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Feedbacks Between Biotic and Abiotic Processes Governing the Development of Foredune Blowouts: a Review

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Feedbacks Between Biotic and Abiotic Processes Governing the Development of Foredune Blowouts: a Review Journal of Marine Science and Engineering Review Feedbacks between Biotic and Abiotic Processes Governing the Development of Foredune Blowouts: A Review Christian Schwarz 1,* , Joost Brinkkemper 1,2 and Gerben Ruessink 1 1 Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, 3508TC Utrecht, The Netherlands; [email protected] (J.B.); [email protected] (G.R.) 2 WaterProof Marine Consultancy & Services, 8221RC Lelystad, The Netherlands * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 30 October 2018; Accepted: 11 December 2018; Published: 28 December 2018 Abstract: This paper reviews the initiation, development, and closure of foredune blowouts with focus on biotic-abiotic interactions. There is a rich body of literature describing field measurements and model simulations in and around foredune blowouts. Despite this abundance of data there is no conceptual framework available linking biotic and abiotic observations to pathways of blowout development (e.g., erosional blowout growth or vegetation induced blowout closure). This review identifies morphological and ecological processes facilitating the transition between blowout development stages and sets them in the context of existing conceptual frameworks describing biotic-abiotic systems. By doing so we are able to develop a new conceptual model linking blowout development to the dominance of its governing processes. More specifically we link blowout initiation to the dominance of abiotic (physical) processes, blowout development to the dominance of biotic-abiotic (bio-geomorphological) processes and blowout closure to the dominance of biotic (ecological) processes. Subsequently we identify further steps to test the proposed conceptual model against existing observations and show possibilities to include it in numerical models able to predict blowout development for various abiotic and biotic conditions. Keywords: blowout; bio-geomorphology; aeolian sand transport; conceptual model 1. Introduction The coastal zone, an interface between marine, terrestrial and atmospheric processes is shaped through the dissipation of marine energy and modification of atmospheric processes [1]. The most dynamic coasts are found along high-energy wave-dominated shorelines, such as along the Dutch coast [2], the French coast [3], the west coast of the United States [4], the east coast of New Zealand [5] or the south coast of Australia [6]. At these environments, the dynamics in the nearshore zone, the beach and the dunes are unequivocally intertwined, (e.g., [7,8]). Coastal dunes are important multifunctional landscapes, providing habitats for flora and fauna, and protecting the hinterland from flooding, facilitating drinking water, and serving as recreational space [9]. Foredunes are shore parallel dune ridges located at the landward edge of the backshore, formed on beaches through the deposition of aeolian sand within and around vegetation. Their morphologies range from flat terraces to convex ridges. Foredunes are the most seaward-located dune feature, and are therefore regarded as the primary defense against flooding of the hinterland during storms [10,11]. Currently many coastal foredune systems around the globe experience stabilization of their foredune morphology through increased vegetation cover [9,12–17], while others undergo continuous stabilization-activation cycles [18–20]. Increased vegetation cover increases the stability of the J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 2; doi:10.3390/jmse7010002 www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2019, 7, 2 2 of 20 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20 foredune surface inhibiting the development of blowouts and thus dynamic changes in the dune morphologydune morphology [18,21] .[18,21]. Foredune Foredune blowouts, blowouts, a characterizing a characterizing feature feature of of active active natural natural foredunes,foredunes, areare erosionalerosional featuresfeatures thatthat allowallow aeolianaeolian flow-throughflow-through ofof siliciclasticsiliciclastic sandsand fromfrom thethe beachbeach intointo thethe backback dunes dunes (Figures (Figures1 and 12 ).and This 2). facilitated This facilitate beach-duned beach-dune interaction interaction enhances back enhances dune biodiversity back dune duebiodiversity to disturbance due drivento disturbance local vegetation driven rejuvenation,local vegetation (e.g., rejuvenation, [22]), and vertical (e.g., accretion [22]), and potentially vertical increasingaccretion potentially back dune increasing resilience back in the dune face resilience of sea-level in the rise, face (e.g., of sea-level [10,23– 29rise,]). As(e.g., such, [10,23–29]). foredune As blowoutssuch, foredune contribute blowouts to dynamic, contribute resilient, to dynamic, and resilient, species-rich and coastalspecies-rich habitats, coastal whereas habitats, closed whereas or stabilizedclosed or blowoutsstabilized wereblowouts shown were to reduceshown backto reduce dune back biodiversity dune biodiversity [9]. Previous [9]. studies Previous indicated studies thatindicated dynamic that natural dynamic foredunes natural areforedunes characterized are characterized by continuously by continuously closing and closing incising and blowouts incising referredblowouts to areferred stabilization-activation to a stabilization-activation cycles [18]. However, cycles [18]. the underlyingHowever, the mechanisms underlying favoring mechanisms either stabilization-activationfavoring either stabilization-activation cycles or continuous cycles stabilization or continuous are stillstabilization unclear. are still unclear. FigureFigure 1.1. ExamplesExamples ofof differentdifferent blowoutblowout systemssystems aroundaround thethe world,world, whichwhich werewere foundfound ininvarious various studiesstudies indicated indicated by by the the different different numbers. numbers. NotwithstandingNotwithstanding the the importance importance of blowoutsof blowouts in natural in natural coastal coastal dune systems,dune systems, they are they also are crucial also forcrucial applied for coastalapplied management coastal management purposes. purposes. Along many Along low-lying many low-lying densely populateddensely populated coasts, such coasts, as insuch the as Netherlands, in the Netherlands, coastal management coastal management traditionally traditionally has focused has on focused dune stabilization, on dune stabilization, including closingincluding gaps closing in the foredune,gaps in the planting foredune, vegetation, planting (e.g., vegetation, [21,30,31 (e.g.,]), and [21,30,31]), nourishments and nourishments on the foreshore, on thethe foredune foreshore, and the the foredune beach, and (e.g., the [32 beach,,33]). Aside (e.g., [32,33]). of dune Aside stabilization of dune by stabilization maintaining by the maintaining foredune shapethe foredune (by adding shape plants (by oradding sand), plants the stabilizing or sand), effect the stabilizing of foreshore- effect and of beach foreshore- nourishments and beach on foredunenourishments morphology on foredune is based morphology on the connection is based between on the nearshore-,connection beachbetween morphology, nearshore-, aeolian beach sedimentmorphology, transport, aeolian and sediment dune dynamics transport, as and shown dune by dynamics Short and as Hesp shown [8 ].by Foreshore Short and and Hesp beach [8]. nourishmentsForeshore and at high-energybeach nourishments dissipative at beacheshigh-energy get transported dissipative onto beaches the foredune get transported by prevailing onto high the aeolianforedune transport by prevailing rates supporting high aeolian the effectivenesstransport rates ofsand supporting binding the vegetation effectiveness [13]. The of sand combination binding ofvegetation the above [13]. stated The measurescombination resulted of the in above high andstated continuous measures vegetatedresulted in foredunes, high and continuous physically separatingvegetated foredunes, the beach (thephysically main se sourceparating of sedimentthe beach input)(the main from source the back of sediment dunes, leadinput) to from loss the of biodiversityback dunes, (e.g., lead dune to loss and of dune biodiversity slack habitats (e.g., dune being and replaced dune by slack fixed habitats dune grassland being replaced and scrub) by fixed and extinctiondune grassland of rare plantsand scrub) and invertebrates and extinction which of requirerare plants open mobileand invertebrates conditions (e.g., which [14 ,require23,30,33 ,open34]). However,mobile conditions recently, (e.g., headed [14,23,30,33,34]). by examples However, from European recently, coasts, headed a shift by examples in coastal from management European strategycoasts, a towards shift in maintainingcoastal management and reintroducing strategy naturaltowards dynamicmaintaining foredune and reintroducing systems with highernatural biodiversitydynamic foredune and increased systems resilience with higher against biodiversity climatic changes and increased and coastal resilience erosion against was observed, climatic (e.g.,changes [14,21 and,23, 32coastal,35–39 ])erosion(Figure 2was). Initiation observed, of artificially(e.g., [14,21,23,32,35–39]) induced foredune (Figure blowouts 2). turned Initiation out toof beartificially the most successfulinduced foredune and sustainable blowouts management turned out measure to be forthe dune most reactivation successful [ 15and,23 ,40sustainable]. This is duemanagement to the fact measure that foredune for dune blowouts reactivation re-introduce
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