A Genealogy of Video

Paul Ryan

Abstract-The authordiscusses the struggle that took place in between 1968 and 1971 over whether video would be considered a tool of social change or a medium of art. The struggle is traced in terms of six dimensions:technological, theoretical, political, institutional, economic and cultural. The author's position is that video mutated from a countercultural gesture to an art genre. The question asked is how this genre will articulate its own genealogy.

I. INTRODUCTION of possibility that early video held. The New York. During the course of one anecdote be illustrative. The term 'genealogy' indicates a following might festival, in either 1974 or 1975, a plenary In the mid-1970s the author of particular sort of writing concerned with session of over 100 people was stopped Ken ran a cold a resonant voice with an rediscovering struggles without shrinking Independent Video, Marsh, by odd, series of video festivals from the rude memory of the conflict. It is in Woodstock, insistent quality: "I want to know what's an effort to establish knowledge, based on local memories, that is of tactical use to the reader. Whereas a history is generally written as if a struggle had been resolved, a genealogy assumes that the -I-.... ,. _ I 3 present resolution is subject to change. The genealogies offered by Michel Foucault of phenomena such as modern prisons and medical clinics depend on extensive library research by a non- participant [1]. By contrast, this genealogy is constructed primarily out of FjLlJFIE[SlfM{f the rude memory of the conflict itself by a UEMSo]LW] participant in the struggle. Hence it is a Sll i1E LdTfLI genealogy, not the genealogy of video. Other participants would have other versions. To go beyond the sketch I provide here, a complete genealogy of video would have to take account of other versions and place early video within the context of the wider array of significant social shifts going on at the same time. What I believe saves this piece from being a merely subjective memoir is that it is constructed in terms of a fault line, a discontinuity in video history that is in danger of being ignored. My contention is that any serious account of video must take account of that fault line. Video itself mutated from a counter- cultural gesture to an art genre. When video was principally a countercultural gesture, it held the promise of social change unmediated by the art world. Now, whatever promise of social change video holds is mediated by the art world. This is a significant difference. People unfamiliar with the mutation find it difficult to appreciate the unlimited sense MmT1L d

Fig. 1. Cover of RadicalSoftware, No. 1: TheAlternative TelevisionMovement(1970). Articles in the first issue of Radical Software included Frank Gillette, "Is EVR a Good or Bad Thing?"; Gene Paul Ryan (artist, author), P.O. Box 306, High Youngblood, Excerpts from The Videosphereand Video Cassette Image Publishing, a pirated Falls, NY 12440, U.S.A. transcriptionof an interviewwith R. BuckminsterFuller videotapedby RaindanceCorp.; Nam June Received 13 December 1985. Paik, "ExpandedEducation for the Paperless Society"; and Paul Ryan, "Cable Television:The Raw and the Overcooked".

? 1988 ISAST Pergamon Journals Ltd. Printed in Great Britain. LEONARDO, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 39-44,1988 0024-094X/88 $3.00+0.00 going on with video. I just got $5,000 technologies to work toward a society Tadlock to produce 'broadcastable' from the New York State Council on the that could avoid Vietnams. I convinced video works for a show called The Arts to do video and I'm blind. I'm a the draft board to let me do my Medium is the Medium. With the blind man! What is going on?" alternative to military service working exception of Alan Kaprow's Hello, which Literally translated from the Latin, directly with McLuhan while he was a broadcasted randomly switched signals 'video' means 'I see'. That the Arts visiting professor at , from a system of cameras and monitors Council would grant a blind man $5,000 1967-1968, the year he wrote War and set up around Boston, all these works to produce video demonstrates that part Peace in the Global Village [3]. During relied heavily on processing the image on of what was going on was a powerful that year, I started exploring the new the surface of the screen. Only Aldo belief system. Perhaps through this portable video. My experimentation led Tambellini's Black, about black life in wondrous new technology, the blind to a position as the New York Arts America, dealt with explicit social would see. The story indicates the extent Council's first video consultant in 1969, content. to which the Arts Council, and many to work with the alternative video group Processed imagery also dominated others, had willfully suspended disbelief Raindance and to a series of essays on much of the "TV As A Creative Medium" to allow a new fiction called 'video' to be video entitled Cybernetics of the Sacred show assembled by art gallery owner generated. [4]. In this report, I will trace the Howard Wise in the spring of 1969. Today, critical discourse is replacing genealogy of video's initial phase in terms Tadlock, Siegel and Tambellini were suspended disbelief. The following of its technological, theoretical, political, joined by Joe Wientraub and Earl account of the preconditions that made institutional, economic and cultural Reiback in presenting processed image video possible by someone who played a dimensions. pieces. Paik's iconoclasm produced the role in generating the original fiction is TVBra, an actual brassiere with monitors intended as a contribution to that critical wired to the cello of performer Charlotte discourse. Technological Moorman. Paik also showed Participa- In technological terms, the genealogy tion TV, which showed images of the of video is best described by distinguish- viewer on separate monitors in different II. TOWARD SOCIAL CHANGE OR ing between processing signals for the colors. While it can be said that ART? surface of the screen and using video as a Tambellini's Black and Paik's TV Bra The genealogy of video is a history of system of communication [5]. The effected social change by producing the struggle between the drive to use distinction between surface and system images that helped alter social mores video as a tool of social change and the can be clarified by considering a man about race and sex, the route of reference drive to use video as a medium of art. cutting down a tree with an axe. A to social change was through symbol Specifically, this version deals with New systems understanding pays attention to manipulation, not the systemics of York City video from 1968 to 1971. I how the differences in what the man sees communication. settle on the term 'drive' because during make differences in how he swings the Two works in the Wise show did that period there were no clearly defined axe. The differences in how he swings the concern themselves with the systemics of factions of art versus social change. There axe in turn make differences in the gashes communication: Wipe Cycle and Every- were videomakers who thought of on the tree. These differences in turn man's Moebius Strip, which both grew themselves as artists and saw their work make differences in what the man sees, out of experience with the Sony portable as promulgating social change, and there and so on, as the cycle repeats itself. A video system. Wipe Cycle by Frank were videomakers working for social surface understanding frames that part of Gillette and involved a grid change who considered their work the tree where the axe repeatedly strikes of nine monitors displaying broadcast artistic. Activity in the video field tended and concerns itself with the 'composition' images, prerecorded tapes and timed toward one or the other of these diverging within that frame. tape-delay images of the audience in poles. Choices could be made according Prior to the arrival of the Sony portable front of the monitors. Everyman's to an agenda of social change, and video system in 1968, '' was Moebius Strip, the piece I did for the Wise choices could be made that individuated primarily a matter of manipulating show, provided a private feedback booth, oneself as an artist. signals within the frame of the television where one could record oneself going As a participant/observer, I entered screen. Magnets were applied to TV sets, through a series of simple exercises and the fray with a bias toward using video as internal circuitry was altered and black see the playback in private before the tape a tool of social change. This bias stemmed boxes were attached. Inspired by the was erased. primarily from my opposition to the music of John Cage, Nam June Paik used Wipe Cycle and Everyman's Moebius Vietnam War. I applied for and received a these tactics to achieve a certain playful Strip were based on an appreciation of conscientious objector draft status based iconoclasm. He broke down conventional the new portable Sony as a communica- on the philosopher John Dewey's notion expectations about TV images and tions system, complete with record, of God as the tension between the ideal introduced a sense of possibility for the storage and playback capacity. It allowed and the actual. The ideal put forth by screen. Eric Siegel, who was more the user to 'infold' information and set up MarshallMcLuhan of a more harmonious knowledgeable about circuitry, colorized feedback circuits, not merely manipulate society based on electronic communica- the gray tone scale and processed images, the TV terminals of the broadcast system. tions attracted me. In his introduction to such as Albert Einstein's picture, A generation whose childhood had been Understanding Media [2] McLuhan synchronizing the processing to classical dominated by broadcast television was asserted that he wrote the book as an act music. now able to get its hands on a means of of faith in "the ultimate harmony of all Public television saw potential in this TV production. The machine was being", a faith activated by the new sort of image processing. In 1968, WGBH relatively inexpensive ($1,500), light- electronic technology. Inspired by in Boston commissioned Alan Kaprow, weight, easy to use and reliable, and it McLuhan, I gave up my ambition to be a Otto Piene, Aldo Tambellini, James produced a decent black-and-white 'writer' and determined to use electronic Seawright, Nam June Paik and Thomas image with acceptable audio. Tape was

40 Ryan, Genealogy of Video reusable and inexpensive. The video access cablevision; construction of The 'Oracle of the Electronic Age', as he portapak helped trigger a range of videoinformation environments/struc- was called by many, had published video with social tures/assemblages as related to Media in 1964. His version activity linking change. information andaudience Understanding These two 'communication' works in the presentation of the of media involvement;... explorations of the complex process Wise show were only an indication of a unique potentialities of feedback history-from the oral to the literate to growing video movement. throughvideo and audio infolding, and the electric-was discussed in businesses, came from feedbackas facilitatorin encouraging universities, the media, art circles and the George Stoney Challenge between in of new for in Canada to start the play people pursuit counterculture. McLuhan's Change [6] life stylesand/or as examinationof the perceptions Alternative Media Center with Red Burns transformationof the director/actor and language provided an instant at , which used the relationshipimplicit in video. Long framework of understanding both for portapak as a primary tool for social theoretical discussions were printed those interested in processing imagery for such as communication. Among other projects, concerning concepts cybernetic the TV screen and for those interested in guerilla warfare, triadic logic, bio- the Media Center midwifed an effective the social of the topological resensitization,nutritive change possibilities three-way communications system for contexts, electronic democracy ... [8]. portapak. McLuhan was quoting John senior citizens in Reading, Pennsylvania, Cage; Cage was quoting McLuhan. Eric using video and cable television. Larabee, then head of the New York State Alain Fredrickson, a high-school Theoretical Council on the Arts, was on a panel biology teacher from Pennsylvania, went By the time the portapak became interviewing McLuhan on public tele- to Santa Cruz, California, to develop available, Marshall McLuhan's work was vision. Frank Gillette taught a course on community cable TV and published a being widely read. Other thinkers such as McLuhan at the Fourteenth Street Free newsletter for high-school students Teilhard de Chardin, Norman O. Brown, School in New York. under the alias of Johnny Videotape. Ken Buckminster Fuller and Herbert Marcuse McLuhan himself offered no formal Marsh and Howie Gutstadt, both were also being read, but McLuhan's theory of art and no agenda for social painters, initiated People's Video Theatre work was particularly relevant to video. change. When pushed about what could in New York City, trying to invent ways of using video to mediate social conflict. Coming from a theatre background, with particular referenceto Pirandello, Artaud and Grotowski, David Cort began LB3iEDLCLL\EL~JEPBY!i7tA1Ei3E organizing what became known as the Videofreex. Ira Schneider, Michael Shamberg, Louis Jaffe, Marco Vassi and Frank Gillette founded Raindance, a /I production group which also published a magazine for the alternative community called Radical Software (see Figs 1-3). Started by Ira Schneider, Phyllis Gershuny and Beryl Korot, with Gershuny and Korot as the original editors, Radical Software quickly rose to a circulation of 5,000 and became the voice of the video movement. A sense of what the video belief system was like can be gleaned from reading Michael Shamberg's book [7] and more succinctly from the following editorial statement in Radical Software:

In issue one, volume one of Radical Software (Summer, 1970) we intro- ducedthe hypothesisthat people must assert control over the information tools and processes that shape their lives in order to free themselvesfrom the mass manipulationperpetrated by commercialmedia in this countryand state controlledtelevision abroad. By accessinglow cost Y2"portable video- tapeequipment to produceor createor wu - w - - - - mi aa partake in the informationgathering ~~~~~~~~~ -~~~~~~~~mT9-!~rnm. .-& process, we suggested that people wouldcontribute greatly to restructur- ing their own informationenviron- ments:YOU ARE THE INFORMA- D If iJLIi 3 TION.... In particular we focused on $1.25 the increasingnumber of experiments conductedby peopleusing this 2"video Fig. 2. Coverof RadicalSoftware, No. 2: TheElectromagetic Spectrum (1970) including Takis, tool: experimentsin producinglocally Excerptsfrom TechnologyAgainst Technology= Anti-Tech; Elliot S. Glass,"Video in El Barrioand originated programmingfor closed- the Classroom";Ken Marsh, "Alternativesfor AlternateMedia-People's Video Theatre circuit and cable tv and for public Handbook";Ira Einhorn,"Noh Place".

Ryan, Genealogy of Video 41 -"_- _ familiar with from Nelson Rockefeller's 1 . z famous patronage of the visual arts, so evident in the Museum of ' abundantly 3n. 1 _ .I nI1 - . Modern Art. The New York State Arts Council could provide support for experimental work in a new art medium that had not yet developed a market for its products. For those interested in social change, this seemed the action of an extremely wealthy man developing a state apparatus to carry out a function analogous to traditional patronage of the arts. More- over, it was a way for Rockefeller to win reelection support from his traditional, wealthy supporters by giving state money to major cultural institutions, such as Lincoln Center, which were patronized by the wealthier classes. As the person who originally mediated the Rockefeller Arts Council money into precedent-setting video grants, my glee at getting the money allocated was balanced by a nagging doubt that perhaps modern art was merely a process whereby the pain of the poor becomes the perceptions of the rich. The rich need these perceptions to maintain their power because they are out of touch with the shifting sentiments of the majority of people. Artists, in touch with the alienating experience of industrialization suffered by most people, translate that experience into an idiom or code (modern art) useful to the few who profit from that alienation. I was asking G myself if refusing to make art would -T --T- result in a more just society. Moreover, h,hh~inl since art legitimizes wealth, it contributes 1.50 to a status quo that can effectively ignore the pain of the poor. To contribute to this Fig. 3. Coverof RadicalSoftware, No. 3 (Spring1971), including , "Restructuring process is, in some sense, a betrayal. The the of a Great Videofreex, "Media Bus"; Ira Schneider, "Tentative for a Ecology City"; Design September 1971 killings at Attica State Flexible Video Environment";Paul Ryan, "Cybernetic Guerilla Warfare". Prison did nothing to allay these doubts. the it was an be done in the electronic era, he would say minorities-could gain social power. At same time, opportunity only that it was too early to tell. He McLuhan also proclaimed with poet Ezra to secure money for social change invested his energy in probing for new Pound that artists were "the antennae of projects. Art, after all, was "anything you could with". When a and useful perceptions of the situation the race". They could anticipate the blows get away budget created by electronic media. In con- to the human psyche wrought by the new jumps from 2 to 20 million dollars in one centrating on perception, McLuhan was technologies and provide mappings of year there is a lot of 'funny money', i.e. appropriating a strategy from the art how to integrate these blows. He money with no real specification as to its world, a strategy only apparently radical: declared, to the consternation of many, use. exploit new media for the novelty of the "Art is anything you can get away with". take no re- perceptions they yield; Institutional for on those sponsibility acting percep- Political tions. In one year, 1969, the New York State For those interested in social change, Prior to his reelection campaign in Arts Council went from a family style the popularist McLuhan proclaimed-in 1970, the incumbent governor of the State organization to an agency dispensing 20 the tradition of Harold Innis-that the of New York, Nelson Rockefeller, million dollars. During that year, the technologies of communication, not increased the State Council on the Arts Council allocated over half a million economics, were the real keys to social budget from 2 to 20 million dollars. dollars for video. The handful of then- change. Marx had, in McLuhan's Rockefeller had chartered the New York extant video groups-Videofreex, Rain- provocative phrase, "missed the com- State Arts Council, the first such council dance, People's Video Theatre and munications bus" [9]. By gaining access in the United States. Global Village-competed for the money. to new communications systems, the For those interested in the medium of A series of complicated machinations disenfranchised minorities-such as video as art, i.e. career artists, this move ensued, which included a battle over a teenagers, the elderly and various ethnic was in keeping with a tradition they were /4-million-dollar plan for a "Center for

42 Ryan, Genealogy of Video Decentralized Television" to be ad- The Markle Foundation supported the sixties. Given the pervasive influence of ministered through the Jewish Museum Alternative Media Center in using video broadcast television on the mass culture under Carl Katz. The notion was to as a tool of social change. Only the New of America, it is logical that video would distribute portable production capacity York State Council on the Arts has had be appropriated as a tool of resistance, to 20 diverse groups in New York State, the courage to ride both horses. protest and change by the counterculture. including upstate farmers and urban For advocates of social change, the The alternate video group Raindance was ghetto dwellers. The center would then opportunism of going to the Arts Council conceived of as a countercultural think facilitate the exchange of tapes and public in the first place meant that eventually the tank-an alternate to the Rand Corpora- showings. In the end, each of the four resulting compromises with the art world tion. People's Video Theatre had a groups got $35,000. The balance went to would spell defeat. The context of a state popularist stance associated with the museums and public television stations. bureaucracydefined in terms of art would counterculture. Many of the Videofreex While the Arts Council is the only state ultimately defuse and erode efforts at were former teachers who involved agency chartered to make discretionary social change. Yet the imposed dialogue themselves in the counterculture. Two of judgments, in the case of the original with art forced a much deeper considera- the principals, David Cort and Parry funding of video groups it did not exercise tion both of the role of art in social Teasdale, met at the Woodstock Music its discretion but gave equal money to all change and of the whole relationship Festival. At Woodstock they were groups. This was partly because video between art and politics. For artists, the introduced to Don West, then assistant to was new, partly because of the growing Council was a godsend in terms of a the president of Columbia Broadcast pains of the Council and partly because career-support system, but a mixed System (CBS). With the assistance of the money was available. In effect, the blessing in terms of being forced to Don West, Cort and Teasdale, along with Council followed the sort of hands-off compete with social change advocates for Curtis Ratcliff, organized the Videofreex policy toward art funding that had been funds available through the paperwork to produce a portapak-style pilot tape for instituted in England after World War II and panels of a state bureaucracy. broadcast on CBS. The program was to with Keynesian economics. As Peter Because the grant money was available, render the Woodstock experience and the Fuller reports: the spontaneous origins of the video values of the counterculture. The pilot movement maintained some of the was played through Eric Siegel's color The Arts Council,established in 1945, character of a 'gift economy'. Equipment, synthesizer for a group of CBS executives was one of the firstcomponents of the information, skills and tapes were freely including Michael Dann and Fred welfare state. Its architect,and first often between social Silverman. At the end of the was himself. shared, change showing, chairperson, Keynes advocates and artists. There was an Michael Dann thanked the Videofreex for Marriedto a ballerina,a Bloomsbury habitue, he had spoken of the 'information free' ethic not unlike the their efforts and said it would be a long prostitutionof the arts for financial early computer hacker culture [11]. The time before such programming found its crimes of gain as "one of worser marketplace was held at bay. Yet given way onto the air. The next day CBS In the welfare present-daycapitalism." the absence of a clear of dismantled the and fired Don state, all that was going to change.In pattern project 1945 Keyneswrote: "The purposeof discretionary art judgments, the video/ West [13]. The subtext for this meeting is the Arts Council... is to create an New York State Council nexus appeared articulated by social scientist George environment, to breed a spirit, to at times to be a welfare system for Gerbner: "If you can write a nation's cultivatean opinion,to offera stimulus eccentrics in various video needn't about who to such that the artistand the caught up stories, you worry purpose makes its laws. television tells publiccan each sustain and live on each solipsisms. Today other in that union which has Of course, a gift economy could not be most of the stories to most of the people occasionallyexisted in partat the great long sustained through state bureaucracy. most of the time" [14]. Such storytelling life." He ages of a communalcivilized Over the years, the trust and faith configures a symbolic environment that claimed:"The artist walks where his for a economy yielded to controls modern society the way spiritleads him. He cannotbe told his necessary gift religion direction;he does not knowit himself." the mechanisms of mediation and used to control society. Violence-laden Buthe expectednew work to "springup regulation. Such benign regulation has drama, for example, "shows who gets more abundantly in unexpected taken place over the years as the away with what, when, why, how and andin unforeseen when quarters shapes movement failed to regulate itself. Like against whom" [15]. there is a universal opportunityfor contact with traditional and con- many similar movements, it fell prey to Along with his associates at the temporaryarts in their noblestform" the internal dynamics that tend to split up University of Pennsylvania, from 1967 to [10]. non-hierarchic small groups. As the 1982 Gerbner analyzed over 1,600 prime- original groups tended to break up, so the time programs and interviewed large Mutatis mutandis, this is the manner in funds tended to go more toward samples of both frequent and infrequent which the New York State Council on the individual artists, media equipment television viewers in the U.S. They Arts first funded video. The half million centers and large institutions. While the documented very skewed perceptions of dollars allocated set a precedent and context was such that there was reality on the part of frequent viewers in became a prime source of stable funding discussion in Radical Software of an relation to sex roles, jobs, races, for video through the seventies and into information economy [12], that is, a non- minorities and crime. For example, 55 the eighties. As a state arts council, the money economy based on knowledge as percent of the characters shown on institution developed an alliance network value, no viable realization of that notion prime-time television are involved in that included television stations, matured. violence once a week. In real life, the museums, universities, small experi- comparable figure is less than 1 percent. mental video groups and individual Frequent viewers grossly overestimated Cultural artists working in video. Other funding the chance of violence in their own lives institutions also supported video. The In large part, the original video and had an exaggerated distrust of Rockefeller Foundation, with Nam June movement can be seen as a transforma- strangers. Gerbner argues that such Paik as a consultant, supported video art. tion of the waning counterculture of the distortion functions to maintain the

Ryan, Genealogy of Video 43 status quo of the industrial state in Broadcast television? The academic REFERENCES AND NOTES America: world? Private patrons? The Library of Congress? What criteria will be applied? 1. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge, ... televisionis the centralcultural arm ColinGordon, ed. (NewYork: Pantheon, The field of video is particularly of Americansociety. It is an agencyof 1980) pp. 78ff. the established order and serves vulnerable to cannibalization because the 2. Marshall McLuhan, UnderstandingMedia primarilyto extendand maintain rather state of suspended disbelief has lasted (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1964) p. 21. than threatenor weaken con- alter, overlong and no critical discourse has 3. Marshall McLuhan, Warand Peace in the ventional conceptions, beliefs and Global York: behaviors.Its chiefcultural function is been cultivated that would justify to the Village (New Bantam, world at the selection of certain 1968). to spreadand stabilizesocial patterns, large 4. Paul the Sacred to cultivatenot butresistance to video works as value. Ryan, Cybernetics of change having lasting (New York:Doubleday Anchor, 1974). change.Television is a mediumof the At the core of the difficulty is the fact 5. David "Video Art of the socialization of most into Gigliotti, people that there has been no resolution of the Sixties",in "AbstractPainting: 1960-69", standardizedroles and behaviors.Its exh. P.S. 1 Studies The function in a enculturation problematics underlying the industrial cat., (Project One), is, word, Institutefor Art and UrbanResources, culture by broadcast tele- [16]. promulgated Inc., Brooklyn,NY (January16-March vision. Video originally addressed those 13, 1983),unpaginated. Gerbner's work on enculturation problematics. For the most part, a sense 6. An organizationfunded by theCanadian allows us to see this entire of of this context has eroded from the video government to prod service bureau- genealogy cracies. field. Moreover, the conditions that video, with both its aesthetic and social gave 7. Michael Guerrilla Television rise to the of video have Shamberg, change aspects, against the background genealogy (New York: Holt, 1971). shifted. in of the religion of broadcast television. Technological improvements 8. Beryl Korot and Ira Schneider, eds., The values and beliefs associated with video equipment have shifted the Radical Software 2, No. 1 (September emphasis from process values to pro- 1972), editorial page. video have not supplanted the values and 9. This and the two that follow are duction values. Personal computers have quote beliefs associated with broadcast tele- taken from memory of lectures McLuhan video as the electronic medium vision. Video did not make the blind see. displaced gave at Fordham University, 1967-1968. of possibility in people's imaginations. 10. Peter Fuller, "The Crisis of Pro- McLuhan's discourse is outdated, and no fessionalism in Art", International6, No. III. CONCLUSION discourse has it. 2, 31 (July 1981). comparable replaced 11. Steven Hackers NY: In there is little to Ronald is the welfare Levy, (Garden City, 1987, willingness Reagan dismantling Doubleday, 1984). suspend disbelief. The fiction of video is state, and the marketplace increasingly 12. Ryan [4] pp. 59-64. coming under increased scrutiny and a determines video production. In New 13. Gigliotti [5]. reconsideration is in order. One wonders York State, the Arts Council funding has 14. George Gerbner quoted by Harry F. in to how the art world with its tradition of the not with either inflation or the Waters "Life According TV", kept pace Newsweek 100, No. 23, 136 (6 December with video as it old. new will deal grows number of videomakers. The counter- 1982). What of real value can be distilled from culture has long since lost power. Video 15. G. Gerbner, "Living with Television: what has happened under the cover of itself has mutated from a countercultural The Violence Profile", Journal of Communication No. 370 video? Who will do the distilling? The gesture to an art genre. How this genre 26, 2, (Spring New York State Council on the Arts? The articulates its remains to be 1976). genealogy 16. Gerbner [15] p. 366. museums? The American Film Institute? seen.

44 Ryan, Genealogy of Video