Barriers to Participation in Youth Sports

Barriers to Participation of Children with Disabilities in Youth Sports

Thomas E. Moran Martin E. Block

A Feature Article Published in

TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus

Volume 6, Issue 3, February 2010

Thomas E. Moran Marin E. Block

Abstract

Youth sports were created as opportunities for children to play, be active, and begin learning how to become better or more successful at a given sport. Unfortunately many children with disabilities may not get the same opportunities that are available to other children. There are a number of barriers that inhibit children with significant disabilities from either participating in the youth sport programming all together or have a strong impact their level of successful participation. This article both identifies key barriers as well as provides strategies to eliminate or minimize the impact of the given barrier. This problem-solution approach is meant to help to focus our attention on the root of the problem and begin using some practical strategies that will help better serve and provide opportunities for children with disabilities to help them “get into the game”.

Keywords Disability, youth sports, children with disabilities, disability sport, sport participation, barriers, community based sports, training, parents, coaches

SUGGESTED CITATION: Moran, T.E, & Block, M.E. (2010). Barriers to Participation of Children with Disabilities in Youth Sports TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 6(3) Article 5. Retrieved [date] from http://escholarship.bc.edu/education/tecplus/vol6/iss3/art5

2 For many parents and children, Satur- with disabilities as it is for children without days are set aside for youth soccer, baseball, disabilities. Unfortunately, many children with football, and other youth sports. Children as disabilities, particularly children with more young as 5-years-old proudly show off their significant disabilities such as physical, visual team uniforms around the community, and or intellectual disabilities or autism are ex- new friendships between players often lead to cluded from participation in youth sports. In pick-up-games in the backyard, parties, and some cases leaders of sports programs may be team sleep overs. For many children the best concerned with the liability of having a child part of the week is practice with their friends, with a disability participate in and perhaps get and the best part of the weekend is getting hurt during a practice or game. In other cases into their uniform and competing with their coaches may not want a child with a disability teammates. For many parents, nothing is on their team, because they feel that they lack more exciting and nerve-racking than watch- the training in how to coach players with dis- ing their child play in a game. abilities. In still other cases parents of children Research supports positive effects of with disabilities (and children themselves) youth sports on young athletes. Seefeldt, Ew- may be reluctant to sign up for youth sports ing, and Walk (1992) summarized much of fearing injury, lack of success, or being teased the research finding several benefits associ- by peers. Finally, there may be limited sports ated with participation in youth sports includ- programs (regular or special sports programs) ing: (a) improved sports skills such as learn- available to serve the wide range of types and ing how to correctly kick a soccer ball, throw severities of disabilities. Exclusion from youth a baseball, or dribble a basketball (The sports programs is unfortunate as the Ameri- Tucker Center for Research on Girls & cans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifically Women in Sport, 2007); (b) improved physi- forbids public and private programs (including cal fitness including a greater understanding community youth sports programs) from ex- of and interest in getting into and staying in shape (Ewing & Seefeldt; 1989; US Depart- ment of Health and Human Services, 2008); “Children with disabilities may (c) improved self-esteem and self-confidence be reluctant to sign up for youth (see Malina & Cumming, 2003, for a review); sports fearing injury, lack of suc- (d) making new friends and having a sense of cess or being teased by peers.” belonging (see Weiss & Stuntz, 2004, for a review), (e) moral development including concepts such as fair play and sportsmanship cluding individuals with disabilities from such (e.g., Bredemeier, Weiss, Shields, & Shew- programs solely on the basis of their disability chuk, 1986; Gibbins, Ebbeck, & Weiss, (Appenzeller, 2005; Block, 1995; Stein, 1995), and (f) learning how to manage one’s 2005). In addition, most youth sports pro- time, how to set goals, and how stay in con- grams can be adapted to accommodate the trol (Dworkin, Larson, & Hansen, 2003). needs of children with significant disabilities through universal design (Lieberman & Positive effects of participation in Houston-Wilson, 2009) and game modifica- youth sports can be as powerful for children tions (Block, 2007; Kasser & Lytle, 2005;

3 Lieberman & Houston-Wilson, 2009). In fact, posts were more dangerous than their child’s research shows youth sports programs can be walker, and his parents eventually took the accommodated to include children with dis- league to court to force the league to let Ryan abilities (Bernabe & Block, 1994; Nixon, play. The U.S. District judge agreed with the 1989), and youth sports coaches are generally parents finding it very unlikely another player willing to include children with disabilities on would get injured from the walker. As a result, their teams (Block & Malloy, 1999; Rizzo, the child was allowed to finish the season with Bishop, & Silva, 1999; Rizzo, Bishop, & To- his team (Boyd, 1999). bar, 1997) Regrettably, despite laws and research there continue to be many barriers that Solution prevent youth with significant disabilities As in many cases where people with from participating in youth sports. The pur- disabilities are summarily dismissed from par- pose of this article is to review some of these ticipation, education is the key to changing more common barriers to participation of league administrators’ preconceived opinions children with significant disabilities in youth and attitudes. Parents of a child with a disabil- sports with suggestions for how to overcome ity are the best advocates for their child, and these barriers. they can begin the education process with Barrier #1: Leader of Programs Fear league officials. For example, Ryan’s parents Liability/Do not know how to Accommodate did try and explain to the league president how they could pad Ryan’s walker to prevent Problem others from injury (although in this case it did not work). They also could explain some sim- Perhaps the greatest barrier to the par- ple modifications that could be implemented ticipation of children with disabilities in to allow Ryan and those around him to play youth sports is the fear of liability by program safely without negatively affecting the game leaders (Appenzeller, 2000). League adminis- for peers. For example, Ryan’s dad (or an ex- trators have two fears. First, they fear a player tra teammate) could be on the field with Ryan with a disability will get hurt and then the to prevent other players from bumping into child’s parents will sue the league. Second, Ryan. Another idea is marking off a small area they fear an athlete’s adapted equipment (e.g., with cones where only Ryan could retrieve walker or artificial arm), would injure another and kick the ball. Both strategies are very player. As a result, league administrators do practical and require very little effort on the what they feel is the most prudent and safest part of the league or the coach. These strate- thing by not allowing athletes with certain gies allow Ryan to be fully included with mi- types of disabilities to participate. For exam- nor modifications to the game. ple, a Ryan Taylor, 9-year-old boy with cerebral palsy who used a walker to aid his walk- Another way to educate administrators ing, was barred from playing youth soccer in about modifications is trying out some modi- his community league in Oklahoma. The fications during a practice session in front of commissioner of the league said Ryan’s steel league administrators and even opposing walker was a hazard to others, even though coaches. Administrators and officials can the walker was padded with foam and red watch the practice game with the modifica- duct tape. Ryan’s parents noted the steel goal- tions and have a better idea of the effect the

4 modification has on the safety and flow of the a child with an intellectual disability on their game. Administrators and coaches can also team. An issue like the one described above “tweak” modifications and create their own could easily be addressed at this annual meet- modifications. By participating in the process, ing and would allow coaches and administra- administrators and coaches will be more tors to be proactive in their approach. Parents likely accept modifications. For example, could be encouraged to attend the meeting and Bernabe and Block (1994) included a 12- use this platform to discuss issues with the year-old girl with an intellectual disability league and assist the league in coming up with and motor delays into a regular, fast pitch a plan that is functional and practical given the softball league. The authors went to a coaches resources of the coach/league. This proactive meeting explaining the girls abilities and dis- approach increases the likelihood their child abilities. They then lead a discussion with would be able to participate successfully and coaches and league administrators on possible minimize the effort, in terms of developing modifications that would allow this girl to be appropriate strategies that would need to be successful and safe without negatively affect- put forth by the coach during the actual sea- ing the game for her teammates and other son. teams. The group came up with modifications including allowing the girl to hit a ball off a Barrier #2: Coaches – Lack of Knowledge and tee, running to a shorter first base, and then Training getting a pinch runner if she did make it first Problem base. The girl was successfully included throughout the season, and no one com- Gary is a volunteer little league coach who is excited about coaching his son and teaching young children how to play the game “Administrators and coaches of baseball. Gary shows up on the first day of can also ‘tweak’ modiﬁcations practice and sees Joey, a boy with Osteogene- and create their own. By par- sis Imperfecta (brittle bone disease) rolling ticipating in the process, admin- onto the field in his wheelchair. Coach Gary istrators and coaches will be begins to panic and ask himself the following more likely to accept the modiﬁ- questions: “How in the world do I coach this cations.” child?” “What happens if he gets hit with the ball or gets hurt?” “Will this boy be able to learn like the other children?” Unfortunately plained about her participation. At the end of Coach Gary is not alone, these are questions each season coaches and administrators get that many youth coaches are asking when a together to discuss any potential rule changes child with a disability wishes to play on their or safety concerns that need to be addressed team. The coach enters the fear of the “un- to ensure safe participation for all participants known”. for the upcoming year. We acknowledge that many of the coaches already give an enor- Many coaches agree that children with mous amount of their time and energy to disabilities deserve “the right to participate” coach their team and very few have time to (Kozub & Porretta, 1998). The problem be- deal with the increased demands of including comes that many youth coaches lack the

5 knowledge and the training to appropriately the league and/or individual coach to identify meet the needs of children with disabilities. practical strategies that will work for the spe- Many youth coaches have never received any cific student. The teacher can share the strate- formal training on disabilities or special edu- gies they are using in school. In addition, the cation, let alone how to meet their needs. teacher may be able to willing to come and Rizzo et al. (1997) conducted a study on the assist the child during the practices/games or attitudes of youth soccer coaches towards potentially find a cross age peer tutor within children with intellectual disabilities. The re- the school that would like to get community sults of the study indicated that as coaches’ service hours and assist the child. Communi- perceived competence increased, there will- ties may also have disability support groups or ingness to coach players with intellectual dis- advocacy groups that would also be able to abilities increased. Those that were less com- provide the coach with helpful resources. petent in their ability were less willing, again Most communities have a local ARC, who has supporting the coach’s fears of entering the staff or volunteers that may be willing to share “unknown”. Many youth coaches are wonder- their expertise and/or time to ensure that their ful volunteers who are willing to give of their clients are successful. Some communities time but their coaching and teaching experi- have regional centers that employ disability ence does not go beyond their experiences as specialists. For example, in Harrisonburg, VA a high school athlete, let alone trying to help a there is an organization called the Training child with a given disability learn and suc- and Technical Assistance Center (TTAC). cessful. TTAC contracts with specialists in many different types of disabilities and provides serv- Solution ices for educators, parents, etc. who have is- Coaches should never feel like they sues or are struggling to meet the needs of are alone. Whether the coach needs assistance children with disabilities. in developing more drills for their players at Another strategy would be to provide a practice or needs advice on how to meet the clinic for coaches on how to meet needs of needs of a child with a physical disability, diverse learners. Many youth sports organiza- every community has resources that would tions provide clinics for their coaches at the help all youth coaches feel more competent in beginning of the year to provide them with their ability to work with a child with a dis- new ideas, activities, or strategies to use when ability. The problem is most organizations do they are coaching their players. A disability not know where to go to find the support or specialist or, if available, an adapted physical resources. One practical solution for all youth educator from the area could conduct a clinic organizations would be to establish a relation- and discuss some of the most common dis- ship with the local schools. Every school disabilities and provide appropriate strategies to trict has a special education teacher/ meet their needs. Special Olympics often pro- coordinator that in most cases would be more vides training for their coaches at local and than happy to provide their services or exper- state levels, and they would be happy to in- tise to the coach, especially if they would clude regular youth sports coaches into their know that it was benefitting their student. training programs. The way I would sell the The special education teacher can work with thought of the training to the league is that this

6 specialized training will not only help the one vidual realizes that the child with autism or or two children with physical or intellectual child with cerebral palsy would not be able to disabilities who are enrolled in the league, but participate if I did not help them. it will also help the coach deal with the child who appears to be a bit delayed in their motor Barrier #3: Parent and Child Fears skill development or the child that appears to Problem have some minor processing delays or even the child that has major behavior or anger is- Bob is the father of Angie, a girl with sues. This training will help the league deliver autism. When Angie gets excited she begins a program of universal design where every flapping her arms and jumping up and down. child can grow, develop, and be successful. Bob is very concerned about what other parents or players will think or how they will re- Finally, a strategy to help coaches is to act when Angie begins “stimming” when she find additional volunteers to assist the child hits the ball or begins talking to herself on the with a disability during practices and games. volleyball court. Robbie, young boy with sei- Coaching youth sports and managing a group zure disorders, refuses to sign up for youth of 15-20 players at one time can be challeng- basketball. Even though basketball is his fa- ing for one adult – even if there are not chil- vorite sport in physical education and he dren with disabilities on the team. It would comes down to see Mr. McMahon (the physi- not be fair or appropriate for coaches to focus cal educator) every day at lunchtime to shoot all their effort, attention, and energy on assist- hoops. Robbie is so afraid of having a seizure ing one child with a disability, so extra help is in the middle of a practice or game and being clearly warranted. Securing volunteers is not teased by peers. Unfortunately, Robbie’s an- as difficult as coaches might think. Parents or swer is to not play anything, even though the siblings of players often come and watch thing he wants most is to play sports and be practices, and these parents or siblings can be part of a “team.” Just as coaches have their recruited to provide support for the child with fear about meeting the needs of children with a disability. Outside of the team there are disabilities, children and their parents experi- many community organizations that require ence fears of their own when it comes to their members to complete a given number of community based sports. Often parents refuse community service hours (Boy Scouts, Key to enroll their child with a disability in com- Club, Kiwanis, etc), and many school districts munity sports programs due to these fears. now require community services hours as part Parents fear for their child’s safety as they are of the assist your player with a disability dur- concerned that their child may get hurt or ing practices or games. By utilizing and harm others. What if my child gets run over maximizing all these resources coaches would by other children while running down the bas- no longer feel like they are entering the “un- ketball court or happens to accidently trip known” and they will be able to work with someone while running with his crutches any player, regardless of their ability or dis- down the soccer field? In addition, both par- ability. Many students who jump at this ents as well as children with disabilities an- community service opportunity as they are ticipate the child will not be successful in able to see their clear purpose. This becomes community based sports. Both parties predict quite an important leadership role as the indi- that child will experience far more failure and

7 frustration than success. As a result, a safe the team love the Orioles too. Jamal also loves response becomes not to participate at all. to eat pizza and hates doing his homework, Finally, parents are afraid of their child with a and his teammates nod their heads in agree- disability being ridiculed and teased by ment when the coach explains this to them. teammates or members of another team. Children are also very apprehensive of what The coach can extend this discussion others think or say about them. No one likes by asking his players to think of at least one to be ridiculed or compared to others as it be- way everyone on the team is similar (e.g., we comes very detrimental to their self-esteem as all love baseball, we all live in Maryland). well as their perceived competence. As a re- Now think of one way we are all different sult of these reactions parents are faced with (e.g., each child has slightly different hair the tough decision of do I not let them to par- color, each player has a different height and ticipate to protect them even though I want weight compared to teammates). Once the them to “belong” or do I take a chance and players respond the coach explains that each potentially subject them to negative experi- player has different strengths (abilities) and ences? Parents feel as though they are in a different weaknesses (disabilities) but together “No Win” situation. we work as a “team” and we use our strengths to collectively overcome or minimize our Solution weaknesses. By shifting the focus away from what Jamal is not able to do and what he One strategy is to have youth coaches struggles with and placing the focus on what talk specifically about the player with a dis- he is able to do, the coach can help the players ability who will be on the team focusing on accept each other. Players quickly realize eve- both the child’s disability but also his abili- ryone has a unique and important role on the ties. To begin a conversation the coach can team. begin by introducing the player with a disability – “Boys, we have a new player this year Research shows with such discussion named Jamal, and Jamal has a disability teammates without disabilities will accept a known as Down syndrome.” The coach (or player with a disability onto their team (Block perhaps Jamal’s parents) can then provide & Malloy, 1998). For example, Mike, a youth brief explanation of Down syndrome and wrestling coach in Central Virginia, had this some of the specific characteristic of Down type of discussion with his wrestlers about a syndrome as it relates to playing the sport. teammate named Jay who was a double, above For example, the coach might talk about how the knee amputee. The coach found that the Jamal has a difficult time understanding di- discussion about Jay and his abilities and dis- rections and what exactly to do, so players abilities quickly eliminated any issues or can help Jamal if he seems confused. Besides negativity toward Jay. What Mike found out the discussion on the child’s differences, it is later was even more amazing; Mike learned important to talk to teammates about how his wrestlers went home and talked about Jay similar Jamal is to them. For example, Ja- with their parents. These teammates were very mal’s favorite baseball team is the Baltimore actually proud to have Jay on their team, and Orioles (the little league baseball team is in the excitedly explained to their parents how Maryland), and most of the other players on Jay was able to wrestle. There was even one

8 instance where the team was at a tournament keting materials indicating that they encourage and a spectator from another team yells out, participation of children with disabilities. Of- “hey look at that funny kid without any legs!” ten, parents receive a flyer about little league Mike explained that one of his wrestlers went or summer soccer and really wish their child up in the stands and said to the fan, “His could sign up, but they do not think their child name is Jay and he is my teammate. He is one is welcome. A simple statement added to the of the strongest and hardest working people flyer such as the following can calm the fears you will ever meet!” of the parents: “Children of all abilities/ disabilities are encouraged to sign up – appro- Another strategy is for the coach to priate accommodations will be made to ensure talk directly with the parent of the child with everyone can play and will be successful.” a disability. The coach can even admit that Such a statement is very inviting and can help they have never worked with a child with a parents overcome some of their fears. disability and have no formal training. If the parents realize the coach is willing to learn Barrier #4: Lack of Appropriate Programs and do whatever he can to help the child, parents will provide any and all information to Problem the coach to help their child be successful. A final barrier to participation of chil- Many parents are true advocates for their dren with disabilities in youth sports is avail- child and will do whatever it takes to help ability of appropriate programs. Availability of their child be successful. By the coach admit- program includes regular youth sports pro- ting their limitations and asking for help the grams that offer recreational levels as well as parent is able to use their resources or “go to special programs such as Special Olympics bat” for their child and get them whatever and other special sports programs. This is par- support the coach may need so their child can ticularly problematic in rural and inner city participate. Most parents simply want their communities where funding, facilities, and child to be a contributing part of the team and experienced coaches are limited (Kleinert, have fun like the rest of the players. The par- Miracle, & Sheppard-Jones, 2007).. For ex- ents can also offer any resources and/or sug- ample, the suburbs surrounding Washington, gestions they may have which will help the DC, offer a variety of levels of regular sports coach meet the needs of their child. The real- programs from recreation programs for begin- ity is coaches should have this same talk with ners and those more interested in having fun all of their players’ parents as every child to travel programs for very skilled athletes in- learns differently, has different abilities, and terested in competing at the highest level. In comes from different backgrounds. Once addition, these suburban communities offer a again, this proactive approach will allow the variety of special sports programs in including coach to be more effective in helping each an extensive Special Olympics program, Chal- member of his/her team grow and develop lenger Baseball (Little League Baseball for into the player they want to become. children with disabilities), and community-run Finally, it is very important for all therapeutic recreation programs that offer spe- community sports organizations to have a cial recreation and sports programs. On the statement on all their programming and mar- other hand, an hour or so away in rural Vir- ginia and Maryland there are fewer (if any)

9 introductory sports programs and few (if any) Challenger Baseball Program. While there are special sports programs. Similarly, the city of not enough athletes with disabilities or quali- Washington, DC, is limited in outdoor play- fied coaches to run a program in any one ing fields to offer the variety of sports avail- community, the combination of the 5 commu- able in the suburbs such as soccer, lacrosse, nities leads to the creation of 4 teams that ro- baseball, and softball. tate to play each other each Saturday. Special Olympics follows this model by combining Even when recreation programs are several communities into one “area.” For ex- available, they may only be available for ample, Area 3 Special Olympics in Virginia younger athletes. As children get older there encompasses the city of Charlottesville and tends to be a drop off in recreational pro- the counties of Albemarle, Greene, Louisa, grams. Teenagers who are not playing for and Fluvanna. their high school teams often have competing interests (after school jobs, more homework, A similar solution is possible for regu- other interests), and as a result there are fewer lar recreation sports programs. Again, combin- recreation division for in youth sports pro- ing multiple community programs into one grams for teens. For example, the Soccer Or- large recreation program might solve the prob- ganization of Charlottesville and Albemarle lem. Recreation teams could be created my (SOCA) has trouble every year fielding a community, but then they play recreation girls’ 16-year-old and 18-year-old recreation games against other communities. In essence division. As a result SOCA often combines the program is a travel team but at a recreation the 16 and 18-year-olds, and in some years level. This way less skill players and players they have to combine 14-year-old into the more interested in participating for fun could mix as well because of a limited number of have a place to play. recreation athletes. Even when combining these three age groups SOCA may only field Another possible solution is allowing 4 or 5 teams. In other cases (e.g., baseball, older players with disabilities (who are less basketball, and lacrosse) communities may skilled) to play at a younger age level. As simply eliminate the older recreation age di- noted above, there is a greater likelihood of visions focusing solely on competitive pro- recreation programs available at younger ages, grams for more skilled athletes. Unfortu- and it is more likely that an athlete’s (with a nately, teens with disabilities often will not disability) skill level and understand of the have the skill level to play on these competi- game will match younger recreation-level tive teams. players. This type of accommodation would not be appropriate when an athlete with a dis- Solution ability has an unfair advantage due to size, strength, and/or speed or when the athlete’s It is difficult for small rural communi- size poses a safety risk for other players. In ties and inner city communities to offer an addition, it would not be appropriate to have a array regular and special youth sports pro- 14-year-old play on a team with 8-10 year- grams. One solution is to combine resources olds. However, in most cases a parent of a with other communities. For example, within child with a disability makes a request to a 45 minute radius five rural communities can waive the age rule by a few years, because join together to offer a Saturday morning

10 they know their child cannot compete physi- recreational/intramural league also would be cally or cognitively with same-age peers. For more flexible allowing modified equipment example, a child with Asperger‘s Syndrome – and rules to promote success for all athletes. a high functioning form of autism - requested Given this approach we remove the barrier of their 15-year-old daughter (who would have “disability” versus “non-disabled” and allow to play in a 16-year-old division) play in the parents and children to choose a program that 12-year-old division. The child was slightly is most appropriate given their individual built, very unskilled (she had not played soc- strengths and weaknesses. cer since she was 8-yers-old and just on a whim decided she wanted to play again), and Final Thoughts had a very short attention span. Still, she Participation in youth sports offers so wanted to try to play again (her younger sis- many benefits, and every child should have ters played soccer). The league allowed this the opportunity to participate in youth sports girl to play at the younger division, and even at least once in their life. Participation in though she was still the least skilled player on youth sports is just as important to children the team and perhaps in the league, she was with disabilities as it is to children without able to play and have fun. disabilities. In some cases opportunities to One final approach that would allow participate in regular youth sports might be communities to meet the needs of all indi- more important to children with disabilities viduals in the area would be for youth sports who attend special classes and special schools organizations to combine their efforts and and have limited interactions with peers with- find a way to offer two participatory options: out disabilities (Maryland Disability Law Cen- a competitive, more advanced league and a ter, 2009). Unfortunately, opportunities for recreational, less advanced league. Each participation in youth sports are often limited league could be considered inclusive, but it due to various social and environmental barri- would allow appropriate accessibility by all ers. The purpose of this paper was to present members of the youth sports community. these barriers along with viable solutions to Any child who is more advanced in their skill these barriers so more children with disabili- development and understanding of the game ties can successful participate in and enjoy all should enroll in the competitive league as it the benefits of youth sports. Key strategies would be considered that child’s least restric- presented included educating and preparing tive environment and provide the best oppor- league administrators as well as coaches and tunity for success as well as growth/ teammates, focusing on ability and accommo- development. On the other hand, a child who dations rather than disability and obstacles, wants to play on a team but not in a competi- and helping communities provide new youth tive environment should have the opportunity sports opportunities. By helping coaches and to enroll in the recreational/intramural league. leagues understand and appreciate the unique- This parallel-program model is perfect for ness of each player we are able to create posi- children with and without disabilities who do tive youth sports opportunities and successful not have the sport/physical skills or under- participation for all. Practice and game days standing of the game to be successful in the will be exciting as everyone is overcome their more competitive, regulation program. This barriers and “get on the field”. .

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Rizzo, T.L., Bishop, P., & Tobar, D. (1997). Attitudes of soccer coaches toward youth players with mild mental retarda- About the Authors: tion: A pilot study. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 14, 238-251. Thomas E. Moran is an assistant professor in the Kinesiology Pro- Seefeldt, V., Ewing, M., & Walk, S. (1992). gram at James Madison University Overview of youth sports programs in and he is the executive director of the United States. Washington, DC: Just for Kicks, Inc., a Community Carnegie Council on Adolescent Devel- Based Adapted Physical Education opment. Program. Stein, J. (2005). Accommodating individuals with disabilities in regular sport pro- Martin E. Block is a Professor in grams. In H. Appenzeller (Ed.), Risk the Kinesiology Program, Curry management in sport: Issues and strate- School of Education, at the Uni- gies (2nd ed., pp. 389-398). Durham, versity of Virginia, and he is a con- NC: Carolina Academic Press. sultant for Special Olympics, Inc

The Tucker Center for Research on Girls & Women in Sport (2007). Executive Summary. The 2007 Tucker Center Re- search Report, Developing physically