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AUTHOR Mocker, Donald W.; Spear, George E. TITLE Lifelong Learning: Formal, Nonformal, Informal, and Self-Directed. Information Series No. 241. INSTITUTION ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Columbus, Ohio. SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC. PUB DATE 82 CONTRACT 400-81-0025 NOTE 39p. AVAILABLE FROMNational Center Publications, National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1960 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH 43210 (IN241, $3.75).

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Adult Learning; Definitions; *Educational Research; *Independent Study; *Lifelong Learning; *Models; *Nonformal Education; State of the Art Reviews IDENTIFIERS Conceptual Analysis; *Informal Education

ABSTRACT A model is presented to help clarify the concept of lifelong learning. Constructed on the idea that an operational definition of lifelong learning should be based on the locus of control for making decisions about the goals and means of learning, the model is a two-by-two matrix of learner and institution that represents four identified situations of learning: formal(learners have little control over the objectives or means of learning); nonformal (learners control the objectives but not the means of learning); informal (learners control the means but not the objectives of learning); and self-directed (learners control both the objectives and means of learning) .The model is interpreted as demonstrating how all planned or deliberate learning is located along a continuum; the concept of control provides thebasis for classifying the various types of lifelong learning. From the model the authors also suggest that lifelong learning is neither thedomain of a particular age group nor a single program or piece of legislation.; it is a composite of many programs, pieces of legislation, and learner-initiated activities. To further clarify the model, expansions (based on research) of formal, nonformal, and informal learning are provided. Then, using the established model, an in-depth examination is made of the ultimate state of learner autonomy: self-directed learning. Included in the discussionis a review of previous research and a look at current research and trends. A list of references concludes the paper. (CT)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** FORMAL,NONFORMAL, LIFELONGLEARNING: INFORMAL,ANDSELF-D1RECTED

INFORMATION SERIESNO. 241

Donald W.Mocker and George E.Spear in AdultEducation Center forResourceDevelopment City University ofMissouri-Kansas

and VocationalEducation Clearinghouse onAdult, Career, The ERIC Research inVocationalEducation The NationalCenter for The OhioState University 1960 KennyRoad Columbus, Ohio43210

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This publication was preparedwith funding from theNational Institute of Education, U.S.Department of Education, under this Contract No. NIE-C-400-81-0025 .The opinions expressed in report do not necessarilyreflect the position or policies ofN I E or the Department of Education. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

iv LIST OF FIGURES

FOREWORD vii PREFACE ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Lifelong Learning 1 Model of Lifelong Learning 2

FORMAL, NONFORMAL, AND INFORMALLEARNING 5

Formal Learning 5 6 Nonformal Learning 8 Informal Learning

11 SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

11 Introduction Previous Reviews of Research 12 Current Research and Trends 15 23 Discussion 25 SUMMARY 27 REFERENCES LIST OF FIGURES

Page

4 1. Lifelong learning model

iv 0 FOREWORD

and Clearinghouse onAdult, Career, InformationCenterclearinghouses in anationwideinformation Resources the The Educational(ERIC/ACVE) is oneof sixteen of thefunctions of Education Institute ofEducation. One This paper Vocational by theNational into theERIC database. system thatis funded literature thatis entered decision-makers, is tointerpret the practitioners,researchers, Clearinghouse interest toadult education should be ofparticular students. for and graduate E. Spear ofthe Center W. Mocker,and George Missouri- to Donald Education, theUniversity of is indebted School of is a Professor, The profession in AdultEducation, the Dr. Mocker Development of this paper. codirector ofthe Resource scholarship inthe preparation curriculum, and Kansas Cityfor their in adulteducation and includesclassroom teachinggraduate courses His background Spear, currently Development inAdult Education. and trainingteachers, Jr. Resource program, Education. Heis Center for local adultbasic education Development inAdult directing a for Resource interest is inself- teaching, codirector ofthe Center and hismajor research Professor, is educationgraduate courses currentlyteaching adult Tough, directedlearning. Pittsburgh; toAllen M. University of Winkfield, the Patrick R.Penland, Minugh andPatricia W. Recognition isalso due to to Carol manuscript Studies inEducation; and their criticalreview of the the OntarioInstitute for Education, for Director at theERIC for Researchin Vocational Assistant National Center Susan Imel, coordinated thepublication's final revisionandpublication. Education Wagner. prior to its and Vocational Thompson, andJudith 0. Adult, Career, Catherine operator.Editing Clearinghouse on assisted bySandra Kerka, word processor She was and JanetRay served as development. manuscript, EditorialServices. Catherine Smithtyped the NationalCenter's Sharon L.Fain of the wasperformed by

Robert E.Taylor -)irector Executive Research The NationalCenter for in VocationalEducation PREFACE

The concept of lifelong learning has become oneof the most widely discussed concepts in adopted the label, the field of adult education. In theUnited States and Canada, journals have passed to ensure its state departments of education havebeen renamed, and legislation has been growth. Through the efforts of organizationssuch as the United Nations Educational,Scientific Studies at Michigan and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)and the Institute for international State University, the concept has been carriedto every free country in the world and somethat are not so free.

However, with all of this activity andinterest, there is still no agreement on adefinition of the that make up the concept. basic concept of lifelong learningand no consensus on the elements satisfied with "doing a Perhaps the most discouraging fact ofall is that many adult educators are "understanding it." Bowers and Fisher(1972) have referred to this better job of it" rather than lifelong definitional problem as the "semanticjungle." What is lifelong learning? Is it the same as relationship to other education? Because lifelong learninghas not been clearly defined, its informal learning, nonformal learning,and formal concepts such as self-directed learning, monogra'ph is a learning is also unclear. These questionsand issues remain unanswered. This but is possibly a step forward response to that confusion.it is obviously not the final answer, that will lead to further clarity.

One additional point. To theresearcher, the need for clarity andprecision of terms does not practitioners who feel this kind of anexercise is a "toy of the need to be justified. But to field that wants academic," a brief explanation is offered.The importance of a theory base to any An examination of the to progress from voodooism to anacademic discipline is beyond question. development of an acceptance of the germtheory should be field of medicine prior to the is to define the sufficient evidence of this point. Thebeginning step in a theory-building process and among those major elements of a phenomenon andthen define the relationship between elements. that will help clarify the This monograph has threeobjectives: first, to provide a model second, to identify and define themajor elements of that concept; concept of lifelong learning; research of one type of and third, using the establishedmodel, to take an in-depth look at the lifelong learning, namelyself-directed learning.

vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A model is presented to help clarify the concept of lifelong learning. Constructed on theidea that an operational definition of lifelong learning should be based on the locus of controlfor making decisions about the goals and means of learning, the model is a two-by-twomatrix of learner and institution that represents four identified situations of learning: formal (learners have little control over the objectives or means of learning); nonformal (learners controlthe objecfives but not the means of learning); informal (learners control the means but not the objectivesof learning); and self-directed (learners control both the objectives and means of learning).The model is interpreted as demonstrating how all planned or deliberate learningis located along a continuum; and the concept of control provides the basis for classifying the various typesof lifelong learning. From the model the authors also suggest that lifelonglearning is neither the domain of a particular age group nor a single program or piece of legislation;it is a composite of many programs, pieces of legislation, andlearner-initiated activities. To further clarify the model, expansions (based on research) of formal, nonformal, and informal learning areprovided. Then, using the established model, an in-depth examination is made of theultimate state of learner autonomy: self-directed learning. Included in the discussion is areview of previous research and a look at current research and trends.A list of references concludes the paper.

Literature relating to the topic of lifelong, formal, nonformal, informal, andself-directed learning can be found in the ERIC system under the following descriptors:Lifelong Learning; *Educational Research; 'Nonformal Education; State of the Art Reviews; *AdultLearning; Independent Study; *Models; Definitions. Asterisks indicate descriptorshaving particular relevance.

ix INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Lifelong Learning

The term lifelong learning is not new.It has been around for a long timeand has been view of defined in many different ways. Somewriters such as Newsorn (1977) take a narrow lifelong learning by equating it withself-directed learning. Other writers(Dadswell 1978; Dave philosophy than as a 1976) take a broad view of lifelonglearning by thinking of it as more of a definitional problem, still specific type of learning such asself-directed. To further confuse the present writers agree with other writers equate lifelonglearning with lifelong education. The those who define lifelonglearning in a broad sense. might first be helpful to Before offering a classificationsystem for lifelong learning, it determine some of its basic characteristics.Because the process analyze the concept to specific age group. Therefore, continues throughout one's life,it cannot be identified with any with all groups. This leads to asecond characteristic. As it is notassociated we must identify it Instead, it must be with a single age group, it cannotbe defined in terms of a single program. Some writers have suggested a defined as many programsthat are pursued during a lifetime. third characteristic that is evenbroader than the system idea.Faure et al. (1972) stated that "lifelong education is not aneducational system but the principle onwhich the overall underlie the development of organization of a system is founded,and which should accordingly parts." Dadswell (1978) made the samepoint when he said, "Lifelong each of its component screen and an learning tends to be more of aphilosophy. A philosophy which acts as a orgaffizing principle for alllearning." of lifelong learning The authors are suggesting that anoperational definition of the concept regarding the goals and meansof should be based on the locusof control for making decisions adult educators and psychologists agreethat one of the distinctive learning. Many, perhaps most, responsibility for characteristics of adulthood is thewillingness of individuals to assume and move to independence, a decisions that affect their lives.To shed the ties of dependence the skills of independent studyand be willing to use them.Brookfield person must have learned who made this point. (1980) and Knowles (1971) arebut two of the many adult educators conceptualizing lifelong If control is a key characteristicof adulthood, then one way of control as the basis of classifyingthe various types of lifelong learning is to use the idea of be located on a continuum. learning. Using this rationale,all planned or deliberate learning can of learning over which theindividual has virtually no control,and at the At one end is the type almost total control. other end is the type oflearning for which the learner has one's learning is the key One additionai point must nowbe discussed. If control over decision-making process? In organizing principle, thenwhat are the dimensions of that there are two major decisionsthat a learner can make about any considering this question, learned. In formal learning, thisis most learning episode. The firstis identifying what should be The second decision isidentifying how to commonly referred to asthe objectives or curriculum. of instruction. In self-directedlearning, it learn. In formal schooling,this is referred to as the plan is referred to by some asthe resources for learning.

1 how it is to be for what is tobe learned and authors refer tomaking decisions level. Forinstance, When the decisions made at atechnical or learner further decide to go learned, they arereferring to to lose weightand may decide, on their own,to learn how made without a individuals may the subject.These decisions were decisions that the find some books on These are technical to thelibrary and insistence of a mateor friend. physician's adviceor at the learner cancontrol.

Model of LifelongLearning course tograduate." advisor said I hadto take this Learner I- "My think I will attendthat workshop." about these newdrugs, so I Learner II- "Ineed to learn competent in thatarea. Judy board said Ineed to become Learner III-"The certification can teach mehow to.dothat." records. I bet I can good financial wanted to learnhow to keep Learner IV -"I've always accounting books." learn that frommy son's Together they of a person'sdecision to learn. statements aretypical expressions These four of lifelonglearning. represent thefundamental types of four generictypes of a systemthat is composed obvious lifelong learning as learning: formallearning. The The authors see the first typeof lifelong many I illustrates elementary andsecondary schools, learning. Learner learning are foundin most examples the examples of thistype of training. In these degree programs,and military has little and university the learner;thus he or she forms of college what and how arenot made by technical decisionson the the process. control over decides to attend anorganized wants to learnabout drugs and learning. Here In the nextexample, a person lifelong learning:non formal example of thesecond type of the workshoporganizer. workshop. This is an but the howis decided by decides what isto be learned, of learning.Another the individual partial control overthe method to learning theindividual has agent becausehe or she wants In nonformal farmer who goesto the extension by giving thefarmer example of thistype is the extension agentmight respond varieties of seedcorn. The to ademonstration plot learn about new agent mighttake the farmer by to read. Aweek later, the conclude thislearning activity several bulletins planted. The agentmight then the variety has been of harvest. Inthis example, where the new production figuresat the end sending thefarmer coTparison agent decidedthe how. the what andthe extension farmer decided an individual learning. In thistype of learning learning is informal decides how itis to be The third typeof lifelong learned whilethe learner what is to be decision-making other than thelearner decides has partialcontrol in the the individual what competencieswere to learned. Likenonformal learning, board decided of LearnerIII, the certification as aninstructor. process. Inthe example learner choseher friend Judy learner decidedhow. Here the by trial and error. be learnedand the seminar or learnthe competencies have decidedto attend a learner. She could also instruction iscontrolled by the Here, the how ormeans of this According toTough (1971) learning isself-directed. and final typeof lifelong individual makesall decisions The fourth adults. As the namesuggests, the of this type.In method of most from LearnerIV is typical is the learning The statement process. what and howof learning. control overthe learning regarding the individual hasalmost total self-directedlearning the 2 14. educators from a broad range of The concept of learner controlhas intrigued and attracted In North America, the term disciplines and professions,particularly over the past fifteen years. various degrees of responsibility self-directed has been used todescribe the broad range and learning activity or process. Otherterms assumed by or assigned tolearners as they engage in a self-teaching, independent, informal,personalized, individualized, and (including self-planned, suspected that the term self- contract learning) occur in theliterature; however, it may be implications, is the most appealing one directed, with its suggestion ofcontrol and its functional to both educators andlearners. defined in the literature Essentially, research interestspertaining to self-directed learning as focus on four general areas ortopics: mode or technique 1. Self-directed learning as an instructional

2.Activities and perceptions ofself-directed learners facilitate self-directed learning 3. Individual traits and skills that abilities in self-directed learning 4.The potential and meansfor increasing individuals' (learning how to learn) attracted the greatest interestof This first area, instructionalmode or technique, has fields outside adult education.However, such research has, been educators from disciplines and disciplines. It is recognizedthat the directed primarily to peers orcolleagues within these outside encouraged movement towardgreater student works of Carl Rogers,Jerome Bruner, and others time, the in elementary and secondaryschools in the 1960s. At the same autonomy and freedom Lewin gave impetus toexperimentation theories of Kenneth Bennis,Abraham Maslow, and Kurt learners in a number of disciplinesand professioRal fields in assigningincreased responsibility to researdh has elementary and secondaryschools. Although much of this beyond the traditional learning, by its originators, in this paperit is discussed as informal been termed "self-directed" defined in this paper. which more accuratelyidentifies its characteristics as the interest o adult educatorsin self-directed learning was During the same period, Tough (1968, 1971). of Johnstone and Rivera(1965), Houle (1961), and generated by the findings theorists, focused instead uponthe These studies, different fromthe works of the instructional the self-directed learning processinstead learners themselves, andsought to understand better of its potentia; application. previously designated as two,three, and four are mostexclusively the The research areas academic field of adult education.All three domain of researcherswho are identified with the category and are discussedin the final chapter areas fall clearlywithin the self-directed learning Facilitate Self- 2Previous Reviews of Research;Area 3Characteristics that as follows: Area for Self-Directed Learning. Directed Learning; andArea 4Improving Skills steadily identified as dealing withself-directed learning has grown The volume of literature educitors are still most decade but unfortunately, thedichotomies persist. Adult over the past of learning while the forma,educationists are concerned with the learnerand the phenomenon preoccupied with instructionalapplications. of the lifelong learningmodel, it may be helpful to summarize With this brief introduction the domain of a particular characteristics that haveemerged. Lifelong learning is not some of the programs. Second, it isnot a piece of legi6lation. age group. It is,therefore, a composite of many

3 particular segment of Legislation is related to lifelong learningin that it may help to promote a in and of itself is not and cannot be synonymouswith lifelong the process, but legislation legislation, and many learning. Lifelong learning is comprisedof many programs, many pieces of learner-initiated activities. Using control overthe objectives and means oflearning as the major dimensions of lifelong learning, a two-by-twomatrix can be used to illustrate themodel.

WHAT

(Objectives)

Institution Learner

Non formal Institution Formal Learning Learning

How (Means) Self-Directed Learner Informal Learning Learning

the objectives or means of ther Formal Learning learners have no control over learning. but not the means. Nonformal Learning learners control the objectives the objectives. Informal Learning learners control the means but not and the means. Self-Directed Learning learners control both the objectives

Figure 1.Lifelong learning model

learning described in the model, oneresearcher, Dave (1976), Of the four types of iifelong forms formal, nonformal, and informal.However, although he includes many has identified three: he does not mention self-directed, nor and stages of learning in hisconcept of lifelong learning, of learning. To further clarify thelifelong has he developed asystem for classifying forms learning model shown infigure 1, an expansion of eachsubtype follows. FORMAL, NONFORMAL, ANDINFORMAL LEARNING

Formal Learning and secondary education This type of learning is mostclosely associated with elementary colleges and universities. Othereducational and most degreeend certificateprograms offered by this category. As previouslystated, the programs from cosmetologyto the military also fall into learner has little, responsibilityin this form of learning. be classified as formal Even programs such as "freeschools" and "open universities" can learner. It may appear that the because all major decisions aremade by people other than the for some of the majordecisions, but upon closer examinationit is learner is given responsibility prescribed alternatives. The revealed that the learner isactually making decisions from alternatives have been determinedby another person. system might indicate. In fact, Formal learning is far morecomplex than the classification be more accurate if conceived as acube to indicate its complexity. the matrix would probably to ponder its dimensions more That job of explication, however,will be lett to those who choose at length. Formal learning can have either Formal learning is not relegatedto one specific age group. traditional objectives would bethe "3 Rs" traditional or nontraditionalObjectives. An example of to pass the GeneralEducational of elementary education, orthe math skills an adult needs Nontraditional objectives mightbe found in extracurricular Development (GED) Examination. they are not part of the cOurses taught atter school hours.These are nontraditional because graduation requirements. learning can also be programmedat As with the objectives oflearning, the means or how of levels. One element of the meansis the learning setting. Atraditional traditional or nontraditional function. High school buildings, setting is any place in whicheducation is the primary or sole schools are obvious examplesof traditional settings.Another college classrooms, and trade is general approach to instruction.Group or classroom instruction element of the means is the settings, or alternate an example of atraditional approach. On theother hand, nontraditional places where the primaryfunction or use is not educational.The learning environments, are any building that are used after hoursfor back room of a bank, a storefront, or rooms in an office Nontraditional learning approachesmight be classes are all examplesof nontraditional settings. prepared kits that the learnercould take home or a courseby cOrrespOndence. traditional setting (e.g., a highschool A course with traditionalobjectives that is offered in a basically different from a coursewith nontraditional objectivesthat algebra course) seems to be that is part of an after-hours is offered in a nontraditionalsetting (e.g., a macrame course within the framework here, thecommon program at a localmanufacturing plant). However, both types to be classified asformal learning is that thedecisions characteristic that requires the means (how is it to belearned) are made regarding the objectives(what is to be learned) and by someone other than thelearner.

5 analyze the consistency of some Using this classification system, weare now ready to reports and research. In 1975 areport of the 28th All IndiaAdult Education Conference was of Sub-Groups." The themeof the conference was "Non- published under the title "Reports dropouts, programs for youth Formal Education" and had thefollowing subcommittee reports: for women, programs forfarmers, programs for industrial fifteen to twenty-five, programs been classified as formal workers, and financing. Using theauthors' system, this would have with traditional and nontraditiOnalobjectives that were because they were discussing programs there any indication that being offered in nontraditionalsettings. Nowhere in the report was learners had responsibility for makingany of the major decisions. "Recent Steps Towards Non-FormalEducation of Adults in the Another example is the report program. This particular Philippines," (1977) that focused onthis country's "school-on-the-air" learning. Here again the learner was program is part of what theFilipinos refer to as nonformal decisions over either the objectives orthe means of the learning. In given no responsibility for and local organizing groups. this example, all decisions weremade by the federal administration traditional objectives beingoffered in nontraditional settings.The This is an example of and the radio is a nontraditional setting is the homerather than a regular classroom, nontracational instructional technique. education and Another example of confusion overnontraditional approaches to formal (1980) report on the new educationalpolicy of Nigeria. In this nonformal learning was Akinpelu's education and nonformal educationand then went on to define them as report, he equated adult vocational, aesthetic, cultural,and civic that consists of "functionalliteracy, remedial, continuing, school system." All theparticipants of the education for youths andadults outside the formal To Be by Faure et al. (1972)and as the conference that produced thisreport had read Learning indicate, were strongly influencedby Faure et al.'s writing.This aforementioned definition would Both the government of Nigeria article may hold one of the answersto the definitional problem. rather than nonformal learning.(The and the researcher, Akinpelu,refer to nonformal education of clarity occurs frequently,and this case is used only as an writers point out that this lack system The use of the term"education" carries an institutional or example to make the point.) of the individual. Learning seemsto connotation, whereas the term"learning" connotes behavior focus on the person whileeducation focuses on the system.

Nonformal Learning responsibility in the decision-making In this type of lifelonglearning, the individual has some to be learned, but seek help onthe how or means process. Learnersmake decisions on what is of the learning activity. heard that reading at 500words per minute is a veryacceptable and Harley Heyburn has knows it is below 500 words per achievable level. He is not surehow fast he is reading, but college for a readingimprovement course. minute. He decides toenroll at a local community in her present job and wantsto develop new skills soshe can Sarah Fasken is unhappy that the local a small business outof her home. She finds out become a bookkeeper and run After visiting with the vocational school offers a one-yearcertificate program in accounting. admissions officers, shedecides to enroll in the program. specifically what they wanted tolearn In these examples, bothHarley and Sarah decided bookkeeping) but did not knowhow to learn it on their own.That decision, (speed reading and other than the learner. the means or how, wasdecided by some individual

6 nonformal learning in North Examples of research and programsrelated to this definition of activities require some American literature are limited.This might be anticipated, as such retain control over goals, institutional involvement, andinstitutions are most likely to impose or selecting means. even whilepermitting learners the freedom for learning in the rest of While the research in North Americais limited, research in nonformal is in use in developing countries, the world is almost nonexistent.The label nonformal learning learning. The tag nonformal learningis in Asia, and in much of Europeto cover all out-of-school has no specific meaning. Mostreports of nonformal learningin thus used as a generic term that government countries other than North America arereports of programs which have some anticipated that government agencieswould maintain control over affiliation. Again, it might be goals program goals and for a programto be classified asnOnformal the learner must control the explanation might be that bothUNESCO and the institute for International of learning. A second and both of these institutions Studies use the term nonformalto refer to out-of-school programs, have profound effects onthe thinking of educatorsin non-North American countries. in Ghana; Sheffield andDiejomaoh Kinsey, and Bing (1978)reported on nonformai education education in Africa; and Nathalang etal. (1974) reported on (1972) surveyed nonformal used generically to refer to any nonformal learning in SoutheastAsia. In each case the term was learner in the decision-making out-of-school learning. Noneof these programs involved the process. England. Fordham, Pau Iton, and However, some nonformal researchis being conducted in in a large housing estate in Randle (1975) reported on anongoing action-research project objective of the study was todevelop new strategies for community southern England. The adult education. The goals forthe involvement that would increaseworking class participation in of the local people to theresearch educational program origMatedfrom the initiai responses team's inquiries. learning, as related to the definitionused in In North America someexamples of nonformal continuing education activitiesof rural this paper, were found.Levchuk (1977) studied the materials but were expected toestablish their own pharmacists, who were given resource indicated the learners favored professionai objectives and engagein self-evaluation. His results more supervisoryinvolveMent in directing the activities. workshop for parents of youngchildren that contained a nonformal Larson (1978) studied a of A variety of material packets;keyed to the assessed needs option within the formai program. work with and the parents could optfor group activities or choose to the parents, were prepared decide according to their own needs orinteresti. By allowing learners to materials independently the what or goals of theirlearning. The between sets ofmaterials the learners had control over with only sixteen parents andended with eleven. group that chose tostudy on their own began formal activities rather thanchoosing the nonformal mode.Spear Parents tended to stay with with less than a found the same results in anational study of adult learners and Mocker (1981) limited, they may suggest aspecific role for high school education.Although these studies are the adult educator inthe lifelong learning process. autonomous or self-directedlearner has grown in recent years,adult As interest in the task for themselves is thedevelopment educators have frequentlysuggested that an appropriate needs arise. This seemsreasonable, but with of resource materials tobe ready when the learner's suggest that the related to economy. The costsin time, money, and personnel a note of caution and directed towardserving a population of need for study materialsshould be broadly based sufficient size to warrant theexpenditures.

7 sheets and The Cooperative Extension Servicehas a history of preparing simple guideline pamphlets on a myriad of topics on thefarm, garden, lawn, home, and family.These are materials is underwritten by universal topics with continuingdemand and the preparation of the draws heavily on state land- federal, state, and local governmentfunds. For content, the system grant university research, muchof which is federally subsidized. Service efforts, but with a differentfocus, was the College Related to Cooperative Extension which sought to identify Entrance Examination Board project(Mayor, Toro, and DeProspo 1976) learner beyond the level sought by and organize services specificallyto assist the independent across the countryparticipated. In 1975-76, 934 learners were the casual patron. Ten libraries policies for implementing a surveyed and provided suggestionsfor conditions, organizations, and new service concept. committed to the preparation of newmaterials, libraries, with While the Extension Service is assistance programs that view extensive resource materials,focus on developing comprehensive rather than merely a reader.Although this paper largely ignoresthe the patron as a learner of materials for nonformal literature on libraries, they havehistorically been the largest providers Extension Service also serves broadpopulations and has resources to learners. The Cooperative institutions are best suited to providethe meet a wide variety ofneeds. It would seem that such learners. At the same time, opportunitiesfOr individual adult materials needed by nonformal populations with highly specialized educators or small organizations,equipped to serve specific needs, are still there but seemlimited.

Informal Learning perhaps most, of the literature Within the definitionalframework of this review, much, and with instruction describesinformal rather than self-directedlearning. from North America dealing control of research reports activities inwhich an institution maintains With few exceptions, the assigning a degree of responsibilityfor the the goals of the learningactivity while permitting or means for achievingthose goals to the learners. self-directed appears in the A selected sample of doctoraldissertations in which the term Brown (1966), Johnson (1973),Reel (1973), and Schleider(1977) title serves as examples. school students responsibility for investigated the effects ofgiving elementary and secondary researchers found that achievementlevel achieving establishedlearning objectives. In all cases, realized or expected of studentstaught in a conventional manner. equaled or exceeded levels undergraduate psychology courses Himmel (1970) reviewed thirtystudies dealing with teaching of the course while allowingstudents more freedom andresponsibility that "retained the essence approach to structuring." Using achievement asthe criterion, he found the for content and time perceived as most favorablein one- be of no disadvantageand that the informal approach was preference was expressed for thelecture method. Brodrick(1974) third of the studies, while no community college students, andMarietta studied achievement in andattitudes toward English of in educational administration.Kratz (1980) sought implications (1975) studied graduate students York. All produced for retaining adult basiceducation students in New of the informal approach with greater learner autonomy. essentially indifferent results inlinking learning proficiency be no strong case for encouraging Given achievement as thecriterion, then, there appears to of instruction within aninstitution-based learner responsibility throughan informal mode suggest that increasinglearners' freedom program. At the sametime, the evidence does not diminishes their proficiencylevels in the content areas. More persuasive reasons forinstalling the informal approach areinstructor preference, learner preference, and the largerphilosophical belief that the individualdevelops beneficial competencies through the exercise ofautonomy and freedom. This latterbelief, while not demonstrated conclusively, is widelyheld and is the most frequentjustification for using the informal instructional approach; thatis, an approach that placesresponsibility of deciding the means on the learner.

One caution should be noited incategorizing an activity as informalwithin this matrix. It is occasionally troublesome to distinguishthe difference between informallearning and nontraditional methods used in the formalmode. As an example, Reinhart(1976) studied two groups of hospital nursesinvolved in an inservice program oncrisis intervention. One group material on their own. received class instruction whilemembers of the other group studied the pretest/posttest Both the experimental and .control groupsused the same printed materials and a revealed no significant differencein group performance. the institution The point is that while one groupstudied on its own (an implied freedom), maintained control of the means aswell as the goals by prescribing thematerials (means). Within this framework, then, this was aformal learning activity that used twodifferent traditi6nal classroom instructional techniques. In essencethis is no different from the familiar assi§Ament of a specific practice wherein the instructor maychoose to lecture or make a reading body of material. researcher to be misled by What is demonstrated by thisexample is the potential for a nontraditional settings and contentand to see or declare the presenceof learner freedoms when, in fact, few or none exist.

9 SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

Introduction

Self-directed learning, as defined here, representsthe ultimate state of learner autonomy, i.e., the learner exercises control over andmajor responsibility for choosing both the goalsand the means of the learning. Tough(1971) and Cross (1981) place approximately 70 percentof all adult learning projects in this category.Broadly, the definition suggests that the learnerdecides what and how to learn, but that otherdecisions, such as when and where to learn andhow much to learn at any given time areimplicit. The learner not only selects but mayalso reject, add, or change resources at will, decide to continue orterminate the project, and finally determine the satisfaction or adequacy of the outcomes.

While the mode itself is well defined andgenerally accepted, the problem with terminology self- persists. Tough (1971) identified this asself-planned learning, but also has described it as switched to self- teaching. In 1977 Penland followed the useof the term self-planned, but then initiated in 1979, and to self-directed in1981. Brookfield (1980), deploring the"plethora of activity, definitions.. individualized learning,self-teaching, autonomous learning, autodidactic isolated learning," settled for the termindependent adult learning. Cross (1981) joinedthe growing trend in calling it self-directedlearning, the term that is used here and that seemsmost likely to dominate in the future.

As stated, self-directed learning as aphenomenon is not new, but the study of that participant in phenomenon has only recently come tothe fore. Interest in the adult learner as a organized activities has dominated researchin the field over time, and concernsfor self-directed reviewers trace learning represent a significant departurefor adult educators. Interestingly, most participation study the roots of curiosity about self-directedlearning to the most comprehensive Volunteers for Learning (Johnstone andRivera 1965). WhHe not of adult learners ever conducted, detected it in directly concerned with self-directedlearning in their own survey, those authors such quantity that they suggestedit was the most neglected area of adultlearning research.

It remained for Allen Tough of theOntario Institute for Studies in Education togive impetus Learning Projects: A to research on self-directedlearning with his seminal book, The Adult's Fresh Approach to Theory andPractice in Adult Learhing (1971). Toughset the parameters of the areas of study with thisdefinition

A learning projectthe centralfocus of this bookis here defined as aseries of related episodes, adding up to at least sevenhours. In each episode, more than halfof the person's total motivation is to gain and retaincertain fairly clear knowledge and skills, orto produce some other lastingchange in himself. (Tough 1971, p.6) learner, those planned by He included in his study learningepisodes that were planned by the class activities conducted nonhuman resources, one-to-oneconsultation (or tutor), and group or matrix discussed earlier, by a leader. Self-planned projects,those defined as self-directed in the comprised 68 percent of the totalprojects studied.

11 The authors note here that Tough andhis replicators have investigated the rangeof adult learning and in doing so address severalof the definitional cells in the matrix.Tough's group planner, in assuming a leader or instructorrole, falls under this definition offormal or nonformal learning. Nonhuman planners, which controlthe means for learning, are within thenonformal informal, depending on category, while one-to-oneplanners may be either formal, nonformal, or their function and relationship to thelearner's project. Acknowledging thesecategorizations, the decision was made to present theresearch inspired by Tough under the termself-directed subsequent because of the dominance of self-plannedlearning in those investigations, and the centering of interest on that mode.

Within five years of the release of hisbook, Tough's work had sparked not lessthan twenty- subsequent five dissertations, theses, andindependent research studies. These and numerous schedule to broaden studies used Tough's interview approachand modifications of his interview the description of the self-directedlearner and the learning process, whileconfirming and refining the findings in Tough's originalwork.

Previous Reviews of Research

The specific results of these numerousresearch efforts have beenreviewed and summarized (Coolican 1974; Tough 1978; Cross1981)1To reduce the at least three times in recent years will be reviewed redundancy of this widely disseminatedinformation, only those three summaries here. The reader is referred tothe summaries or the originaldocuments if more specific knowledge is required.

Coolican 1974 including her own dissertation, Patricia M. Coplican (1974)identified seven research studies, She compared their findings andsuggested policy implications that used the Tough approach. Tough's original study (1971); for institutions and for the fieldof adult education. She included professional men (1973); Johns' report her own dissertation (1973);Mc Catty's study of Canadian work on African professionals (1973)* on practicingpharmacists in Georgia (1973); Denys' Johnson's study of adult high schooland GED graduates (1973); andPeters and Gordon's research on rural and urbanpopulations in Tennessee (1974). universal participation by the adultsubjects in some type of learning All the studies showed in the extent of project during any twelve-monthperiod. Populations varied considerably activities, ranging from three inthe Peters and Gordon study tothirteen in Johnson's. Hours mothers to 1,244 by Mc Catty's devoted to learning averaged167 in Coolican's study of young The several studies erased doubtsabout the extent of participation average professional man. research quesaons to be that had been raised by Tough'sbook, and opened the path for new pursued. with the virtual insignificance of A second and surprisingissue raised by Tough had to do credit reported by adult learners. With asingle exception, the studies learning for credentials or population of recent high school confirmed credit as a minor reasonfor learning. Only Johnson's engaged in vocational or jobadvancement training and community graduates, who were now projects were taken for credit. college programs, differed whenreporting that 23 percent of their asked, "How should adult Given so small a percentageof learning for credit, Coolican around learners?" education be organizedaroundinstitutions, credit, and credentials or

12 from a low of 56 Self-plannec projects were dominantin all the studies, with figures ranging for the professionals in percent among J hns' pharmaciststo the high incidence of 76 percent the only significant use of nonhumanplanners: a use McCatty's study. The pharmacists reported education that was interpred as resulting from the readyavailability of continuing professional cassettes in the a ea. learners. Although Tough had st.ggested that use of theknowledge or skill motivated most learned, the subsequent studiesconfirmed that subject matter he aid not rank the content recreationinspired related to the pracltical considerationsof job, home, family, hobbies, and most learning effo s whilevarying with the respectivepopulations. Public affairs, religion, and general education fell to a minorstatus on the list.

other people most frequentlyfor assistance in learningfirstto friends and People turn to resources, and relatives and theno paid experts.Books and pamphlets rival paid experts as and discussion were the methods forlearning classes are a distat fourth. Practice, reading, most frequently reorted. uniformly lacked a concept oflifelong learning, Coolican suggested Noting that int rviewees initiating and directing their the formal educati nal systemshould produce learners capable of own learning and ableto help others learn. for self-directed learning by Adult educator should helpadults increase their competencies detIermine their educational needs, organizinglearning experiences, and learning how to coordination, resource, evaluating the outcomes. She sawadult education institutions becoming and referral bases. I self-directed learning should not be outside theresponsibility of adult Believing that for major and still unansweredquestions: "What are the grounds education, Coolican posed two what intervention, and if the adulteducator intervenes in thedomain of self-directed learning, does he influence and how?"

Tough 1978 field of inquiry he had After a decade, Allen Tough(1978) looked back at the substantial and suggested directions for thefuture. initiated, summarized theresearch that had been done, studies in addition to his ownand noted the broad consistency His review included twenty-four Greater differences, he noted,occurred of findings across timearid a variety of populations. within population groupshan across groups. his research reported in1971, Reviewing over twentstudies that in essence replicated occupational groups, Tough categorized the poulations studied by geographical areas, r groups and included asingle study of older adults(Hiemstra 1975). educational levels, and p conduct at least one findins, he noted thatprobably 90 per,.;ent of all adults In summarizing the five separate learning projects a year,and learning project a year. Tpical learners engage in (or a total of 500 hours a year). spend an average of 100ours on each project participation; a mean of about eight/ In his 1971 book, Tou hhad reported 98 percent of 700 to 800 hours per year.The numbers changedsomewhat in projects a year with an av, rage sixty-six emilarity of the original surveyfindings, conducted with only the 1978 report, but the of findings spanning thedecade and interviewees, is remarkablyconsistent with the composite several thousand. interviews.

13 Self-planned projects, with the learnerassuming major responsibility for selectingthe goals and means for learning, were dominant:representing 73 percent of all projects in the1978 summary as compared with68 percent in the 1971 report. Otherplanner comparisons between the 1971 and 1978 reports were: groups,14 percent to 12 percent; one-to-onehelpers, 10 percent analyzed the planning to 8 percent; and nonhuman resources,3 percent in both. Tough further learning function and determined that professionalplanners function in 20 percent of all group projects, one-to-one consultations, andin the creation of nonhuman programmed reources. Amateursthe learner, friends, and peergroupshandle 80 percent of projectplanning.

Tough, after summarizing the basic surveysreporting on the frequency, duration, and studies provided planning of adult learning projects,implied accurately that while most of these more information on other aspects,they added more to the breadth ratherthan the depth of work on understanding adult learning projects.He cited only four studies, including his own motivation, that represented more focus ondepth and detail. Moorcraft (1975) looked atlearning project origins; Morris (1977) studied morespecifically the steps in planning; and Luikart(1975) interviewed people who werehelpers or resources to self-planninglearners.

It becomes apparent that the firstdecade of this research thrust added little tothe Tough. The description of conceptual, theoretical, ormethodological base set down originally by questions to be asked. adults and their learningprojects was expanded, but it was time for new changes Tough suggested that further researchinvestigation be made into major intentional learning projects), and into what motivatespeople to spend 100 in adults' lives (beyond simply understanding of the function of hours learning something. Hepointed to the need for a befter competencies people need for planningand peer self-help groups,and of the kinds of help or studies, he said, were needed related tothe beginning stages of directing their learning. In-depth happens when learners learning; how human and nonhumanresources affect the process; what need; and what kinds of help would mostbenefit these learners. Adults cannot get the help they should respond with new and want help, Tough believes, andhe suggested that adult educators greater resolve "to foster theentire range of major learningefforts, not just group instruction and pre-programmed courses" (1978).

Cross 1981 acknowledging that research intoself-directed learning is more K. Patricia Cross (1981), the learners are, drew heavily on concerned with how adults learnthan with descriptions of who (1978), Coolican (1974), and theonly national study conducted to date the summaries of Tough of the similarities and (Penland 1977). She devotedconsiderable attention to interpretation differences acrost the studies, t.. of types of planners for Noting that Penland (1979)reported somewhat different percentages suggested that discrepancies were mostlikely due to differing learning projects, Cross of whether a definitions of various learning resources.As an example, she cited the question Tough says it depends on how-to book is a nonhumanplanner or simply a general resource. explicit about the issue. how slavishly the learnerfollows the book, while Penland is not direct their own learning projects, Adults differ considerablyin their reasons for choosing to attitudes toward organized group(class) and express a variety ofboth positive and negative adults who have had moresuccessful experiences in school activities. Cross reasoned that less educated or who have been exhibit less negative feelingstoward classes than those who are less successful in thetraditional system.

14 Learning projects originate with a problem,and adults seek what they believe tobe the most general steps efficient means for solving that problem.Although several studies have identified for the planning of projects, thevariations among individuals arc extreme.

Self-directed learning does not implyisolated learning; in fact, it tends to involve more problem seems to be interpersonal contact than is the casewith classroom education. The rnajor Cross quoted finding the appropriate assistance or resourcewhen barriers occur in tile process. guiding their learning Tough's (1978, p. 15) assertion thatadults want "help with planning and for learner projects." She pointed to a need fordetailed case studies to discover the reasons dissatisfaction with the resources they use,the problems they encounter, andtheir perceptions of what kinds of assistance wouldbe most useful. planners are Returning to Tough (1971), Crosssummarized his findings that nonhuman in the shortest amount of reported as most efficient inproviding the greatest amount of learning in that mode. On time. However, learners are leastenthusiastic about the knowledge acquired followed by self-planned the other hand, they are mostenthusiastic about one-to-one learning learned in the projects. If mixed projects. They are equallysatisfied with the knowledge or skill devoted to self-planned planners are eliminated from theanalysis, substantially more time is size of Tough's sample projects than to any of the othermajor modes. Cross suggested that the be carried out, which would beof raises doubts as to itsvalidity. She urged that further studies significance to the field if they couldstatistically confirm Tough's findings. about self-directed impressed with the amount ofinformation researchers have generated have been generated than learning in a relatively shorttime, Cross found that more questions about what actually happensduring the course of a answered. She states that information facilitate learning or learning project is generally unknown."Whether one wants to know how to to adults, more in-depthstudy of how learning actuallytakes place in how to present information in the 1980's" (Cross.1981, everyday settings is a necessity, onethat should receive first priority p. 199).

Current Research and Trends decade, its character and the focus As interest in self-directedlearning moves into its second moving beyond the level and parametersestablished hy Tough. Few of research have changed, planning, and content of self- questions remain unansweredconcerning the extent, frequency, little to the base of information at directed learning projects.Further replications are likely to add hand. such questions or issues as (1) New areas of interest haveemerged, however, and focus on characteristics that facilitateself-directed learning? and (2) Canskills that What are the personal learner be taught or improved? Also, improve the ability tobecome a successful self-directed and at least one significant efforts are being made todevelop and test new methodology, presented. development in formulating a theoryof self-directed learning has been

Characteristics that FacilitateSelf-Directed Learning (1977) has gone further tnan otherinvestigators in identifying and Lucy M. Guglielmino learning by adults. Her 1977 assessing those characteristicsthat facilitate self-directed Self-Directad Learning ReadinessScale (SDLRS), a self-report dissertation produced the be used to identify the often instrument of fifty-eight itemsusing a Likert-type scale, which can

15 three- latent potential of individuals to assumeresponsibility for their own learning. She used a learning in determining round Delphi survey with fourteenselected authorities on self-directed the items included in the'SDLRS, and the instrument was testedwith 307 subjects. She reported an estimated reliabilityof .87. Guglielmino suggested that eight majorfactors contribute to an individual'sreadiness for self-directed learning:

1. Openness to learning opportunities

2. Self-concept as an effective learner

3. Initiative and independence inlearning

4. Informed acceptance of responsibility

5.Love of learning

6.Creativity

7.Future orientation

8. Ability to use basic study andproblem-solving skills validity with eight criterion Torrance and Mourad (1978)tested the SOLRS for construct analogies, creative achievements and measures dealing withoriginality, ability to produce experiences, and right and lefthemisphere styles of learning. forty-one graduate students and theresults seemed to validate the The sample consisted of (1981), and others have used the Self-Directed Learning ReadinessScale. Mourad (1979), Skaggs research; and numerous studiesand applications are underwaywith SDLRS in their dissertation undergraduate and graduate populations of gifted elementaryand secondary school children, union, and general adult groups. students, nurses, businesscorporations, members of a labor Paul J. Guglielmino, are currentlytying self-directed learning Guglielmino and her husband, in business and industry in readiness to the skills requiredincreasingly for effective management Training (Zemke 1980), PaulGuglielmino the future. Quoted in the"Training Today" column of decreases the desire to learn andleads people to under-value stated that traditional education "strong data suggest independent learning and overvalueauthority. According to Guglielmino, in self-directed learning," that the more schooling a personhas, the less likely he is to engage trigger some interestingresearch. (Ibid., p. 6). Given its implications,that statement alone should

Improving Skills for Seif-DlrectedLearning the skills and abilitiesneeded to begin As early as 1971,. Fordinitiated an effort to describe study, but which equates withthe current definition ofself-directed what she called independent science, from education, psychology,business literature, and library learning. Drawing concepts learning. Her framework was as Ford proposed a framework forpreparing adults for lifelong follows:

16 I. Knowledge of social barriers to learning

These include dependency on a teacher, aweak concept of social mindedness, andvalues which inhibit social responsibility.

II.Skills

Included are reading, writing, listening,reflective thinking, time management, and self- motivation

Ill.Knowledge of community (societal) resources

Reisser (1973) proposed a model, based onquestioning, examining, and reporting, thatadult educators might follow to facilitate theself-directed learning process. She suggestedthe tacilitator should help the learner to (1)identify or locate the starting point for a learningproject, (2) discern relevant modes of examinationand reporting, and (3) conductself-assessments regarding achievement without arequirement for objective testing. in order The linking of learners with resources was acritical need identified by Czoss (1978) that many adults to improve the efficiency andeffectiveness of self-directed learning. Noting have only limited access tomajor resource bases, Cross argued thateducationally underserved second linkage would be populations need advocates tofacilitate their access to resources. A helping individuals to that of providing informationabout available resources to learners and assess their own strengthsand weaknesses. Finally,Cross said, the process requires counseling and referral services to help learnersplan their projects and to match theirneeds with appropriate resources. problem in most Moving from conceptualizations tooperation or intervention is a continuing belief that the process ofself-direction in learning can be improved or areas of research, and the Kasworm's study (1982) has taught has neither been tested norconfirmed conclusively. However, and research in this produced some promising results and maygenerate further experimentation area. Kasworm studied thirty-six graduate studentsenrolled in two courses designed toexamine self-directed learning along with the development of cognitiveand affective competencies in and learning contract experiential instructional strategies.The format followed Knowles' model (1977). Participants were given pre-and posttests with the Self-Directed for self-directed learning facilitator in each class kept Learning Readiness Scale(Guglielmino 1977). Two students and the observational diaries, and a finalself-assessment by all students gatheredperceptual information on both the processand the outcomes. Significant positive gains in theself-directed learning behavior of the studentin both classes Content analyses of the observationaldiaries and the students' resulted from a t-test analysis. self-directed knowledge and final self-assessments showed apositive trend in the development of skills.

Kasworm acknowledged the lackof a control group and thevolunteer character of the weaknesses, she argued that the sample population as severelylimiting factors. In spite of these "learning how to learn" did occur evidence demonstrates thatchanges of attitude and action in control and validation measures,should be conducted. She 'and further research, including model self-directed learning believed that curricular orinstructional designs that facilitate and foster the perceptions andbehavior associated with learnerindependence.

17 23- New and Emerging Fociand Methodology self-directed learning process, The lack of case studies andin-depth knowledge of the of other researchers aswell. Recent studies deplored by Cross (1981),has drawn the attention conceptual frameworks, andin approach or reflect changes in focus,the development of methodology. related to motivation had notbeen Tough (1978), noting that his1971 conceptual framework Abbey, and Orton 1980) of thelinking of tested, conducted anempirical study (Tough, learning. This approach assumesthat learners are notsingularly anticipated benefits with of benefits from theirlearning projects. motivated but insteadanticipate multiple or chains version of the originalframework The instrument for gatheringthe data was a modified which benefits may bederived: (1) engaging in (Tough 1971, p. 47) andpresents five areas from application of the retention of knowledge orskill gained, (3) use or learning activities, (2) credit or certificate. The sourceof benefit in knowledge or skill, (4)material rewards, and (5) of self-esteem, or maybe found in the regard each area may be afeeling of pleasure or a sense of others for theindividual. among the possible participants were asked todistribute a total of ten points One hundred represented their severalmotivational factors. benefit categories(fourteen in all) that best clearly complex Tough, Abbey, and Ortonstated that motivation is Interpreting their data, people studied benefits are anticipated.(Only four of the one hundred and usually multiple Most people expect toreceive pleasure (50percent) reported expectingonly a single benefit.) impressing others. while only nine percent areengaged in pleasing or from their learning, the fact that the expected useor applicationof Consistent with findingsin most early ',tudies is for learning. (Ninety-eightof the one hundred the knowledge orskills is the dominam i'pason subjects includedapplication as a benefit.) conceptual framework is auseful data-collecting The researchersconcluded that this motivational factors. learners can identify anddifferentiate between various instrument and that contribute to the refinementof the framework. They also suggested thatother researchers may of individuals studied wasmade by Another change inmethodology and in the type investigated qualitative aspectsof long-term learning Brookfield (1981) inEngland. Brookfield learning projects he quantitative elements ofshort-term projects. The projects rather than than hours as used byresearchers adopting the early studied had to bemeasured in years rather Tough approach. twenty-five adults who wererequired to meet twocriteria. To obtain the data,he interviewed areaexpertise that hadgained high level of expertisein one specific First, each adult needed a learner needed to haveacquired the local and nationalrecognition. Second, the the person both learning. Chess, rabbitbreeding, and collecting knowledge through meansother than formal content learned by thesubjects in Brookfield'sstudy. antique china areexamples of the types of claimed was a collection was a semistructuredinterview that Brookfield His approach to data method. Brookfield saidhe more nevi,. modification of Mezirow'ssynchronic induction did Tough's methods. approximated Houle's(1961) methods than he all of characteristic attitudestowards learning that Among the findings,he identified three his subjectsexhibited:

18 1. Learning was gradual, and done in a field that seemed to have no end.

2. The learners were aware of their interest.

3. The subjects had the feeling they belonged to a society of learning.

Use of Qualitative Research Methods

An emerging interest in qualitative research methods,suddenly evident during the late 1970s in meetings of adult educators, has accompanied a newand more sophisticated approach to the study of adult self-directed learning.

Variously called naturalistic inquiry (Leean and Sisco 1981),humanistic inquiry (Peters, Johnson, and Lazzara 1981) or qualitative research (Spear andMocker 1981), the approach begins as exploration and interpretation rather thanhypothesis testing. The data are natural expressions of individuals in their environment, which, in turn,give meaning to their experiences. The process is inductive, moving from specific cases togeneralizations, and those generalizations are supposed to be representative of thereal world. This is in contrast to the frequently followed approach that begins withgeneralizations and then searches the real world for confirming evidence.

An eighteen-month, National Institute ofEducation (NIE)-funded study of undereducated adults in rural Vermont (Leean and Sisco 1981)included both a Tough-like survey of ninety-three subjects, and in-depth case studies of a fourteen personsubsample. Subjects were rural adults with less than a twelve-year education, and the studyfocused on their learning in out-of-school settings.

The case study phase was of six-months duration,with interviewers spending about fifteen hours with each subject. For this phase the researchersdevelooed and tested a new methodological approach to the study of self-directedlearning. Seven distinct exercises, as opposed to a general interview schedule, were conductedin order to gather specific information in the several areas that represent amodel based'on Lewin's Field Theory (1951). The exercises were titled respectively Milestone,Coping with Conflia, Learning Style, CognitiveProfile, Modes of Thinking, Futures Perspective, andSelf-fo-Self. Together the researchers and subjects probed the development of learning style, examinedself-planned learning and thinking style, and sought to discover individual projectionsof learning interest and goals. A review of themethodological findings can be found in the 1981 AERCConference Proceedings (Leean and Sisco 1981, pp. 282-283).

While the first phase, Tough-like study tended toconfirm earlier research, the case study approach introduced several new and interestingfindings (Leean 1981). The importance of past experiences and family background was found tobe significant in the content and motivationfor learning as well as in approaches to learning andprdblem solving. Self-directed learning may be guided by a rational problem-solving mode, but mostof the subjects were aware of times when problems were solved through a nonrational oraltered state of consciousness.

Visualizing the outcome of a learning goal was a waymost subjects began their learning projects, and thinking and problem solvingoccurred most often when people were alone and doing routine tasks.

19 major problem Access to information and resources,considered by most researchers to be a for self-directed learners, was notconsidered as such by the subjects in the casestudies. interested in learning and Husbands' attitudes and a lack ofmobility were problems for women focus on improving or growing. They tended to havemultiple interests while men tended to maintaining current skills and interests. postsecondary education, In discussion, Leean (1981) suggestedthat in both ba-sic skills and "assumptions of competence rather thandeficiency." The adults educators should begin with problem solving, and have experience and skills inprocessing information, selecting resources, guiding their own learning. (1981) conducted interviews In a second study, funded byNIE, Peters, Johnson, and Lazzara collected data on individuals with ninety literate and ninetyilliterate adults in Tennessee. They problems. The researchers began with theassumption that most who were solving real life Specifically, they state that adults' learning projects areactually. efforts to resolve some problem. Vermont Study (Leean "learning is the result of aproblem-solving process." Similarity to the 1981) is noted here.

Although the findings from thistwo-year project have not beenreleased, the researchers within which the described a somewhat sophisticatedconceptual, methodological framework analyses conducted (Peters,Johnson, and Lazzara 1981). They data were collected and the much of human pointed out two trends in research onproblem solving and reasoning: (1) individuals' environments or theuniqueness of the circumstances behavior is determined by around them governs what they do. surrounding them, and (2)people's knowledge of the world

Peters, Johnson, and Lazzarareported drawing on Hudsonfor the hermeneutic approach investigations ought to be interpretive atthe outset rather than beginningwith that suggests that information and reflects the hypotheses. This approach encouragesthe use of all available Peters, Johnson, and Lazzara subjects' perceptions andknowledge of real world circumstance. (1981) quoted Niesser in describingtheir research as "ecologicallyvalid." initial interview During the first year of the two-yearstudy, the interviewers conducted an sessions continued until thesubject and up to five follow-upsessions. (The number of follow-up Semistructured and open-endedinterview schedules were used to had solved his/her problem.) taken to solve the problem, and the gather information on thedefinition of the problem, steps reasoning behind the steps that weretaken. the-first year will represent an If successful, the processfor analyzing the data gathered in adult education research. The methoddevised by the researchers is impressive step forward in is referred to as ACTS: called "reduction," which isfour-stage textual analysis. The total process Johnson, and Lazzara 1981). atomizing, categorizing,thematizing, and schematizing (Peters, transcripts of the interviews The process relies heavily on acomputer data base that stores of the data. The ACTSanalysis begins by eliminatingredundant and permits easy manipulation contain intended and identifying individualsentence paraphrases that and irrelevant information putting each atom into one ofsix ideas. These are called atoms.Categorizing is a process of belief, and fact. Thematizing seeks to categories. The categories arelaw, norm, intention, want, relationships among the atomswithin each category. The finalstage, link logical connections or which is a model of the individual schematizing, is a formulation inthe form of a flow chart, person's reasoning patternapplied to when engaged in solving aproblem, or "a depiction of the Lazzara 1981). a specific problemsituation" (Peters, Johnson, and

20 The researchers see this ACTS analysis asproviding the means for highly controlled be able to deal research on problem solving andlearning in the future. They expect to the individual's level statistically with the relationshipbetween the problem-solving process and computer simulation of problem of various competencies. Also,it should be possible to develop solving/learning episodes and tomanipulate the elements to producevaried and predictable results. (1981) studies represent Both the Leean and Sisco (1981)and Peters, Johnson, and Lazzara to the study of adult dramatic conceptual developmentsbeyond the basic survey approaches learning projects of the previousdecade. These efforts have obviouspotential for application to However, the most instructional improvement and, therefore,hold significance for practitioners. exciting promise is the contributionthat may be made towarddeveloping a more coherent and generalizable theory of adult learning.Most academic and professionalmembers in adult weakness in the field. education are concerned with andself-conscious about this fundamental narrowed or closed during With increased knowledge abouthow adults learn, the gap may be the 1980s. presented by Spear A fresh look at the planning processin self-directed learning has been is the major determinant in and Mocker (1981). Theysuggested that the learner's environment organizing a learning project. data collected in a Their research is the result of asecondary analysis of the qualitative Inc., and a subcontract national study funded by N1E in acontract with Kirschner Associates, Development in Adult Education,School of Education, University of with the Center for Resource part of, that earlier Missouri-Kansas City. The studyreviewed here followed, but was not a project. self-directed learners across Drawing on idiographic datacollected in eighty interviews with of environmental factors in theplanning the United States, thisstudy established the importance learning projects. The findings arecongruent with the theorizing and conducting of self-directed should be grounded in the study of Kurt Lewin (1951) that anunderstanding of human behavior of the individual's life space. those elements in The concept of the "OrganizingCircumstance" is introduced as defining activities, and,overall direction tothe the adult's life space 'thatprovide motivation, resources, learning project. The four modaltypes of OrganizingCircumstances planning and conduct of a Learning, (1) Single Event/AnticipatedLearning, (2) Single Event/Unanticipated are identified as Events/Unrelated Learning. This typology (3) Series of Events/RelatedLearning, and (4) Series of from learners' descriptions oftheir learnin4 activities, and the emerged by content analysis directed tO the fact that observable researchers provide examplesfor each type. Attention is also totally different meanings giventhe learning behaviors that appear tobe similar may represent circumstances of the respectiveindividuals. basic surveys assumed or tried to The researchers suggestedthat most of the Tough-like learning process with the processemployed traditionally inplanning or equate the self-planned since the planning of organizing formal education.They reas6ned 'that this is a basic error, is in the hands of a personwho already has commandof the subject formal education activities Assumptionri of similarity between the matter. The reverse is the casewith self-planned learning. planning process for self-directedlearning. two processes have leo tofaulty understanding of the data gathering phase of the The impetus for the secondaryanalysis grew from the earlier reported by the subjects. Thisabsence project in which almost noevidence of preplanning was

21 data in an effort to identify the of conscious planning promptedthe researchers to reanalyze the forces that contribute to initiation andmaintenance of self-directed learningprojects.

research, Spear and Mocker (1981)suggested that the concept of In recommending future populations, and that behavioral the Organizing Circumstance betested with more broadly based and perceptual studies of adultlearners take into account the impactof environment or circumstances upon the data collected. and Lazzara 1981; The three studies that have beenmentioned (Leean 1981; Peters, Johnson, be of major significance to Spear and Mocker 1981)demonstrate two trends that seem likely to is strong and groWing interest innaturalistic Inquiry and research in the 1980s. First, there recognition of the qualitative analysis of the self-directedlearning process. Second, there is a environment or life space of the need to understand or interpretadult learning in relation to the learner.

Theory-Building In Self-DirectedLearning Research of attention to theory- Adult educators have a historyof chiding themselves for their lack of adult education itself as anacademic field has.been building in the field. The authenticity theoretical base, bUtilp the few questioned by outside examinerswho point not only to lack.of a The new wave of eMergingresearch adult educators who seemconcerned with this shortcoming. for contributing to atheory base related to self-directedlearning and has begun to show promise learning within a broad theory of Penland (1981) has made a frontaleffort to place self-directed learning. theory to establish a Penland (1981) combinedneo-behaviorism with social learning learning research in the immediatefuture. Neo-behaviorism, according theoretical framework for variables and is not bound by to Penland, can acceptunobservable elements or links between in a traditional sense: acharacteristic of only those variables that canbe observed and measured communication measures and observations,as well as the classical behaviorism. Nonverbal these newer approaches. analysis of discourse (verbal)units have much to contribute to suggests that much of human The concept of social learning asset forth by Bandura (1977) observing other people performingroles or skills, or from reading or learning is achieved through observational seeing pictures of theskilled behavior of others.Penland (1981) suggested that and adds learning-by-modeling to learning is "even more prevalentthan self-directed learning," learning-by-doing. Four elementscomprise observational learning: being observed as a Attentional processes on the partof.tlie subject towards the person model. associated impact of imaginal Retention processes becomeintegrated into memory by the and verbal coding. though communicated by Motoric reproduction skillsrequire many small components even observation, "cognitiverehearsal" or "imaginary practice." experienced treatments, rewards and Reinforcement occurs inanticipation of vicariously conditioning. (Penland 1981, p.7)

22 Penland believed that it permits thedevelopment of new In espousing neo-behaviorism, of adults as they are engaged taxonomies based on the observedverbal and nonverbal patterns derived from the way teachers teach in learning. He saw thesereplacing traditional taxonomies rather than the way people learn(Ibid., p. 8). environment of Penland (1981) noted that self-directedlearning is generated in and by the that learning projects have atime line associated-with theirtenure. the learner's daily life, and empirically in an independent study Spear and-Mocker 0981) came tothe same conclusion design. Self-directed learning occurswhen the individual assumes using different methods and human and nonhuman resources,and responsibility for setting goals,time and place scheduling, Penland pointed out thatself-instruction has no interpersonal the methods for instruction. shapes the outcomes by the amountof authority relationships. Thelearner is the authority, and Learning may be-pursuedinductively or deductively, attention certain components-aregiven. data gathering, or startingwith beginning either with isolatedinformation that triggers additional a group of data thatinvites a unifying concept orframework. the curriculum for self-directedlearning; but the learner is neither The environment may be transactions and constrained by that environment.The learner uses the at the mercy of, nor teaching for self-instructionaldevelopment, and a full range of negotiations of everyday'life The facts of learning and self- and learning devices areencountered in the process. for by any single theory orschool of psychology, but instruction cannot be accounted future point in a grandsynthesis. would require the power ofthem all integrated at some (Penland 1981, p. 37) first major effort to drawtogether in a single documentthe Penland (1981) has initiated a in particular. theoretical bases that haverelevance to adult educationand self-directed learning learning theory, the descriptivedata base on self-directedlearning, His work encompasses pracfice. theory, the process ofself-instruction, and application to motivational and instructional who may use his framework as ameans His efforts are a majorcontribution to future researchers to the total spectrum ofresearch interests. for placing their own workin context and in relation

Discussion breaks away from the long-time The interest of adulteducators in self-directed learning factors that contribute tcOheparticipation of adults ininstitutionally preoccupation with those suggest that all too often,the organized learning activities.It is not an overstatement to ends in themselves for manypractitioners. organizing and conductingof programs have become to take responsibility and tosucceed at achieving A new level of respectfor the ability of adults building upon the foundationlaid by Houle (1961) andgoing beyond learning goals is explicit, the 1970s. That model wasbased on Knowles' (1971) andragogicalmodel that was dominant in anticipation of direct interventionby the adult educator. to the new wave ofresearch, it is the recognitionof the power If there is a central feature self-directed learning. The basictheoretical and importance of theenvironment in influencing the 1940s are reference pointsagain and again (Leean1981; formulations of Kurt Lewin in placed 1981; Spear and Mocker1981; and Penland 1981). Lewin Peters, Johnson, and Lazzara doing, at the center of understandinghuman behavior, and in so the individual's life space of self-directed learning. Incontrast to offered the most logicalbase for studying the 'behavior learning constructed for institutionallyorganized learning, self-directed the artificial environment of and everyday settings. Further,it is the individual's perceptions takes place in natural information and experience.This, too, is interaction with that environmentwhich give meaning to

23 in contrast with formal learning, whereinterpretation and meaning are the prerogatives of authorities. Still obscure and troublesome is the question of how theprofessional adult educator can find an_ effective role in a world devoted toself-directed learning. Several writers.seem assured that self-directed learners-want and needhelp, and that adult educators shall become consultants, referral and resource persons, andproducers of learning materials. However, the evidence suggests that self-directed learnersdo not seek professional assistance frequently nor do they seem to require it in most casesin order to achieve their (earning goals. This is not to say that the time-honored taskof organizing special classes for adults is likely todisappear. What does appear necessary is a seriousreappraisal of the role of professional adult educators, and an understanding that the emergingsocial legitimacy of sey-directed learning calls for more than cursory and obvious considerations.

24 3 SUMMARY

In order to clarify the zoncept of lifelonglearning, a model has been provided. Sincecontrol is a key characteristic of adulthood, themodel is constructed on the idea that anoperational definition of lifelong learning should be based on thelocus of control for making decisions about the goals and means of learning. Themodel, a two-by-two matrix of learners andinstitutions, represents four types of learning, asfollow: Formallearners have little control over theobjectives and means of learning;

Nonformallearners control the objectives but notthe means of learning;

Informallearners control the means but not theobjectives of learning;

Self-Directed--learners control both theobjectives and the means of learning. along a continuum, The model demonstrates how allplanned or deliberate learning is located with the concept of control providingthe basis for classifying the types oflifelong learning.

The model is clarified and expandedby examining the research on formal,nonformal, 70 percent of informal, and self-directed learning.Because research suggests that approximately categorized as self-directed, self-directedlearning is given an in-depth all adult learning can be system to examination. The following findings resultfrom the application of the classification reports and research: nonformal or Programs or systems are frequentlymislabled, that is, they may be called self-direCted when, according to the modeldescribed in the paper, they are actually formal or informal.

In the literature the use of the term"education" usually carries an institutional orsystem Learning connotation, whereas the term"learning" connotes behavior of the individual. seems to focus on the personwhile education focuses on the system. nonformal Examples of research and programsrelated to the model's definition of learning are limited in North Americaand almost nonexistent in the restof the world. does not Use of nontraditional settings andcontent (means and goals) in programs necessarily imply learner control.

A central feature of the new waveof research in self-directedlearningls-the-recognition learning. of the power and importanceof the environment in influencing

Still obscure and troublesome is thequestion.of how the professionaladult educator can find an effective rolein a world devoted to self-directedlearning. By.examining the relationship of formal,nonformal, informal, and self-directed learning to lifelong learning, the monograph defines themajor elements of the lifelong learningphenomenon theory- and the relationship between anctamong-those elements. Thus, it is an initial step in building, one that will lead to further clarityof the concept of lifelong learning.

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