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A Sociology of Rally Championship This page intentionally left blank A Sociology of the History, Identity, Memories and Place

Hans Erik Naess University of Oslo, © Hans Erik Naess 2014 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014 978-1-137-40543-2 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in , company 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New , NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the , Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-48771-4 ISBN 978-1-137-40544-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137405449

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Naess, Hans Erik, 1978– A sociology of the World Rally Championship : history, identity, memories and place / Hans Erik Naess. pages cm Summary: “From its inauguration in 1973 until today, the FIA World Rally Championship (WRC) has been transformed from a little-known series to a pop-cultural roadshow worth millions of euros. In a promotional context this has spurred a debate between those who want to be what it was historically and those who desire a real shift into ‘the commercial age’. Drawing upon interviews with key people in the and trans-local ethnographic research from rallies, spectator cultures, the inner life of a WRC team, and the media production facilities, this book explores these questions of commerciality and sporting identity, arguing that the WRC’s sporting identity is in fact a promotional asset. Placed at the intersection of sociology and management, A Sociology of the World Rally Championship is essential reading on how to combine sporting heritage with commercial progress”—Provided by publisher.

1. Automobile racing—Sociological aspects. 2. Automobile racing—Economic aspects. 3. World Rally Championship—History. 4. Automobile rallies. 5. Identity (Psychology) I. Title. GV1029.N27 2014 796.72—dc23 2014021092

Typeset by MPS Limited, , . Contents

List of Figures and Tables vi Preface vii Acknowledgements viii List of Abbreviations ix

1 Introduction: The Paradox of Commercialism 1 2 The Promotional Context 24 3 Imagining the Story 55 4 The Sense of Place in Rallying 86 5 The Spectator Culture of Rallying 116 6 The Legacy of WRC Cars 150 7 Heroes behind the Wheel 178 8 The WRC’s Promotional Value 208

Notes 233 References 241 Index 258

v List of Figures and Tables

Figures

1.1 A WRC car in 2012 9 2.1 The El Copina-Condor stage, Rally 2012 27 2.2 The defining factors of successfully communicating sport 39 2.3 The great outdoors 51 3.1 The media production hub at Rally GB, 2010 59 4.1 On Sisteron-Thoard, 2013 92 4.2 Col de Turini, 2013 100 5.1 The San Augustin-Santa Rosa stage, 2012 139 8.1 Rally culture 224

Tables

1.1 The FIA hierarchy of rallying, 2014 4 1.2 A timeline of WRC regulation eras 7 2.1 IMG’s overview of promotional methods 33 4.1 Costs and benefits from the 2009 NSW Rally 112 5.1 A WRC event itinerary (Rally 2014) 118 5.2 The demographic classification of WRC spectators 126 5.3 Dualistic fan typologies 143 5.4 Multidimensional approaches to sport consumption 144 6.1 The basic structure of a modern WRC team 157

vi Preface

I have been a fan of rally since I was a kid in the 1980s. My father used to take me to a national winter event in Norway called Lygnasprinten. Memories of freezing temperatures and old going much too fast, combined with hot dogs grilled on provisional bonfires, accompanied by a never-ending stream of ‘war stories’, still bring a smile to my face. Later, as a teenager, I was glued to the TV screen on those rare occasions when World Rally Championship (WRC) events were aired on foreign channels. With the evolution of Internet in the late , my interest really skyrocketed. At times, I was a WRC junkie! And even though my interest was ignited by local heroes, it is the WRC names, cars, sounds and places that really have stuck with me – not least since my fellow countryman became world champion when I was an undergraduate student in sociology in 2003. As a result, while this book in essence is an academic product, I have done my best never to lose the personal flavour in conveying what a fantastic roadshow the FIA WRC is. Above all, I have met people who have offered me more sup- port than I could ever ask for, both academically and sportingly, as well as introducing me to their lives as WRC aficionados. It is in their spirit this book is written.

HEN, Oslo, June 2014

vii Acknowledgements

I wish to thank those who have helped me complete this book without implicating them for the mistakes and errors that may remain. First, let me thank Professors Anne Krogstad and Helge Jordheim for leading me through the strenuous path of a PhD thesis and helping me converting it into a book, as well as my fellow PhD scholars Audun Solli and Herdis Hølleland for their valuable comments on various chapters. Special thanks to Centre Franco-Norvégien en Sciences Sociales et Humaines (CFN) for gener- ously awarding me a scholarship to do fieldwork in and giving me an opportunity to finish the book. Special thanks also go to Professor Trond Petersen at the University of California, Berkeley, for accommodat- ing me and my family during a tense writing period in addition to provid- ing me with one of the most inspiring office views I could ask for. Then, for their accommodating responses, in no particular order, I would offer my deepest gratitude to FIA WRC General Manager, Michéle Mouton, the always insightful former world driver’s champion , David Richards at ; Malcolm Wilson, John Millington and Angela Torney at M-Sport; David Campion, Jonas Andersson, Mads Østberg, Morten Østberg, the rest of the Østberg family and all the others at M-Sport and the ; Stephen Webb, Neal Duncanson, Simon Long, Nick Atkins and Catherine Ding at the former North One Sport; Morten Brusletto, Thomas Villette, Nicoletta Russo and especially Stefan Ph. Henrich at Hyundai; the representative from Fédération Française du Sport Automobile (FFSA) for elaborating on the move of the French WRC event from the island of to mainland France; Mario and Alejandro Fidelibus at Receptive Tours and Events Organization (RETO) for a fantas- tic experience at Rally Argentina; David Hutchinson and Neil Prunnell at Rally Travel for showing the best of Rally Monte Carlo and Ola Strömberg at Rallytravels for being a terrific storyteller at Rally . For their various forms of support, I would also like to thank Andrew Milner, Valmar Viisel, Vigdis Dahlseide, Ilka Wendtland, Kristian Kjelman and Tiina Lehmonen; a big bow goes to all the rally fans around the globe who have contributed to this book, especially Bruno, Chris, Rickard, Mathias, Nicklas, Yukari, Linda, Sarah, Karina, Rosemary, Jennifer, Nathalie, Philip, Brian, Terry Jr and Terry Sr, Jo and Andrew. Finally, I would like to thank my wife and both our daughters – without your love and patience, this book would have never been.

viii List of Abbreviations

ACF Automobile Club de France ACM Automobile Club de AIACR Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus BPICA Bureau Permanent International des Constructeurs d’Automobiles CAMS Confederation of Australian Motor Sport CSI Commission Sportive Internationale CSI-1 Convers Sports Initiatives EBU European Broadcasting Union ERC European Rally Championship F1 Formula 1 FFSA Fédération Française du Sport Automobile FHI Fuji Heavy Industries FIA Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile FISA Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile FOA Administration FOCA Formula One Constructors Association IRC Intercontinental Rally Championship IRCM International Rally Championship for Makes ISC International Sportsworld Communicators NOS North One Sport NOT North One Television NSW New South Wales RBMH Media House RETO Receptive Tours and Events Organization SAVM Sport Automobile Vélocipédique Monégasque STI Tecnica International TTE Team Europe

ix x List of Abbreviations

WEC World Endurance Championship WMSC World Motor Sport Council WRC World Rally Championship WTCC World Touring Car Championship