STRATEGIES for ENHANCING the QUALITY and SHELF LIFE of MANGO (Mangifera Indica L.) FRUIT GROWN UNDER the ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS of DERA ISMAIL KHAN

STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING THE QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE OF MANGO (Mangifera indica L.) FRUIT GROWN UNDER THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF DERA ISMAIL KHAN

FARZANA BIBI

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, GOMAL UNIVERSITY

DERA ISMAIL KHAN, PAKISTAN

2012

STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING THE QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE OF MANGO (Mangifera indica L.) FRUIT GROWN UNDER THE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF DERA ISMAIL KHAN

A dissertation submitted to Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Horticulture

FARZANA BIBI

Department of Horticulture

Faculty of Agriculture, Gomal University

Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan

2012

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH

THE MOST GRACIOUS THE MOST MERCIFUL

DEDICATED TO MY DEAREST PARENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises and glory be to ALLAH, the most Merciful and Beneficent who bestowed

upon me the health, power of communication and opportunity to complete this study.

Countless salutation on the Holy Prophet MUHAMMAD (Peace Be Upon Him) is the

last Prophet of ALLAH.

I am thankful to my supervisors, Prof. Dr. Muhammad Saleem Jilani, Chairman,

Department of Horticulture, for his guidance and Dr. Musa Kaleem Baloch (Tamgh-e-

Imtiaz, Izaz-e-Fazilat), Professor of chemistry and Dean of Sciences for his continuous

support, guidance, suggestions, constructive comments and technical expertise both in the

laboratory as well as in the field throughout the period of my study and research. I

sincerely respect him for his devotion to work, simplicity, his care, co-operation and

encouragement during the study period.

I express my thanks to Dr. Muhammad Iqbal and Dr. Jalal-u-Din Baloch, Department of

Horticulture; Dr. Qudratullah Khan Department of Soil and Environmental Science and

Prof. Dr. Ahmad Khan Baloch, Department of Food and Science Technology, Ex–Dean

Faculty of Agriculture for his support and guidance. I also thanks to Naqibullah,

Muhammad Farooq and Hakeem-ud-din Laboratory Assistant for his co-operation.

I am thankful to my parents whose support, prayers, encouragement, love and affection had been always a source of aspiration.

FARZANA BIBI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page Number

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS x

LIST OF TABLES xii

LIST OF FIGURES xviii

ABSTRACT xxii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 60

3.1 Chemicals 60

3.2 General Procedure 60

3.2.1 Sampling 60

3.2.2 Cutting and Peeling of the Fruit 60

3.2.3 Measurement of Ripened Stage 61

3.2.4 Analysis of Fruit 61

3.2.4.1 Organoleptic Evaluation 61

3.2.4.2 Measurements of Moisture Contents 62

3.2.4.3 Measurements of Total Soluble Solids 62 (TSS)

3.2.4.4 Measurements of Total Solids (TS) 63

3.2.4.5 Measurements of pH 63

3.2.4.6 Measurements of Acidity 63

3.2.4.7 Measurements of Ascorbic Acid 64 (Vitamin-C)

3.2.4.8 Measurements of Total Sugar 64

3.2.4.9 Measurements of Total Carotenoids 65

3.2.4.10 Measurements of Ethylene Production 65

3.2.4.11 Measurements of Weight Loss 66

3.2.4.12 Measurements of Waste Percent 66

3.2.5 Statistical Analysis 67

3.3 Investigating the Impact of Various Parameters over 67 the Quality and Shelf life

3.3.1 Comparing ripening of On Tree fruits with 67 those under the Controlled Atmosphere

3.3.2 Exposure of Fruit to Sun Light on Tree 67

3.3.3 Harvesting at Different Day Timings and 67 Coating with Calcium Chloride

3.3.4 Harvesting Stages and Storage Conditions 68

3.3.5 Field Heat Removal of the Fruits 68

3.3.6 Pedicle (Stalk) Length of the Fruit 70

3.3.7 Coating the Fruit with Various Materials 70

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 72

4.1 Comparison of on Tree and Controlled Atmosphere 72 Ripening

4.2 Impact of sunlight- exposure to fruits on tree 78

4.3 Harvesting at Different Day Times and Coating with 87 Calcium Chloride

4.4 Impact of Harvesting Stages and Storage Conditions 98

4.5 Field Heat Removal of the Fruit 116

4.6 Pedicle (Stalk) Length of the Fruit 128

4.7 Impact of Coating the Fruit with Various Materials 134

5 CONCLUSION 156 RECOMMENDATIONS 160 REFERENCES 161

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page #

1 Detail about the treatments and the heat removed from the fruit during 69

the treatment.

2 Average values of physical and chemical characteristics of mango 74

determined after 5 days of storage (the time period when the mango

fruit stored at 40○C was ripened), irrespective of the variety.

3 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 75

of mango fruit.

4 Average values of chemical characteristics measured at ripened stage 76

of mango fruit.

5 Average values of color, aroma and flavor measured at harvest time 81

for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango.

6 Average values of total sugar, total carotenoids and ascorbic acid 82

measured at harvest time for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa

mango.

7 Average values of color, aroma and flavor measured at ripened stage 83

for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango stored at 30○C

temperature

8 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 84

xiii

Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango, stored at 30○C

temperature.

9 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at harvest time 89

for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit

10 Average values of chemical constituents of Langra and Samar Bahisht 90

Chaunsa mango fruit measured at harvest time.

11 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 91

for Langra mango fruit stored at different temperatures

12 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 92

for Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit stored at different

temperatures

13 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 93

Langra mango fruit stored at different temperatures

14 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 94

Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit stored at different temperatures

15 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at harvest time 104

for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit, harvested at

different days after the fruit setting

16 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 105

for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit stored at different

xiv

temperatures

17 Average values of chemical constituents of Langra and Samar Bahisht 106

Chaunsa mango fruit measured at harvest time

18 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 107

Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit, stored at different

temperatures

19 Parameters determined after 8 days (The time required by the control 120

fruit to ripen up) of harvest time

20 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 121

for Langra mango fruit stored at different temperatures.

21 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 122

for Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit stored at different

temperatures.

22 Effect of heat removed over the chemical characteristics of Langra 123

variety; stored at different temperatures.

23 Effect of heat removed over the chemical characteristics of Samar 124

Bahisht Chaunsa variety; stored at different temperatures.

24 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 130

for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit stored at 30C

25 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 131

Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit stored at 30C

26 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at harvest time 138

for Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit

27 Average values of chemical constituents of Langra and Samar Bahisht 138

Chaunsa mango fruit, measured at harvest time

28 Average values of organoleptic parameters of the Langra mango fruit 139

determined at the ripened time of the control, irrespective of ripened

stage of the fruit

29 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 141

for Langra mango fruit stored at different temperatures

30 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 142

for Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit, stored at different

temperatures

31 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 143

Langra mango fruit, stored at different temperatures

32 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 144

Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit, stored at different temperatures

33 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 150

for Langra mango fruit stored at different temperatures

34 Average values of organoleptic parameters measured at ripened stage 151

xvi

for Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit stored at different

temperatures

35 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 152

Langra mango fruit, stored at different temperatures

36 Average values of chemical constituents measured at ripened stage for 153

Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit, stored at different temperatures

xvii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page #

1 Time required by the fruit to reach at the ripened stage as a function 77

of treatment and storage temperature

2 Waste percent of the fruit during the ripening process 77

3 Fruit exposure to sunlight on tree 80

4 Time required by the fruit to reach at the ripened stage as a function 85

of treatment and at 30C storage temperature

5 Weight loss percent of mango fruit measured at the ripened stage as a 86

function of treatment and at 30C storage temperature

6 The waste percent of the fruit during the ripening process stored at 86

30C.

7 Time required by the Langra fruit to reach at the ripened stage as 95

affected by storage temperature and treatments

8 Time required by the Samar Bahisht Chaunsa fruit to reach at the 95

ripened stage as affected by storage temperature and treatments.

9 Weight loss percent of Langra mango fruit measured at the ripened 96

time

10 Weight loss percent of Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango fruit measured 96

xviii

at the ripened time

11 Waste percent of the Langra fruit during the ripening process 97

12 Waste percent of the Samar Bahisht Chaunsa fruit during the ripening 97

process

13 Figure 13 Correlation of (a) Total carotenoids (TC (%)), Total sugar 108-

(TS (%)), (b) Total soluble solids (TSS (%)) and (c) Acidity (%) with 109

the skin color of both the varieties, irrespective of sample and storage

temperature

14 Figure 14 Correlation of (a) Total carotenoids and (b) Acidity with 110

sugar for both the varieties, irrespective of sample and temperature.

La stands for Langra, Ch for Samar Bahisht Chaunsa and TC stands

for total carotenoids

15 Time required by the fruit to reach at the ripened stage as a function 111

of storage temperatures

16 Weight loss percent measured at the ripened stage for both the 112

varieties stored at various temperatures

17 Weight loss percent as a function of exposure parameters (calculated 112

as per Equation (5)) for all the varieties and storage temperature

18 Waste percent of the fruit during the ripening process 113

19 Ripening rate (= change in sugar contents / days) of different samples 114

xix

of Samar Bahisht Chaunsa variety as a function of storage

temperature

20 Activation energy of Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa varieties 115

21 Sugar %, total carotenoids µg/g (TC), total soluble solids % (TSS) 125

and acidity % contents of the fruit as a function of heat removed from

the fruit. The fruit was stored at 30oC. L and C stand for Langra and

Samar Bahisht Chaunsa, respectively

22 Time required by the fruit to reach at the ripened stage as a function 126

of treatment and storage temperature

23 The waste percent of the fruit during the ripening process 127

24 Time required by the fruit to reach at the ripened stage as a function 132

of treatment and at 30C storage temperature

25 Weight loss percent of mango fruit measured at the ripened stage as a 133

function of treatment and at 30C storage temperature

26 The waste percent of the fruit during the ripening process stored at 133

30C

27 Weight loss percent of mango fruit measured at the ripening time of 140

the control (T0)

28 Time required by the fruit to reach at the ripened stage as affected by 145

storage temperature and treatments

29 Days at which ethylene production was maxima by the fruit stored at 146

30C

30 Waste percent of the fruit during the ripening process 146

31 Time required by the fruit to reach at the ripened stage as affected by 154

storage temperature and treatments

32 Weight loss percent of mango fruit measured at the ripening time of 155

the control (T0)

33 Waste percent of the fruit during the ripening process 155

xxi

ABSTRACT

The mango fruit not only has wonderful taste, flavor and nutritional values but also has

anticancer and anti-viral activities. It is therefore, very popular and is recognized as king

of the fruits. Mango fruit is also one of the cash crops of Pakistan that stands at 5th position among the main mango producing countries. However, its pre and postharvest wastage is quiet high due to short shelf life and vulnerable to various microorganism.

Therefore, the objective of this work was to prolong the shelf life and to improve the quality of the fruit by applying various strategies. For the purpose two commercial varieties of mango namely, Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa were selected for the study.

The impact of controlled atmosphere ripening was explored by harvesting the fruit at hard green stage and stored at 20, 30 and 40C till ripening. The results obtained for various quality parameters (QP) as well as shelf life of the fruit were compared with the fruit ripened at the tree (under normal conditions). It was observed that the tree ripened fruit was better in quality than the fruit ripened at different storage temperature after harvesting. The fruit took longer time for its ripening at the tree compared to storage at

30 and 40C, irrespective of the variety. The shelf life was longest for the mangoes stored at 20C compared to others, including tree ripened fruit. However, the waste percent was highest at tree ripened fruit as compared to stored fruit, irrespective of temperature and variety. These parameters were significantly different in most of the cases under the limit

P < 0.05.

xxii

The results obtained for various quality parameters of the fruit harvested at hard green

stage of maturity from different (orientation) side of the tree East, West, North and South

showed that the quality was best and waste percent was lowest for the fruit harvested

from south (sun exposure time for the fruit was maximum) orientation of tree; the shelf

life was longer and weight loss percent was lower for North direction compared to others,

irrespective of the variety and storage temperature. The values of QP for the fruit

harvested from South were significantly different from other treatments in most of the

cases under the limit P < 0.05.

The fruit was harvested three (6.30 am, 1.30 pm and 8.30 pm) times a day and was stored at 20, 30 and 40C till ripening. It was concluded that the quality of the ripened fruit was

highest for 8.30 pm harvest time and stored at 40C. The fruit harvested at 6.30 am and

stored at 20C had lowest quality and weight loss but longest shelf life, whereas the fruit

harvested at 1.30 pm and stored at 40C had shortest shelf life and highest weight loss, irrespective of the variety. On the other hand, the waste percent was highest for fruit harvested at 1.30 pm and 20C storage temperature and lowest for 6.30 am harvest time and stored at 30C, irrespective of the variety. However, the quality and the shelf life were improved by coating the fruit with calcium chloride, respective of harvest time plus storage temperature and irrespective of the variety.

The impact of harvest stages and storage conditions over the postharvest quality and shelf life of mango fruit was explored by measuring the QP for the fruit harvested at 80 (early stage), 95 (mid stage) and 110 (late stage) days after the fruit setting and stored at three different storage temperature showed a significant impact over the quality characteristics.

xxiii

The waste percentage, weight loss, pH, total soluble solids, carotenoids and total sugar

were increased with the storage time/ ripening process, irrespective of maturity stages;

while the percentage of acidity and vitamin-C was decreased with storage time. The total

sugar contents were highest in later stage whereas, vitamin C and acidity were highest in

fruit harvested at early stage whereas; the waste percentage was lowest for mid stage

harvest. The weight loss was higher and shelf life was longer for early stage harvest. The

ripening rate increased and the shelf life decreased with rise in storage temperature. The

total soluble solids, sugar contents and carotenoids had positive correlation with the skin

color, irrespective of stage, variety and temperature.

The contribution of cooling of the fruit towards the enhancement of quality and

prolonging the shelf life was explored by harvesting the fruit at hard green stage of

maturity and maintaining at 15○C (by keeping in cold water and/ or in cold air) for

different time periods. The fruit was then stored at 20, 30 and 40oC till ripening. The

quality parameters obtained were correlated with pre-storage cooling treatment. It was

concluded that the impact of heat removed of the fruit was significantly different in most

of the cases under the limit of P  0.05. It was also observed that the removal of heat

from the fruit enhanced the quality, prolongs shelf life and minimize wastage,

irrespective of the variety and storage temperatures.

The quality of mango fruit was investigated as related with pedicle (stalk) lengths of the

fruit. The fruit was harvested at hard green stage of maturity with 0.5, 2.5, 4.5 and 6.5cm

pedicle (stalk) lengths and stored at 30○C till ripening. The result showed that the fruit

harvested with 4.5cm stalk length was better among the investigated treatment for quality

and shelf life. The weight loss and waste percent during ripening process of mango fruit

xxiv

was higher for 0.5cm stalks and lower for 4.5cm stalk, irrespective of the variety and storage temperature.

The impact of coating over the quality and shelf life of mango (Langra and Samar

Bahisht Chaunsa) fruit was investigated in detail. For this purpose, several coating materials like starch, olive oil, beeswax, sodium benzoate, coconut oil, natural ghee

(clarified butter) and potassium metabisulphite were evaluated. The fruit was harvested at hard green stage of maturity, coated and stored at various temperatures with control till ripening. The data showed that the coating had significant impact over the quality and shelf life of the fruit in most of the cases under the limit of P  0.05. Shelf life was longest with minimum weight loss and waste percent in natural ghee (clarified butter) and beeswax. Quality was higher in case of natural ghee and starch based coating than others, irrespective of the variety and storage temperature. Overall the shelf life was longest and waste percent was lowest in Samar Bahisht Chaunsa as compared to Langra mango variety, irrespective of the treatment.

xxv

1 INTRODUCTION

The climate of Pakistan varies (hot summers and cool or cold winters) throughout the country. Pakistan receives precipitation in the upper parts from the western disturbance in

March to April; however, most of the country is lashed by the South West monsoon in the month of June to September. The highest temperature of the country has been recorded 50°C and mean as 38°C during June/July. The cold winter temperature of upper part of the country can drop up to –10°C and minimum mean temperature as 4°C in the month of January. Dera Ismail Khan is the southern district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is situated on 31°N latitude, 70°E longitude and an altitude of

171m. The climate of this area is hot and moist in summer and cold and dry in winter.

The annual precipitation is 250-300mm and it normally occurs in monsoon season during the months of July-August. The soil of this area is silty-clay type and the pH is 8.2 to 8.5.

Soil content of nitrogen and phosphorous of soil is 0.04% and 6ppm, respectively. Dera

Ismail khan is famous for the production of several nutritious fruits like mango, dates, citrus, jaman, guava etc. However, most of these fruit are spoiled due to the overlapping of monsoon and ripening season of the fruit.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to dicotyledonous family of Anacardiaceae and is known as “King of fruits” (Nunes et al., 2007). The mango is one of the most important tropical and subtropical fruit of the world and is popular both in the fresh and the processed form. The important commercial varieties of mango grown in Pakistan are

Langra, Samar Bahisht Chaunsa, Anwar Rataul, Dusehri, Sindhri, Malda, Gulab Khas,

Alphanso, Sawarnarica, Beganpali, Fazli, Kalan, Sensation, Neelum, Zafran, Khasa,

Saroli and Fajri (Amin and Hanif, 2002). Mango is a nutritious fruit having an excellent

flavor, attractive fragrance, delicious taste that has made it one of the best fruits (Pal,

1998). Mango fruit has anticancer and anti-viral activities, and reduced risk of cardiac

diseases (Sivakumar et al., 2011; Talcott and Talcott, 2010). Mango provides 64-86

calories of energy per 100g of ripe fruit and can balance the diet up to large extent. It is

commercially grown in more than 80 countries of the world and Pakistan stands at 5th position, with the production of 938 kilotons, sharing 7.6 % in the world market (Sauco,

2002). In Pakistan, mango is grown on an area of 94 thousand hectare and is considered to be the second major fruit crop in Pakistan. An increase in the demand of fresh mango fruit is being observed world over which has increased the prospect for the producing countries (Anwar et al., 2008; Amin et al., 2008). However, like all other fresh commodities, its market potential is linked with the fruit quality and market access

(Anwar and Malik, 2007).

Mango being a climacteric and highly perishable fruit possesses a very short shelf life. It generally reaches to respiration peak of ripening process within three to four days after harvesting at ambient temperature and two to three weeks in cold storage 13C but certainly depends upon variety, storage and transportation conditions (Narayana et al.,

1996; Carrillo-Lopez et al., 2000). It is therefore generally harvested at mature green stage, and ripens up during the marketing, storage period and consumption process. In addition to these market constraints, the high variability of pre-harvest and post-harvest factors affects its quality. The enlisted are some of the major factors which play the role in heterogeneity in size, quality, wastage and shelf life of the fruit. However, the scientists are up to now concentrating over the maturity at the harvest stage and apparent

quality of the fruit so that it must attract the consumers and/ or on postharvest

management (Jacobi et al., 1995; Hoa et al., 2002; Lalel et al., 2003; Nunes et al., 2007).

The mango ripening is a complicated phenomena and control through genetically

programmed event and involvement of various chemicals/enzymes like glycosidases,

beta-D-galactosidase, glycanases, protein kinase and ethylene. The ripening process

becomes very sensitive to temperature, exposure to sun light, energy available in the

system, humidity and harvesting days, etc (Ali et al., 1995; Frylinck and Dubery, 1998;

Zheng et al., 2007). The ripening of the fruit may change in structural polysaccharides causing softening, increase in respiration and/ or ethylene production, degradation of chlorophyll, developing pigments by carotenoids biosynthesis, change in carbohydrates or starch into sugars, lipids, phenolic and volatile compounds and organic acids (Herianus

et al., 2003). Therefore, small variations in pre-harvest environment, harvesting

techniques, storage and transportation condition may greatly affect the shelf life and/or

quality of the fruit.

During the flowering and fruiting period of mango in Pakistan a monsoon rain and

humidity that caused fungal diseases resulting in flower and fruit drop. A lower humidity

and high temperature photosynthetic efficiency reduced with more respiration that

reduced crop load. Due to dry conditions, excessive fruit drop may take place resulting

low yield. The storm winds damaged mangoes through dropping of fruit, breakage of

major limbs or uprooting the whole tree. Pest and diseases reduce the quality and shelf

life of mango fruit up to large extent (Ishaq et al., 2004; Bally, 2006; Lechaudel and Joas,

2007). Infection caused by microorganisms is a serious issue of post-harvest losses in

mango fruit. Disease caused by virus, fungi, bacteria, algae and lichens, physiological

3 disorders, nutrition deficiencies, parasites, injuries occurs due to environment, diseases of post harvest due to pre-harvest treatment transit, storage (Mahmood and Gill, 2002; Ishaq et al., 2004; Iqbal et al., 2004). These factors, amongst others and combined with the high perishability of fresh produce, contributed higher (20-30%) spoilage and unnecessary losses (Tahir et al., 2002) up to about 320.7 thousand tons annually of worth

Rs. 3.0 billion only in Pakistan (Haq, 2002). Wastage of mango fruit due to anthracnose and stem end rot limits the storage potential of mango fruit up to large extent (Narayana et al., 1996).

In Pakistan and other developing countries, most of the orchards are handled by untrained peoples. They neither know the proper harvesting techniques of fruit nor the impact of these over the shelf life and quality of the fruit. This lack of knowledge causes tremendous losses in terms of physical damage, bruising, sap burn injury and later spoilage of mango fruit. One of the impacts of ill harvesting technique is the detachment of pedicel at the harvest time. The fruit ducts containing sap are normally at high pressure and the sap can come out and get deposited at the fruit surface as soon as the pedicel abscission zone is broken at harvest (Joel, 1980; Loveys et al., 1992; Campbell, 1992;

Lim and Kuppelweiser, 1993; Bosquez et al., 2000). The sap damages the market value and deteriorates the quality of the fruit through the following processes (Bagshaw, 1988;

Campbell, 1992):

1. Deteriorates the appearance of the fruit by blackening the skin.

2. The latex flow causes the mangoes to lose water and hence reduce the mass of the

fruit with higher rate.

3. The exposed fruit is highly sensitive to impact and undergoes very rapid spoilage.

4. The sap being sticky it attracts the soil particles as well as micro-organisms

results a decrease in shelf life.

5. It browns and hardens, staining the fruit surface and provoking skin necrosis.

To overcome the sap burn or latex problem various techniques have been adopted like, mechanical de-sapping, applying various chemicals (sodium carboximethyl cellulose, sodium lauryl sulphate and calcium hydroxide) and dabbing with vegetable oil, waxes and powder (Landrigan et al., 1991; Baker, 1991; Ledger, 1991; Meurant, 1991).

On the other hand, the non-recognition of correlation between selection of best ripening condition/ maturity stage and quality/ shelf life is playing a considerable role in deteriorating the quality of the fruit in a country like Pakistan. Similarly, the non- availability of proper storage conditions contributes toward the wastage as well as reduces the market value of the fruit (Mizrach et al., 1997; Lurie, 1998; Hoa et al., 2002;

Saranwong et al., 2004; Shafique et al., 2006; Subedi et al., 2007).

The exposure of fruit to light has a significant impact over its quality as it influences the carotenoids which results the synthesis of yellow pigments of skin, and sugar production.

On the other hand if the fruit is not sufficiently exposed to sunlight it retains a greener skin color inside the canopy and hence affects the quality of fruit (Farquhar et al., 1980;

Simmons et al., 1998; Lechaudel and Joas, 2007; Saengnil et al., 2011).

The shelf life is considered to be one of the important parameters for the quality of fruit which is very sensitive to temperature and other post harvest conditions (Simmons et al.,

1998). One of the major roles of the storage temperature is to control the rate of biochemical reactions and hence monitors the ripening process or the shelf life (Narain et al., 1998; Marsh et al., 1999; Austin et al., 1999; Baloch et al., 2011a). Mango fruit

5 requires meticulous temperature, moisture and ventilation condition. The importance of temperature management in maintaining the quality of fresh fruits and vegetable is well documented (Kader, 1992). The improper ventilation may results an increase in carbon dioxide level and insufficient supply of atmospheric oxygen may cause fermentation and rotting of the fruit. If the humidity is low the weight loss in the fruit may take place due to release of water vapors. On the other hand, the high humidity may result an attack of post-harvest disease and same is the impact of storage temperature.

It is also a common practice to harvest the fruit at early stage of maturity and get them ripened through an accelerated ripening process. For the purpose, the use of calcium carbide (CaC2) is very popular in spite of the fact that it is dangerous for health and can cause explosion and carryover toxic materials like arsenic and phosphorus to consumers, thus making the healthy fruit poisonous (Subramanian, 2004; Mariappan, 2004). Further to it, high quantity of calcium carbide is needed to ripen immature fruit, which make the fruit tasteless and poison (Medlicott et al., 1986; Cua and Lizada, 1990; Padmini and

Prabha, 1997; Singh and Janes, 2001).

One of the common techniques used to protect the fruit from micro-organisms is the coating of fruit. For the purpose a thin film of material is applied uniformly over the surface of the fruit and can be consumed along with the product (Guilbert, 1986). In addition, they reduced the weight loss and delayed ripening (Baldwin, 1994; Cuq et al.,

1995). The material used can be edible, natural or synthetic (Ketsa and Prabhasavat 1992;

McCollum et al., 1992; Baldwin, 1994, 1998; Cuq et al., 1995; Sumnu and Bayindirli

1995; Diaz-Sobac et al., 1996; 1997; Kittur et al., 2001; Dang et al., 2008). As a consequence number of coatings has been employed and discussed by the scientists and

6 still efforts are going on to find the best one. Therefore, the chitosan, carnauba wax, aloevera gel, semperfresh, shellac, zein, polysaccharide-based coatings materials have been used by different scientists and their efficiency and problem associated with them have been highlighted (Carrillo-Lopez et al., 2000; Hoa et al., 2002; Srinivasa et al.,

2004; Feygenberg et al., 2005; Zhu et al., 2008; Abbasi et al., 2009; Abbasi et al., 2011).

Though the scientists are working hard to identify the proper harvest time, techniques and instrumentation required for proper harvesting and storage conditions to minimize the wastage but the outcome is not very promising that needs systematic efforts (Anwar and

Malik, 2007; Maqbool and Malik, 2008; Abbasi et al., 2009; Lechaudel et al., 2010). In addition, Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa mango are of high quality but a little has been reported over these cultivars (Anwar and Malik, 2007; Akhtar et al., 2010; Jha et al., 2010). Further, the designing of non-destructive technology for the evaluation of quality of the fruit that has recently became very popular requires precise information about the relationship between organoleptic and chemical characteristics of the fruits. The organoleptic characteristics are also very important for the marketing of the fruit (Al-Haq and Sugiyama, 2004a; Butz et al., 2005; Jha et al., 2005, 2007; 2010; Jha, 2006; Santulli and Jeronimidis, 2006; Lebrun et al., 2008).

This study was aimed to find out ways and means to prolong the shelf life of mango fruits while keeping the quality up to the required level and to figure out the impact of various parameters over it. For the purpose detail investigation has been performed to identify the optimum harvest stage/ time, suitable coatings, including some of the novel coatings, optimum pre- and storage conditions and or management strategies to minimize the post-

7 harvest losses so as to save and recover maximum worth out of the valuable food resources of the country.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this project was to devise methodology for the prolongation of shelf life, improving organoleptic and physico-chemical qualities and reduce the wastage of mango fruit. For the purpose experiments were designed to explore the impact of sun light exposure, harvesting times of the day, harvesting (maturity) stage, field heat removal, pedicel (stalk) length, coating by various materials and storage temperature over the quality and shelf life of the fruit.

2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Mango fruit being nutritious, delicious is very popular all over the world, however, it is a

climacteric in nature and has short shelf life. A lot of work is going on to improve its

quality and reduce its wastage by prolonging its shelf life. In this section most of the

recent and relevant literature has been cited and discussed.

Harvest Stages

Medlicott et al. (1990) investigated the effects of harvest maturity of mango fruit

on different storage temperature management and the storage influence on the

development of quality during ripening. The mango fruit potential for storage depended

on storage temperature, harvest maturity and the harvest time in the season. At 12○C the

softening, development of peel and pulp color, pH and soluble solids concentration in

‘Amelie’, ‘Keitt’ and ‘Tommy Atkins’, mangos progressively occurred for up to twenty

one days during storage. During 12○C storage level of ripening changes, immature fruit

illustrated better storage capability than fruit harvested at more highly developed stages

of physiological maturity. At ripening temperature of 25○C the immature fruit appeared

ineffective to develop full ripeness quality. During storage at 12○C the half-mature and mature fruit had undergone partial ripening and during season the amount of which improved by progressive harvests. The changes in the ripening of the fruits during twenty one days of storage were of a lesser amount at 8 and 10○C compared to that at 12○C.

Ripening inhibition by chilling injury was indicated at every harvest stored at 8○C and the effect was also apparent in those fruits which were harvested in early season and were

stored at 10○C. Fruit harvested from mid and late season stored superior at 10 to that at

12○C with no obvious signs of chilling injury. The flavor of mango fruits ripened after

low temperature storage was less acceptable than of those ripened directly after harvest.

They concluded that the potential of storage was maximized by controlling the storage

temperature and harvest maturity for progressive harvests during the season.

Muda et al. (1995) investigated the softening of mango fruit by ripening analysis interrelated changes in the composition of cell walls of the fruit. There is on the whole an obvious loss of galactosyl and deoxyhexosyl deposits with ripening, the final representing deprivation of the wall pectin factor. The galactose loss showed to be controlled to the chelator soluble portion of the wall of pectin, even as deoxyhexose failure appeared to be further consistently disseminated amongst the pectin. The chelator soluble pectin fraction is increasingly de-polymerized and becomes more poly disperse with ripening. These changes are alike to those taking place in other fruits and are associated to the activity of hydrolases wall with ripening.

Ueda et al. (2000) examined the physico-chemical properties changes in ‘Irwin’ mango fruit during maturation. They harvested the fruit about at ten (sample 1), thirteen

(sample 2), sixteen (sample 3) and nineteen (sample 4) weeks after flowering. The size and weight of the fruit, respiratory rate, total soluble solids, and Hunter L and a value of fruit surface increased during maturation of fruit. These raises were notable in sample 4.

Though, the firmness of flesh reduced slowly as the fruit matured and citric acid reduced slowly in sample, 4 whereas the latter was almost constant. The free sugars, sucrose and

fructose increased during maturation, and the latter considerably rose in sample 4.

Therefore, fructose, which was the main free sugar in sample 1, was changed by sucrose in sample 4. Furthermore, alcohol insoluble solid, pectin and starch increased and reached a highest in sample 3 but they reduced to a lowest in sample 4. Amylase activities improved generally in row with maturation of fruit, reaching a highest in sample 4. It may be moderately reasonable to regard as that there are resemblances in the pattern of change in respiratory rate, flesh firmness, sugar content and organic acid during fruit maturation with no in view of differences of cultivar, cultivation or conditions environment.

Hossain et al. (2001) studied the physico-chemical composition of three varieties of mango. The best fruit weight was lowest (221.33 gram) in Amarpali but the variety of

Bishawanath had the maximum fresh weight (256.0 gram) and keeping quality (8.75 days). The maximum keeping quality was in Amarpali (12.5 days) mango fruit. The TSS

(23.50 percent), total sugar (26.85 percent) and pH of pulp (6.0) were highest in

Amarpali, but Bishawanath indicated highest Vitamin C (14.20 mg/100g) and acidity

(titrable) (0.87 %). Amarpali fruit was better in respect of all characters as compared to other varieties.

Mannan et al. (2003) evaluated the physico-chemical characteristics of various mango (Sharmai Fazli, Amarpali, Neelambori, Madrazi Tota and Indian Lota) varieties grown in Khulna region. The mango fruit was in three ripening stages viz. green, ripe and over ripe stage. The weight of various mango varieties was 189, 455, 180, 170 and 592g,

for Amarpali, Sharmai Fazli, Neelambori, Indian Lota and Madrazi Tota, respectively.

The highest percentage of edible portion (78.53 percent), juice content (56.50-72.77

percent) and maximum total soluble solids (18.66 percent) were noted in madrazi Tota.

They also concluded that the taste was very sweet in ripped Madrazi Tota than other varieties of mango fruit. The titratable acidity (0.04091percent) content was highest in

Indian Lota and smallest in Neelambori.

Lalel et al. (2003) was harvested 'Kensington Pride' mango at four maturity stages including hard mature green, sprung mature green, half-ripe and ripe allowing further to ripen it at 21′1°C. The ethylene production and rate of respiration were recorded throughout the stages of ripening. Also the quality, fatty acids and production of compounds of volatile aroma of fruit (ripe) were evaluated. The typical ethylene production and respiration was found only in the fruit harvested at the hard green stage of maturity through fruit ripening. Also it was recorded that the ripe fruit at the hard mature green stage harvested showed greater acids content, while reduced total sugars and reducing sugars contents. The fruit also exhibited a lower Hunter green-red value (a* =

6.30) and a higher hue angle value (h° = 76.20). Harvesting at Fruit maturity did not significantly influence the fruit firmness, total soluble solids, non-reducing sugars and total carotenoids of the ripe fruit. Total fatty acids, caproic, lauric, myristic, palmitic and palmitoleic acid were higher in the pulp of ripe fruit harvested at the sprung green stage.

While the pulp of fruit harvested at the half ripe stage had greater Caprilic, capric, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids. Calculating the ratio of saturated fatty acids to unsaturated fatty acids; it was found that the saturated fatty acids were lower in the ripe

fruit harvested at the hard mature green and stage of sprung green. The aroma volatiles,

monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and aromatic were found higher in the pulp of ripe fruit

harvested on the stage of sprung green. The fruit harvested at the entirely ripe phase

showed higher concentrations of esters, alkanes and norisoprenoids. The mango should

be harvested on the stage of sprung green to attain quality and greater aroma volatile

production of the ripe fruit.

Abu-Goukh and Mohamed (2004) studied the harvesting techniques for mango;

fruits were break off the tree with a pole operational with an elongated cloth sheath held

open by a circle. The pedicel was detached, the fruit fall into the bag and slid easily down

to be received by the picker. The better technique greatly enhanced fruit quality, reduced post-harvest losses and prolonged the shelf life.

Santos et al. (2004) studied the effect various maturity stages of Rosa cultivar mango with calcium chloride. Fruits were harvested at the mature-green (green- yellowish) and pre-climacteric (yellow-greenish) maturity stages. Calcium chloride was applied by 15-cm deep fruit immersion during two hours in solutions contain 0.0

(control); 4.0; and 8.0 percent. The mango fruit was stored at 10 ± 1°C and 85 percent relative humidity during twenty days, followed by five day storage at room temperature

(24 ± 2°C). Fruit skin color, weight loss, firmness (scores one to seven), internal and external appearances (scores one to six), total soluble solids and total titratable acidity were evaluated. Calcium chloride was particularly more useful when applied to pre- climacteric fruits. The fruits treated with 4.0 percent calcium chloride demonstrated fruits

presented skin black spot, soaked areas, and decay particularly pre-climacteric mangoes.

As compared to controls, 8.0 percent calcium chloride treatment provided a five-day

enhance in shelf life of mature-green ‘Rosa’ mango stored at 10 ± 1°C. The calcium

chloride 8.0 percent showed lowest weight losses when transferred to room temperature,

while maintaining total soluble solids, titratable acidity, fruit firmness, and best external

and internal appearances, even though, no significant delay on skin color progress was

noticed.

Chuadhry (2006) used the Alumina in the chromato-graphic analysis of mango

carotenoids and it’s also effects the four various pigments in the fruit. As mango fruit

ripen the individual pigments and the content of total carotenoid increased quickly to a highest and after that decrease subsequently. These changes were hastened at above normal temperatures (36°C, 40°C), but the values greatest were considerably unaffected.

During fruit ripening time, the content of total carotenoid was enhanced by the ultra-

violet light exposure. They also have observed during ripening the pigments increased,

particularly β-carotene.

Jha (2006) measured the maturity of mango fruit and studied the changes in sphericity, size, surface color, firmness and total soluble solids contents during growth and storage at ambient temperature. The fruit size increased slowly during growth and remained the sphericity in 0.67–0.70 range. Due to shrinkage the sphericity and size

decreased during storage. The fruit firmness remained about constant over the growth

period and it reduced after reached the maturity, while fruit yellowness improved during

14 growth and storage. Mango fruit maturity of could be expected by measuring color, firmness and size.

Shafique et al. (2006) investigated the physiological and biochemical characteristics of ten mango varieties at three various maturity stages viz. immature, mature and ripe to get the standard one. They determined the whole weight of the mangoes, weight of peel and stone, pulp content, pH, total soluble solid (TSS), acidity, vitamin C and sugar content at three maturity stages. They noted at ripe stages that all the varieties had superior content of sugar than immature and mature stages. The pleasant taste and attractive flavor were also developed in ripe stages and varied from one another due to varietal detailed. The quality aroma with the ripening is due to carbonyl and ester types components.

Uddin et al. (2006) investigated the bio-chemical characteristics of twenty two mango germplasms namely, Farooquebhog, Rad, Neelumbori, Chausa, Neelumboti,

Mallika, Tommy Atkin, Shindhu, Hybrid-10, Gopalbhog, Mixed special, Langra, Surmai

Fazli, Amrapali, Khirsapat, Keitt, BARI mango-1, Palmar, Kent, Sindhu and Kalibhog

All the germplasms were analysed chemically and among the germplasms well significant differences were recorded. The titratable acidity was highest in Mixed special, whereas moisture content was maximum in Farooquebhog. The TSS and pH of Pahlam germ plasms was top in the list but the reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar of

Amrapali and Rad was also top. They noted the total sugar and sugar/acidity ratio was

15 highest in Amrapali and Rad. The content of vitamin C was the best for Shindhu among the studied germplasms.

Peter et al. (2007) investigated the best off vine mango fruit ripening method for both consumption and processing. The physic-chemical parameters were measured of

Dodo (mature green) mango fruit before and through a three-day and six-day period of ripening by ethylene (fruit generated) pit ripening, smoked pit ripening, untreated pit ripening and room temperature ripening as a control technique. The postharvest ripening changes in the quality attributes of ripe mango fruit were interrelated among treatments and compared with the same changes in other varieties of mango. The changes such as the sugars formation, increased carotene and decreased acidity reflected the most important chemical changes in ripened stage.

Weor (2007) investigated the effects of different harvesting methods on Peter mango fruits storability under various environments in Gboko, Benue State. They used 5 harvesting methods and three storage environments set in a randomized complete block design and replicated 3 times. Data were noted on texture softening and color development at three days interval, for eighteen days. They noted that the Peter mangoes harvested using pole and collection bag, grass and handpicked methods performed superior (P < 0.05) as compared to other methods used. The fruits stored in hut performed superior (P < 0.01) as compared to the rest of the storage environments after eighteen days period of storage. It was demonstrated that these harvesting methods and hut storage environment increase Peter mango storability by this means sustaining it’s provide for

16 more than fifteen days after harvest. Therefore he recommended these methods of harvesting and hut storage of Peter mango.

Zaied et al. (2007) evaluated the eight local mango varieties; Alphonso, Hendi

Meloky, Mabrouka, Langra, Khad El Gamel, Dabsha, El- Kobbaneia and El-Madam.

They collected the mango fruit from private farm in Sharakia Governorate. They noted that the Langra mango was biggest pursued next to El-Kobbaneia & Dabsha, but Khade

El-Gamel and El-Madam created the smallest one. The lowest fiber percentage was clear in Alphonso fruit and the highest one was in Langra fruit. The mango juice percentage was highest in fruit of Langra, whereas the smallest in Hendi Meloky fruit. The total soluble solids (TSS) percent was highest in fruit of langra followed by Alphonso and the minimum one was in Mabrouka. The titratable acidity was of maximum value in Dabsha fruit, but the minimum one was noticed in Langra, Alphonso and El-Madam fruits. The content of total sugar was highest in Hendi Meloky, but El-Madam, Dabsha and

Mabrouka created the minimum one. They also concluded that the Dabsha fruit had the minimum vitamin C and the smallest one was obvious in Mabrouka fruit.

Amin et al. (2008) studied the sap burn injury and regarded it as the most threatening to external fruit quality of mango. When the pedicel of a mango fruit is broken, the sap exudes and spread over the fruit peel and causes a serious injury to the skin of mango. They estimated the suitable time of harvesting as well as de-sapping for control of sap burn injury in mango fruits. Australian industry product “Mango Wash” and Lime [Ca (OH) 2] at different times of the day including: 7 a.m. (morning), 12 p.m.

(noon) and 5 p.m. (evening) were assessed. Lime @ 0.5% and Mango Wash (@ 0.4% was used. Results showed that no sap injury (0 score) was recorded in the fruits harvested and de-sapped during morning, while maximum sap injury was found at noon in both the treatments (0.5 score for lime, 0.75 score for Mango Wash). Both the treatments (lime and Mango Wash) showed significantly reduced sap injury as compared with control for all the three times of treatment application. All of the physicochemical characteristics were non-significantly affected except fruit peel color and non-reducing sugar contents.

The color of fruit peel was slightly suppressed by the use of Mango Wash. Lime was found to impart attractive appearance to the fruits; however the skin color was non- significantly improved as compared to control. Also the qualitative characteristics were non-significantly influenced by the time of fruit harvest. However, significantly greater

TSS was found in the fruit harvested at noon as compared to other times of the day. It can be concluded that lime may be successfully used as an alternate instead of highly expensive mango wash for de-sapping of mango fruits.

Lebrun et al. (2008) evaluated the mango cultivar for soluble solids, acids and volatile properties at different maturity stages. The ‘Kent’ ‘Keitt’ and ‘Cogshall’ cultivars of mango were harvested at various maturities (sixty one–115 d earlier period of flowering & for Cogshall cultivar 80–307 average gram fresh weight) as well as on various sizes (276–894 and 364–1563 average grams weight fresh for ‘Kent’ and ‘Keitt’,

). Directly after harvest (green) or after one week of ripening at room temperature (ripe), fruit were homogenized and estimated by electronic nose or by gas chromatography for aroma and other volatiles as well as for acids and soluble solids. Volatile facts from the

various harvest maturities and stages of ripening were distinguished by using statistics

multivariate. The electronic nose or by gas chromatography were able, in the majority

cases, to detach fruit from different harvest maturities, especially for mangoes of

‘Cogshall’, at the green and ripe stages as well as differentiate green from ripe fruit and

fruit from the various varieties in a stage of maturity. The acids and soluble solids values

showed that later harvest maturities resulted in fruit sweeter and various profile of

volatile from earlier harvested fruit. The volatiles of mango fruit may be valuable as

maturity indicators to conclude best harvest maturity for fruit of mango that outcome in

full quality upon ripening.

Okeniyi et al. (2008) studied the naturally ripened and acetylene induced ripened

fruits of mango and banana analysis, and also examined the kinetic studies on the total

acidity reduce rate. The contents of vitamin C in naturally ripened mango and banana

fruits were 24.53 and 24.40mg/100g, irrespectively whereas induced ripened mango were

25.50mg/100g and in banana fruits 25.09mg/100g. The total sugar content in induced

ripened mango and banana fruits were 22.06 and 21.06 percent, whereas mango and

banana fruits ripened by naturally were 21.06 and 20.63 percent. The contents of ascorbic

acid (vitamin C) and total sugar percentage were superior as compared to fruits ripened

naturally. The kinetic studies of acidity reduce rate gave a first sort rate constant (K) for

-2 -1 -2 -1 mango and banana fruit juice as 1.5x10 h and 1.2+10 h , whereas the t½ sorted 57.75-

46.20 and 69.30-57.75 h for the induced ripened mango and banana fruits. There was a quick reduce in acidity of the induced ripened fruits against the fruit ripened naturally.

Akhtar et al. (2009) evaluated the sensorial and physico-chemical properties of four important mango (Mangifera indica L.) varieties (Chaunsa, Dusahri, Langra and

Ratol) grown in three main regions of Pakistan; Multan, Rahim Yar Khan and Mir Pur

Khas. Langra variety showed lower total soluble solids and pH, higher acidity among tested varieties. For these quality attributes non significant (P < 0.05) difference was observed for the place of production. Among these collected varieties the characteristics of color for Langra variety was higher from all three areas. This variety was inferior for other organoleptic properties (taste, flavor and on the whole acceptability). In addition, no relationship could be established for a particular variety to all three areas. In the same way, no parallel could be drawn between a single region and all four varieties for organoleptic properties except the Ratol variety which was exposed to be greatly acceptable for taste, flavor and normally acceptability in all three locations of its production.

Sakhale et al. (2009) assessed the shelf life of commercial mango (Kesar, cultivar) fruit; were harvested at specific physiological maturity stage. The fruits were washed suitably and treated with 50, 100 and 150ppm gibberellic acid in mixture with eight percent CaCl2 and fungicide. For post harvest storage life evaluation the various treated fruits were freely packed in CFB boxes and stored at ambient temperature. The total sugars and total soluble solids stated rising trend where as ascorbic acid; titratable acidity and physiological weight loss were established linearly reducing with the ripening. The fruits treated with gibberellic acid (100ppm) and eight percent calcium chloride was noted better in respect quality attributes of pre-ripening. The treated fruit

delayed the physical and chemical changes practicable for demonstration quality features

of ripening and considerably in retarding the ripening process. They reported the Kesar

mango greatly prolonged the storage life. They observed the changes on physical,

chemical and organoleptic quality factors were used as ripening and monitoring indices

of shelf life.

Saengnil et al. (2011) studied the red color development in the exocarp of

Mahajanaka mango fruit by sunlight exposure, which only occurred on the sunlight exposed side of the fruit. The anthocyanin accumulation was simultaneous with the enhanced in phenylalanine ammonia-lyase action in the mature stage of the mango. The endogenous sugar contents, activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and the development of anthocyanin were higher on the exposed side of the fruit as compared to unexposed side. They concluded that sunlight increases the red color on the exocarp of mango by inducing phenylalanine ammonia-lyase action.

Pre-Storage Treatments

Loveys et al. (1992) studied that the skin of mango fruit damage through exuded

of sap from the broken or cut pedicel decreased the acceptance of consumer and shelf life

of the storage fruit. The Kensington mango fruit are mainly vulnerable to sap burn

damage. The sap of fruit separated into two parts by centrifugation. Damage skin was

caused mostly through the top non aqueous part. The main factor of this part was

terpinolene which provided symptom identical from sap burn damage when applied to the fruit surface. The indistinguishable kind of injury could be stimulated by the terpinolene

synthetic application when applied with no added water and diluted in hexane or as an

aqueous mixture. The components of non-volatile sap separated by cleansing were not

harmful to the skin of mango. The sap exuded from the leaf petioles of mango also

enclosed terpinolene, but its application was a lesser amount of than one percent of the

application in pedicel sap and this sap has no harmful effect on the fruit skin. Irwin

cultivar of Florida is a lesser amount responsible to sap burn damage & in sap the major

terpene was recognized as 3-carene. When applied to skin of Kensington mango, 3- carene caused notably less injured than terpinolene. They concluded that the main cause

of sap burn in mango is entrance of the sap volatile components for instance terpinolene

for the period of lenticels, resultant in injured of browning and tissue of following

enzymes.

McCollum et al. (1992) studied the effects of individual shrink film wrapping on

mango fruit shelf life and quality. Mango fruit were wrapped with shrink film in Rd 106

film (W.R.Grace and Co., Duncane, S.C) and other left non wrapped. The wrapped and

non wrapped fruit was held at 21○C frequently and used to measure the in package application of oxygen, CO2 & ethylene as well as CO2 and ethylene evolution from fruit

subsequent removal of the wrap in one set. The fruit was stored at 12○C for one or two weeks after which they were shifted to 21○C for ripening and then quality was estimated

in second set. The concentration of CO2 within the warp series from about five to eight

percent and concentration of oxygen was about twelve percent at 21○C. The taking away

of the film, respiration of the fruit were same to non wrapped controls; though, ethylene

evolution increased with increased period of wrapping. The increased ethylene was most

22 dissimilar between wrapped and non wrapped fruit. The wrapped fruit had more decomposed and inferior fruit quality when compared with non wrapped fruit. They concluded from this study individual shrink film wrapping of mango fruit does not showed to be useful.

Yuniarti and Suhardi (1992) minimized the postharvest losses during transportation by applying different methods for retarding ripening process in mangoes

(cv. Arumanis). For this purpose mango fruit was harvested at optimal maturity and treated with (1) 2, 4, 6 percent solution of CaCl2; (2) 4, 5, 6 or 7 percent wax emulsion;

(3) perforated polyethylene bags wrapping have KMnO4 as an absorbent of ethylene (2.5,

5.0, 7.5, 7.5 or 10.0 percent); (4) sealed polyethylene bags wrapping with KMnO4 as in

(3); or (4) control untreated. The mango fruits were placed perforated cartons and these cartons were transported for 36 hours. At room temperature analyzed these samples for soluble solids contents, texture, weight loss and days taken to reach the best possible ripeness or the condition of over-ripe. Emulsion of wax at six or seven percent had the maximum result in slow down the ripening process (by eleven days) and the stage of over-ripe (by nine days), and was compared by control fruits, and resulted weight loss was lowest. The soluble solids contents (14.8 percent after transportation subsequent 6% wax treatment) were also lowest by treatment of wax emulsion as compared to control.

Holmes et al. (1993) evaluated the standard harvesting technique to pick the mango fruit with elongated stem and transport them in crates made of plastic to the packing shed. The mango fruit were then de-sapped by removing the pedicel or stem and

the fruits were placed stem end down on a conveyor for 20- 30 minutes. This technique

still resulted in between 50 and 60 percent of the mango fruit suffering from some extent

of sap burn. The current work by officers of the Queensland Department of Primary

Industries has verified that these levels could be reduced by various techniques: (1)

packing with short stems; (2) de-stemming in a lime solution; (3) treatment with sprays

and dips detergent earlier to destemming; (4) picking the fruit without stems on a

harvesting support spraying and or dipping detergent on the mango fruit without delay.

All techniques reduced the severity and the sap burn fruit percentage. The harvesting aid

proved most useful reducing the total sap burn to 15.9 percent, and resulted in reduction

of the pickers’ number to almost half and hence a significant saving in the overall cost.

Menezes et al. (1995) studied the obvious flows of sap squirt out from the point of abscission of the fruit stalk after harvesting. The sap burn produced undesirable aesthetic on the fruit skin due to seepage of sap with considerable economic loss. They discussed the problem of economic significance, the biochemical description of the mango latex and injury of sap burn and some techniques to decrease the injury.

Prusky et al. (1999) studied the reduction of postharvest diseases occurrence source by Alternaria alternata and increasing the quality of mango fruit. For this purpose combined spray of hot water & brushing of fruit treatment for 15-20s was used. The treatment of hot water effectiveness was investigated at various temperatures (48 to

64oC), in mixture with treatment of prochloraz plus waxing of fruit. Fruits brushing by hot water considerably decreased the rot progress through Alternaria alternata. After

storage, the decrease of disease incidence by treatment (hot water brushing and

prochloraz (900µg ml-1)) for three weeks at 12○C and another week at 20○C was more

effective than by hot water brushing alone. The treatment of hot water brushing for 15s

enhanced the development of fruit color and more useful as compared to common

treatment of commercial dip for five minutes on 55○C. High quality for mango fruits with

a lesser amount of decay progress by the combination of hot water brushing and waxing.

Nair and Singh (2003) tested the effects of pre-storage ethereal application on

chilling injury development, ethylene production, respiration rate and quality of

Kensington Pride mango fruit. This mango (mature green) fruit was dipped in aqueous

solution including different ethereal application zero, fifty, 250 & 500 mg L-1 along with

surfactant (Tween 80) 0.01percent for five minutes. These fruits were stored for 4 weeks

at 5○C. At 22○C, the mango fruit was permitted toward ripening. Chilling injury index,

respiration rate and ethylene production was noted throughout the period of ripening from one to nine days. The rots of fruit, acidity, taste, firmness, TSS/acid ratio, total sugars, non-reducing and reducing sugar and total soluble solids were noted from fruit entirely ripe. Chilling injury was decreased significantly among every ethereal treatment. The five hundered mg/L ethereal treatment showed to be mainly useful into decreasing the chilling injury. In ethereal treated fruit the ethylene production and respiration rate was also enhanced with ripening period than fruit untreated. The quality of fruit enhanced by the treatment of ethereal with improved sugars, eating quality, TSS/acid ratio, total soluble solids and decreased the firmness of fruit and rots development. They concluded that pre-

storage treatment of 500 mg/L ethereal dip for 5 min decreased chilling injury as well as

enhanced quality of fruit and taste.

Anjum and Ali (2004) studied the post harvest treatment on green mature mango

cultivar SS-1 (Kala Chaunsa) fruits; were immersed for ten minutes in 2.5, 5.0 or 7.5

percent calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O), calcium ammonium nitrate {Ca(NH4NO3)2} and

calcium chloride (CaCl2.2H2O) solutions. A control was also incorporated in which fruits

were dipped in fresh water for ten minutes. At ambient temperature (25 ± 3○C) the fruits

were ripened in boxes lined and enclosed with newspaper. Calcium chloride delayed the

ripening of fruit about three days as compared to control and resulted in superior aroma

of the fruits, however, it stimulate shriveling of skin. Calcium sulphate treatments

showed in better color of pulp. The increase in concentration of calcium salts resulted in

reduced the ripening but had harmful effect on quality of fruit by rising skin shrinking

and decreasing taste and flavor of the fruits. Calcium chloride at 5.0 percent delayed the

ripening for four days and resulted in better skin and pulp color but with enlarged skin

shriveling and poor taste and flavor, showing reduced eating quality.

(control); 4.0; and 8.0 percent. The mango fruit was stored at 10 ± 1°C and 85 percent relative humidity during twenty days, followed by five day storage at room temperature

As compared to controls, 8.0 percent calcium chloride treatment provided a five-day enhance in shelf life of mature-green ‘Rosa’ mango stored at 10 ± 1°C. The calcium chloride 8.0 percent showed lowest weight losses when transferred to room temperature, while maintaining total soluble solids, titratable acidity, fruit firmness, and best external and internal appearances, even though, no significant delay on skin color progress was noticed.

Kaswija et al. (2006) studied the organoleptic quality and microbial infectivity on mature green Dodo mango fruit before and during a 3- and 6-day period of ripening by smoked pit ripening, ethylene (fruit generated) pit ripening, untreated pit ripening and room temperature as control technique. The changes of post harvest ripening in the quality parameters of the ripened mango fruit were associated with treatments and compared by same changes in other verities of mango. They concluded that the organoleptic characteristics have significant differences with the employed method. The quality of microbial was significantly different among the treatments, while with aroma profiles there were significant differences of identified compounds of aromatic reflected the most important scores of sensory quality at ripening stage.

Malik et al. (2006) explored the advantage of postharvest polyamines application

(Spermidine, Spermine and Putrescine) on the shelf life and quality of Kensington Pride

mango fruit. Application of polyamine slow down the color development, fruit softness

and physiological weight loss was decreased through storage without a significant

reduction in ethylene production. Low concentrations of Spermine (0.01 mM), high

concentrations of Spermidine (0.5 mM) and Putrescine (1 mM) were more useful in delay

fruit softening. Through fruit ripening, Spermine (0.01 mM) showed the lowest amount

of respiration compared with the fruit control. The ripe fruit analysis stored for three or

four weeks, illustrated that polyamine application appreciably improved the firmness of

fruit, ascorbic acid, acidity, while reducing the ratio of TSS/acid and content of total

carotenoid compared with the control. The exogenous polyamines application enhanced

the shelf life of mango fruit without having harmful result on quality of fruit.

Zeng et al. (2006) for disease control treated the Matisu variety of mango fruit with 1 mmol/L salicylic acid solution for two minutes in vacuum diffusion on a low down (−80 kPa) pressure and for an extra ten minutes at pressure of air. The mango fruit was immunized by anthracnose spore suspension 1 × 104 CFU m/ L when fruit was kept

(incubated) at 13 ○C and relative humidity 85–95 percent. At the fourth day of

incubation, in treated (with salicylic acid) fruit the lesions diameter and disease incidence

were 20.9 percent and 37.5 percent lesser as compared to control fruit. By treatment of salicylic acid, the action of protection enzymes was notably increased and the action of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase & β-1, 3-glucanase was six/0.9 double higher as compared to control fruit. In treated (salicylic acid) fruit the superoxide radicals and hydrogen

28 peroxide production speed was 79.44 percent and 22.3 percent superior as compared to control fruit on the eight day. They concluded that phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, β-1, 3- glucanase and hydrogen peroxide/ superoxide radicals possibly occupied in the disease resistance enhancement in fruit of mango.

Anwar and Malik (2007) determined the effect of hot water treatment on mango

(cultivar Sindhri) fruits ripening behavior, shelf life and quality. The fruit of mango was transferred to treatment of hot water at 45°C–75 minutes and 48°C–60 minutes along with wash only (control). A fruit coating, two percent (Fresh Seal P) was also used in combination with treatment of hot water on 48°C–60 minutes. After application of water

(hot) treatment, fruits were ripened without storage at room temperature otherwise were stored on 13 ± 2°C and relative humidity 85 ± 5 percent. The stored mango fruits were removed after seven, fourteen and twenty days and were ripened at ambient temperature

(24 ± 1°C, relative humidity 68-70 percent). Hot water treatment effects on physical and biochemical properties were estimated. Fruit transferred to hot water treatment at 45°C–

75minutes and naturally ripened (without storage), indicated non-significant difference for different quality factors than wash only (control) whereas keeping the shelf life of fruits (6 days). Hot water application at 48°C–60 minutes reduced the period of ripening i.e. 3 days. Whereas, during storage non-significant differences among treatments indicated that hot water treatment does not influence the post-storage fruit quality.

Among various treatments, fruit transferred to hot water treatment at 45°C–75 minutes created superior results than treatment of water (hot) on 48°C- 60 minutes total carotenoids contents were found maximum in washed only fruits (62.78µg/g) followed

by treatment of hot water on 45°C–75 minutes (59.39µg/g). Fruits transferred to higher temperature during hot water treatment developed uniform color and more yellow. The results were non-significant for rests of the treatment.

Maqbool et al. (2007) accessed the international market for supply of superior quality mango there are different problems to be surmounted. Sap burn is one of the major problems in Mangoes and different management practices and experiments have been conducted to deal with this problem in Pakistan for various cultivars of Mangoes. In the current study, first experiment was explored the various cultivars of mango fruit for harvest time of a day and for sap quantity. The collected sap from Chaunsa cultivar was

11.89 times more than Sindhri cultivar and early in the morning the exudation of sap quantity was higher as compared to later throughout the day. Secondly it was noted that the effect of late de-stemming (after harvest) on sap quantity was little. But the quantity

of total sap was highest in Chaunsa cultivar and lowest in Sindhri cultivar. Spurt and ooze

were also tested in the three commercial mango cultivars and the sap burn susceptibility

after 24, 48 and 72 hrs at two various storage environment (ambient: 25 ± 1°C; 14°C and

85 percent relative humidity). The cultiuvar of Chaunsa was most vulnerable followed by

cultivar Dusehri and Sindhri. The rate of sap burn was higher in Chaunsa cultivar at

ambient (room) temperature (25 ± 1°C) as compared to cold storage (14°C, 85 percent

relative humidity (RH)). The sap burn occurrence was about same in Dusehri and Sindhri

cultivars at both the temperatures. With reference to harvest time of the day the severity

of sap burn level was investigated. They noted that with the proceeding of daytime the

severity of sap burn increased. The severities score of sap burn was lowest in harvested

30 fruits at 8:00 am (0.06) and was highest in fruits were harvested at 3:00 pm (1.08) after seven days of storage at ambient temperature and in cold storage (13 ± 1°C and 80-85 percent relative humidity). They also determined the optimal de-sapping time and decreased the sap burn injury incidence; for this purpose they placed the fruits on de- sapping trays for various time phases. The sap burn incidence was lowest in fruits which were kept on de-sapping trays for twenty minutes (0.65) followed by ten minutes (0.73) than untreated (2.54)/ fruit harvested by conventional technique after fifteen days of storage (13 ± 1°C and 80-85percent relative humidity).

Singh et al. (2007) reported the fleshy fruits go through textural changes with ripening that lead to tissue firmness loss and subsequent softening due to cell wall take to pieces carried out through various and in particular articulated enzymes. They investigated the effect of different chemical treatments on mango fruit ripening at level of physiologically and biochemically. The changes in firmness, respiration, total soluble sugar, pH and a degrading enzyme of cell wall pectatelyase action, treatment with 1- methylcyclopropene, gibberlic acid, sodium metabisulphite, ascorbic acid and silver nitrate, retarding the process of ripening whereas those of ethereal increased the process.

They observed pectatelyase activity of mango fruit was to be inhibited by certain metabolites present in enzyme of dialyzed ammonium sulphate take out and EDTA. The mango pectatelyase activity showed an entire requirement for calcium and an optimal 8.5 pH.

Zheng et al. (2007) investigated the oxalic acid effects on ripening and occurrence of decay mango fruit at room temperature (25○C) during storage. The Zill cultivar of mango fruit was dipped in oxalic acid solution (5mM) for ten minutes at 25○C. The data demonstrated that the ripening of fruit was retarded and decay occurrence was also decreased by treatment of oxalic acid compared to the control. They concluded that reducing production of ethylene was a major provider to delaying the process of ripening by the physiological effect of oxalic acid. The treatment of oxalic acid showed potential technique for mango postharvest storage.

Amin et al. (2008) studied the sap burn injury and regarded it as the most threatening to external fruit quality of mango. When the pedicel of a mango fruit is broken, the sap exudes and spread over the fruit peel and causes a serious injury to the skin of mango. They estimated the suitable time of harvesting as well as de-sapping for control of sap burn injury in mango fruits. Australian industry product “ Mango Wash” and Lime [Ca (OH) 2] at different times of the day including: 7 a.m. (morning), 12 p.m.

The color of fruit peel was slightly suppressed by the use of Mango Wash. Lime was

32 found to impart attractive appearance to the fruits; however the skin color was non- significantly improved as compared to control. Also the qualitative characteristics were non-significantly influenced by the time of fruit harvest. However, significantly greater

TSS was found in the fruit harvested at noon as compared to other times of the day. It can be concluded that lime may be successfully used as an alternate instead of highly expensive Mango Wash for de-sapping of mango fruits.

Anwar et al. (2008) carried a study on two major problems related to postharvest of local mango industry. The firstly issue was the use of wooden crates which are being eliminated from the markets. Secondly, for early ripening of mango calcium carbide

2 (CaC2) is mostly used; due to health hazards caused by CaC its use is being discouraged internationally. To find out an alternative for resolving the above mentioned problems, two experiments were carried out on cv. Samar Bahisht Chaunsa commercial mango.

Fruits were packed in traditional wooden packaging with newspaper liner (WP) and corrugated cardboard packaging (CBP) for comparison. In first experiment, two

-1 chemicals CaC2(2g kg of fruit) and ethylene (C2H4) application (100 ppm, 20°C, 48 h) were compared for ripening of mangoes, followed by ripening at ambient conditions

(33±1°C & 60-65 % RH). The results showed that CBP fruit had significantly lower fresh fruit weight loss (FWL) and better storage life compared with WP fruit treated with or without CaC2. It was also found that WP fruits with CaC2 had faster ripening rate and

nd better color of peel color as compared with C2H4 treated CBP. In 2 experiment, WP or

CBP fruit were stored (13 ± 1°C & 85-90% relative humidity) for fifteen days, and allowed for natural ripening at two different temperatures (28, 33 ± 1°C). Also the

performance of mango with C2H4 (100 ppm, 48 h) treatment at 25°C & 30°C was

investigated in CBP fruit. Despite of ripening temperatures and methods, CBP showed

significantly decreased in FWL as compared with WP. Ethylene treatment at higher temperature (30°C) significantly improved quality compared with application at low

temperature (25°C), however, the fruit color was not developed to the desired level. It

may be concluded, CBP can be a better substituted for WP due to its demonstrated

benefits; however, more work is needed to develop a precise ripening protocol use of

ethylene at different concentrations and temperature etc.

Maqbool and Malik (2008) sap burn injury is a serious problem of mango fruit as

it reduces the attraction and downgrade fruit. Management of sap burn in commercial

cultivars Sindhri and Chaunsa of Pakistan at physiological maturity were harvested along

with 4-5 cm pedicel. After de-stemming, fruits were immediately treated with potential chemical solutions i.e. calcium hydroxide [Ca (OH) 2], Tween-80, sodium carboximethyl

cellulose (CMC), lauryl sulfate sodium (LS), detergents and vegetable oil. The fruits after

treatment with the chemicals were dried in air and packed in boxes (cardboard), and

brought in laboratory and were stored at14°C & RH 85% for seven and fourteen days in

case of cv. Sindhri and cv. Chaunsa, respectively. Fruits treated with calcium hydroxide

showed better results against sap burn injury followed by Tween-80 in both the cultivars.

In the follow-up study, the chemicals with better results in experiment 1 were testes along

with alum on cv. Chaunsa to verify the results. The fruits after application of chemicals

were subjected to different conditions for storage (25°C & RH 56% & 14°C & RH 85%).

The data on sap burn injury recorded after 24, 48 and 72 hours, showed almost similar

results at different temperatures. Treatment with Ca (OH) 2 gave 95% sap burn injury

control at different temperatures. The same treatment gave higher TSS levels (Ca (OH) 2

at 25°C). At the same temperature total sugars was recorded maximum in fruits treated

with simple water (30.80%), while in stored fruits, maximum total sugars (26.70%) were

noted with alum treatment. De-stemmed under Ca (OH) 2 gave a maximum of total

carotenoids in fruits at different storage temperatures. It may be concluded that Ca (OH) 2

was the better treatment in reducing sap burn injury and improving the fruit quality at

different temperatures.

Ravindra and Goswami (2008) mango fruit has short shelf life after harvesting

therefore; studied the important postharvest pre-cooling technique on mango (tropical) fruits. For pre-cooling process the cooling medium of liquid nitrogen with sufficient potential was used due to their motionlessness of the vaporized gas of nitrogen and high capacity of cooling. In comparison to pre-cooling like air cooling and hydro-cooling techniques for Amrapali mango fruit, the liquid nitrogen was used with the system of mechanical refrigeration like the cooling (medium). The performance of pre-cooling was evaluated for fruit quality like color, firmness of fruit, index of chilling injury, and the cooling coefficient and rate of cooling. They studied the effect of various pre-cooling techniques on mango fruit acidity (titratable), pH and the contents of total soluble solids of the ripened mango The results showed of this study that the system of liquid nitrogen

(20.5 kg/h the flow rate of liquid nitrogen; –85C of average gas temperature) enhanced the cooling coefficient of the air cooling method by the forty percent and had no unfavorable effect produced on the fruit quality. The control of exposure time and careful

plane would facilitate in understand the liquid nitrogen potential in techniques of pre- cooling for mango fruits. This would be useful (practically) in system of control atmosphere storage methods.

Rathore et al. (2010) recorded significant effect (P < 0.05) of active packaging in

Cardboard Carton (APCC) on overall quality characteristics such as loss in weight,

titratable acidity, ascorbic acid, pH and total soluble solids contents of mango (Chaunsa

white variety). It was investigated at the ambient temperature (28- 33C and 56.7-69.7%

RH) during storage. The results showed that the uncoated fruit packed in carton had

comparatively greater percent weight loss (10.96 percent) than control (9.39 percent); however, after use of APCC system same packaging had significantly decreased the percent weight loss up to 6.89%. It was also observed that mango fruit through APCC system showed TSS (16.44-20.76%), pH (3.98-4.83), had increase, while TA (0.51-

0.92%) had slower decrease, and slower increased of AA (23.06- 40.83 mg/100 g) during ripening stage with an average mean of 8.10%, 17.73%, 4.28, 0.75%, 25.47 mg/100 g respectively. The control sample (T) had higher weight loss (9.39%), TSS (20.83%),

highest pH value (4.91), lowest acidity (0.44%), highest AA (42.06 mg/100 g),

respectively at much earlier during storage. It can be concluded from the study that

innovative approach of APCC with other protective chemicals such as coating emulsions

having fungicide, ethylene absorbent and anti-ripening agent showed an effective role in

enhancing the storage life up to 25 days and also controlled the compositional changes

due to delayed ripening of the fruits with a minimum quality loss, as compared to control

sample which had a greater changes in its composition and qualitative losses during

storage at ambient temperature. The unappealing skin, changed color and poor taste the

control fruit was perished within two weeks of their storage.

Islas-Osuna et al. (2010) mango is a tropical fruit that ripens rapidly; therefore a

continuous effort has been made to increase its shelf life and quality by the postharvest

technologies. This technology includes the application of 1-Methylcyclopropene which

acts as ethylene receptors inhibitor. They treated the fruits with 1-Methylcyclopropene

(750mL L-1) influenced the physical and chemical characteristics, compounds (bioactive)

and activities of cell wall degrading throughout ripening period and storage. The mature-

green mangoes of Kent cultivar were compared for outer quality, Polygalacturonase

phytochemicals and Pectin Methylesterase activities of enzyms in storage by 20°C for two weeks using 1-MCP and those without1-MCP. The results showed that the concentration of ascorbic acid reduced during the ripening of fruit and losses were reduced in 1-MCP-treated mangoes. The enzymatic activities of pectin methylesterase and Polygalacturonase were decreased in the treated fruits than untreated ones. There was little change observed in the β-carotene in the treated and untreated fruits. It may be concluded that1-MCP influenced the process of ripening in Kent cultivar of mango fruit by decreasing the ascorbic acid losses, 1-MCP treatment was justified as it maintain nutritional value during its storage.

Le et al. (2010) determined the quality changes and control the occurrence of disease; treated the Taiwan native strain mango fruit with hot water (52, 55 and 58C); vapor heat (46.5C for 40 min) and treatment of hot water + vapor heat pursed cold

storage (1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 20C). At 55C for 3 (minutes) the hot water reduced the

spots and controlled of anthracnose disease for 6 days compared to control. The treatment of vapor heat retained firmness, peel color index and content of total soluble solid at 3C of storage time. The disease occurrence of the Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes and

Alternaria alternata were reduced by hot water and vapor heat treatment application at

3C for 3 weeks by storage. The area of Dothiorella mangiferae increased during the similar time but did not change the quality. The combined treatment of hot water plus vapor heat with continuous storage at 3C for ambient room temperature the highest quality of fruit produced.

Payasi and Sanwal (2010) reported that the final stage of development is fruit ripening, which physiologically and biochemically measures that make fruit tasty and attractive to eat. The ripening of fruit can be retarded by different methods of modified atmosphere and packaging, gamma irradiation treatment and sucrose ester coating etc.

The phytohormones, 1 methylenecyclopropene and reducing agents treatments delayed the ripening of fruit. Molecular biology tackle like plants (transgenic) with control of genes concerned in production of ethylene otherwise over appearance of genes for deprivation of ethylene, virus stimulated gene quiet as well as exploitation of transcription aspect have been efficiently used for regulating or controlling ripening of mango fruit.

Singh and Singh (2010) studied the effect of post harvest treatment on physiological and chemical properties of mango cultivar Amrapali. They used seven treatments of postharvest were specified as T1 (control), T2 (hot water treatment), T3

(Frutox wax treatment), T4 (hot water treatment + FWE), T5 (ALPF), T6 (hot water treatment + ALPF), T7 (FEW + ALPF), T8 (hot water treatment + FWF + ALPF). The changes in physical, biochemical and organoleptic characteristics of the fruits were encouraged and their determination was noted in Amrapali mango fruit. Physical change viz physiological weight loss percent, specific gravity, size of fruits, percentage of spoilage and ratio of pulp-peel were appreciably different over control. On fifteenth day of exploration, fruit which was treated with water (hot) + wax and enfold in ALPF showed lowest physiological weight loss.

Venkatesan and Tamilmani (2010) the study was focused on the influence of ethereal on the ripening of off–season fruits of Mangifera indica L. var. Neelum. In the experiment the experimental fruits were treated with different concentrations of ethereal

(100, 200 and 300ppm) while the untreated fruits were placed inside the laboratory naturally. They treated the fruits with different concentrations (100, 200 and 300ppm) of ethereal ripened on 13th day, 11th day and 9th day respectively after treatment of different concentrations. The color of the treated fruits changed from green greenish to yellow and the fruits were fit to be eaten. Also the color changed from green to greenish yellow to yellow. On the other hand control fruits, partial ripening led to incomplete metabolic changes, which did not change the presence of sourness in the fruits.

Consequently, they were un - fit for eating. These studies were passed out using the fruit pulp and peel tissues only. The data showed that phenols reduced in ripening, both in the untreated and treated fruits. Activity of enzymes peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase and catalase increased. Comparing the 100, 200 and 300 ppm ethrel treatments, it was found

that 200 ppm had the better results of ripening of off–season fruits of Mangifera indica L. var. Neelum.

Ezz and Awad (2011) studied the effect of various treatments of potassium permanganate, hot water treatment under 50C for 30 minutes and shrink film addition to control shelf life of mango cultivars Hindi Be- Besennara (early ripe) and Alphonse(mid season) under three levels of temperature including 8, 10 and 13◦C and relative humidity

of (80- 85%) for 30 days. The parameters such as decay, shelf life, weight loss, firmness,

titratable acidity, T.S.S, ascorbic acid, reducing and total sugars were studied. The data of

each parameter was collected at an interval of six days during the storage period. Results

showed that the treatment of shrink film at 8◦C was proved the most effective in keeping shelf life of the two cultivars and this also showed better performance of physical and chemical parameters in the two seasons for the two cultivars. It was found that keeping quality in low temperature and decreased with increasing temperature degree. Similarly, the hot water treatment showed the same trend with control in T.S.S., acidity, reducing and total sugars and also low content in V.C. All treatments and control had no shelf life in 24 and 30 days in 13◦C. While in the shrink film there was no decay recorded till 24 days under the different temperatures applied.

Jabbar et al. (2011) diseases and disordered causes severe losses to mango fruit

quality and sometime yielding unmarketable fruit. Also, the risk of fruit fly presence has

made it obligatory to use pre – requisite as hot water quarantine treatment (HWQT) for

marketing and access to other countries like China and Iran. To differentiate the use of

40 fungicides and hot water quarantine application on mango fruit cv. Samar Bahisht

Chaunsa, a study was carried out. The mangoes were stored for 21 days at (13±1°C,

85±5% RH). The results showed that application of Topsin-M fungicide @ 1 g L-1 as field dip for 1 min (pre-transport) followed by HWQT @ 48°C for 60 min., showed significantly suppression of postharvest diseases. The HWQT generally lead to increase the internal discoloration as compared with the control. NaOCl alone or with HWQT, caused higher internal discoloration of fruit. All physical treatments induced some degree of soft nose but combination of NaOCl with HWQT was found to accelerate the problem compared to control. The fruits treated with NaOCl @ 2.5 g 10 L-1 and Topsin-M @ 1 g

L-1 along with HWQT @ 48°C for 60 min gave greater total titratable acidity. However, color, total sugar, non-reducing sugar, total soluble solids contents and organoleptic acceptability of the fruits were found to be non-significantly influenced by the treatments.

The postharvest, pre-transport treatment of Topsin-M @ 1 g L-1 followed by HWQT

(48°C for 60 min) was effective in reducing incidence of postharvest diseases, and fulfilling market access criteria. The higher degree of soft nose development in hot water quarantine treatment fruits.

Dissa et al. (2011) carried out a study to determine the impact of ripeness on drying characteristics of mango by considering different zones on the fruit. The total soluble solids/acidity ratio, color and texture of fruit flesh for each zone was considered and the ripeness was estimated. Also for each zone of ripeness, drying curves and time- temperature curves were established both in forced and natural convection. Mass diffusivity (estimated by considering two diffusion regions), thermal diffusivity and

41 drying rates were deduced from these drying curves by considering product shrinkage.

Results showed that the time required to reduce moisture content to any given level depended on the ripeness state, being highest for unripe samples and lowest for ripe samples. At each drying moment, temperature of ripe sample was higher than that of unripe sample. Mass diffusivity, thermal diffusivity and drying rates strongly increased with ripeness state. At 60°C, unripe and ripe fruit mass diffusivities ranged respectively from 1.69 x 10-10 to 9.87 x 10-10 m²/s and 3.38 x 10-10 to 1.77 x 10-9 m²/s. Thermal diffusivities ranged from 2.12 x 10-11 to 6.44 x 10-10 m²/s and 2.74 x 10-10 to 8.05 x

10-10 m²/s respectively for unripe and ripe samples. In natural convection, drying rates reached maximal values of 0.16 kg m-2 s for unripe sample and 0.47 kg m-2 s for ripe sample whereas in forced convection they reached respectively 0.43 and 0.67 kg m-2 s.

Product shrinkage decreased with ripeness and was almost ideal for the major part of the drying process. Constants of suitable fitting models also varied considerably with fruit ripeness. This work showed that ripeness state influences strongly drying characteristics of mango fruit.

Coatings

Ketsa and Prabhasavat (1992) investigated the effect of Semperfresh skin coating on shelf life and quality of 'Nang Klangwan' fruit of mango. At ambient temperature

(32°C and RH 74.0 percent) the weight loss, firmness, yellow color development and the chemical changes related with ripening were observed in waxed and non-waxed mango fruits. The mango fruits waxed with Semperfresh 2% and 3% within 6 days caused off- odor, while Semperfresh-waxed 1% mango fruits usually ripened and were in acceptable

condition, although to some extent inferior. The Semperfresh- waxed 1% mango fruits

shelf life of mango fruit was 14 days, while the shelf life of non-waxed mango fruits was

10 days. The yellow color development, TSS and weight loss were low in non-waxed

mango fruits, while in waxed coated mango fruits the TA and firmness was greater.Hoa

and Ducamp. (2008) treated the Cat Hoa loc’ mango fruit with five various coatings

TFC150, TFC210, Bioxeda, Xedasol M23 and Xedabio. They stored the coated fruit at

room temperature 21–31○C & 65–75 percent relative humidity. The weight loss of mango

fruit was decreased in TFC210 and TFC150 coatings of carnauba based. The content of

ascorbic acid was not affected in this variety of mango by coating application. By storing, the coating of Xedabio decreased the process of fruit ripening and lesser changes in indicators of ripening (total and reducing sugar, pH, SSC, titrable acidity, flesh and peel color), and in normal conditions this coating enhanced the storage life of mango fruit about three days.

Castrillo and Bermudez (1992) evaluated the effect of various concentrations of two marketable wax coatings on various parameters of postharvest ripening for mango fruit. The both wax coatings reduced the fresh weight of mango fruit at higher concentrations. During ripening process the degradation of chlorophyll of the skin

(exocarp) and the increase in flesh (mesocarp) pH generally occurring was slowed down at higher concentrations with both coatings. At similar treatment concentrations the

Primafresh 31 was less useful than Primafresh C. They demonstrated that the delayed ripening process effects of fruits with wax-coated affected the loss of fresh weight,

degradation of chlorophyll of the exocarp and change of mesocarp pH but sugar, starch

content and mesocarp chlorophyll was not affected.

Diaz-Sobac et al. (1996) studied the effect of coatings on post harvest shelf life of

mango fruit. They prepared the coating emulsion using carboxymethylcellulose,

propileneglycol, maltodextrins and a combination of sorbit fatty acid esters by an HLB of

six. Sprayed the emulsion on fully mature un-ripened mangoes manila, which were stored

○ ○ at 15, 25 C and RH 80–85 percent. It was observed at 25 C that the production of CO2 rate increased and lost in fruits of control after twelve days of storage. The coated mango fruits kept their rate of CO2 production and weight loss take place only 8% after twenty

one days of storage. The coating was washed away and fruits were permitted to ripen

naturally after storage, which take place in 3–4 days. They concluded that hydrophobic

coating application increased the postharvest storage life of mango fruits for at least

twenty days more than uncoated fruits.

Kittur et al. (2001) investigated the property of 4 various combined coating on on

quality and the shelf-life of mango & banana at 27 ± 2°C. They compared commercial

waxol-coated and uncoated fruits with the polysaccharides based coating. These

combined coating include of chitosan and cellulose, modified starch, combined by means

of a proper element of lipid with an agent (wetting). They measured the parameters of

quality like total titratable acidity, total soluble solids and firmness. They also measured

the parameters (physiologically) like carbon dioxide change and loss of weight due to

transpiration as well as respiration. The coatings of polysaccharide exhibited the

decreased color improvement, greater firmness and lesser values of acidity than control &

waxol. The coating significantly reduced the carbon dioxide evolution and weight loss.

They noted that coatings chitosan-based were much better in improved the quality and

prolonged shelf-life of mango as well as banana fruits.

Carrillo-Lopez et al. (2000) studied the coating effect on post harvest shelf life &

quality of mango. They coated the Haden variety of mango fruit with semperfresh edible

coating film (three applications eight, sixteen & 24 g.L-9) and after that stored on 13○C

with relative humidity 85 percent. They evaluated the fruit every four days for up to thirty

two days for ascorbic acid content, total soluble solid, titratable acidity, pH, color of the

skin, firmness and weight loss. These coating applications affected the ripening process

of fruit. In coated fruit the total soluble solid, weight loss and pH were lowest whereas,

green color, firmness and titratable acidity were highest as compared to non coated fruit

but semperfresh had no effect on development of decay. The content of ascorbic acid

decreased in overall stored fruit, however in coated fruit this reduction was slower, and

there were non-significant differences among the various applications of semperfresh.

Hoa et al. (2002) evaluated the eight coating formulations for useful effects on the

shelf life of harvested mango (cvs. Litfa, Kent and Tommy Atkins) fruit on various stages

of maturity. They selected the 4 coatings for further study under different storage

conditions including ambient (19-22○C and relative humidity 56-40 percent) and

simulated marketable (I2○C and RH 80 percent) storage. The four coating formulations contained zein, shellac, carnauba wax, and/or derivatives of cellulose. These coatings

decreased the development of outer as well as inner color, respiration rate, and all but wax (carnauba) decreased the firmness loss. All coated mangoes also delayed the changes in acids. The coatings retarded the maturation (ripening) of mango fruit through an only some days than fruit without coated. Coatings of cellulose-based & shellac, though, source of ethanol elevated stage, while in organoleptic characteristics this did not guide to considerable differences in flavor from the fruit without coated. Under high relative humidity conditions, just the wax (carnauba) coating was a useful loss barrier of water.

Feygenberg et al. (2005) recently the two organic coatings for post-harvest application on fruits were developed in Israel and the USA. These two coating includes the colloidal solution based on beeswax (Bee Coat) and carnauba wax. The main differentiating characteristic between the two waxes are that beeswax coated fruits had a lusterless look, while the carnauba wax had a shiny look. Coating with the organic waxes effectively decreased the shrinkage, chlorophyll breakdown, water losses; chilling injury symptoms and decay development, thereby increase the shelf life of mango. The mango cultivar ‘Tommy Atkins’, coated with the beeswax-based organic wax, reduced the rates of weight loss, softening of fruit, development of color and acid breakdown, thus enhances shelf life. Also, ‘Tommy Atkins’ coated with beeswax at 12°C for three weeks following 10 days on 20°C, showed only a small number of the red spots which are symptoms of chilling injury. Moreover, the coated fruits did not develop anaerobic metabolites or off-flavors, and were preferred by the taste panelists.

Chien et al. (2007) treated the sliced mango with aqueous solutions of 0, 0.5 and 1 or 2 percent chitosan; kept in plastic trays, and over- covered with PVDC film. The fruit

(treated) were stored on 6○C and estimated the changes in the sensory characteristics of

color, taste and water loss. A coating of chitosan decreased water loss and the fall in

sensory quality, increasing the soluble solid content, ascorbic acid and titratable acidity

content. They concluded that the chitosan coating application inhibited the

microorganism’s growth, effectively extended the quality characteristics and prolonged

the shelf life of mango fruit sliced.

Zhu et al. (2008) evaluated the chitosan coating effects on decreasing decay and

retarding the ripening process of mango (Tainong cultivar) fruits and for this purpose

fruit was treated with chitosan solution (0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 percent). The fruits of mango were

stored at 15○C and RH (85–90 percent). By the treatment of chitosan coating the mango

ripening was significantly retarded. The two percent chitosan coating was the most useful

as compared to others. During storage, the chitosan coating effectively inhibited the

change of color, firmness loss, declines in ascorbic acid and titratable acidity, loss of fruit

weight and rate of respiration but the increase in total soluble solids was decreased in

fruits of mango. After sixteen days of storage, the firmness was highest (43.6 percent)

and color indicator was lowest 58.4 percent (P<0.05) in the mango fruits treated with two percent chitosan as compared to untreated fruit. Chitosan coating also significantly inhibited the progress of disease in the mango. After four and sixteen days of inoculation, the lesion diameter and incidence of disease in treated fruit (two percent chitosan) were

49.8% and 71.3 lower (P<0.05) as compared to untreated fruit. They concluded during

storage of fruit the chitosan coating application retarded the ripening and decreased the

decay of mango.

Dang et al. (2008) investigated the effects of various edible coatings on ripening of mango fruit and quality ripe fruit parameters including firmness, color, soluble solids contents, ascorbic acid, total acidity, fatty acids, total carotenoids and aroma volatiles.

The Kensigton Pride hard mature green mango fruits were coated with aqueous mango

Semperfresh (0.6 percent), carnauba (1:1 v/v), Aloevera gel (100 percent), Aloevera gel

(1:1, v/v) and untreated fruit served as the control. The coated fruits were dried at room temperature and packed in trays of soft-board to ripen at 21±1○C and relative humidity

55.2±11.1 percent until the soft eating stage. The fruit coated with carnauba was effective

in delaying fruit ripening, retaining firmness of fruit, and enhancing the fruit quality

characteristics including levels of aroma volatiles and fatty acids. Aloevera gel (1:1 or

100 percent) and Semperfresh slightly retarded fruit ripening but decreased fruit aroma

volatile development. Aloevera gel coating did not go beyond the commercial mango

Semperfresh and carnauba in delaying fruit ripening and enhancing aroma volatile

biosynthesis.

Regnier et al. (2008) used the essential oils coatings on mango fruit for the

control of pathogens and improved the post harvest quality. They replaced the prochloraz

with an essential oil obtained from an indigenous shrub of South African and

commercially obtainable essential oil. These coatings lower the rate of infection,

enhanced moisture maintenance was noted, whereas main organoleptic properties

remained unchanged, than those of the prochloraz-treated mango fruit. The terpene

elements of the essential oils are completely miscible with particular commercial

coatings, and have been showed to be useful at low applications in organic and synthetic

coatings tested. This use can be included into the pack line method with no significant

alterations.

Abbasi et al. (2009) investigated the coating (CHIirr, Mv = 5.14 × 104 irradiated

Crab and Shrimp chitosan & CHIun, Mv = 2.61 × 105un-irradiated Crab chitosan) effect

on preservation of harvested mango. They used the irradiation at 100 kGy & 200 kGy for

Crab and Shrimp chitosan and these mango fruits were stored at 15°C ± 1°C & 85

percent relative humidity for six weeks. They studied the various chitosan coatings effect

on behavior of fruit ripening, occurrence of disease attack, organoleptic and biochemical

properties during storage. The irradiated Crab chitosan (200 kGy) coating showed high

quality attributes and prolonged the mango fruit shelf-life than uncoated fruit. After four weeks of storage, the mango fruits coated with 200 kGy irradiated Crab chitosan showed six percent disease occurrence than uncoated fruit (25 percent). The eating quality of coated fruit was maintained up to four weeks of storage by 200 kGy irradiated Crab chitosan. They concluded that the quality was maintained and shelf life was prolonged in fresh produce by irradiated chitosan coatings.

Baldwin et al. (1999) investigated the effect of coatings (2 types) on outer & inner atmospheres and quality feature of mango fruit through simulated marketable storage on

10/15°C with relative humidity 90–99 percent pursued by simulated situation of

49 marketing by 20°C and RH fifty six percent. One was carnauba wax whereas other was polysaccharide based coatings as the major ingredient. Under laboratory conditions, the carnauba wax and polysaccharide based coatings showed noticeably various permeability of oxygen properties. The polysaccharide based coatings were more permeable to water vapor and less permeable to respiratory gases, such as oxygen, than wax (carnauba). In simulated commercial condition the coatings were applied to the fruit, although, the variation among the coatings in permeability to gases of respiratory greatly decreased, due to the humidity (high) in chilled storage. These coatings produced modified atmospheres, decreased rot and better outer look with imparting a delicate shine; however, just coating of polysaccharide retarded process of ripening & improved flavor volatiles applications. The coating of wax (carnauba) considerably decreased loss of water than polysaccharide based coating & uncoated mango fruit.

Li et al. (2009) observed the volatile signals for identification of rot incidence as well as evaluated the mango ripening and shelf life. Especially rapid GC, zNoseTM found on without coated surface acoustic wave sensor, was in used to observe the

Tommy Atkins mango volatiles. For the evaluation of mango quality the total soluble solids, respiration rate and color were determined. Detected the two peaks with the zNoseTM calculated occurrence of rot with 90 percent and 87 percent precision, whereas a further peak was eighty percent correct in identifying the ripeness with respect to a color indicator reference. The deterioration of deficient least squares collected with changeable significance was used for projection to choose the important peaks in

calculation. The rot calculation techniques might have possible uses into the industry of

mango for the identification of the rots incidence in fruit.

Abd-Alla and Haggag (2010) studied the effect of various concentrations of

chitosan solution on the mycelium expansion and spore germination of Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides (Penz.) the causal agent of anthracnose disease of mango fruits under

vitro conditions. Chitosan solution at 0.6mg/l attained significantly decreased of

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides expansion and inhibited the germination of spore, whereas, chitosan solution at 0.8mg/l showed a complete reduction and inhibition of fungal mycelium expansion and germination of spore. In the meantime, mango fruits coating with 0.2 and 0.4 percent (w/v) chitosan solution get a greatly protective effect against anthracnose disease occurrence of mango fruits, by 98.1 percent and 95.4 percent after thirty days of storage, respectively. At the same treatments were reducing the percentage of fruit deterioration tissues by 89.3 and 95.0 percent, respectively. They concluded from this study that chitosan was a substitute protected coating technique for prevent the mango fruits against anthracnose disease which causes economic losses during transportation, marketing and storage.

Durrani et al. (2011) preserved the pulp of mango fruit with adding of sodium benzoate, Potassium sorbate and Potassium metabisulphite alone and Potassium sorbate in combination with sodium benzoate and citric acid. They stored all the samples at room temperature and were evaluated in the laboratory for sensory evaluation. They illustrated that samples preserved with addition of Potassium metabisulphite, Potassium sorbate in

combination with Potassium metabisulphite and Potassium sorbate in addition with citric

acid retained their overall eatable quality for aroma, flavor and color throughout forty

five and sixty days of storage.

Abbasi et al. (2011) evaluated the effects of various concentrations of coatings

(beeswax, carboxy methyl cellulose and calcium chloride) and packaging with

polyethylene sheet, on improving the post harvest quality of mango fruit and its storage

performance. After harvesting the mango fruit were given hot water treatment at 50 ±

2C for three minutes as quarantine determine against attack of fungal. The mango fruits

were coated with three various concentrations of carboxy methyl cellulose and beeswax

along with calcium chloride coating and polyethylene sheet packaging. All the treatments

were applied in mixture with KMnO4 soaked with sponge cubes used as ethylene

absorbents. At refrigerated temperature the fruits were kept for eighty days and calculated

for physico-chemical and organoleptic changes at a gap of seven days. All coatings enhanced the keeping quality and reduced the fruit ripening of the produce but best results were showed by carboxy methyl cellulose at two percent level. It prolonged the

storage life up to seventy seven days with significant retention of all the parameters of

quality.

Storage Temperature

Aina (1990) estimated the physical and chemical characteristics of mature green

African mango fruit stored at tropical ambient conditions (27–30°C and RH 68–70

percent) during a seven day storage period of ripening. The results showed that change in

fruit color, texture and weight had taken place in addition to the other most important

chemical changes like degradation of starch, sugars formation and increase in total

carotenoids contents.