Issledovania assumptions regarding this: either they sex/sexual services with unloved persons [Sociological Research], No. 11, 134-140 30 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

Victims of trafficking - A journey into the world Photo: Anders Lien

By TAMARA FREEZE ted by the joyous rapture of the Russian Eastern Europe, Katya and Zhenya were New Year. But under it all, lurked a tricked by a vague local advertisement The magic and excitement of New subtle scourge upon my homeland. into taking "jobs abroad," only to find Year’s Day was strongly felt in Moscow. I was not there to enjoy the holi- themselves sexually abused and forced Sparkling snowflakes slowly fell on day. I had volunteered at the Center for into prostitution at an adult bar near shopping displays, women’s furs, and Abused Women (CAW) to help victims Copenhagen. Katya, 18, and Zhenya, pigeons’ feathers. New Year’s Day has of a new, fast-growing multi-billion-dol- 22, who had endured brutal violence always been an optimistic holiday in lar business: . After from pimps and "clients," appeared to Russia; it’s the only day in the year when arriving in Moscow from Los Angeles, I have a long list of STDs - sexually trans- Russians immerse themselves in the was assigned to the Urals Region (city of mitted deseases. To make matters hustle and bustle of festivities and in the Chelyabinsk) to provide psychological worse, both had a criminal record for euphoria of shopping, cooking, and and legal assistance to two victims of allegedly violating their visa status and playing family games. After three years trafficking in Denmark: Katya and using fraudulent documents in of living in Los Angeles, I was enchan- Zhenya. Like thousands of women in Denmark. When their brothel was rai- NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 31 of Katya and Zhenya

ded by local police, the victims were charges against the organized group that who responded to the "agency" that deported, but no criminal charges were put them in the brothel, I had a feeling recruited women for jobs in foreign filed against their abusers. Ignorant something constructive could be done. countries were missing. My trip turned ostracism and indifference awaited out to be quite an experience: police Katya and Zhenya in their native land. No support from the men officers categorically refused to cooper- So they sat in front of me, quiet and in uniform ate by providing copies of the necessary apathetic, hardly interested in me and My journey started one snowy morning documents. They citied the reason that whatever I was about to do. It is a bit- with a trip to the local police station many of the documents were "probably ter irony, I thought. Since the collapse (the GUVD). The Center for Abused already missing by now." As I exited the of the , we had sought a Women notified me that a few com- building, the guard at the door dropped better life abroad, but had found diver- plaints had been filed at that station, a sympathetic hint that the enforcement gent fortunes. Even though my accusing several work-abroad businesses officers were poorly paid and that access "patients" appeared from the start to of using fraudulent travel documenta- to the documents could be arranged if have no interest in filing criminal tion. In addition, a number of women "certain conditions" were met. The 32 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

reign of bribery and corruption at the them so routinely and painfully. I did because I realized that the notion of very doors of the Chelyabinsk GUVD expect an adamant "No," but was deter- international human rights was still an was disappointing, as I realized that mined to turn that "No" into at least a elusive subject in the region, and hope, Katya and Zhenya had no support from "Maybe." because it was no longer intangible to the men in uniform. me, as I had tasted a small bite of suc- The case still pending.. cess by helping Katya in my attempt to Breaking through In my final weeks as a CAW volunteer, I promote enforcement of laws against the bureaucratic walls did convince Katya to testify in court the horrid practice of human traffick- Just as my efforts began to take an when her case was called. Un- ing. asymptotic spiral, the case was finally fortunately, at the same time, Zhenya I realized that the victims of traf- filed in a regional court on behalf of disappeared, and even though I filed a ficking needed broader legal and politi- Katya and Zhenya. The news was missing person report with the police, cal assistance from governmental and thrilling. It took me several weeks to few, if any, efforts were made to find international agencies than was current- break through the bureaucratic walls of her. It is not clear whether she was re- ly provided. I approached the problem various law-enforcement agencies and trafficked or whether, as I sincerely of human trafficking with the aspiration finally find a civil rights lawyer to file hope, she just decided to leave to understand the cultural conventions criminal charges against the Ariadna Chelyabinsk to seek a normal life some- and psychological polarization of recruitment agency. The documents where else, of her own freewill. Even Russian society, which has changed so from the GUVD were obtained after though the criminal charges were filed rapidly in the last 10 years. The magni- someone telephoned a few officials. against Ariadna, the case is still pending. tude and importance of the trafficking The most daunting task that lay ahead Katya’s lawyer, Vasily Kravtsov, advised problem is still comparatively underesti- of me (a task which placed my her to proceed slowly with the case, mated in the Urals region, and there is encounter with corruption and bureau- since the government had declared an no clear guidance for legal professionals cracy into a rather manageable perspec- amnesty for many criminals. It on prosecution of the latter practice. tive) was that I had to explain to the vic- appeared that a few convicted traffickers One of the trafficking firms in the Perm tims the far-reaching consequences of had been released and had not been per- Region was convicted for "tax evasion," the case and convince them to testify secuted again. Even though Katya’s case but nothing else. against their traffickers. The prospect of continues almost a year after the atroci- testifying was particularly grim, since ty of her was committed, there were very few instances of victims I am hopeful that one day her perpetra- TAMARA SERGEYEVNA FREEZE from Russia is President of "Women's Triangle" (anti-trafficking organization) doing so in trafficking cases, due to the tors will be tried and convicted. and a researcher. Her current research: "European Human threat of violence. Testifying would rights law dynamics: traffickig in women." mean going to war with Russian organ- Human rights beyond the ized crime. CAW coworkers assured me Siberian terrain that this mission was one that no sane As I left the snowstorm in Chelyabinsk woman would accept and no lawyer and returned to Los Angeles, to my would support. home, I could not help but think about Nonetheless, the lawyer who ulti- Katya. There was a pessimistic feeling mately agreed to take the case seemed to in Russia that international human- have little trouble with it, but Katya and rights law was something elusive and Zhenya rejected outright the proposal intangible, beyond the Siberian terrain. that they testify in court. They looked Human rights is a fairly new concept to at me as if I were advising them to com- insular Russian communities. Chelya- mit suicide. They seemed awestruck by binsk is located fairly far from Moscow my belief that justice could be served, and it seems to me that no aspect of but they themselves were deeply disillu- international law (except commerce) sioned and enraged by the law-enforce- had touched the Ural society. I left ment practices that had backfired on Chelyabinsk with grief and hope—grief, NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 33 RACISM in the sex trade in Finland

by LAURA KEELER and MARJUT JYRKINEN

Men in Finland, like those in other western countries, can consume "exotic" sensual encoun- ters both at home and abroad. While Finland has a very small immi- grant population and tight immigration proce- dures, it is known that women are trafficked to Finland, mainly from Russian and the Baltic countries, for prostitu- tion and other forms of sex trade.

So-called "Thai massage parlors" are also sometimes sites of prostitution. Finnish men travel to well-known sex tourism destinations abroad, both in Finland’s bordering areas and in Southeast (Lammi-Taskula, 1999). While there is a large body of litera- ture on racism and a growing literature on the sex trade, little of the existing work pertains to Finland or expressly addresses the role racism plays in the sex trade. In contrast, other forms of oppression in the sex trade, such as sex-

Photo: Østergaard/BAM/Samfoto Mikkel ism and classism, are frequent topics of 34 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002 Photo: Hansen/Scanpix Helge

analysis. There are likely multiple rea- wrought by racial ideologies. ideology. While all women are assumed sons why racism receives less attention Pornography sexually stereotypes black to share the sexual nature of an unsa- in this context, one of which may be women as synonymous with carnality, tiable submissive whose sexuality is ful- that it is difficult to tease out the role it uncontrolled lust and desire, and ani- filled through violent and painful degra- plays in concert with other types of dis- mality, and consistently shows black dation, women of color have further crimination and exploitation. men as aggressive "super-sexualized" sexual attributes imposed as a conse- The purpose of this exploratory arti- studs with unnaturally large penises quence of their color. The specific effect cle was to take an initial look at racism (Dworkin, 1979; Forna, 1992; Dines, of racism in pornography in the U.S. is in the sex trade in Finland. First we 1998; Cowen & Campbell, 1994; that the woman of color's skin becomes briefly look at theories on the role of Mayall & Russell, 1993; Nelson, 1993). her main sexual part. In other words, racism in pornography and in sex The theme that people of color are more black skin is perceived as a sex organ tourism in the Caribbean as informative animal than human is pervasive. While and a sexual nature. Forna's position is examples. Then we report on our search much of the literature focuses on racial- that pornography draws on and recre- in Finnish printed media for examples ized sexual stereotypes of blacks, ates derogatory racist sexualized stereo- of how women of different nationalities Dworkin (1979) has discussed pornog- types of black people, driving them into or ethnic groups who are prostituted are raphy's portrayal of Mexican women consumers' subconscious. Part of the presented to potential clients in and men ("hot blooded senoritas", and apparatus of oppression, "Racism like Finland, and how women in other forceful men who possess an insensitive sexism is sexualized in pornography: countries are presented to potential brute sexuality, pp. 155-156). Mayall the inequality is sexualized" (1992, p. Finnish sex tourists. and Russell comment on the portrayal 106, italics added). of Asian women as "sweet young lotus Mayall and Russell (1993) noted Lessons from pornography blossoms or objects of bondage" (p. that skin color is very salient in the Feminist analysis and other research on 277). materials displayed in pornography racism in pornography can provide Dworkin maintains that every stores, and that pornography titles will insight into the role of racism in the sex despised racial group has been labeled as usually indicate when people of color trade by uncovering racialized sexual having an animal or bestial sexuality – are involved. They interpret this as stereotypes and discerning the damage this is the core paradigm of racist sexual meaning that skin color is very salient to NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 35

pornography consumers. People of Racism in the sex trade (17% of all the ads in the sample). The color are a "specialty item" in pornogra- ads in Finland majority of these referred to Thais, fol- phy, much like rape, sadomasochism, Mari-Elina Laukkanen has researched lowed by references to people of Finnish and bestiality. ads in the Finnish daily press as a forum background. There were 11 references for the sex trade (2000). In her sample to other nationalities. Racism in sex tourism of ads for prostitution, escort services, In the 2002 sample, Helsingin in the Caribbean sex shops and bars, pornographic publi- Sanomat published 723 prostitution Two works in which racism is discussed cations, and telephone sex lines she ads. Of these, 90 referred to the per- in some length as an aspect of the sex found references to the ethnic back- son's nationality or race (13% of the trade are those by Julia O'Connell ground of the women involved, espe- sample). As with the first sample, the Davidson (1996; see also O'Connell cially for women from Russia, the Baltic majority referred to Thais, followed by Davidson, 2001) and by Beverly region, or Far East Asia. Traditional references to Finns or to the "domestic" Mullings (2000). O'Connell Davidson first names, as in "Tatjana" and "Nadja or "native" (kotimainen) status of the concluded from her research on sex from St. Petersburg", were used as person. There were 13 references to tourists in Cuba that demands for sexu- nationality indicators, more so for people of other nationalities. Most of al access to local people are "generated Russian/Baltic women than for others, the ads used descriptors such as "beauti- and shaped by particular 'racialised' ide- perhaps encouraging an image of all ful", "hot","sexy", or hair color, but ologies". Sex tourism is often a means to Russian/Baltic women as being involved there were a few ads where specifically satisfy very particular sexual preferences, in prostitution. On the other hand, Thai women were referred to as "exot- racialized sexual fantasies being among "Finnishness" was a marketing point, ic". The few ads for (male) "masseurs" these. Consistent with this, Mullings too (Laukkanen, 2000, p.110-111). often indicated the person's nationality. (2000) found that sex markets in the Caribbean are segmented according to Presentation of women in Presentation of women the racialized sexual fantasy being met. prostitution in a Finnish abroad for sex tourists Racial ideologies also allow the newspaper Next, we randomly selected four client to imagine women in prostitution We examined the prostitution ads in Finnish sex magazines (out of 12 on the as "Other" and place them outside the two one-week samples of the largest shelf) that were for sale at a nearby "R- conventions that protect "good", or national newspaper, Helsingin kioski" (a national chain of convenience "their own", women. For male sex Sanomat, one from May 2001 and one stores). The first magazine had an arti- tourists in the Caribbean, local women from January 2002, for references to the cle on sex tours to Riga, Latvia. It con- embody the natural, mysterious island seller's nationality or race. We included tained many practical tips for the sex available for exploration and conquest only ads that clearly specified this char- tourist on, for example, prices, hotels, (O'Connell Davidson & Sanchez acteristic. and places to find (cheap) drug-addict- Taylor, 1998, cited in Mullings, 2000). The 2001 sample included a total of ed prostitute women. Baltic women's They often imagine white western 754 prostitution ads, or approximately insatiability was described as being "in a women as controlling, cold, and resist- 100 prostitution ads per day. There class all its own", and Latvian women ant to traditional patriarchal domestic were 132 ads that indicated nationality were said to be "generous in the East gender roles, compared to warm, Caribbean women who are eager to please and uncontaminated by the ideal Table 1a. Sample 2001 (n=754) of gender equality. n% of sample % of race adds O'Connell Davidson reports that Thai 86 11 65 white sex tourists can be put at ease by a Finnish 35 5 27 native form of racism that corresponds Other 11 1 8 to western varieties, and by local racist Total 132 17 100 stereotypes (such as the "hypersexuality" attributed to blacks), often also endorsed by Cubans of color. Existing Table 1b. Sample 2002 (n=723) racism in Cuba ensures both that more women of color than white women are n% of sample % of race adds involved in prostitution and that the sex Thai 50 7 56 tourist can enjoy access to "racialized Finnish 27 4 30 Others" without the disapproval of a Other 13 2 14 racist society and without having to Total 90 13 100 seriously question his own racism. 36 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

European custom and not too stingy Futhermore, it is clear that for some good bargain for anyone buying sex. with the 'goods'" (Jallu 2/2002 pp. 12- sex clients it is important to have a There is a clear need for more inves- 19). "domestic prostitute". This is also inti- tigation into the presentation of The second magazine contained an mated by what is not said in the ads: we women's nationality and ethnicity to article on sex tourism in the Grand found no ads promoting Russian or Finnish clients of the sex trade. A next Canaries. This article provided detailed Estonian women in prostitution, even step is to look for promotional materi- information on the kind of women though trafficking in women from those als, printed, virtual, or other, created by available and advertised the "interna- areas is a recognized problem in the procurers and providers of sex, and tional nature" of the women in prostitu- Finland, and Russians and Estonians to apply feminist analysis to the racial- tion, meaning their countries of origin, account for 34% of Finland's foreign ized sexual stereotypes that are reflected which included Colombia, Venezuela, national residents. The emphasis on and created through them. and Brazil (Napakymppi 1/2001, pp. Finnishness and the invisibility of 29-34). The third magazine’s travel tip Russian/Baltic origin may indicate a was for a cruise called "Tit and Pussy" more recent prejudice against Russians, LAURA KEELER (M.A.) is the consulting editor at the that originated from Bristol, U.K. (Kalu or a presumption that most prostitution National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and 1/2002, pp. 70-71). There were no in Finland originates from Russia or the Health (STAKES) in Helsinki, Finland. details provided about the women Baltic states, so that any exception is MARJUT JYRKINEN (M.Pol.Sci.) is a consulting expert for involved beyond photos in which all the worth indicating for marketing purpos- the Programme for the Prevention of Prostitution and Violence featured women were white. es. It is also possible that Finnish men Against Women at STAKES and a researcher at the Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Helsinki, The fourth magazine's article pre- have become leery of buying women Finland. sented Borneo as a sex paradise. The who might be working for Russian writer gave details about, for instance, crime syndicates. REFERENCES Cowan, G. & Campbell, R.R. (1994). Racism and sexism in having unprotected sex with a local Further, there have been some pub- interracial pornography: A content analysis. Psychology of prostitute woman (Kalle 2/2002, pp.18- lic health campaigns and media publici- Women Quarterly, 18(3), 323-338. Dines, G. (1998). King Kong and the White woman: Hustler 29). This article was a full 11-page ty regarding the health risks in buying magazine and the demonization of Black masculinity. Violence spread with numerous pictures of nude sex in Finland's neighboring regions. Against Women, 4(3), 291-307. Dworkin, A. (1979). Pornography: Men possessing women. women with Asian features, whom the We suspect there may be a general con- New York: Plume Press. writers referred to as "pearls of the Far ception among Finnish buyers of sex Forna, A. (1992). Pornography and racism: Sexualizing oppres- East". The women were described as that women from these areas are sion and inciting hatred. In C. Itzin (Ed.), Pornography: Women, violence and civil liberties. NY: Oxford University asking the writers for sex and to provide "unclean". The contrast of the salience Press. the writer's with sex, becoming "really of the "Finnishness"/domestic charac- Kappeler, S. (1992). Pornography: The representation of power. In C. Itzin (Ed.), Pornography: Women, violence and civil liber- hot and unrestrained". teristic in our sample brings up the ties. NY: Oxford University Press. question of racism in the context of Lammi-Taskula, J. (1999). Clients of the sex industry in Finland. The Habitus study, 1995. In L. Keeler & J. Jyrkinen Visible prejudice in Finnish nationalism. The "home-grown prod- (Eds.), Who's buying? The clients of prostitution. Publications sex ads uct" is often understood to be better on Equality1999:4. Helsinki, Finland: Council for Equality. Laukkanen, M-E. (2000). Suomalainen päivälehdistö seksikaupan The prostitution ads in the Helsingin quality compared to that imported from foorumina. Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriön selvityksiä 2000:4. Sanomat indicate that the race and/or abroad – even for "products" like Helsinki, Finland: Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. nationality of the women in prostitution women in prostitution. Mayall, A. & Russell, D.E.H. (1993). Racism in pornography. & Psychology, 3(2), 275-281. is an issue of salience for clients. As a few of the ads in the newspaper Mullings, B. (2000). Fantasy tours: Exploring the global con- Foreigners account for only 2% of the indicate, it is likely that Thai women are sumption of Caribbean sex tourisms. In M. Gottdiener (Ed.), New forms of consumption. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & population in Finland, while 11% of the seen as "exotic" and therefore desirable. Littlefield. prostitution ads referred to (non- Such representation of Asian women Nelson, V. (1993). Prostitution: Where racism and sexism inter- sect. Michigan Journal of Gender and Law, 1, 81-89. Finnish, non-white) nationality or race. was strongly present in the sex magazine O' Connell Davidson, J. (1996). Sex tourism in Cuba. Race & References to Thai persons were particu- travel article on Borneo. The travel arti- Class, 38(1), 39-48. O' Connell Davidson, J. (2001). Punter fiction. Stories clients larly numerous, while Thais account for cles in general portrayed foreign women tell about their prostitute use. In M. Jyrkinen & L. Karjalainen only 1% of foreign national residents. as accommodating, insatiable, and a (Eds.), Minors in the sex trade. European Commission. NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 37 A vicious circle of abuse of MINORS in the sex trade

By REET NURMI

In Finland the public discussion on prostitution has led to the outlawing of sexual abuse of minors in prostitution and it is an offence for a citizen to buy sex from a minor (under 18 years of age), whether in Finland or abroad. This has led to the widespread myth that , child pornography and trafficking in children is not taking place in this country. However, it is naive to close our eyes and believe that phenomena such as sexual violence against children for purposes of prostitution do not exist in our welfare societies. The study referred to in this article suggests that the extent of sexual violence against minors in the sex trade is not adequately known or recognised as an issue within social policy in Finland. 38 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

This article is based on a report drawn sex, the transaction is a commercial one from 28 interviews done with representa- but the children’s remuneration is non- tives of Finnish organisations, agencies commercial; the situation is nonetheless and outreach projects, all of whom come one of exploitation. into contact with children who have expe- In the worst cases, children are recruit- rienced sexual abuse as part of child pros- ed into institutionalised sex industries titution (Nurmi 2001). They were asked (prostitution, printed or electronic to present their observations on the sexual pornography/ or naked pictorial matter, abuse of minors (under 18 years of age) for trafficking in children and sex tourism), the purposes of prostitution, and for their where they are subjected to gross abuse. opinions on whether youngsters get Violence against children is hidden crimi- appropriate help and support from the nality. It can be seen as an element of vio- authorities, NGOs and other adults. The lence against women and the violence aim of the study was to discuss the ways in linked to power structures, and easily takes which the respondents understand and forms that are not legally defined as deal with the child prostitution issue. crimes. Values and attitudes originating in Interviews with survivors of prostitution the sex industry are very likely to have an are also included in this study. in the social interactions among those liv- impact on social intercourse between ing in a marginal environment. This con- young people. One of the respondents A taboo subject dition frequently creates situations in asserted that: "… prostitution generates The sexual abuse of minors (girls) poses a which young girls are compelled to take prostitution. If a person has the potential, serious challenge to the professionals who sexual risks, and risk-taking is ultimately they’ll get the idea from anywhere. …We are forced daily to address the life situa- understandable only in the context of don’t talk clearly enough about the harms tions of young people. Investigating sexu- social interactions in which trust and dis- or dangers of prostitution. The sex busi- al abuse and intervening in it are ordeals trust are often in conflict. Children are ness is harrowing; it makes no difference at for both. The more alien the form of sex- unable to evaluate the risks involved in what age the involvement starts." ual abuse is to the staff, the more strongly certain social situations. On the basis of my material, I have they will react. A defence mechanism is classified the abuse of minors for the pur- triggered. One interviewee helped me to The dominant culture poses of prostitution as occurring in three understand this: "… if we admit the exis- Many of the factors that place young peo- contexts: 1) prostitution to finance a drug tence of child sexual abuse we can draw a ple at risk and limit their life choices are of habit, 2) social intercourse leading to com- straight line to the occurrence of child a social nature. We cannot separate child mercial exploitation and 3) abuse leading prostitution. I think that in a civilised state prostitution from other forms of prostitu- to prostitution. Broadly speaking I charac- like this, where life is a bed of roses, if I tion, which makes this a complicated terise the issue as a vicious circle of sexual suggest that we have child prostitution issue. Prostitution is a violent act against abuse. In the words of a respondent: people would see it as something personal girls and women. It is linked to the pre- "… – …the to me. …Somehow it seems so odd that vailing culture and to attitudes in our soci- sexual abuse comes first and then the vic- we could have child prostitution…" ety. The existence of the sex industry has tim tries to relieve the pain with drugs. Sexual violence is seldom discussed at an impact on the sex culture of young peo- They start using drugs because they feel so the first meeting when representatives of ple, too. The sexual abuse of (women and) bad and then they start selling themselves, caring professions meet new clients. It may girls for the purposes of prostitution is because that brings in the cash needed to also be difficult for staff to ask personal underpinned by a whole array of complex buy the drugs. This is what we see here (..)" questions. As some of them put it: "… it’s factors associated with the dominant cul- really difficult asking questions. It’s some- ture. According to my research, young 1. Financing substance abuse with how such a taboo subject. Perhaps if some- girls often earn money to buy drugs by prostitution thing can be seen, then you can ask. If you selling sex, which frequently amounts to Criminal offences such as stealing and have no suspicions it seems terribly offen- the sexual abuse of girls for the purposes of petty larceny are widely linked to the sive and intrusive." prostitution. financing of drugs and narcotics. The staff The main themes that emerged in the It is not always easy to draw a line interviewed said that they see more boys interviews with the professionals were the between commercial and non-commercial than girls who pay for drugs through this commercialisation of sexuality and the exploitation. Children are not necessarily sort of criminal activity. Criminal offences sex-driven nature of violence against aware of or able to understand what is in general are more rare among girls. The young people. The commercialisation of going on, even in the case of sexual abuse interviewees indicated that it is the girls sexuality was above all seen in situations for the purposes of prostitution. When who realise that they can use their bodies involving the use of drugs and alcohol and they are offered, say, drugs in return for to earn a living if that is all that is left. One NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 39

respondent explained that: "… if your either they do not talk about the incident pleasure out of pornography and income depends on selling drugs, wielding for fear no-one will believe them, or they striptease. There are two types of victims: a crowbar or selling yourself. Of these do talk about it but find that they them- those who have been raped, and those who three alternatives for getting the drugs, selves end up as the object of suspicion. have been carefully groomed by a perpe- which would a girl choose – not a knife Perpetrators’ accounts may be more credi- trator. anyhow. In that situation, selling oneself ble, as the violent side of their personality looks like the least damaging strategy. But is not necessarily seen in ‘normal’ social The key issues I don’t think the young girls see it like communication. Often the clients, young girls, do not dare that".’ talk about things related to violence, and It became clear from many of the 3. From abuse to prostitution cases of abuse are not dealt with. interviews that the circle of friends "… these women often have abuse behind Sometimes the matter is concealed until inevitably narrows for young people living them, or then they have experience of the victim is well into adulthood, so the marginal lives. The young people had being forced into sex against their will. ..If problem remains hidden. Prevention, pro- close social contacts mainly or only with someone has experienced sexual violence, tection and investigation are the key ele- other drug users or with their own mar- the problem will emerge clearly during the ments in the fight against the sexual abuse ginal group. They felt an affinity with detox treatment. …I’ve never met a of minors. these people and thought that offering sex woman who regarded it [prostitution] as The greatest anxiety experienced by was part of the culture of the girl junkie. her profession. They all hope they’ll be the interviewees was that the caring pro- The situation is particularly problematic if able to come off drugs and at the same fessions and other organisations involved the young girl has been abused and has no time finish with prostitution …" notes lack the capacity to deal with the sexual reliable adult to turn to for support and one therapist in her interview. abuse of children in prostitution. The chil- help. The interviewees whose work daily dren suffer from a wide range of problems brings them into contact with sexually that need to be tackled by professionals 2. From social intercourse to commer- abused youngsters were of the clear opin- from many different fields. For example, cial exploitation: Make the girl earn ion that abuse was very often a contribu- substance abuse professionals cannot help Usually a man who is older than the girl, tory factor to a young girl’s entrance into children with symptoms if they do not and uses drugs, lures a young girl into prostitution. know about the serious crises, such as sex- keeping him company. According to the According to the interviewees, chil- ual abuse, in their clients’ lives. They need interviewees, the path of a young girl from dren who have lost the confidence of to be sufficiently informed about the chil- companionship to prostitution has at the adults close to them are easy to expose to dren’s situations and need for help. one end trust and security and at the other manipulation and enticement. The inter- Further, treatment is often delayed due to end control, abuse and violence. Drugs are views, however, suggest that the guilty a lack of co-ordination among the units an extremely effective means of compro- party in recruiting girls for commercial helping children as well as because of long mising the child’s ability to control in that sexual abuse is more likely to be someone queues for treatment. All the interviewees they take over your whole emotional life. close to her, even a ‘boyfriend’ stamping expressed genuine concern for the chil- One expert explained: "Youngsters say that his authority on the relationship. Another dren. Generating a discussion about these it’s all part of this culture, even right from group comprises adult ‘ordinary men’, problems in Finland and bringing them to the start when they’re going out together. who use the services of prostitutes, and get the public’s notice were considered to be The boyfriend gets drugs for his girlfriend. very important issues. Although the inter- But later when the boy isn’t, like, up to viewees thought that the sexual abuse of getting the drugs anymore he starts hint- children for prostitution purposes has not ing to the girl that she could get them yet reached the level of a serious problem from John, but that of course she knows in Finland, they were unanimously of the there’s no cash. And then John arrives and opinion that "… even one case is one too the girl has sex with him. And what’s more many". then the girl feels that that’s it and so they make sure of her fear that if she doesn’t … REET NURMI Researcher for the Programme Prevention she’ll get beaten up or something." of Prostitution & Violence Against Women, The relationship between victims and STAKES, Finland perpetrators is also affected by the social REFERENCE: context. The situation is particularly Nurmi, Reet (2001): Sexual Violence of Children for Purposes of ambivalent when both victims and perpe- Prostitution in the Helsinki Area-Results of the Research Carried Out within the Framework of STOP 2 Project. In ‘Minors in the Sex trators are members of the same social net- Trade‘/Jyrkinen, M. & Karjalainen, L. (eds.). Programme for the work. The findings of the study suggest Prevention of Prostitution & Violence Against Women, STAKES & the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Helsinki 2001, 107-127. that the victims then often remain alone: http://www.stakes.fi/sexviolence 40 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

The Palermo Protocol

By GUNILLA S. EKBERG

In December 2000, the new United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and its two supplementary Protocols were opened for signature by UN member states in Palermo, Italy. Of the 148 states present, 120 signed what is called in UN language, the mother Convention, and over 80 countries signed the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. The Trafficking Protocol recognizes the need for a combined approach that integrates effective prevention of trafficking with the prosecution of traffickers and the protection of human rights and assistance to victims of trafficking.

his Protocol is the first inter- also reflect the Convention on the Article 3 - Definition of national instrument that men- Elimination of all forms of Discrimi- Trafficking T tions the men who create the nation Against Women (CEDAW) The most controversial aspect of the demand for prostituted women. The which in Article 6 declares that States Protocol is the definition of trafficking most controversial aspect of the Parties must take all appropriate meas- found in Article 3. During the negotia- Protocol is the definition of trafficking. ures, including legislation, to suppress tions, countries such as the This event in Palermo in the end of all forms of traffic in women and Netherlands, Australia, Germany and 2000 concluded a long and difficult exploitation of prostitution of women. the United States, joined by Canada series of negotiations, which started in The Convention against Trans- and some pro-prostitution NGOs, Vienna in January of 1999. The national Organized Crime sets out the argued for a definition that would limit Coalition Against Trafficking in parameters for international judiciary protection only to those victims who Women took part in these negociations co-operation against transnational were trafficked under duress or by and was joined by over 140 NGOs organized crime, and creates an interna- force, and who did not consent to be including the European Women’s tional judicial regime under which traf- trafficked. They also wanted to omit Lobby and many other organizations fickers can be held accountable for their any mention of trafficking for prostitu- from around the world in the crimes. To be criminally liable under the tion or sexual exploitation, and to International Human Rights Network. Convention the trafficker must belong delete the term "victims" from the text. This NGO coalition worked to to an organized criminal group of three If this definition had been accepted, ensure that the Convention and its or more people, which has been in exis- which it was not, the focus would have Protocols were consistent with the tence for a period of time, and has acted been on the victim and her state of human rights principles expressed in in concert with the aim to commit seri- mind and character, rather than on the numerous international agreements and ous crimes in order to obtain financial actions of the perpetrators. It would also instruments, such as the 1949 or other material benefit. require the victim to prove that she did Convention for the Suppression of the The Trafficking Protocol, recognizes not consent to be trafficked This is an Traffic in Person and of the Exploitation the need for a combined approach that almost impossible task for women who of the Prostitution of Others which integrates effective prevention of traf- are vulnerable and in a situation of states that trafficking and prostitution ficking, with the prosecution of traffick- extreme dependency and subordination. are incompatible with the dignity and ers and the protection of human rights Instead, the definition takes into con- worth of the human person. It should and assistance to victims of trafficking. sideration the actual reality of women NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 41

who are trafficked for prostitution. ate the factors that make women and liable, and they could strengthen the Trafficking can take place by means of children vulnerable to trafficking, such protection of the victims of trafficking. e.g. force, deception and abduction, but as poverty, underdevelopment and lack It is very important that NGOs fol- traffickers who abuse power or a victim’s of equal opportunity. low this process closely and monitor vulnerability, will also be criminally This Protocol is the first interna- how the Protocol is interpreted nation- liable. The definition specifically men- tional instrument that mentions the ally and regionally. Countries where tions that the consent of a victim is irrel- men who create the demand for prosti- prostitution is legal or regulated have a evant to the prosecution of traffickers. tuted women. All state parties must financial investment in their local pros- Although today some trafficked women adopt or strengthen legislative or other titution markets. They need a constant are aware that they may be prostituted measures… to discourage the demand flow of new women for prostitution in the country of destination, this false that fosters all forms of exploitation of purposes, and are, therefore, interpret- "consent" is a reflection of the deeply persons, especially women and children, ing the Protocol with a focus only on desperate situation many women live in that leads to trafficking." . and should certainly not exempt traf- While it is vital to support the fickers from legal responsibility. Other Articles implementation of the Protocol, it is The Protocol acknowledges that There are also articles in the Protocol also necessary to ensure that countries most trafficking is for the purpose of the that require countries to assist women do not improperly use the Protocol as exploitation of prostitution and for and children who have been trafficked an excuse to treat trafficked women as other forms of sexual exploitation, but by providing e.g. counselling and med- migration criminals, who automatically also extends protection to people who ical and psychological assistance. They should be deported. In many countries, are trafficked for other reasons, such as must also provide for the physical safety including in Canada, immigration laws for forced labour, slavery and servitude, of the victims, and must ensure that have been made more restrictive to keep as well as to children under 18. they are permitted to stay, temporarily out the flow of legitimate migrants and The definition, which protects all or permanently, in the receiving coun- refugees. When borders are closed, traf- victims of trafficking, was supported by try, "if appropriate." fickers and organized crime syndicates the majority of countries during the are the only ones who are able to facili- negotiations. Most significantly, many Importance of the Protocol tate migration for women and children. of these countries are the less wealthy, The Convention and the supplementary In many cases these traffickers channel and are often "sending countries" for Protocol on trafficking in persons have women and children into the global trafficked women and children. to be ratified by 40 countries before trafficking networks that supply local they come into force. Countries that prostitution markets. Instead we should Article 9 - Prevention of have signed and later will ratify the use this Protocol to hold governments Trafficking in Persons Convention and the Protocol have responsible for implementing measures Article 9 requires states to implement agreed to implement national legislation to prevent trafficking for prostitution, comprehensive measures to prevent traf- that reflects these instruments. and make sure that the women and chil- ficking. They must endeavour to organ- However, the Convention and the dren who are the victims of trafficking ize e.g. mass media campaigns and take Protocol set out minimum standards for are accorded the protection and assis- social and economic initiatives. When prevention, prosecution and protection. tance that is their right. implementing these measure they must, There is nothing that prevents states when appropriate, collaborate with from implementing more stringent NGOs and other organizations that measures. For example, they could make GUNILLA S. EKBERG is a barrister and solicitor and a member of Coalition Against Trafficking in Women. Currently have competence in the area. Countries traffickers who are not connected to she is working as procject co-ordinator for The Nordic-Baltic must also strengthen measures to allevi- organized crime groups criminally campaign against trafficking in women. 42 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

We are driving along a snow-covered road to make jokes too, we will have made the in a small village in the northern part of first step into a world which may be open Norway.The houses are placed at a distance to us if we are open to it. We sit down. from each other, and we expect to see cars Some of the men put their arms around our parked outside. But there are no signs of shoulders, take our hands, and make com- either cars or people. It’s an ordinary ments on how we look. One of the men Tuesday in February and most people have searches our bag for surveillance equip- probably driven to their work places hours ment, telling us stories of how this has ago. One house, however, has several cars been discovered in the house before. We parked outside. Maybe this is one of the acquiesce to their behaviour, so after a houses we have been told about - a kind of while the owner of the house makes us tea, lodging for Russian women on short-term and soon we are sitting round his kitchen- stays in Norway? We stop the car, open the table talking about every day life. Where we front door of the house and find ourselves come from, what kind of weather we will standing in a small hallway. We know that have for the afternoon, the prices of meat we are in Sápmi, the part of Norway, in the Finnish border-shops - and then we Sweden, Finland and Russia where the Sámi agree on a trip to do some cheap shopping. people live. They have a language and a cul- When we return we cook dinner and then ture of their own, and the Sámi way of we have coffee. Suddenly two women and a making an initial entry into a social group man enter the house, take their bags into of persons is for the newly arrived to make one of the bedrooms and then enter the his or her own introduction. Thus we intro- kitchen, hugging and telling the men how duce ourselves by telling the eight men nice it is to see them again. They all speak inside that we are researchers studying Russian. prostitution and that we are interested in finding out about the men’s point of view. This is how our fieldwork in Finnmark Several of the men start making jokes began. about our project, and we, without even

Photo: Løken/Samfoto Bård thinking about it, know that if we are able BRITT KRAMVIG and KIRSTEN STIEN NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 43

RUSSIAN WOMEN AS THE NEW IMAGE OF AN OLD ENEMY Open borders – open bodies

By BRITT KRAMVIG and KIRSTEN STIEN

As the northern political border between Norway and Russia was renegotiated and dismantled during the 1990’s, other borders of a more symbolic nature were constructed. The stereotype of the Russian woman as associated with prostitution was instituted, giving rise to a need to formulate attitudes that could re-establish and maintain a more satisfactory boundary between the Norwegian nation and the former Eastern superpower. Simultaneously, the stereotype of the bachelor from the border county of Finnmark – with a strong association with buyers of sex – was established as another notion. This facilitated the re-estab- lishment of moral communities and juxtapositions between north and south, between the centre and the periphery in Norway.

ogether with researcher Larissa block. In Norway, the changes that came especially concerning social and cultural Riabova at the Kola Science with the fall of the "curtain" were per- conditions. The new situation lead to an T Centre in Murmansk, we are haps most dramatic for Finnmark, the increased flow of people and goods in the carrying out a pilot project, which was region that shares a border with both region, and this flow of bodies created an initiated by the Norwegian Ministry of Russia and Finland in the north. During opportunity for the exchange of power Justice and Ministry of Children and the cold war there had been some bilat- and sexuality which was also the basis for Family Affairs. The project explores the eral cultural exchange between east and the establishment of a whole new set of consequences of Russian prostitution in west, but there had been no focus on or human relationships across the border. Finnmark, the northernmost region of experience of the world that existed The negotiations between the various Norway. We are looking at the work beyond "the iron curtain". However, actors in the development of border being done at the moment and we will after the fall of the communist regime, exchange was characterised by optimism, point out areas where further research is Finnmark suddenly found itself in a new but also by a lack of predictability and by needed, as well as suggest various and extended regional context, with fear. Within a context which was charac- actions to be taken. In this article, we large military bases and nuclear plants teristically random and uncertain, the will place the current debate on Russian and a city the size of Oslo within a few focus on Russian prostitution became a prostitution in a historical framework hours drive from the border. Not least, way of highlighting and discussing these and discuss the new discourses and the opening of the border meant that the complex and contradictory circum- counter-discourses which are being inhabitants of the region were confront- stances - and further, for maintaining established from an urban-rural/centre- ed with massive differences in the stan- and strengthening the established dis- margin perspective. dards and ways of living on either side of courses on north and south (regions of The background to these develop- the border. Norway, ed) and between the urban and ments can be found in the political rural masculinities. changes that took place in the whole of From enemies to neighbours In the beginning of the 1990’s, an Eastern Europe in the early 1990’s. In The establishment of new relations extensive Russian market trade in glass various public fora, these changes were between former enemies was part of the and porcelain, uniforms and clothes, described as "the fall of the iron cur- institutional and individual challenge crafts and embroidery, as well as in tain". As the metaphor suggests, there that the political changes resulted in. legally imported quotas of cigarettes and had been in the west a perceived insur- However, there were also expressions of a alcohol started up outside established mountability and impenetrability of the certain apprehension and fear of the con- shopping centres in both smaller and borders with the countries in the Eastern sequences of the opening of the border; larger communities. Very soon, 44 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

demands for the curtailment of these have not just been an abstract category, tution is singled out as the reason behind activities were made, and the arguments but a community of people one has this stigmatisation and the solution, used were connected to the view that it interacted with, make the antagonisms accordingly, is to get rid of prostitution. included the unwanted and immoral that exist in the region today seem para- The fifth discourse tries to direct trading and selling of sex, alcohol and doxical. This becomes clear when a dif- attention away from prostitution and cigarettes. The fact that shopkeepers also ference is established between national instead focus on the new opportunities regarded this market trade as competing Norwegian media perceptions of the sit- that "new neighbour relations" represent with their own business most certainly uation and those of the various local both culturally and socially and, perhaps contributed to its closure. The official media (Rossvær, 1998). not least, also financially. explanation was that the Russians entered the country on a tourist visa and Five discourses on Russian "We" and "the others" did thus not have the work permit need- prostitution Concepts that are repeatedly used with- ed for running a sales business. However, Dag Stenvoll (2002) has identified five in the first four discourses are charac- seen from a northern regional perspec- different discourses on Russian prostitu- terised by the words flow, flood, inva- tive, these trade relations and the estab- tion through an analysis of reports and sion, explosion, hordes – all of which lishment of various forms of contacts articles published in the Norwegian suggest a process which is out of control were not a new phenomenon. media since the beginning of 1990. and to an extent which is threatening or The first discourse focuses on the destructive both socially and morally. The Pomor trade fear of organised crime, where prostitu- The problem-oriented discourses consti- The flow of goods, services and people, tion, despite the fact that it is not crimi- tute the Russian woman/Russians/clients which was called the Russian trade nalized, is seen as a possible and proba- as "problems" which need to be solved (Nielsen, 1992) or the Pomor trade, has ble invasion of criminal and mafia-relat- by taking certain negative actions. These a long tradition in the northern regions ed activities in Norway. This discourse discourses are not only part of and main- of Scandinavia and Russia and has prob- also includes the fear of increased trad- tain the difference between us and the ably taken place since the end of the ing in drugs from Russia. others, they also define what is seen as 17th century. The trade grew to such an Fear of contamination as a result of the moral community and what are extent that it developed its own specific open borders is the second discourse. "normal" activities for "Norwegian" language, called "Russian Norwegian", Throughout the 1990’s this has been women and men. which facilitated the necessary negotia- connected to the fear of tuberculosis The establishment of the concept of tions. The 1917 revolution brought an contamination from Russia, but particu- buyers of sex as a synonym for bachelors abrupt end to this trading co-operation. larly to the fear of sexually transmittable in Finnmark can be regarded in relation However, because of the proximity of diseases such as gonorrhoea, syphilis and to these popular myths. They form a Russia, these contacts never entirely dis- HIV. In contrast to other discourses on moral category in the negotiations of a appeared. Many marriages had taken sexually transmittable diseases, the solu- local moral order in a region where place across the national borders. We tion presented here is not campaigns for extensive changes are taking place. At cannot disregard a certain feeling of the use of condoms to limit the risk, but the same time, the category of bachelors community based on the experience of restrictions in the traffic across the bor- in Finnmark is implicated in the negoti- similar living and political conditions in der. It is the social and moral health of ations of masculinities, which bring to this peripheral arctic region. During the the community that is at risk, not mere- the fore the relation between the urban Second World War, young men from ly the biological one. and the rural (which in a Norwegian Finnmark received military training in Fear of moral and social collapse of the context is also the relation between the Russia and fought as northern partisans local communities where this activity northern and southern parts of the for the liberation of Norway. During the takes place forms the third discourse. In country). Men at the periphery become escalation of the Cold War, these the public accounts, the focus has been the other, in contrast to whom new and alliances proved to have almost disas- on maintaining good environments for urban masculinities are established. trous consequences for the individuals bringing up children as well as harmo- These discourses also indicate that involved, since they were regarded as nious local communities, which through the fear of Russia as the enemy has been enemies to the state of Norway. the effects of this traffic are facing social incorporated into the concept of Russia These circumstances indicate that and moral breakdown. as neighbour. Thus the image of an many of the inhabitants of Finnmark The fourth discourse describes how enemy and the discourse on the relation have occupied a different position in perceptions of prostitution have lead to between Russia as a superpower and relation to their neighbours in the east bullying and stigmatisation of Russian Norway as a potential victim are repro- than has been the case in the rest of women and children who have settled in duced. This image of the enemy is also Norway. The geographical proximity northern Norway for reasons other than expressed in accounts of Russian prosti- coupled with the fact that "the Russians" prostitution. As Stenvoll claims, prosti- tution. This was illustrated in a media NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 45

presentation of our project, where a been bullied in public places because of journalist used the expression "the sex suspected prostitution. Finnmark in trade carried out by the women from Northern Norway the superpower" (Nordlys 19 March "Ordinary women" Finnmark is the largest and nor- 02). Treating Russian women in We found clear tendencies towards a sit- thernmost county in Norway, situa- Norway as representatives of a super- uation where the notion of Russians as ted far to the North of the Polar power is indicative of how collective fear enemies is upheld in many contexts and Circle bordering to the north and seeks new images of the enemy, which is used as a basis by which the category of east to Russia and to Finland. The appear through national accounts of Russian women/Russian women in pros- county is scarcely populated with them. titution is constructed and maintained. only 1,5 inhabitants pr. km2 (com- However, there are attempts at counter- pared to Norway as a whole with 14 "They are human beings too" discourses. These are partly found within people pr. km2). Already in 1992 the The validity of these discourses was seen the stories of the new neighbour relation, number of Russian visitors coming during our fieldwork in Finnmark, in but we saw it most clearly in the many through the only Norwegian-Russian our encounters with the local communi- efforts to describe Russian women as border crossing in Finnmark was 100 ty, and in conversations with men who ordinary women. The bachelors in 000 a year, more than the total popu- buy sex from Russian women. Finnmark have not however been the lation of this vast county. What cha- Simultaneously, we observed local object of a similar re-humanisation. A racterises the prostitution traffic attempts at renegotiating established dis- possible explanation to this might be from Russia into Finnmark is that courses. Both the geographical and the that this category is part of many differ- the activity takes place in small trans- social proximity to the Russian people’s ent contexts where the concept is used to parent local communities in the struggle with their living conditions can negotiate the relations between east and countryside where everybody know result in putting a pressure on the com- west (Russia-Norway), between north each other. The open prostitution munity’s perceptions of its humanity and and south (in Norway), and between activity was quite extensive in some thus the stereotypical images disseminat- urban and rural masculinities. parts; for example in 1999 an avera- ed by popular myths needed to be In this article, we have put forward ge of 60 women came with buss to revised and renegotiated. This took the the argument that the national Nor- Tana every week, to a local commu- form of what we would like to call a wegian rhetoric connected to the situa- nity of 3 000 people. The prostituti- counter-discourse, where the agenda tion before "the fall of the iron curtain" on in Tana (in the Sami core area) includes a re-humanising of the Russian has lived on after the fall since the was concentrated at a camping site, women. One of the perspectives within notion of Russians as enemies has con- where busloads of Russian women this discourse is that "they are human tinued to exist in the new connections came regularly every Thursday to beings too". For the men, this perspec- that have been established, especially in return back on Sunday. During the tive also served as an argument for invit- the prostitution trade. However, in weekend local men and also custo- ing these women to their houses. This re- some various local publicities, Russian mers coming from far away visited humanising can be seen as a reaction to women and men have been ascribed the the campingsite. Negative reactions the de-humanising that both Russian same form of humanity as the local from the local community and espe- women and bachelors (buyers of sex) in actors associate with themselves. At the cially women’s groups combined Finnmark have suffered in the national breaking point between a national with media exposure made the activi- public arena in Norway, especially in the Norwegian public arena and local pub- ty to change; it became decentralised media. However, we are faced with a par- licities, hegemonic positions can be and thus less visible. Presently the adox in this situation. When Russian challenged and made the object of new Russian women are transported in women are described as victims who stories as to what kinds of perception we private cars across the border and need to be protected, they are also given are to hold about ourselves and the directly to customer’s private homes a role which is passive and de-human- other. in different parts of Finnmark. Tana ised. It tends to limit their opportunities BRITT KRAMVIG is researcher at the NORUT Finnmark is the only municipality in Finnmark for acting as a subject, which in turn is Research Institute, Norway. which has officially decided to work KIRSTEN STIEN is researcher at the Center of Child the basis for being able to take on other Welfare Research in Northern Norway. to prevent the across-the-border pro- roles which are normally available to stitution, while the central govern- REFERENCES: women and men. The process of de- Nielsen, J.P (1992). "Norge og Russland i nord" [Norway and ment in Norway is working on mea- humanising also forms a basis for how Russia in the north]. In Ottar 4/192 nr 192. sures to limit the prostitution in this Rossvær, Viggo (1998). Ruinlandskap og modernitet [Landscape people behave socially in encounters of ruins and modernity]. Pax forlag Northern part of the country, now with these Russian women. Many stories Stenvoll, Dag (2002). "From Russia with Love? Newspaper being organised by a well established Coverage of Cross-Border Prostitution in Northern Norway, are told of Russian women who have 1990-2001". In The European Journal of Women's Studies Vol 9 but informal network. been denied entry to restaurants or have (2), pp. 143-162. 46 NIKK magasin NO. 1 - 2002

Lindahl-Raittila, I. (2002): From Victim of the "Feminine Mystique" to Heroine of New Skærbæk, E. (2001): Who cares : ethical Feminist Deconstruction : Auto/Biographical interaction and sexual difference. Oslo: Images of Sylvia Plath, 1963-2001. Åbo: Unipub. (Acta theologica ; 2) Diss. publications Åbo Akademi University Press. Diss. Spak, L. (2001): Women and alcohol : early Lindberg, A. (2001): Experience and identi- If you are searching for literature in background factors and aspects of comorbidity. ty : a historical account of class, caste and women’s studies and gender research in the Göteborg: Univ. ISBN: 91-628-4861-5. gender among the Cashew workers of Kerala, Nordic countries, or want to know more Diss. about the publications listed below, we rec- 1930-2000. Lund: Lunds univ. (Studia his- ommend the Nordic Virtual Women’s torica Lundensia, 3) ISBN: 91-628-4915-8. Wickman, J. (2001): Transgender politics : Studies and Gender Research Library at Diss. the construction and deconstruction of binary gender in the Finnish transgender community. NIKK’s web site http://www.nikk.uio.no/ Livholts, M. (2001): "Women", welfare, tex- Åbo: Åbo Akademi University press. ISBN: tual politics and critique : different categories 951-765-078-7. Diss. Dover, P. (2001): A man of power : gender of "women", the making of welfare states and and HIV/AIDS in Zambia. Uppsala: emancipation in a Nordic welfare state con- Women in academia : a Nordic perspective : Uppsala univ. Diss. text. Umeå: Univ. (Studier i socialt arbete proceedings from the conference in Oslo 7th- vid Umeå universitet, 34) ISBN: 91-7305- 9th May 2001. Nilsen, M. M. (ed.) Oslo: Elovaara, P. (2001): Heterogeneous hybrids : 148-9. Diss. NorFA, 2002. ISBN: 82-996264-0-4. information technology in texts and practices. Ronneby: Blekinge Institute of Technology, Lorentzi, U. and H. Lundkvist (2001): Just Division IT and Gender Research, progress! : applying in Department of Human Work Science and Sweden! Stockholm: Ministry of Industry Media Technology. (Licentiate Dissertation Employment and Communications. ISBN: Calendar Series, 1.) ISBN: 91-7295-000-5. 91-38-31896-2. Gavanas, A. (2001): Masculinizing father- Middelthon, A.-L. (2001): Being young and hood : sexuality, marriage and race in the gay in the context of HIV: a qualitative study 2002 U.S. Fatherhood Responsibility Movement. among young Norwegian gay men. Oslo: This is an excerpt from NIKK’s calendar of Stockholm: Univ. ISBN: 91-7265-272-1. University of Oslo. ISBN: 82-7703-060-6. events in English - for more events visit Diss. Diss. NIKK’s web site at http://www.nikk.uio.no/ Gender mainstreaming : competitiveness and Naeve-Bucher, U. (2001): Schönes Fräulein growth : messages from the conference 23-24 darf ich's wagen, ihnen Arm und Geleite Gendered Worlds: Gains and Challenges November 2000. Paris: OECD, Nordic anzutragen? : zu Annäherung, Werbung, - Women´s Worlds 2002 Council of Ministers, 2001. Versuchung und Verführung in der schwedis- 21-26.07 Kampala, Uganda chen und deutschen Literatur des 18. http://www.makerere.ac.ug/womenstudies/ Halldenius, L. (2001): Liberty revisited : a Jahrhunderts. Stockholm: Almqvist & congress2/ historical and systematic account of an egali- Wiksell International. (Stockholmer ger- The 8th International Interdisciplinary tarian conception of liberty and legitimacy. manistische Forschungen, 58) ISBN: 91- Congress on Women. Special focus areas Lund: Bokbox Publications. ISBN: 91- 22-01935-9. Diss. will be the African perspective, young voic- 86980-25-4. Diss. es, gendering women and men, celebrating Nyman, C. (2002): Mine, yours or ours? : Hedin, A. (2001): The politics of social net- multiculturality and diversity and North- sharing in Swedish couples. Umeå: Univ. South perspectives. Org. by Makerere works : interpersonal trust and institutional (Doctoral theses at the Department of change in post-communist East Germany. University in Kampala, Department of Sociology, Umeå University, 24) ISBN: 91- Women and , Makerere Lund: Dept. of Political Science, Lund 7305-169-1. Univ. (Lund political studies, 118.) ISBN: University, P.O.Box 7062, Kampala, 91-88306-27-5. Diss. Oinas, E. (2001): Making sense of the Uganda, tel: +256 41 531484, fax: +256 41 teenage body : sociological perspectives on girls, 543539, [email protected] Hildebrand, K. (2001): The female reader at changing bodies, and knowledge. Åbo: Åbo the round table : religion and women in three Akademi University Press. ISBN: 951-765- Know How conference contemporary Arthurian texts. Uppsala: Acta 061-2. Diss. 21-26.07 Kampala, Uganda Universitatis Upsaliensis: Univ.-bibl. http://www.iiav.nl/eng/ic/knowhow/ (Studia Anglistica Upsaliensia, 115) ISBN: Rump Egsmose, L. (2001): Equal opportu- knowhow_information.html 91-554-5093-8. Diss. nity for professional women at work? : an Info: Ruth Ojiambo Ochieng, empirical study of anti-discrimination policies [email protected] Induced abortion in the Nordic countries. and women's careers in television in Knudsen, L. B. (ed.). Odense: Danish Denmark and the United Kingdom. Taking Wing - Conference on Gender Center for Demographic Research, 2001. København: Københavns Universitet (Research report ; 22) Equality and Women in the Arctic Sociologisk Institut. (Department of 04-06.08 Saariselkä, Finland Kopola, N. (2001): The construction of Sociology, Ph.D ; no. 18) ISBN: 87-7296- http://www.arctic-council.org/ womanhood in Algeria : Moudjahidates, 210-0. pmeetings/gender Aishah Radjul, women as others and other Rydström, J. (2001): Sinners and citizens : Org. by the Arctic Council, The Nordic women. Stockholm: Univ. (Stockholm stud- bestiality and homosexuality in Sweden Council of Ministers and Finland as the ies in politics, 79) ISBN: 91-7265-317-5. 1880-1950. Stockholm: Univ. ISBN: 91- host country. The conference is about Diss. 7265-284-5. Diss. women and gender in the Arctic so that the issues brought to debate should be consid- Lehn, S. and M. Lykke Nielsen (2001): Skevik, A. (2001): Family ideology and Mainstreaming : examples of best practice. ered from an arctic viewpoint, as well as social policy : policies towards lone parents in from the viewpoint of indigenous women København: Videnscenter for Ligestilling. Norway and the UK. Oslo: Norsk institutt ISBN: 87-91100-09-7. and indigenous people where appropriate. for forskning om oppvekst velferd og Info: Laura Tohka, Department of Women’s aldring. (NOVA-rapport ; 2001:7) ISBN: Studies, FI-33014 University of Tampere, 82-7894-114-9. Diss. Finland, tel: +358 3 215 8982, NO. 1 - 2002 NIKK magasin 47

fax. +358 3 215 6562, [email protected] Interior of Finland. E-mail: [email protected]. Re-Negotiating the Politics of the Public Hughes, Donna M. et al. (1999) (ed.): The and the Private - Gender and Politics in Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation. China and the Nordic Countries Network North Against Prostitution and Coalition Against Trafficking in Women. 19-22.11. Shanghai, China Violence (2001): Collected materials of the http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/fact- http://eurasia.nias.ku.dk/norwag/ international conference "Prostitution is a book.htm The First Nordic-China Women & Gender global problem", November 18.-19.2000 Studies Conference. Org. by Aarhus IAF-newsletter (August 2001): Special issue: Murmansk, Russia. University, Denmark & the Nordic Prostitution in the Nordic Countries. Skilbrei, May-Len (2001): The rise and fall Institute of Asian Studies in co-operation Copenhagen: International Abolitionist of the Norwegian massage parlours: changes with the Women’s Studies Centre, Fuan Federation. in the Norwegian prostitution setting in the University, China & the Nordic Centre at International Organisation of Migration, 1990s. Feminist Review, 67. Fudan University, China. Info: Qi Wang, IOM (2001): Trafficking in Women and Research Fellow, Department of Political STOP1 project report (1999): Building up Prostitution in the Baltic States: Social and Science, Aarhus University, DK-8000 a network for monitoring, analysing and Legal Aspects. http://www.iom.int Aarhus C, Denmark, tel: + 45 8942 2033, combatting trafficking in women and chil- fax: + 45 8613 9839, [email protected] IOM (2001): Public Perception and dren. European commission STOP-project. Awareness of Trafficking in Women in the Ministry of the Interior of Finland. Baltic States; Representative Surveys. Svanström, Yvonne (2000): Policing Public Report. Vilnius. http://www.iom.int Literature on Women: The Regulation of Prostitution in IOM (2001): IOM Counter Trafficking Stockholm 1812-1880. Bjärnum: Atlas. Strategy for Balkans and Neighbouring Sörensen, Patsy (2000) (ed.) Report on the countries. http://www.iom.int prostitution communication from the Commission to the Jyrkinen, Marjut & Karjalainen, Leena Council and the European Parliament "For and trafficking (ed.) (2001): Minors in the Sex Trade. further actions in the fight against trafficking Report of the European Commission STOP in women". (COM (1998) 726 -C5- project. Hamina: Programme for the 0123/1999 - 2999/2125(COS)) Brussels: in women Prevention of Prostitution and Violence The European Parliament. against Women. Trafficking in human beings: General situa- http://europa.eu.int/comm/justice_home/pr This is a selection of literature from recent tion report focusing on sexual exploitation oject/stop_prov_en.htm years on prostitution and trafficking in (1998). Europol.Wennerholm, Carolina J. women mainly from the Nordic countries Keeler, Laura (2001) (ed.): (1998): Trafficking in women for the pur- in English. The list is not complete. Recommendations of the EU Expert meeting pose of sexual exploitation. Stockholm. Contact NIKK or visit our web site for on violence against women: 8-10 November Trafficking in women and children in Asia more references – including literature in 1999: Jyväskylä, Finland. Helsinki: and Europe: a background presentation of Scandinavian languages. Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. the problems involved and the initiatives Corrin, C. (1996) (ed.): Women in a violent Kelly, Liz & Regan, Linda (2000): Rhetorics taken (2001). Stockholm: Ministry for world: Feminist analysis and resistance across and Realities: Sexual Exploitation of Children Foreign Affairs. Europe. Edinburgh: University Press. in Europe. London: Child and Woman The Trafficking of NIS Women Abroad: An Abuse Studies Unit. Elman, Amy R. (1996) (ed.): International Conference in Moscow: and the : The new feminist Kilvington, Judith (2001): Prostitution poli- November 3-5, 1997: Conference Report challenge. Oxford: Berghahn. cy in Europe : a time of change? Feminist (1997). Moscow: Syostri Centre & New Goscilo, Helena (1996) Dehexing sex: Review, 67. York: Global Survival Network & The International League for Human Rights. E- Russian womanhood during and after glas- Klap, M. (1995) (ed.): Combatting traffic in mail: [email protected] nost. Ann Arbor. persons. Utrecht: SIM Special, no 17. Gould, Arthur (2001): The criminalisation Kvinnoforum (1999): Crossing Borders Web sites and of buying sex : the politics of prostitution in Against Trafficking in Women and Girls. A Sweden. Journal of Social Policy. Vol. 30, no 3. resource book for working against Trafficking bibliographies in the Baltic Sea Region. Stockholm. Gurvich, I. N. (2000): Child prostitution http://www.iom.int/ and involvement of foreigners in Northwest http://www.qweb.kvinnoforum.se/ Russia: Report. Information office of the trafficking/ http://www.stakes.fi/sexviolence/ Nordic Council of Ministers. Lund Petersen, Karen (2001): Trafficking in http://www.qweb.kvinnoforum.se/ Keeler, Laura & Jyrkinen, Marjut (ed.) women: the Danish construction of Baltic trafficking/ (1999): Who's Buying? The Clients of prostitution. Cooperation and Conflict, vol 36, no 2. http://europa.eu.int/comm/justice_home/ Prostitution. Helsinki: Council for Equality, news/8mars_en.htm Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. Månsson, Sven-Axel (2001): "Men's Practices in Prostitution: The Case of Laukkanen, Mari-Elina. (1999): Finnish Hedin, Ulla-Carin and Månsson, Sven-Axel and other Nordic Literature on Prostitution. (1998): The Importance of Relationships: On Sweden". In: Pease, Bob, & Pringle, Keith (ed.): A Man's World: Changing Men's Helsinki: STAKES. Women Leaving Prostitution. Göteborgs E-mail: [email protected] University, Department of Social Work. Practices in a Globalized World. London & New York: Zed. Hollmén, Lauri and Jyrkinen, Marjut (1999) (ed.): Building up a network between Network North Against Prostitution and the authorities of Russia, Estonia, Sweden, Violence (1999): Prostitution is violence to Germany and Finland for monitoring, women: Presentations at a conference in analysing and combating trafficking in Tana, Finnmark, Norway, June 19.- women and children. The Ministry of the 21.1998. To: PORTO BETALT VED INNLEVERINGA P.P.

Economique NORGE/NOREG B Avtalenummer 911000/211

NATIONAL CO-ORDINATION NIKK OF GENDER RESEARCH Nordic Institute for Women´s Studies and DENMARK NORWAY Gender Research The Co-ordination of Gender Studies in KILDEN Norwegian Information and Denmark Documentation Centre for Women's Studies P. O.Box 1156 Blindern Department of Sociology, University of and Gender Research NO-0317 Oslo, Norway Copenhagen Grensen 5, NO-0159 Oslo Te lephone +47 22 85 89 21 Linnésgade 22, DK-1361 København K phone: +47 22 24 09 35 Te l e fax +47 22 85 89 50 phone: +45 35 32 35 01 fax: +47 22 24 95 21 [email protected] fax: +45 35 32 39 40 [email protected] www.nikk.uio.no [email protected] http://kilden.forskningsradet.no/ http://www.sociology.ku.dk/sochrc/ This is NIKK SWEDEN •Serves as a platform for co-operation FINLAND Swedish Secretariat for Gender Research for Women's Studies and Gender Research National Co-ordination of Women’s Studies Göteborg University in the Nordic Countries Gender Equality Unit P. O.Box 200, SE-405 30 Göteborg •Promotes, initiates and co-ordinates Women's P. O.Box 33, FI-00023 Government phone: +46 31 773 5600 Studies and Gender Research in the five Nordic phone: +358 9 160 01 fax: +46 31 773 5604 countries and internationally fax: +358 9 160 4582 [email protected] •Strengthens the flow of information about [email protected] http://www.genus.gu.se/ women's studies and gender research within the http://www.tasa-arvo.fi/ Nordic countries and internationally For more information on Women’s Studies • Conducts research projects and Gender Research in the Nordic countries, Centre for Women's Studies visit http://www.nikk.uio.no/ NIKK is located at the University of Oslo together A∂albygging, University of Iceland with the Centre for Women's Studies and Gender IS-101 Reykjavík Research phone: +354 525 4595 fax: +354 552 1331 [email protected] http://www.hi.is/stofn/fem/

UNIVERSITY OF OSLO

• NIKK is financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers. • The Nordic Council of Ministers is a forum for cooperation between the Nordic governments. I would like to order • The Nordic Council of Ministers implements Nordic cooperation. NIKK magasin! • The Prime Ministers have the overall responsibility. •The activities are coordinated by the Nordic Please, send me the English issues of NIKK Magasin and News from NIKK. Free of charge. ministers for cooperation, the Nordic Comittee for Cooperation and portfolio ministers. Please, send me the Scandinavian issues of NIKK Magasin. Founded 1971. Free of charge. Name: Send to: Address: NIKK P. O.Box 1156 Blindern NO-0317 Oslo, Norway

Country: