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Home , Anesthetic, Diphenidine, Methoxphenidine

Effects of Anaesthetics on Driving

What is the -Impaired Driving What functional abilities are Learning Centre (DIDLC)? necessary for safe driving? The Drug Impaired Driving Learning Centre (DIDLC) Driving is a complex self-paced task that is a fully bilingual, web-based educational resource requires many skills and abilities to be completed that was developed by the Traffic Injury Research simultaneously, and it requires that information Foundation, in partnership with State Farm®. be processed at a rapid pace while utilizing visual (ex: ability to scan the road for hazards), This comprehensive, accessible tool was created cognitive (ex: ability to divide attention between to inform the development of an evidence-based multiple concurrent events) and motor skills (ex: drug-impaired driving strategy. It was designed ability to perform physical movements such as to meet the needs of a wide spectrum of diverse turning the steering wheel, pressing acceleration stakeholders who are seeking more information and brake pedals). The processes drivers use to about priority issues. operate a vehicle can be divided into three steps: The objective of the is to support the work of perception, decision and reaction. These three governments and road safety partners by sharing steps are assumed to happen consecutively, and current knowledge about research and practice, depend on the driver’s visual, cognitive and motor and increasing awareness about drug-impaired abilities. Impairment in any or all of these abilities driving. A consolidated base of knowledge is can lead to unsafe driving.1 essential to build a common understanding of the drug-impaired driving problem, inform discussion, and achieve progress in reducing it.

The Learning Centre contains several modules that are structured in a question and answer format, similar to other TIRF educational programs. Module topics include:

•• magnitude and characteristics of the problem

•• effects of on driving What are the different types of •• legislation and penalties drugs that can impair driving? •• tools and technologies. Drugs that can impair driving are categorized according to the seven drug categories, To view more fact sheets, or to get more established by the International Drug Evaluation information about drug-impaired driving, visit http://druggeddriving.tirf.ca 1 Dewar et al. 2007

Drug-Impaired Driving Learning Centre and Classification Program (DECP). These reasoning, problem-solving and decision-making. include: cannabis2, central (CNS) Examples of validated tests include the Tower of , central nervous system (CNS) London task, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, , , dissociative anesthetics, the Time Wall test, and the Object Movement narcotic , and . Estimation under Divided Attention (OMEDA).

Psychomotor tests measure the effects of a drug on participant performance during actions such as body sway, motor coordination and reaction time. Examples of specific tests commonly used to evaluate the effects of drugs include Simple Reaction Time and the Critical Tracking task.6

Simulator tests. Researchers also employ driving simulators to evaluate how the administration of a drug can affect driving. Driving simulators can There are also New Psychoactive Substances vary in terms of the level of immersion, which can (NPS) that are frequently not included under the range from a simple desktop display to a full car international drug control conventions. There are cabin with a 360 degree display. Regardless, all currently over 450 NPS being monitored by the simulators display an interactive virtual roadway European Union, with over half being reported (i.e., driving scenario) and the participant is since 2013.3 An NPS is a synthetic drug that is directed to perform specific navigational and designed to mimic the pharmacological effects of driving tasks on the virtual roadway via a steering existing controlled substances. It is unlikely that wheel, accelerator and brake pedal. Drivers are synthetic drugs are detected using the common standardized drug test.4 An NPS is characterized by the following features: psychoactive properties; a level of potential harm comparable to internationally controlled drugs; and newly available, rather than newly invented.5 How do researchers measure the impairing effects of drugs on driving abilities? Laboratory tests. Researchers use laboratory tests that measure cognitive or psychomotor 2 The term “cannabis” refers to the cannabis plant that contains abilities thought to be related to or involved in more than 100 . The primary psychoactive driving. These tests are typically validated and component of cannabis is delta-9-, commonly known as THC. THC and its psychoactive metabolite, 11-hydroxy- reliable measures to assess specific cognitive THC or 11-OH-THC, and primary inactive metabolite, 11-nor-9- capacities and physical motor coordination. carboxy-THC or THC-COOH are frequently measured in biological fluids to document cannabis intake. 3 New psychoactive substances in Europe: An update from the EU Cognitive tests evaluate the effects of a drug on Early Warning System 2015 these specific capacities: attention (simple and 4 Patil et al. 2016 5 divided), perception (auditory, time and visual), New Psychoactive Substances Review: report of the expert panel 2014 memory (long and short-term), vigilance, logical 6 Verstraete et al. 2014

Drug-Impaired Driving Learning Centre administered a specific drug dose or placebo the complicated conditions that drivers may and instructed to complete a driving scenario normally experience.12 during which they must perform a variety of The central limitation of on-road driving tests is actions. Measures typically include: lane weaving the safety concern associated with placing drug- behaviours (variability in lateral lane position), impaired drivers on the road, though these can speeding behaviours (average speed, speed be mitigated by using closed course tests and variability), headway maintenance (the amount the presence of driving instructors who can take of headway distance maintained between the control of the vehicle when necessary. driver’s vehicle and the vehicle in front), braking reaction time, and near-crash and collisions.7 What are dissociative anaesthetics?

On-road tests. On-road driving tests involve Dissociative anaesthetics reduce by reducing study participants operating a real vehicle, in the brain’s perception of pain.13 Common drugs the presence of a driving instructor who has a that fall under the dissociative anaesthetics secondary set of vehicle controls, either on a category include (“PCP” “Angel closed track or on a public road. Test cars are Dust”) and (“K”, “Special K”). PCP was usually fitted with devices to measure speed, lane initially used as a surgical anesthetic, but its clinical positioning, acceleration/ brake use, and video use in humans was stopped due to its ability cameras to record the driver’s actions/errors.8 to induce severe delirium and hallucinogenic What are the limitations of the effects. Ketamine was also initially used clinically current research that measures the as a human anaesthetic. Ketamine is now limited effects of drugs on driving ability? to veterinary use as a large animal tranquilizer and in pediatric surgery. The short-term effects Laboratory tests of cognitive and psychomotor include increased heart rate, pressure, capacities often only measure a single skill or , distractibility, time and space distortions, ability related to driving performance, and it disorientation, decreased awareness, sensitivity is well-known that driving ability engages a to pain, and motor coordination, and amnesia.14 combination of cognitive, psychomotor and motor functions.9 Even when a series of tests are used, they are administered independently of each other and many are short and relatively simple, and consequently fail to replicate the complex skills or engage the precise psychomotor and cognitive capacities required for driving.10

Driving simulators also have limitations since they can never fully replicate authentic driving. Participants may be less careful, as they are aware that it is a safe and artificial environment. 7 Verstraete et al. 2014 As a result, driver errors and risk-taking 8 Schulze et al. 2012; Verstraete et al. 2014 9 Leufkens et al. 2007 11 behaviours may be exaggerated. Additionally, 10 Ramaekers et al. 2005 driving scenarios are often short, involve few 11 Dassanayake et al. 2011; Wolff et al. 2013 12 elements, engage a limited range of cognitive and CCSA 2016; DECP 2016 13 DECP 2016 psychomotor capacities, and thus do not replicate 14 Couper & Logan 2004; Wolff et al. 2013; Hayley et al. 2015

Drug-Impaired Driving Learning Centre New psychoactive substances such as Are the effects of dissociative , , 3-methoxy- anaesthetics on driving ability phencyclidine (3-meo-pcp) and 4-methoxy- impacted by other factors, such as phencyclidine (4-meo-pcp) are derivatives of and , or deprivation? drug substitutes for PCP and have effects similar to other dissociative anesthetics.15 Alcohol and some types of CNS depressants can increase the effects of dissociative anaesthetics.19 Which dissociative anaesthetics are most frequently detected in drivers? Traffic Injury Research Foundation Dissociative anaesthetics are not frequently The mission of the Traffic Injury Research detected in drivers. According to the Alcohol and Foundation (TIRF) is to reduce traffic- Drug Crash Problem Report: 2012 prepared by related deaths and injuries. TIRF is a TIRF for the Canadian Council of Motor Transport national, independent, charitable road safety Administrators (CCMTA), dissociative anaesthetics institute. Since its inception in 1964, TIRF were detected in fewer than 2% of fatally injured has become internationally recognized for its drivers in Canada. In addition, little data are accomplishments in a wide range of subject areas available regarding the specific detection rates of related to identifying the causes of road crashes each type of dissociative anaesthetic among drivers . and developing programs and policies to address them effectively. Can dissociative anaesthetics impair driving abilities, and if so, how? Traffic Injury Research Foundation (TIRF) 171 Nepean Street, Suite 200 Laboratory research indicates that severe Ottawa, Ontario K2P 0B4 cognitive and psychomotor impairments do occur Phone: (877) 238-5235 with ketamine intake, including deficits in divided Fax: (613) 238-5292 attention and reaction time.16 Other observational Email: [email protected] studies examined roadside detection of ketamine, Website: www.tirf.ca finding similar indices of ketamine impairment.17 A review of the existing research concluded that ISBN: 978-1-988945-02-6 ketamine causes significant impairment in various functional abilities related to driving.18

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15 Stachel et al. 2016; Helander et al. 2015 16 Curran & Morgan 2000 17 Cheng et al. 2007 18 Giorgetti 2015 19 Retrieved from: http://www.talktofrank.com/drug/ketamine

Drug-Impaired Driving Learning Centre