Comments/Suggestions are invited from all the stakeholders (Government Departments, Academic institutions and others associated with revival of Rispana) on draft report submitted by “National Institute of Hydrology, ” for “ Preparation of Strategic Land and Water Management Plan for Rejuvenation of System” and the same may be submitted to [email protected] & [email protected]

Draft Report

PREPARATION OF STRATEGIC LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR REJUVENATION OF RISPANA RIVER SYSTEM

Submitted to Irrigation Department, Govt. of

National Institute of Hydrology, Jal Vigyan Bhawan, Roorkee (Uttarakhand) – 247667

November 2019 STUDY GROUP

A Team of following Scientists and Supporting Staff of National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee worked in this project.

Team of Scientists

1 Dr. R.P. Pandey, Scientist G Principal Investigator (PI)

2 Dr. J.V. Tyagi, Scientist G Co-PI

3 Dr Pradeep Kumar, Scientist C Co-PI

4 Dr. Rajesh Singh, Scientist C Co-PI

5 Dr. Sumant Kumar, Scientist C Co-PI

6 Sh. N.K. Bhatnagar, Scientist B Co-PI

7 Sh. Hukam Singh, Scientist B Co-PI

8 Dr R. P. Singh, Hydrogeologist Consultant

Team of Supporting Staff

9 Mrs. Anju Chaudhary, SRA

10 Sh. Rakesh Goel, Tech. Gr. I

11 Sh. Y.K. Sharma, Tech. Gr. I

12 Sh. Naresh Kumar, Tech. Gr. II

13 Sh. Pankaj Kumar, Tech Gr. III Draft Report

PREPARATION OF STRATEGIC LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR REJUVENATION OF RISPANA RIVER SYSTEM

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Uttarakhand Irrigation Department, Dehradun entrusted this study to National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Roorkee to prepare a suitable plan for land and water management interventions in the Rispana river catchment for enhancing lean season flows in the river. A MOU (No.01/SE(PC)/Rispana dated 04/06/2018 was signed between Uttarakhand Irrigation Department, Dehradun and National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee in respect of this study.

The scope of work of study includes mapping of Rispana River network & springs, monitoring and assessment of streamflow and groundwater regime, water budgeting, hydro-geological mapping, water quality assessment and preparation of land and water management plan to augment lean season flow. The study included investigations of hydrological, hydrogeological and water quality aspects, and assessment of water resources and water utilization to prepare a suitable plan for land and water management interventions for rejuvenation of Rispana River.

The review of historical literature and reports indicate that the existence of flour mills in the upstream of canal head works and along the Rajpur canal diversion are reasonable evidence to believe that Rispana River was certainly perennial up to the Rajpur Canal Head Works (RCHW) site in the mid of 19th century and may be in the downstream too. However, at present, it is perennial up to Shikhar Fall only.

The annual water budgeting of Rispana catchment indicates that there is a total inflow of water from rainfall (average RF = 2247 mm) received is about 120.102 MCM. Out of total inflow, about 55.607 MCM and 40.939 MCM goes as out flow in the form of evapotranspiration and runoff respectively. Based on water balance, the groundwater recharge is estimated to be 23.556 MCM approximately which is comparable to the groundwater recharge estimated as 22.399 MCM using GEC (1997) method. The total utilization of water from major springs and river flow tapping is about 5.200 MCM. The spring flows and river flows diverted for utilization in lean season is actually the part of groundwater recharge from rainfall.

The annual water requirement to keep continuous flow in Rispana River in lean season (Nov- May) in a defined section of river course with 10 m breadth and 15 cm depth has been estimated as 38.447 MCM. There are limitations of water storage sites in the Rispana catchment due to the greater slopes (>10%) in upper hilly reaches and urban settlement of Dehradun city in the lower reaches. It does not appear feasible to create storages of required amount (38.447 MCM) out of the total average annual runoff (40.939 MCM). Therefore, land

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee i and water management interventions remain one of the preferred alternative to enhance ground water recharge in the Rispana catchment.

A scientific plan to augment groundwater recharge has been prepared based on the topography, slope, soil characteristics, site suitability, stream order of drainage network and land use/land cover. The proposed catchment area treatment measures include land treatment and gully/in-stream treatment. The total estimated volume of annual ground water recharge through the proposed interventions may be achieved as 2.525 MCM. Since, the Rispana catchment comprises of 24% urban area located in alluvial plains, the roof-top rainwater harvesting is also considered for augmenting groundwater recharge with the estimated annual recharge potential of about 5.213 MCM. Thus, the annual potential recharge estimated through the proposed interventions may be achieved in the order of 7.738 MCM.

The groundwater levels in the Rispana catchment has depleted considerably (~ 20 m and ~ 5 m) compared to the average groundwater levels during 1995-2004 and 2006-15 respectively. Therefore, the contribution from groundwater as baseflow to the Rispana river is negligible during lean season. Further, the additional groundwater recharge created through the proposed measures may not immediately augment the flows of Rispana river. If the groundwater extraction is not increased further, augmentation of groundwater recharge from proposed interventions will first increase the groundwater levels and as the groundwater levels keep on increasing, the additional recharge through the proposed interventions may get translated into the flows of Rispana river in future during non-monsoon season.

Moreover, the assessments indicate that the rooftop rainwater harvesting and staggered trenching are the two most effective interventions to augment groundwater recharge in the Rispana catchment. Therefore, it is suggested that the trenching and roof-top rainwater harvesting in 650 ha land of private estates may also be considered for implementation for further augmentation of ground water recharge in the Rispana catchment.

The Krol formations in upper reaches are primarily water yielding rocks in lean season. Upper reaches with Krol formation need to be protected from anthropogenic activities. The domestic waste from Bazar is impacting the quality of river water in terms of organics, trace metals and microbes. However, due to dilution and natural aeration, the water quality of Rispana river remains fair upto Rajpur canal diversion for propagation of wildlife. Further, in Dehradun city reach, the quality gets deteriorated due to influx of domestic effluent. The domestic effluent from Landour Bazar and habitations in the proximity of Rispana below Nangal bridge requires to be tapped and treated suitably.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee ii CONTENTS

Executive Summary i

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

Chapter Title Page No No. 1 INTRODUCTION 1-5 1.1 Background 1 1.2 The Rispana River System 2 1.3 Scope and Objectives of the Study 5 2 FIELD INVESTIGATIONS AND DATA ANALYSIS 6-33 2.1 Physical Features of Rispana River Catchment 6 2.1.1 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) 6 2.1.2 Slope Map of Rispana River Catchment 8 2.1.3 Drainage Network and Contour Map 8 2.1.4 Soils in the Rispana catchment 11 2.1.5 Land Use/Land Cover (LCUC) Map 12 2.2 Climate of Rispana Catchment 15 2.2.1 Rainfall Data Used 15 2.2.2 Evaporation Data used 15 2.3 Field Investigations and Measurements 17 2.3.1 Infiltration Tests 18 2.3.2 Investigation of Historical Flow Characteristics of 21 Rispana 2.3.3 Inventory of Spring in the Rispana Catchment 24 2.3.4 Stream Flow measurements 27 2.3.5 Rispana Basin Runoff Computation using Soil 29 Conservation Service-Curve Number (SCS-CN) 2.3.6 Groundwater Table Condition in the Rispana 30 Catchment 3 WATER BUDGETING 34-42 3.1 General 34 3.2 Water Budgeting of Rispana River 36 3.3 Estimation of Water Required to Maintain flow in Rispana 41 River in lean season (Nov-May) 3.4 Summary 42 National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee iii 4 HYDROGEOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND 43-61 MAPPING 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Geology 46 4.3 Chandpur Formation 48 4.4 Nagthat Formation 49 4.5 Blaini Formation 51 4.6 Krol Formation 53 4.7 Doon Gravels 55 4.8 Hydrogeological Characterization 56 4.9 Hard Rocks 57 4.10 Alluvium 59 4.11 Estimation of Recharge Using GEC Method 59 4.12 Remarks 61 5 ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY, SOURCE 62-92 IDENTIFICATION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT 5.1 River Water Sampling & Preservation 62 5.2 Analytical Methodology 64 5.3 Results & Discussion 66 5.3.1 pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) 66 5.3.2 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 67 5.3.3 Alkalinity 69 5.3.4 Chloride (Cl-) 69 -2 5.3.5 Sulfate (SO4 ) 69 3− - + 5.3.6 Nitrate (NO ), Nitrite (NO2 ), & Ammonium (NH4 ) 71 5.3.7 Fluoride (F-) 73 5.3.8 Total Hardness (TH) 73 5.3.9 Sodium & Potassium 74 5.3.10 Water Type and Hydro-chemical Facies 75 5.3.11 Transition Metal/Metalloid Distribution 76 5.3.12 Pollution Indicating Parameters 84 5.4 Concluding Remarks 86 5.5 Photo Slides of Sampling Locations 88 6 STRATEGIC PLAN FOR LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT 93-123 INTERVENTIONS 6.1 Prerequisites for Land and Water Management Plan 93 6.1.1 Physiography of the Area 93 6.1.2 Rainfall 99 6.2 Proposed Land and Water Management Interventions 99 6.2.1 Vegetative measures 100 6.2.2 Semi-Structural Measures 102

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee iv 6.2.3 Groundwater Recharge Structures 110 6.2.4 Engineering/Structural Measures 116 6.2.5 Upgradation of Diversion Structure for Rajpur Canal 119 6.3 Estimation of Groundwater Recharge from Proposed Land 120 and Water Management Interventions in the Rispana Catchment 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 124-128 REFERENCES 129

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee v LIST OF TABLES

Table Table Captions Page No. No. 1.1 Length of River course of Rispana and Nalapani 4 2.1 Elevation distribution of Rispana Catchment 6 2.2 Slope distribution of Rispana basin 8 2.3 Soil textural classes in the Rispana Basin 12 2.4 LULC classification of the study area 12 2.5 Details of rainfall and pan evaporation data used in the study 15 2.6 Monthly Rainfall of IMD Station Dehradun, mm 16 2.7 Monthly average values of Pan to PET conversion coefficients for 16 North of 220 Latitude. 2.8 Estimated average monthly values of ET in Rispana Catchment 17 2.9 Observed infiltration rates at different locations in the Rispana 18 Catchment 2.10 Massy Fall Spring Flow Measurement 26 2.11 The Location details of springs in Rispana Catchment 27 2.12 Estimated Runoff using SCS-CN Method 30 3.1 Estimated volume of ET from Rispana Catchment. 36 3.2 Summary of estimated annual water utilization in Rispana 40 catchment 3.3 Flow required to keep continuous flow in Rispana River during lean 41 period (Nov-May) 4.1 Lithostratigraphic sequence in Rispana Valley, District Dehradun 46 4.2 Recharge estimation for the Hilly Area 60 4.3 Recharge estimation for Intermontane valley area 61 5.1 Surface water samples collected from Rispana River 63 5.2 Analytical Methods and Equipment‟s used in the Study 65 5.3 Classification of Water Based On Total Dissolved Solids 68 5.4 Hardness Classification of Water 74 6.1 Details of Forest Area in Rispana catchment 100 6.2 Details of private estates in Rispana catchment 100 6.3 Locations for loose boulder check dams 104 6.4 Identified locations for gabions 106 6.5 Identified locations for percolation ponds near the streams 112 6.6 Identified locations of masonry stop dams / check dams 117 6.7 Channel Length 120 6.8 Recharge by loose boulder check dams 120 6.9 Recharge by gabion check dams 121 6.10 Estimation of recharge from trenches, pits and ponds 121 6.11 Recharge by ground water recharge structures 122 6.12 Estimated Recharge Potential by roof top rainwater harvesting 122 6.13 Recharge by masonry check dams / stop dams 125

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee vi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Figure Captions Page No. No. 1.1 The Location of the Rispana Basin with drainage network 3 2.1 Elevation Distribution of Rispana Basin 7 2.2 Slope distribution of Rispana Basin 9 2.3 Drainage network of the Rispana basin 10 2.4 Contour Map of the Rispana basin 11 2.5 Soil texture of the Rispana Basin 13 2.6 LULC Classification of the Rispana river catchment area 14 2.7 Double ring infiltrometer test near , 19 2.8 Plot of Infiltration rates at Shivaya in Nalapani catchment. 19 2.9 Plot of Infiltration rates near at Mothrowala STP 20 2.10 Plot of Infiltration rates Rajpur Canal Head 20 2.11 Rajpur Canal diversion 22 2.12 Remains of flour mills stones along Rajpur Canal 22 2.13 Locations of flour mills along Rajpur canal and in the upstream of 23 Canal Head Works (Source: https://peoplesscienceinstitute.org) 2.14 Spring locations identified in the Rispana Catchment 25 2.15 Flow depletion during the year 2018-19 in three at Massy Fall 26 2.16 Observed streamflow in Rispana at Massy Fall, Shikhar fall and 28 Rajpur can Head in lean (non-rainy) period. 2.17 Plot of ground water table elevation at Tarla Nagal 31 2.18 Plot of ground water table elevation at Nanu Kheda site 31 2.19 Plot of ground water table elevation at Majara Site 32 2.20 Plot of ground surface and water table elevation along Rispana 32 catchment 3.1 Sketch of a hydrologic system for water Balance 34 4.1 View of Rispana Valley in Hilly Terrain 44 4.2 View of Rispana Valley in the plain area 45 4.3 Slope distribution histogram 45 4.4 Geological map of Rispana Basin 47 4.5 Chandpur Phyllites in Godamkhala 48 4.6 Chandpur Phyllites in Shanshahi Ashram – Jharipani section 49 4.7 Nagthat Quartzite in Jharipani section 50 4.8 Shattering of rocks on the contact zone between Chandpur and 50 Nagthat 4.9 Shear zone in Nagthat Quartzite 51 4.10 Blaini boulder bed 52 4.11 Blainies in Shahanshahi Ashram- Jharipani-section 52 4.12 Dolomitic Limestone in Shanshahi Ashram-Jharipani section 53 4.13 Solution activities in dolomitic limestone 54 4.14 Dolomitic limestone near Jharipani 54

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee vii 4.15 Cavernous dolomitic limestone, Landour area 55 4.16 Doon Gravels in Rispana Valle 56 4.17 Small size sink holes in Krol Limestone 58 4.18 Larger size sink holes in Krol Limestone 58 5.1 Sampling Locations 64 5.2 Average pH value of river & STP 66 5.3 Average conductivity value of river & STP 67 5.4 Average TDS of river & STP 68 5.5 Average alkalinity of river & STP 69 5.6 Average chloride concentration of river & STP 70 5.7 Average sulfate concentration of river & STP 70 5.8 Average nitrate concentration of river & STP 72 5.9 Average nitrite concentration of river & STP 72 5.10 Average ammonium concentration of river & STP 72 5.11 Average fluoride concentration of river & STP 73 5.12 Average hardness of river & STP 74 5.13 Average sodium and potassium concentration of river & STP 75 5.14 Hill and Piper plot showing water type and different hydro 76 chemical facies 5.15 Average arsenic concentration of river & STP 77 5.16 Average aluminum concentration of river & STP 78 5.17 Average chromium concentration of river & STP 78 5.18 Average copper concentration of river & STP 79 5.19 Average iron concentration of river & STP 80 5.20 Average lead concentration of river & STP 80 5.21 Average manganese concentration of river & STP 81 5.22 Average cadmium concentration of river & STP 82 5.23 Average nickel concentration of river & STP 83 5.24 Average zinc concentration of river & STP 83 5.25 Average DO of river & STP 85 5.26 Average BOD of river & STP 85 5.27 Average TS & FC counts in river & STP 86 6.1 DEM of Rispana catchment 94 6.2 Stream Order Map of Rispana catchment 95 6.3 Map showing numbering of stream segments 96 6.4 Slope Map of Rispana catchment 97 6.5 Google earth view of study area along with stream segment map 98 6.6 Monthly rainfall variations at IMD observatory, Dehradun 99 6.7 Map of proposed area for plantation 101 6.8 Illustrative diagram of loose boulder check dam 103 6.9 Locations for loose boulder check dams 104 6.10 Locations for RR dry check dams (proposed by Forest Deptt.) 105 6.11 Identified locations for gabions 107 6.12 Locations for wire crate check dams (proposed by Forest Deptt.) 108

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee viii 6.13 Design details of gabion structure 109 6.14 Layout of staggered trenches 110 6.15 Proposed areas for staggered trenching in the Rispana 111 catchment 6.16 Identified locations of percolation pits in the reserve forest area 113 of Rispana catchment 6.17 Identified locations of percolation ponds near the streams of 114 Rispana catchment 6.18 Identified locations for ponds (proposed by Forest Deptt.) 116 6.19 Identified sites for masonry check dams in the Rispana 118 catchment

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee ix CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

The River Rispana has been lifeline of Dehradun city of Uttarakhand from ancient time. However, with the growth of the Dehradun city and other developmental activities, it has turned into a polluted stream with ephemeral characteristics. The Uttarakhand government has launched an active campaign to revive River Rispana and has started planning and actions for implementation of social, environmental and engineering measures for river rejuvenation. In inaugural ceremony of Rispana River rejuvenation activities on 6th September 2017 at Shikhar Fall in Rajpur, Dehradun, the Hon‟ble Chief Minister of Uttarakhand expressed concern on fast increase in the city population and decline in availability of water resources and advised the native people of Uttarakhand, civil administration, representatives of various scientific, academic, social institutions and civil society organizations (NGOs etc.) to join hands and work together for the worthy cause of rejuvenation of Rispana River. Uttarakhand Irrigation Department, Dehradun was designated as the nodal agency by the Govt. of Uttarakhand to coordinate this scientific study for detailed investigations, assessment of water resources and preparation of rejuvenation plan for river Rispana. Accordingly, the Uttarakhand Irrigation Department, Dehradun entrusted this study to National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Roorkee to carryout detailed field investigations and to prepare a plan for land and water management interventions in the Rispana river catchment for enhancing lean season flow in the river. A MOU (No.01/SE(PC)/Rispana dated 04/06/2018 was signed between Uttarakhand Irrigation Department, Dehradun and National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee in respect of this study. A team of NIH scientists and supporting staff conducted detailed investigations & monitoring and analysis of various aspects of water resources, hydrogeology, springs and water quality in the Rispana River catchment. Subsequently, catchment area treatment plan has been prepared and presented in this report to enhance water retention in the catchment. The study of various aspects of available water resources and hydrology plays key role in the assessment, planning and rejuvenation of river systems. The field based studies are imperative for realistic assessment and measurement of available water resources at specific locations and in different seasons to support decision making in the planning, execution and river rejuvenation activities. Hydrological inputs include the National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 1 assessment of quantities of available water, out flows, water utilization and groundwater recharge etc. This study has been carried out for Rispana river basin to develop a feasible plan of land and water interventions in the catchment of Rispana river system to enhance lean season (non-rainy season) moisture availability and stream flows for its rejuvenation.

The Rispana River System

The Rispana river originates as a small spring from Lal Tibba peaks of Mussorie hills (at about 2279 m above MSL) and flows through Dehradun City. Adjoining to Rispana there is another river called Bindal which also flows through City of Dehradun and joins River Rispana at Mothrowala. After the confluence of River Rispana and River Bindal, it is called River Suswa. The Suswa River is the tributary of river Song which joins River Ganga near Satyanarayana between and . The River is situated between latitude 300 29‟ 15” N and longitude to 780 06‟ 98” E. The Toposheets Nos. 53-J3, 53-J4 provides information related to all topographical features. The location map of Rispana river with drainage network is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Springs in the Agehill, Massifall, Khetwala and Barloganj in the upstream of Rispana river catchment keep feeding round the year and contribute flows even in lean season. A number of other small spring streamlets join on the way to form the famous Shikher Fall (about 4 meters). Thereafter, it flows south-westerly along Rajpur road over Doon gravels and the river course remains dry in the lean season which passes through small hamlets namely Nalapani, Rajpur, Chander Road, Defence Colony, Aamwala, Tapovan, Dandadhoran, Adhoiwala, Gujaram, Ajabpur before joining . The catchment area of river Rispana is about 53.45 sq. km and the total length of main river course is about 26.97 km. The details of river course length for Rispana and its biggest tributary Nalapani are given in Table 1.1.

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Fig. 1.1: The Location of the Rispana Basin with drainage network

The Rispana river carries significant flow in rainy season till the month of September. However, the flow reduces considerably in the subsequent months (i.e. October onwards). The river course in hilly region remains perennial up to the Shikhar Fall. Near the Shikhar Fall (just in the upstream of fall) the river flow (about 14 mld) is tapped for drinking water supply. After a distance of 2.2 km in the downstream of Shikhar Fall, the river course enters in to doon-gravels and usually, it goes dry during winter season and summer months. At about 2.83 km in the downstream of Shikhar Fall and about 500 m south of Rajpur village, the flow of National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 3 river Rispana is diverted to the Rajpur Canal, built more than 350 years ago for irrigation and drinking water. This canal terminates at the temple tanks of Guru Ram Rai in the heart of Dehradun city. Huge terraces formed by the thick pile of sediments brought down by the Rispana occur all along the river. The river bed is almost entirely covered by boulders of various sizes. The river channel flow is confined to a smaller section of the river bed during non-monsoon period.

Table 1.1: Length of River course of Rispana and Nalapani Bench Mark Stage Distance, Km River Length, Km Origin 0 0 Mossy fall 2.04 2.04 Jharipani 1.72 3.76 Shikhar Fall 2.29 6.05 Rajpur Diversion canal 2.83 8.88 Nalapani confluence 10.02 18.90 Bindal confluence (Outlet) 8.07 26.97 Total length of Rispana river from 26.97 km origin to confluence with Bindal river Total length Nalapani river from origin to confluence with 13.90 km Rispana river

In the lower reaches, the land along the River Rispana is either a part of the city or is under cultivation. It is important to mention that the two rivers Bindal and Rispana are the only outlets for rain water, thus preventing the city from being engulfed from flood waters. The river Rispana is main carrier of monsoon runoff, but, its flood plains & river course are heavily encroached upon and have become the drain losing the actual definition of a river. In the Dehradun city parts, it is highly polluted by both solid and liquid wastes. The discharge of untreated sewage and open defecation on the river bed has deteriorated the health of the river significantly. Living around such filth is hazardous to the lives of the people.

It is particularly tragic for Rispana since the river carries considerable volume of water in rainy season. The flow in post monsoon (Oct & November) mostly disappears on the way in lean season when it reaches to Doon Gravels due to high permeability and depletion in the groundwater table. It is important to make sincere and holistic efforts to rejuvenate river Rispana, by enhancing lean season flow, through catchment area treatment with land and water management interventions. In view of the above, this study was entrusted to National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee to carryout detailed investigation and to prepare strategic land

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 4 and water management plan for the Rispana catchment to enhance lean season water availability in said river system.

Scope and Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of this study is to prepare a plan of land and water management interventions for enhancement of ground water recharge and lean season flows in the springs, and conserve water in the catchment to sustain flows in Rispana River system. This study covers hydrological monitoring and hydro-geological investigation, quantification of various hydro-meteorological components, spring flow monitoring, assessment of catchment water utilization and groundwater recharge etc. for Rispana river water budgeting. Further, the study includes identification of suitable sites for semi-structural and structural measures for in-situ- moisture retention, spring recharge and groundwater recharge, instream storages and water quality improvement etc. The inferences drawn from the field investigations and analysis have been used in the development of a scientific plan for land and water management interventions.

The scope of work of the study is as follows A. Detailed field investigations and mapping of Rispana River network & Springs. B. Monitoring and assessment of streamflow and groundwater regime. C. Water Budgeting study of surface and groundwater. D. Hydro-geological characterization and mapping of Rispana basin. E. Assessment of water quality, source identification and recommendation for quality improvement. F. Identification of suitable sites for land and water management interventions. G. Preparation of land and water management plan for water retention in Rispana Catchment.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 5 CHAPTER 2

FIELD INVESTIGATIONS AND DATA ANALYSIS

Physical Features of Rispana River Catchment The up-reaches of the Rispana basin are hilly and covered with stable dense forest for a distance of about 8.0 km. In the middle parts, Nalapani river catchment (V) has relatively moderate slopes and parts of its right bank areas are covered with forest and its left bank areas have some undulating open land covered with bushes and habitation. Remaining parts of the catchment in middle and lower reaches are urban areas of Dehradun city. The physical features in detail are discussed below.

Digital Elevation Model (DEM) The elevation distribution of Rispana river catchment was calculated from SRTM DEM (30*30 m) which varies between 573 m to 2276 m as shown in Table 2.1. About 78% area of the Rispana basin lies below 1000 m elevation and falls in the urban region of Dehradun city, while only 1 % area is above 2000 m which is mainly occupied by hilly terrain in the basin. The effect of this heterogeneity in topography plays an important role in the runoff generation, ground water recharge and in planning of soil water conservation practices in the basin. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Rispana catchment (Fig. 2.1) was used to derive the topographical characteristics catchment.

Table 2.1: Elevation distribution of Rispana Catchment

Cumulative Area Percentage Area, Elevation, m Area, (Km2 ) distribution, km2 % 573 - 650 10.31 10.31 19.28 650 - 750 15.74 26.05 29.45 750 - 850 9.63 35.67 18.01 850 - 1000 5.99 41.66 11.20 1000 - 1250 2.12 43.78 3.96 1250 - 1500 2.58 46.36 4.83 1500 - 1850 4.35 50.71 8.13 1850 - 2276 2.75 53.46 5.15

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Fig. 2.1: Elevation Distribution of Rispana Basin

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 7 Slope Map of Rispana River Catchment

Slope characteristics of the Rispana river basin were derived from the SRTM DEM data using ArcGIS 10.4 software. The catchment was classified in 6 slope classes and the area under each of these classes is given in Table 2.2. It can be observed that about 53.72 % of the catchment has mild to moderate slope up to 10% and is occupied mostly by the urban area of Dehradun city. The high sloping areas (> 50%) occupying 14.31 % of total catchment lie above the Shikhar fall in the basin and drain the runoff at a high velocity to downstream of Rispana river. The slope map of the catchment is presented in Fig 2.2. The slope map was further analysed for exploring potential suitable sites for water conservation/retention structures in catchment.

Table 2.2: Slope distribution of Rispana basin

Slope (%) Area (km2) Cumulative area (km2) Percent area 0 - 10 % 28.72 28.72 53.72 10 - 15% 4.86 33.58 9.09 15 - 20% 2.81 36.39 5.25 20 - 25% 2.15 38.54 4.02 25 - 50% 7.27 45.81 13.60 > 50% 7.65 53.45 14.31 Total 53.45 100

Drainage Network and Contour Map

The contour Map represents the vertical relief of a terrain in 2D plan. Proper understanding of the Contour map is required to select the most economical or suitable sites for soil and water conservation measures in the particular area. The drainage network and contour map with contour interval of 50 m were prepared from DEM using the Spatial Analyst Tool in ArcGIS 10.4 are shown in Fig. 2.3 and Fig. 2.4 respectively.

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Fig. 2.2: Slope distribution of Rispana Basin

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Fig. 2.3: Drainage network of the Rispana basin

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Fig. 2.4: Contour Map of the Rispana basin Soils in the Rispana Catchment Soil is a natural resource that influence the water holding capacity, soil water availability to vegetation, vegetation root zone depth and sub-surface transmission of water to downstream in a basin at a specific location. The soil data of the basin was derived from FAO Digital soil map data in the GIS environment. Predominantly, three types of soil texture namely clay loam, loam and sandy loam were found to occupy respectively 37.30 %, 41.34% and 21.36% of the

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 11 total catchment area (Table 2.3). The spatial distribution of different types of soils in the catchment is shown in Fig.2.5.

Table 2.3 Soil textural classes in the Rispana Basin Soil Texture Area (km2) Percentage Area (%) Clay Loam 19.94 37.30 Loam 22.10 41.34 Sandy Loam 11.42 21.36 Total 53.45 100

Land Use/Land Cover (LCUC) Map Land use and land cover of the study area was derived from Landsat 8 OLI satellite image using 1 to 7 bands in ArcGIS 10.4 environment using unsupervised image classification. Unsupervised classification is a computer driven technique to classify the image based on common spectral reflectance and group them within a single class. In the study area, LULC was classified in 6 classes viz., Barren land, Urban / Built-up Land, Moderate forest, Agriculture land, Dense forest and Grass land/Scrub land. The LULC classes and area occupied by each of them in the Rispana catchment is presented in Table 2.4. It is found that urban/ built up land occupied the highest area (24.60%) in the catchment while agricultural land accounts for the lowest area (6.88%). This LULC of the study area is very heterogeneous in nature because of climatic condition and distinct land surface of the basin. From the LULC analysis, it was also inferred that there is possibility of urban rain harvesting in the catchment to enhance lean season water availability in the region. The LULC map of the Rispana catchment is shown in Fig 2.6. Table 2.4: LULC classification of the study area LULC Area (Km2) Percentage Area (%) 1. Barren Land 7.57 14.16 2. Urban/ Builtup Land 13.15 24.60 3. Moderate Forest 12.74 23.84 4. Agriculture Land 3.68 6.88 5. Dense Forest 10.25 19.18 6. Grass Land/ Scrub Land 6.06 11.34 Total 53.45 100

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Fig. 2.5: Soil texture of the Rispana Basin

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Fig. 2.6: LULC Classification of the Rispana river catchment area.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 14 Climate of Rispana Catchment The climate of the area is moderately hot in summers and very cold in winters popularly known as humid subtropical type. During the summer months (April, May & June), the temperature ranges between 36◦C and 16.7◦C. The winter months are colder with the maximum and minimum temperatures touching 23.4◦C and 5.2◦C, respectively. The Monsoon rainfall starts in late June to and ends till September. The average annual and monsoon season rainfall is about 2247 mm and 1942 mm, respectively, July and August being the rainiest months of the season. The average annual potential evapotranspiration is about 1168 mm.

Rainfall Data Used The long term daily rainfall data for Dehradun station was procured from Meteorological Department (IMD) for the period from 1985 to 2017. The IMD Station Dehradun is located almost in the middle in the Rispana catchment and it represents the rainfall in the catchment. The details of rainfall data used in the study are presented in row 1 in Table 2.5. The monthly rainfall data at IMD station Dehradun is presented in Table 2.6 Table 2.5: Details of rainfall and pan evaporation data used in the study

Sl. Data Type Name of Period Remarks No. Stations/Site 1 Daily Rainfall IMD Dehradun 1971-2017 Procured from IMD. IMD 2 Evaporation Forest research 1971-2016 Provided by Irrigation data at FRI Institute (FRI) Department, Govt. of Uttarakhand

Evaporation Data used The pan evaporation data measured at FRI station for the period from 1975-1993 and 2004- 2016 has been used to estimate potential evapotranspiration (PET) and the evaporation from reservoir. The details of measured pan evaporation data used is presented in row 2 in Table 2.5. The potential evapotranspiration (PET) varies with time of seasons depending mainly on air temperature, humidity, sun shine hours and wind speed. For the very good vegetation conditions the conversion coefficient for pan evaporation to ET values have been estimated more than one during the year in the north of 220 latitudes in India (Ramdas, 1957; NIH, 1995 & Ramasastri, 1987). The pan evaporation has been converted to PET for good vegetation condition using coefficient ranging between 1.02 to 1.16 in different months as shown in Table 2.7.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 15 Table 2.6: Monthly Rainfall of IMD Station Dehradun, mm

Year Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Monsoon Non- Annual Season monsoon RF RF Season RF 1989-90 85.0 627.0 646.5 203.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 121.2 98.2 35.1 114.4 1328.4 370.1 1614.0 1990-91 183.8 903.4 887.1 460.7 33.6 7.2 121.9 11.6 56.0 50.6 54.1 21.2 1443.1 356.2 1590.0 1991-92 265.2 306.3 481.5 288.1 0.0 11.7 43.9 81.6 40.5 13.5 1.8 26.3 1438.4 219.3 1881.5 1992-93 156.1 571.8 980.0 191.0 7.7 6.8 0.0 77.1 63.1 112.2 11.2 40.0 2865.2 318.1 3286.0 1993-94 269.3 534.4 744.7 459.0 0.0 1.4 0.0 57.2 56.9 1.9 78.2 9.4 2144.2 205.0 2517.1 1994-95 217.7 724.2 776.9 65.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 53.3 73.9 39.2 14.6 0.8 2425.7 184.0 2593.5 1995-96 83.5 494.5 630.1 310.3 2.2 0.5 9.3 40.3 106.2 45.5 13.4 10.0 3057.8 227.4 3358.9 1996-97 355.8 604.0 962.1 282.3 57.7 0.0 0.0 34.0 21.9 65.6 111.1 130.0 1304.0 420.3 1575.8 1997-98 397.4 779.6 564.5 385.8 94.5 44.8 90.8 5.4 72.4 117.7 78.6 86.3 2240.5 590.5 2439.9 1998-99 110.4 835.8 1114.2 270.2 248.0 0.9 0.0 57.3 4.2 4.9 0.0 6.9 2367.0 322.2 2549.2 1999-00 398.4 795.3 535.9 671.0 75.8 0.0 9.9 71.5 110.9 44.4 12.4 141.1 1458.5 466.0 1750.1 2000-01 308.6 767.8 724.7 381.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 42.0 2.2 31.8 52.1 130.5 1934.5 258.8 2279.5 2001-02 505.4 803.4 613.2 134.2 2.9 1.4 9.4 47.1 139.1 65.7 62.6 24.1 1718.8 352.3 2018.1 2002-03 126.4 164.8 643.7 273.5 17.9 0.0 0.2 38.6 98.9 49.6 13.8 31.2 1600.6 250.2 1866.6 2003-04 138.5 424.7 601.3 436.1 0.0 6.6 21.8 94.6 21.8 0.0 21.4 99.8 1208.4 266.0 1458.6 2004-05 359.3 694.8 517.3 147.4 62.7 0.0 7.7 62.4 82.1 61.6 0.3 22.5 2056.2 299.3 2408.5 2005-06 98.7 767.7 655.5 412.6 5.2 0.0 0.6 18.3 2.4 138.5 14.8 165.2 2182.3 345.0 2441.1 2006-07 139.3 640.2 482.6 196.4 16.8 1.7 25.2 0.4 110.7 98.0 15.9 22.9 2400.6 291.6 2866.6 2007-08 78.0 896.0 1089.3 303.7 10.9 0.0 5.9 13.1 21.8 2.6 76.1 51.8 2330.6 182.2 2652.8 2008-09 593.8 773.8 711.9 161.0 38.9 10.5 0.0 5.2 39.7 7.3 25.1 72.7 2127.3 199.4 2717.8 2009-10 125.5 437.4 453.9 287.2 156.1 2.0 0.0 14.5 60.2 2.0 3.4 33.6 2204.2 271.8 2624.5 2010-11 134.0 955.8 1017.0 951.0 15.4 25.5 41.1 15.0 46.6 13.8 30.5 113.2 1518.4 301.1 1745.8 2011-12 386.5 788.7 878.9 371.6 37.4 0.0 6.3 46.3 13.7 25.0 37.5 1.6 1783.8 167.8 1967.8 2012-13 81.0 598.0 1025.6 439.6 2.1 5.8 18.9 119.2 190.5 17.3 3.1 16.0 2007.4 372.9 2212.4 2013-14 1094.8 707.2 806.2 257.0 34.2 13.7 6.0 104.4 125.8 74.9 30.3 31.5 1898.9 420.8 2217.0 2014-15 100.4 489.5 727.7 120.8 106.1 0.0 32.0 29.0 23.0 181.4 60.9 10.7 1341.1 443.1 1560.4 2015-16 144.9 566.0 654.2 78.0 27.3 3.5 8.8 0.0 22.2 32.0 7.8 45.3 2435.0 146.9 2791.2 2016-17 187.4 505.5 412.9 222.6 45.9 0.0 0.0 42.7 9.4 19.2 52.2 116.2 1561.5 285.6 1931.6 Average 254.5 648.5 726.4 312.9 39.3 5.1 16.5 42.3 62.0 50.5 32.8 56.3 1942.2 304.8 2247.0

Table 2.7: Monthly average values of Pan to PET conversion coefficients for North of 220 Latitude

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July August Sept Oct Nov Dec. Pan to Lake 1.16 1.1 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.04 1.07 1.12 1.14 Coefficient

Using the values of pan coefficients given in Table 2.7 and the pan evaporation values measured at FRI station for the period from 1975-1993 and 2004-2016, the monthly average ET values for the Rispana catchment with vegetation cover that includes forests, agricultural, bushes & grass, and urban areas & waste land have been estimated as given in Table 2.8.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 16 For the urban area in the catchment, it is taken as 70% of the ET in vegetated & forest areas (i.e., column 4).

Table 2.8: Estimated average monthly values of ET in Rispana Catchment

Month Measured Pan to PET Estimated Estimated Monthly ET Monthly ET value of conversion average ET average ET from from Urban average Pan Coefficient from from Urban Vegetation and waste evaporation Vegetation Wasteland area, mm lands mm/day area, mm/day (@70% of ET (@70% of in column (4), ET), mm mm/day (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Jan. 1.27 1.16 1.47 1.029 45.57 31.899 Feb. 1.94 1.10 2.13 1.491 59.64 41.748 Mar. 3.26 1.04 3.39 2.373 105.09 73.563 Apr. 5.32 1.03 5.48 3.836 164.4 115.08 May. 6.49 1.02 6.62 4.634 205.22 143.654 June. 5.30 1.02 5.41 3.787 162.3 113.61 July. 2.70 1.02 2.75 1.925 85.25 59.675 Aug. 2.32 1.02 2.37 1.659 73.47 51.429 Sept. 2.74 1.04 2.85 1.995 85.5 59.85 Oct. 2.61 1.07 2.79 1.953 86.49 60.543 Nov. 1.78 1.12 1.99 1.393 59.7 41.79 Dec. 1.26 1.14 1.44 1.008 44.64 31.248 Total Annual 1177.27 824.089

Field Investigations and Measurements The team of NIH scientists has conducted detailed field surveys and investigations in the Rispana catchment to identify spring locations and measured discharge of selected springs during the period July 2018 to June 2019 along the Rispana River course and started periodic observations to assess flow and the rate of depletion of discharge in post monsoon period. The team also conducted detailed surveys for identification of potential sites for semi structural and structural measures for water retention in the catchment and to explore possible sites for in-stream storage creation etc. The team traversed along the river course from its origin at Landaur bazar and upstream part of Woodstock school in Mussoorie to Dhobi Ghat, Massy Fall, Jhari-Pani Fall and Shikhar Fall, to identify the springs and water inflow sources contributing to river Rispana in summers/lean season. The team of investigators conducted periodic measurements of flows in stream and the spring discharge at selected sites during July 2018 to May 2019 to assess flow depletion in the non-rainy season.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 17 Infiltration Tests The infiltration tests were conducted at four locations in the Rispana catchment. A double ring infiltrometer was used with an inner and outer ring of 20 and 30 cm diameters, respectively. The purpose of using two rings is to create a one-dimensional flow of water from the inner ring. If water is flowing in one-dimension at steady state condition, and a unit gradient is present in the underlying soil, then it may be considered that the infiltration rate is approximately equal to the saturated hydraulic conductivity.

An inner ring is driven into the ground, and a second bigger ring (outer ring) around the inner ring, driven into the ground, was used to control and avoid lateral flow of water through the inner ring. Water was filled in the outer ring and then in the inner ring at pre-defined level. Also, subsequently, after given time intervals a measured amount of water was filled in the inner cylinder to bring water level up to previous level. Water level in outer cylinder was also filled from time to time to maintain marked level (as shown in Fig. 2.7). The infiltration measurements were carried out for one full day at each site and the steady infiltration rates were obtained after about 5-6 hours as given in Table 2.9. The soils in the Rispana Catchment are mostly loam or sandy loam. The observed infiltration rates are comparable with basic infiltration rates for given soil type in literature ranging from 10-20 mm/hr and 20-30 mm/hr for loam and sandy-loam respectively. The plots of infiltration rates at different locations are presented in Figs. 2.8 to 2.10.

Table 2.9: Observed infiltration rates at different locations in the Rispana Catchment

S. Site Location Infiltration Rate No cm/min mm/hour 1 Siwaya in Nalapani Catchment 0.02 12 2 Near Mothrowala STP 0.017 10.2 3 Wood stock School, Near Dhobi Ghat (30.448555°N, 78.100693° E ) 0.034 20.4 4 Rispana River right bank, Near Rajpur Canal Diversion (30.438906°N, 0.041 24.6 78.09522°E )

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 18

Fig. 2.7: Double ring infiltrometer test near Woodstock School, Mussoorie

Infiltration Rate Curve

0.180

0.160

0.140

y = 0.0635 -0.242 0.120 x R² = 0.6888

(cm/min) 0.100

0.080

0.060

0.040

Infiltration Rate

0.020

0.000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 Elapsed Time (min)

Fig. 2.8: Plot of Infiltration rates at Shivaya in Nalapani catchment

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 19

Infiltration Rate Curve 0.035

0.030

y = 0.0307x-0. 132 0.025 R² = 0.8168

0.020

(cm/min)

0.015

0.010

Infiltration Rate 0.005

0.000

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Elapsed Time (min) Fig. 2.9: Plot of Infiltration rates near at Mothrowala STP

Infiltration Rate Curve

0.23

0.20

0.18

y = 0.1954 x-0.234 R² = 0.83 0.15 84

(cm/min) 0.13

Rate 0.10

0.08

Infiltration Infiltration 0.05

0.03

0.00 0 100 200 300 400 500

Elapsed Time (min) Fig. 2.10: Plot of Infiltration rates Rajpur Canal Head.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 20 Investigation of Historical Flow Characteristics of Rispana The most striking features of the Rispana River are the diverse nature of the terrain. Initially the river has its course through the hard rocks for about 8 km and then 16 km through the alluvial terrain/Doon gravels. The properties of both the terrains are in significant contrast. During the investigation, the team of NIH scientists held meetings with officials of various departments like Uttarakhand Forest Dept. Irrigation Department, Central Ground Water Board, and discussed with local people living in the area. The prime objective was to dig-out the past information and facts regarding availability of flows in Rispana river during non-rainy seasons in past decades. The response was mixed as some of them said “Rispana was perennial”, some other said that they have never seen it flowing in summer season. One senior person who had grown up in Dehradun and worked for longer time of his life as a scientist in Dehradun region (now retired) said “Rispana was not perennial to the best of his knowledge”. Therefore, it was the major challenge to find out logical answer of the question (Q.1) “whether the Rispana River was perennial before few decades back? An insight of the following schemes, however, provided some basis to find the answer of the above question:

The drinking water supply schemes and diversions are usually planned at perennial flow sites on the river. The then existence of flour mills and Rajpur canal diversion are reasonable evidence to believe that the Rispana River was then perennial up to the Rajpur Canal Head Works (RCHW) site. The details of Rajpur canal diversion and flour mills are discussed below.

Rajpur Diversion Canal: Originally, the Rajpur Canals were built more than 350 years ago in the mid of the 17th century, by Rani Karanavati, the Rajput princess and her husband Raja Ajab Kunwar, who administered the district on behalf of the rajas of Garhwal in the mid17th century, to supply drinking water in Dehradun. The Rajpur Canal was constructed to supply water to the Dera of Guru Ram Rai of Dhamawala who was then suffering with its scarcity in his Dera and to farther places for drinking purposes. Subsequently, in 1840s this Rajpur canal diversion structure was renovated and a barrage was constructed by the British during 1941- 44 to expand the canal supply network for drinking purposes and for watering of gardens/agriculture fields in Dehradun (Fig 2.11). Many additional details of the canals and their history can be found in Prem Hari Har Lal‟s “The Down the Ages”. Originally, the Rajpur Canal was designed to provide drinking water to the town of Dehra & though later

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 21 improvements supply was extended for irrigation in a few villages (Source: History of Rajpur canal in Uttarakhand Irrigation Department Web site http://www.uttarakhandirrigation.com/rajpur-canal). Further, the available literature indicated that there were four grain mills (flour mills) one in the upstream of the diversion structure and the other 3 mills along canal which of course now lie broken and dilapidated (Fig. 2.12 and Fig. 2.13).

Fig. 2.11: Rajpur Canal diversion (http://www.uttarakhandirrigation.com/rajpur-canal)

Fig. 2.12: Remains of flour mills stones along Rajpur Canal (Source: https://peoplesscienceinstitute.org)

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 22

Fig 2.13: Locations of flour mills along Rajpur canal and in the upstream of Canal Head Works (Source: https://peoplesscienceinstitute.org)

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 23

Inventory of Spring in the Rispana Catchment Field investigations were carried out to identify natural springs in the Rispana catchment. There are several springs in the catchment but flow in some of the springs disappears in the post monsoon period (October /November) -. The springs which have flow after November month have been identified and marked in the map as given in Fig. 2.14. The perennial springs in the catchment are mostly tapped for domestic/drinking water supply purposes. A brief description of these springs are presented below.  The first spring (S-1) is located on hill slopes below Lal Tibba, Mussoorie hills at about 2120 meters‟ elevation‟ and it is at about 22 meters height on hill above road. This spring is perennial and has significant amount of flow in summer months too. It is considered as the origin of the Rispana River. This spring is tapped with piped gravity flow supply to Woodstock School through 2-inch diameter pipe (24X7 hours). The part of this spring discharge which is in excess of the piped supply flows downstream in Rispana river.  The second perennial spring (S-2) is located in the downstream of Dhobi Ghat Nala before it joins Rispana in the upper valley region (about 500 m from Dhobi-Ghat in downstream). It is tapped and a pump house with possibly 3 HP electric motor is constructed to lift water to the Woodstock School premises through a 1.5-inch diameter pipe. The total water supply line lift is about 260 m. Also, there is a non-perennial spring at about 200 m from Dhobi-Ghat in downstream on the same Nala, but, it disappears by the mid of November and hence not marked on the Map.  Nearly at a distance between 400 m to 1.2 km downstream of confluence of Rispana with Ghobi Ghat nala, four perennial small springs (S-3 & S-4, and S-5 & S-6) appear from the right hand side hill and all the four springs are tapped to collect water at two pumping points for drinking water supply for Northern Railway School and Wynberg Allen School, Mussoorie. The diameter of supply line pipes is about 2-inch and the total lift head for both the cases of pumping units is about 160 m to 170 m. During investigations it was not possible to measure discharge from these springs as they are tightly packed with concrete structures and the pump houses are fenced and locked. Also, from this segment of river course, there is a river flow diversion towards the left bank side through gravity flow in a 2.5-inch diameter pipe (24X7 hours) for domestic as well as for irrigation supply to agriculture patches towards Khetwala and Company Bag area. Further, it is to mention that there are several visible traces of upland hill seepage from both side of main stream contributing to river flow in the areas between Woodstock school pump house and the Massy fall.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 24

Fig. 2.14: Spring locations identified in the Rispana Catchment  There are 3 perennial springs near Massy Fall (S-7, S-8-S-9) besides several visible traces of upland hill seepage contributing to river flow. All the three springs are untapped and contributing to Rispana River flow in lean season significantly. In this reach of river course, there are two masonry stop dams already constructed just below the Mossy Fall. The height

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 25 of stop dams is about 2.0 m and they are nearly 30 m apart. The spring (S-7) is located between stop-dams and it has relatively higher flow than other two downstream springs in the Massy Fall. Discharge of these springs was monitored during the study as presented in Table 2.10 below. The spring flow depletion during the year is presented in Fig 2.15.

Table 2.10: Massy Fall Spring Flow Measurement Date 1st Spring (S-7) Near 2nd Spring (S-8), next to Spring- (S-9), at Shiv Check Dam, mld Temple in U/S, mld Temple flow, mld

3 2 1 26-06-2018 0.14 0.05 0.073 12-07-2018 0.39 0.18 0.09 20-08-2018 0.515 0.27 0.12 21-09-2018 0.51 0.26 0.11 19-12-2018 0.36 0.14 0.11 01-02-2019 0.27 0.12 0.1 01-03-2019 0.24 0.12 0.1 23-04-2019 0.16 0.05 0.08 16-05-2019 0.11 0.02 0.06 0.6 S pring (S- 8), Shiv Temple Spring f low, mld S pring (S- 7), U/S next to T emple Spring ,m ld 0.5 S pring (S- 6) Near Check Dam, mld

0.4

0.3

0.2

mld Flow, Spring 0.1

0

2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2018 2019 2019 2019 2019 2019

2018

------

06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05

------

-

26 25 24 24 23 23 22 21 23 22 22 26 Date Fig. 2.15: Flow depletion during the year 2018-19 in three at Massy Fall The location details of springs in Rispana Catchment are given in Table 2.11. The Spring located in the Ladpur area (S-19) has very good perennial flow and its water is used for domestic supply in Ladpur and other areas.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 26 Table 2.11: The Location details of springs in Rispana Catchment

Spring Description Longitude Latitude No 1 Tapped for drinking supply in Woodstock school 2' dia 78.09955424 30.45561041 pipe gravity flow 2 Tapped for drinking supply in Woodstock school 1.5' dia 78.09578129 30.44667981 pipe lift flow 3 Tapped for drinking water supply for Northern Railway 78.09356086 30.44374768 School Mussoorie -- Pumping 4 Tapped for drinking water supply for Northern Railway 78.09358932 30.44351557 School Mussoorie -- Pumping 5 Tapped for drinking water supply for Wynberg Allen 78.09358416 30.44335226 School, Mussoorie --- Pumping 6 Tapped for drinking water supply for Wynberg Allen 78.09507314 30.43888755 School, Mussoorie -- Pumping 7 Discharging in Rispana River 78.09507211 30.4388333 8 Discharging in Rispana River 78.09507162 30.4388178 9 Discharging in Rispana River 78.09514412 30.43793789 10 Discharging in Rispana River 78.09586409 30.43691697 11 Talyani Ghat spring contributing to Rispana river and local 78.10451687 30.42040901 drinking water tapping 12 Discharging contributing in Rispana River - very little flow 78.09919755 30.41077251 in summer 13 Discharging contributing in Rispana River - very little flow 78.10304866 30.40843655 in summer 14 Discharging contributing in Rispana River (Non-Perennial) 78.10698145 30.40711004 15 Discharging contributing in Rispana River (Non-Perennial) 78.11086504 30.40137427 16 Discharging contributing in Rispana River (Non-Perennial) 78.11028661 30.39251015 Toposheet 17 Discharging contributing in Rispana River (Non-Perennial) 78.09829941 30.39203179 Toposheet 18 Discharging contributing in Rispana River and Drinking 78.10939614 30.38664536 water supply to Ladpur and other areas (Perennial) 19 Discharging contributing in Rispana River (Non-Perennial) 78.0792774 30.31909097 20 Discharging contributing in Rispana River (Perennial) 78.03291849 30.2606966

Stream Flow measurements The stream flow measurements have been carried out from time to time at accessible sites namely Massy fall and Shikhar fall sites to get the amount of flow particularly in the non-rainy months. During the field observations it is found that the Rispana River system is perennial up to Shikhar fall (Fig. 2.16). There is a tapping of river water of about 14 MLD for domestic supply to Rajpur and adjoining areas. After the Shikhar fall it was found that the flow was available at Rajpur canal head site up to the end of December 2018. In the observation year 2018 the monsoon rain ended by first week of September month. Thereafter, the rainfall in October (6.9 mm), November (17.0 mm) and December (3.5 mm) was almost negligible.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 27 During the field investigations it is observed that there is a significant reduction in flow magnitude in Rispana river course in the downstream of Shikhar fall particularly in November and December months. The flow mostly disappears in the river course below Rajpur canal head. In this reach, the stream flow possibly seeps and joins the groundwater due to highly permeable river course over Doon Gravels.

8 Flow at Massy Fall cumec 7 Flow at Shikhar Fall cumec 6 Rajpur Canal Head cumec

5

4 3 2

StreamCumec flow in 1 0

Date of Stream flow observation Fig. 2.16: Observed streamflow in Rispana at Massy Fall, Shikhar fall and Rajpur canal Head in lean (non-rainy) period

The Nalapani river is the largest tributary of Rispana with catchment area of about 17 sq.km. This stream has ephemeral flow characteristics and its river course run dry after October. Thus, Nalapani river does not contribute any flow to Rispana in non-rainy period.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 28 Rispana Basin Runoff Computation using Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number (SCS-CN)

To estimate the runoff from rainfall, the SCS-CN (Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number) model of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA, 1986) has been employed. The model requires soil information, vegetation data and antecedent moisture conditions, etc. In this model, runoff depth is a function of total rainfall depth and Curve Number (CN) which is a function of hydrologic soil group, land cover and antecedent moisture condition (AMC).

The SCS-CN model for estimation of runoff (Q) is:

( P  I ) ...... a 2 (2.1) Q  , P  Ia P  I  S a

In which, P is the precipitation (L) that causes runoff; Q is the actual runoff (L); Ia is the initial abstraction (L) and S is the potential maximum retention (L).

The parameter, S depends on the catchment characteristics. The US-Soil Conservation Service has expressed S (in mm) as a function of Curve Number (CN), as follows:

25400 S   254 ...... (2.2) CN

For Indian conditions, Ia is usually taken as 0.3S for black soil region under AMC I, and 0.1 S for AMC II and III (Handbook of Hydrology, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, 1972).

For the present case for Rispana basin, hydrologic soil group B (moderately low runoff potential) has been considered as infiltration rate of the study area varies from 10 mm/hr to

14.2 mm/hr and AMC II conditions has been taken into account for estimation of runoff. Ia has been considered 0.1 S as there is very limited abstraction in the Rispana catchment.

The CN values of the catchment area corresponding to the soil group B for different land uses under different AM condition were first determined. Making use of the CN values in Eq. 2.2, the potential retention, S for different land-uses was calculated. Using the calculated „S‟ in Eq. 2.1, the surface runoffs for catchment corresponding to the daily rainfall (average daily rainfall of 29 years‟ data (1989-2017) was calculated. The daily runoff was thereafter converted into monthly surface runoff values; and from the monthly surface runoffs annual runoff for the catchment was ascertained as given in Table 2.12. The annual surface runoff for the

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 29 catchment is calculated to be 765.93 mm which is about 34% of mean annual rainfall (2247.1 mm). The estimated values of rainfall, runoff, ET and groundwater recharge in MCM are presented.

Table 2.12: Estimated Runoff using SCS-CN Method

Month Estimated Rainfall, mm Runoff, mm Jan 0 42.3 Feb 0 62 Mar 0 50.5 April 0 32.8 May 0 56.3 June 61.5 254.5 July 271.3 648.5 Aug 344.1 726.4 Sep 88.9 312.9 Oct 0.2 39.3 Nov 0 5.1 Dec 0 16.5 Total Annual 765.937 2247.1 Summary of estimates % Runoff 0.341 Rainfall (MCM) 120.102 Runoff (MCM) 40.939 ET (MCM) 55.607 % ET 0.463 Groundwater Recharge 23.556 (MCM)

Groundwater Table Condition in the Rispana Catchment Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Uttaranchal Region Office at Dehradun was approached for ground water level records. There was no ground water level data available in Rispana catchment for hilly area. The ground water year books (GWYB) for 2005-06 and 2016-17 were obtained from the office of CGWB at Dehradun. The average depth to water table for previous decade 2006-2015, and for 2016-17 was available for two observation wells at Tarla Nagal and Nanur Kheda in the GWYB-2016-17. The Tarla Nagal observation well is located in the up reaches of the Rispana catchment while Nanur Kheda well is in Nalapani Catchment i.e. in middle reaches of the Rispana catchment. For the lower reaches of the

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 30 cactchment, the information available for observation well at Majra (at a distance of about 4 km, in Bindal catchment) has been made use of for indicative assessment. The plot of ground water table elevation for above wells for May, August, November and January months are given in Fig 2.17, 2.18 and 2.19. It can be seen in Fig 2.13 that the water table near Tarla Nagal which is located towards Rajpur canal head region has gone down during 2016-17 as compared to average depth during 2006-2015.

Groundwater Table elevation at Tarla Nagal, Dehradun

800

2006-20015 Ave. 2016-17 795

790

785

780

775 May Ave. Aug Ave Nov Ave. Jan ave m elevation, table Groundwater Time of observation

Fig. 2.17: Plot of ground water table elevation at Tarla Nagal

Groundwater Table elevation at Nanur Kheda Dehradun 650

2006-20015 Ave. 2016-17 645

640

635

630

625

620 Groundwater table elevation, m elevation, table Groundwater May Ave. Aug Ave Nov Ave. Jan ave Time of observation

Fig 2.18: Plot of ground water table elevation at Nanu Kheda site National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 31

Groundwater Table elevation at Majra, Dehradun

630

620 1995-2004 Ave. 2006-2015 ave 2016-17

610

600

590

580

570 May Ave. Aug Ave Nov Ave. m elevation, table Groundwater Time of observation

Fig. 2.19: Plot of ground water table elevation at Majara Site

900.0 Ground surface Elv. WT Elev. Nov. WT Elev. Jan

850.0

m

800.0

750.0 elevation,

table 700.0

650.0

Groundwater 600.0

550.0 Tarla Nagal Nanur Kheda Majra

Observation Station

Fig. 2.20: Plot of ground surface and water table elevation along Rispana catchment (Average WT elevation, 2006-2015)

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 32 The plot of ground elevation with water table elevation at the stations from upstream site to the downstream site of catchment (Fig 2.20) indicates that the slope of ground water table is nearly parallel to ground slopes and water table is relatively closer to ground surface towards lower reaches of the catchment. From the above plots it is evident that the ground water flows from upstream to the downstream towards catchment outlet. Further, the symbolic assessment of ground water table conditions indicates that the slope of water table follows the ground surface slope in river reaches below hills. Therefore, the land seepage and recharge from river flow takes downward path to join groundwater and mostly the river flow disappears in lean season as the river course runs over Doon Gravel.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 33 CHAPTER 3

WATER BUDGETING General Accounting procedure of incoming, outgoing and stored water in a hydrologic system over a period of time is known as the water budgeting or water balance. Depiction of the water budgeting involves the application of the principal of conservation of mass, sometimes referred as the continuity equation, to account for the quantitative changes occurring in the various components of the water budgeting as applicable to the hydrologic system (i.e. basin/catchment area). In general, the quantitative changes may be expressed as a water balance equation (Eq.3.1) in which inflow, outflow and change in storage in a period of time (∆t) is represented as follows.

[Inflow]∆t - [Outflow] ∆t = [Change in storage] ∆t ……. (3.1)

Watershed

Fig. 3.1: Sketch of a hydrologic system for water Balance

A defined hydrologic system and period of time (∆t) are essential conditions for conducting water budgeting. A hydrologic system means a system defined by firm boundaries. The hydrologic boundaries of the system should not change with respect to time. Example of the firm boundaries are water divide, mountains, up to hard rock in soil media, up to a given depth National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 34 in unsaturated soil column etc. The period of time (∆t) for water balance may be longer period or shorter period depending on the purpose of the study. The calendar year, hydrologic year, rainy season/ crop season or month etc. are some examples of longer time period. The month, 10-day, week, and a day are, considered as the shorter period of time for water balance studies.

Inflow: All incoming water which crosses the hydrologic boundary and enters in to the hydrologic system (i.e. catchment) in a given period of time, ∆t. Outflow: All outgoing water which crosses the hydrologic boundary and leaves the hydrologic system in a given period of time, ∆t. Change in storages: Relative increase or decrease in storages involved in the hydrologic system in a given period of time, ∆t. It includes changes in surface water storages, soil moisture storages and groundwater storages.

In hydrological studies, water balance is performed for the two basic purposes: (1) Estimation of any one unknown components of water budget and (2) Water utilization exercises (i.e. what percentage of water is being utilized).

In most cases, water budgeting should give an insight into the behavior of the catchment. For a natural catchment considering lower boundary of the system in hard rock on which the aquifer rests, a water balance equation can be written as follows.

For simple annual water balance:   [ ]t [ 0    ….. (3.2) P Ro  ET S t ]  GWR t

Where, P = Precipitation Ro = Runoff,

GWR = Groundwater recharge ET0 = Evapotranspiration,

SWU = Surface water Utilization ∆S = Change in storage

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 35 Water Budgeting of Rispana River

The Rispana River has a small catchment area of about 53.45 km2 with elongated shape. The length of the river course is about 26 km and the river basin breadth vary from 1.38 to 3.43 km. The average breadth is about 2.06 km. There is no surface storage scheme in the catchment. Also, there is no import or export / transfer of water from other adjoining basin river.

Annual Water Budget Components of Rispana River Catchment 1) Estimation of Rainfall Volume: Total annual incoming water from rainfall: The source of incoming water in the catchment is rainfall only.  Average Annual Rainfall (RF) in the Rispana Catchment = 2247.0 mm  Total catchment area of Rispana =53.45 sq.km.

Total annual incoming volume of water from rainfall = (2247.0/1000) *(53.45*106)/106 = 120.102 MCM (2) Estimation of Evapotranspiration Volume The Pan evaporation data records at Forest Research Institute (FRI) has been used to estimate evapotranspiration (ET) for vegetation cover areas (32.72 sq.km.) which include forest areas, agricultural areas, bushes & grass & land, and urban areas & waste land areas (20.72 sq.km.). The ET for urban areas & waste land areas has been taken as 70% of the average ET from vegetation areas as shown in Table 3.1 below. Table 3.1: Estimated volume of ET from Rispana Catchment.

Average annual ET form vegetation cover 1177.27 mm 38.53205 MCM areas (32.72 sq.km.) Average annual ET form urban area & 824.089 mm 17.07512 MCM waste land (20.72 sq.km.) Total volume of annual ET from Rispana catchment area 55.60717 MCM

(3) Estimation of Runoff Volume: The runoff from the Rispana River catchment has been estimated using Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method as described in the previous chapter. The CN values of the catchment area corresponding to the soil group B for different land uses under different antecedent moisture (AM) condition were first determined. Making use of the CN values the potential retention, S for different land-uses was calculated as

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 36 presented in chapter 2 (section 2.5). Using the calculated „S‟ values, the surface runoffs for catchment corresponding to the daily rainfall (average daily rainfall of 28 years‟ data (1989-2017) was calculated. The daily runoff was thereafter converted into monthly surface runoff values; and from the monthly surface runoffs annual runoff for the catchment is ascertained.  The annual surface runoff for the Rispana catchment determined using SCS-CN method = 765.93 mm.  Total catchment area of Rispana =53.45 sq.km Total annual runoff volume from Rispana catchment = (765.93/1000) (53.45*106) = 40.939 MCM

(4) Estimation of Groundwater Recharge Component Using Annual Water Balance Average annual incoming volume of water from rainfall (P) = 120.102 MCM Average volume of annual ET from Rispana catchment area (ET) = 55.607 MCM Average annual runoff (Ro) = 40.939 MCM

Here the unknown component of water balance is ground water recharge (GWR) = ?

Considering the boundary of the hydrologic system above the groundwater table, the net change in storages in the unsaturated zone of sub surface system may be taken as zero in case of annual water budget (i.e. ∆S = 0). Therefore, the water balance equation (Eq.3.2) can be further simplified annual water budget as follows.

GWR = P – Ro – ET ...... (3.3)

GWR = 120.102 - 55.607 - 40.939 = 23.556 MCM

Thus, the estimated groundwater recharge (i.e. in Rispana catchment is about 23.556 MCM.

(5) Estimation of Major Water Utilization in Rispana River System In the Rispana catchment, it is considered that the water utilization in the catchment is part of the sub surface water appearing in the springs and surface flow for drinking water supply. In the field investigations, it has been identified that the perennial spring flows as well as river flows are tapped for domestic water supply at following locations. Major setups of Water utilization from springs and river flow have been assessed as follows.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 37 (i) Spring on hill slopes (S-1) below Lal Tibba, Mussoorie and at about 2000 meters‟ elevation‟ (located at about 22 meters‟ height on hill above Dhanaulti road --- tapped with piped gravity flow supply to Woodstock School through 2-inch diameter pipe (for 24X7 hours). The approximate amount of gravity tapped water supply may be 35 liters/min (lpm) for 24 hours. = 35*60*24 = 50400 liters/day = 50.4 m3 *365 = 18396 m3/year

(ii) Spring in the downstream of Dhobi Ghat Nala (S-2) before it joins Rispana in the upper valley region (about 500 m from Dhobi-Ghat). – It is tapped and a pump house is constructed to lift water to the Woodstock School premises. Pump supply line 1.5-inch diameter pipe with possibly 3 HP electric motor. The total water supply line lift is about 260 m. The approximate amount of pump tapped water supply may be 30 liters/min (lpm) for 8 hours. = 30 *60*8 = 14400 liters/day = 14.4 m3 *365 = 5256 m3/year.

Thus total utilization by Wood Stock School from spring S-1 Plus S-2 = 18396 + 5256 m3/year = 23652 m3/year = 0.02365 MCM per year

(iii) Nearly at a distance between 400 m to 1.2 km. in downstream below confluence with Ghobi Ghat nala, there are 4 - perennial major springs (S-3 & S-4, and S-5 & S-6) appear from the Right Hand Side hill and all the four springs are tapped to collect water at two pumping points which about 150 to 200 m apart and located near river bed. This water is then pumped to hill top to meet drinking water supply including watering need of their gardens etc. to Northern Railway School and Wynberg Allen School, Mussoorie. The supply line pipes diameter is about 2-inch and the total lift head for both the cases pumping units is about 160 m. During the field investigations it was not possible to measure discharge from these four springs as they are tightly packed with concrete structures and the pump houses are fenced and locked. Further, it is to mention that there are several visible traces of upland hill seepage and minor springs from both side of main stream contributing to river flow in the areas between Woodstock school pump house and Massy fall.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 38 There are above four spring water tapped from this section of river. The approximate pumping rate may be about 45 lpm for 8 hours for each school. Therefore, total water utilization may be equal to = 2*45*60*8 = 43200 liters/day = 43.2 m3 *365 = 15768 m3/year

Thus total utilization by above schools from springs S-3 to S-6 = 0.015768 MCM per year.

(iv) Also, from this segment of river course above Massy Fall, there is a river flow diversion towards the left bank side through gravity flow in a 2.5-inch diameter pipe (24X7 hours) for domestic as well as for irrigation supply to agriculture patches towards Khetwala and Company Bag area. The approximate stream flow tapped in the gravity flow pipe (2.5 inches dia) may be about 40 lpm for 24 hours and therefore, total water utilization may be equal to 40*60*24 = 57600 liters/day = 57.6 m3 *365 = 21024 m3/year = 0.021024 MCM per year.

(v) There are 3 - perennial springs near Massy Fall (S-7, S-8,-S-9) besides several visible traces of upland hill seepage contributing to river flow. All the three springs are untapped and contributing to Rispana River flow in lean season significantly. Discharge of these three springs were monitored from September 2018 to May 2019. The details of available discharge in these three springs are presented in chapter 2 (Section 2.4.3) in Table no. 2.10. The plots of spring flow during lean period of the year is presented in Fig.2.11 in chapter 2. There is zero water utilization from these springs.

(vi) Also, Oak Grove School at Jharipani utilizes Rispana River water to meet drinking water supply and other domestic water needs. It is assumed that the requirement of this school may be similar to that of other schools. The estimated supply of water for Oak Grove School may be = 45*60*8 liters /day =21600 liters/day =7884 m3/year = 0.007884 MCM/year.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 39 (vii) River flow tapping at the Shikhar Fall for domestic water supply in Rajpur area is one of the major piped gravity flow withdrawal from Riapana. This system has withdrawal capacity of about 14 mld. Thus total annual water utilization of river flow from this place is about (14/1000)*365 = 5.11 MCM

(viii) In Nalapani catchment site, in Ladpur area a major Spring (S-19) has significant perennial flow and water this spring is stored in a storage tank of about 60000 litter capacity. It is assumed that this tank gets filled once in day and subsequently distributed for domestic supply. Thus total annual water utilization from this spring is equal to 0.06 mld *365. This is equal to 0.0219 MCM.

Thus, total annual water utilization of water in the Rispana through major sources is about 5.2000226 MCM. Summary of estimated annual water utilization from springs and river flow in Rispana catchment is given in Table 3.2 below.

Table 3.2: Summary of estimated annual water utilization in Rispana catchment

Sl. No. Particulars of water utilization Annual Volume in MCM 1 Spring water utilization by Wood Stock School from spring 0.02365 Mussoorie 2 Spring water utilization by Northern Railway School and 0.015768 Wynberg Allen School, Mussoorie 3 Piped gravity flow -- Domestic as well as for irrigation supply to 0.021024 agriculture patches to Khetwala and Company Bag area 4 Water utilization by Oak Grove School at Jharipani, 0.007884 5 River flow tapping at the Shikhar Fall for domestic water supply 5.1100 6 Spring water utilization for domestic supply in Ladpur area. 0.02190 Total water utilization at major setups in Rispana catchment 5.200226

Estimation of Water Required to Maintain flow in Rispana River in lean season (Nov- May)

The River course of Rispana below the Rajpur Canal Head usually run dry from November to May (i.e. for 7 months) and therefore, an attempt has been made to estimate addition water required to keep continuous flow in Rispana River system in lean period for 7-months.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 40 It is considered that continuous flow is required to maintain in 10 m river breadth and the minimum flow depth is about 6-inches (i.e.,15 cm). The average slope of the river course between the Rajpur Canal Head (RL=897 m above msl) and the outlet at confluence with Bindal river (RL = 581 m above msl) and the river length is about 16.5 km. Therefore, the average slope of the river course is about 1.91%. For this section of the river with minimum flow depth of 15 cm the flow velocity in river has been estimated using Manning‟s for formula. 1 V  * R 2 / 3 * S 1/ 2 n ………………………………….. (3.4) Where, n= Manning‟s roughness coefficient (taken as 0,03 in this case), R is hydraulic radius in, m and the S is slope of the river bed. The R = A/P, A is flow cross section and the p is wetted perimeter of flow section in m. Losses to groundwater (GW) during lean season flow period has been assumed as 10% of flow volume. The details of estimate of water requirement to keep continuous flow in the Rispana River are presented in Table 3.3. From the Table 1.3, it can be seen that the total estimated volume of net water required to keep continuous flow in the Rispana River during lean season (November to May, i.e., for 212 days) is about 34.95142 MCM. Considering losses from river flowing to groundwater (@10%, i.e 3.495142 MCM) the total water requirement is about 38.44656 MCM.

Table 3.3: Flow required to keep continuous flow in Rispana River during lean period (Nov- May) Sl. No. Particulars of flow volume estimation Value of factors/ Parameters 1 Considered breadth of flow in river course, in m 10 2 Minimum depth of flow, in cm 15 3 Cross sectional areas of flow (A), in sq. m 1.5 4 Wetted perimeter of flow section (P), in m 10.3354 5 Estimated Hydraulic radius, A/P, in m 0.145132 6 Manning roughness coefficient, n 0.03 7 Ave. Slope of river bed 1.91 % 8 Estimated Velocity of flow (V), m/s 1.272108 9 Estimate Discharge required to maintain flow, in m3/s 1.908162 10 Volume of Annual Water requirement, in MCM 34.95142 MCM 11 Loss to GW during lean season flow @10%, in MCM 3.495142 MCM Total Volume of water required to keep continuous flow in Rispana 38.44656 MCM during November to May in MCM

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 41 Summary The annual water budgeting for Rispana catchment has been carried out using simple water balance approach. The catchment annually receives total annual inflow of water from rainfall (average RF = 2247 mm) in the order of about 120.102 MCM. Out of the above inflow in to the catchment an estimated amount of about 55.60717 MCM goes as out flow in the form of evapotranspiration and as runoff about 40.939 MCM annually. The remaining amount of rainfall goes in to the sub surface as a part of groundwater recharge and it is estimated from simple water balance is equal to 23.556 MCM. There is utilization of water by various schools, villages and water supply institutions in urban areas particularly for domestic/drinking purposes. Also, a minor part of this is being used for irrigation of crops in small patches. The total utilization of water from major springs and river flow tapping is about 5.2000226 MCM. This spring flows and amount of river flows in lean season is actually the part of groundwater recharge from rainfall.

The annual water requirement to keep continuous flow in Rispana River in lean season (Nov- May) in a defined section of river course with 10 m breadth and 15 cm depth has been estimated as 38.44656 MCM. This amount annual water requirement appears quite high compared to the total average annual runoff (40.939 MCM) generated from the Rispana catchment. Further, there is limitation of water storage sites in the Rispana catchment because the upper hilly reaches have greater slopes (>10%) and the lower reaches are occupied in urban settlement of Dehradun city. Hence, it may not be feasible to create storages of required amount for lean season to make Rispana flowing. Therefore, the other land and water management options need to be explored to enhance ground water recharge to maximum extent possible.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 42 CHAPTER 4

HYDROGEOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION AND MAPPING

Geology and hydrology of the Rispana Basin play a vital role in planning for its rejuvenation. Keeping this in view the National Institute of Hydrology (NIH), Roorkee assigned the work of hydrological characterization to the Doon Hydrological and Environmental Solutions, Dehradun vide its Work Order No.5 (XXVII)22018-Pur-2 dated 8th November, 2018. The primary objective was to carry out the hydrogeological characterization and mapping of Rispana basin as a part of the major study on “Preparation of Strategic Land and Water Management Plan for Rejuvenation of Rispana River System” entrusted by Uttarakhand Irrigation Dept. Dehradun to NIH Roorkee. The scope of this work assigned to Doon Hydrological and Environmental Solutions, Dehradun was to study to study the following aspects.

(a) Rock type, their extensions and the geological map (b) Geological structures like folds, faults, joints and fractures (c) Springs and groundwater recharge sites and recharge potential (d) Hydrogeological properties of the geological formation (e) Groundwater condition (f) Type of aquifers and their extensions (g) Hydrograph studies of groundwater levels (h) Hydro-geological map, Hydrographs, recharge site map, and GIS drawings.

Introduction

Rispana River is the right hand tributary of . Rispana, sensustricto a perennial river, but the anthropogenic activities have turned it into a seasonal river. The river flood plains and the main river course are encroached to construct houses. The river course, in verity, has been strangulated. The most striking features of the Rispana River course and basin are the diverse nature of the terrain it flows through and the altitudinal difference.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 43 Initially the river has its course through the hard rocks for a distance of 11.5km and rest through the alluvial terrain which is carved through the central part of Doon Valley. The properties of both the terrains are in significant contrast. The representative views of the Rispana valley in the hilly and plain terrains are shown in Fig. 4.1 and 4.2, respectively. The Central part of the Doon Valley is comparatively plain.

The study area forms part of the Intermontane Doon Valley which is bounded on the north by the Lesser and Siwalik Hills on the south. Rispana River emerges from the Lesser Himalayas, flows through their southern slopes and central part of the Doon Valley. Rispana joins Binadal River in the foot hill zone of Asarori Reef which is a part of the Siwalik Hills. The slope distribution Rispana catchment is shown in Fig.4.3.

Fig. 4.1: View of Rispana Valley in Hilly Terrain

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 44

Fig. 4.2: View of Rispana Valley in the plain area

Area vs. Slope distribution of the Rispana Basin

7.7

7.3 0 -10 %

28.7 10 - 15% 2.2

2.8 15 - 20%

4.9 20 - 25% 25 - 50%

> 50%

Fig. 4.3: Slope distribution of Rispana catchment

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 45 Geology

The general geological sequence of the rock formations encountered in the area is given in Table 4.1. The disposition of the rocks has been shown in Fiig.4.4.

Table 4.1: Lithostratigraphic sequence in Rispana Valley, District Dehradun

Group Formation Lithology Age Doon Gravel Poorly sorted admixture of sub-angular to angular cobbles, pebbles, gravels and boulders in a sandy and silty matrix. Characterized by the presence of thick yellow to red coloured clay bands. Holocene Quaternary Unconformity Deposits _ Older Doon Gravel

Unassortedsubrounded (ellipsoidal) boulders and pebbles dominantly of Upper Late Siwalik Formation embedded in Pleistocene a sand-clay matrix. Upper Siwalik Thinly bedded massive conglomerate in Upper sandy matrix and interbedded sandstone. Pliocene to Pleistocene SIWALIK Middle Siwalik Multistoried sandstone with pebbles and mudstone, siltstone. Grey micaceous Upper sandstone with planar stratification. Miocene to *Lower Siwalik -----Unconformity------Pliocene *Tal --- Karol Thinly bedded purple and maroon shale with Precambrian subordinate bands of dolomite, massive dark grey and blue grey crystalline limestone, dolomitic limestone with shale and dark limestone with shale and siltstone, gray Lesser Blaini –white banded dolomite. Precambrian Himalayas Polymictic conglomerate with rounded and sub- rounded clasts of wackes grey and black slates, phylltes and variegated sandstones with purple – green shales and red limestone set in grey carbonaceous politic matrix. Nagthat Purple fawn, white, green and red coloured Precambrian quartzite. Chandpur Olive green, grey and purple phyllite, Precambrian interbedded with quartzite and slate, mica- siltstones and grewackes. *Not exposed in Rispana Valley

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 46 Rispana River forms part of Intermontane Doon Valley. The Doon Valley has an east- west extension. Geologically the northern part is represented by the rock formations of Lesser Himalaya and the southern part by the Siwalik Group of rocks. Rock formations of Lower Siwaliks are not exposed in this part of sub Himalayas and Tal formation is not exposed in Rispana Valley. The description of the exposed formations is given below:

Fig. 4.4. Geological map of Rispana Basin

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 47 Chandpur Formation The Chandpur Formation is very well exposed in the Shanshahi Asharm- Shikhar fall section (Fig. 4.5). In this section they are highly crushed and covered with weathered material and vegetation too. The best exposures are available in Godamkhala and Shanshahi Asharm- Jharipani sections. The Chandpur Formation exposed in Shanshai Ashram – Jharipani section are given in Fig. 4.6. The rocks of Chandpur Formation, in the study area, occur in tectonic contact with the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). Chandpur Formation mainly comprises of olive green, gray and purple phyllite interbedded with quartzite, slates and ash beds. In the Main Thrust Zone the phyllite is crushed and brecciated indicating brittle deformation.

Fig. 4.5. Chandpur Phyllites in Godamkhala

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 48

Figure 4.6: Chandpur Phyllites in Shanshahi Ashram – Jharipani section

Nagthat Formation

The rocks of Nagthat Formation overlie the rocks of Chandpur Formation. They are best exposed along the Shanshahi Ashram – Jharipani section (Fig. 4.7). The contact between the Chandpur Phyllites and Nagthat Quartzites is a faulted one. The rocks along the contact are badly shattered (Fig.4.8). Nagthat Formation comprises of purple, fawn, white, green and red colored quartzites. Quartzites themselves are badly sheared (Fig. 4.9).

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 49

Fig. 4.7: Nagthat Quartzite in Jharipani section

Fig. 4.8: Shattering of rocks on the contact zone between Chandpur and Nagthat

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 50

Fig. 4.9: Shear zone in Nagthat Quartzites

Blaini Formation

Blaini Formation overlies the Nagthat Formation. Blaini Formation comprises of two members: (1) The lower one is made up of two horizons of polymictic conglomerates with rounded and sub rounded clasts of wackes grey and black slates and variegated sandstones with purple-green shales and red limestone set in grey carbonaceous pelitic matrix, and (2) the fine grained muddy sandstone or wacke intercalacted with predominant slates of olive –green, grey black color often finely banded slates. Blaini occurs in the form of boulders. The Blaini boulder bed is shown in Fig.4.10. The thickness of Blaini Formation, in Shanshahi Ashram – Jharipani section, is about 15 m. The outcrop of the Blaini Beds as exposed in this section are shown in Fig.4.11.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 51

Fig. 4.10: Blaini boulder bed

Fig. 4.11. Blainies in Shahanshahi Ashram- Jharipani-section

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 52 Krol Formation

The Krol Formation comprises of thinly bedded purple and maroon shale with subordinate bands of dolomite, massive dark gray and blue crystalline limestone and dark limestone with slate and siltstone, grey, white banded dolomite. Krol limestone in Shanshahi Ashram – Jharipani section has outcrops of limited thickness. The dolomitic limestone with sinkholes is shown in Fig.4.12. These outcrops are extended in Shikharfall section where they show prominent solution activities (Fig.4.13). The bluish grey crystalline limestone is exposed around Landour area. The Krol dolomitic limestone exposed near Jharipani is shown in Fig.4.14. Dolomitic Limestone is extensively exposed in the hills downslope side of Landour. Large sinkholes and caverns are developed in the dolomitic limestone in this area (Fig.4.15).

Fig. 4.12 Dolomitic Limestone in Shanshahi Ashram-Jharipani section

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Fig. 4.13: Solution activities in dolomitic limestone

Fig. 4.14: Dolomitic limestone near Jharipani

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Fig. 4.15: Cavernous dolomitic limestone, Landour area

Doon Gravels

Doon Gravel is an alluvial formation formed of the deposition of riverine sediments on the lower portion of the southern slopes of Mussoorie Hill Ranges and the comparatively plain areas of Doon Valley. They represent the younger coarse clastic deposits of Holocene age filling the synclinal structural depression. The Doon Gravels consists of sediment deposited in the form of large fans, farming the Principal Dun Fan. They are characterized by the presence of very large boulders present in debris flow and braided river deposits. This unit is exposed all along the Rispana Valley downslope of village Marketi. The Doon Gravels consist of poorly sorted mixture of subangular cobbles, pebbles, gravels and boulders occurring in a sandy and silty matrix. The exposure of Doon Gravels in Rispana Valley is shown in Fig.4.16.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 55

Fig. 4.16. Doon Gravels in Rispana Valley

Hydrogeological Characterization

The groundwater movement and occurrence is mainly controlled by the hydrogeological attributes of the rocks and topography. From hydrogeological point of view the Rispana Basin may be classified into two groups, viz: (1) Hard Rocks (2) Alluvium. The topography shows distinct differences. There is a sudden break in topography near village Makreti. The altitude of the area around village Makreti is of the order of 1000m. It gets a sudden jump of about 800m and ranges up to 2260m in the higher reaches of Rispana Basin.The high topographic relief is associated with the hard rocks and the central part of Doon Valley is associated with the Alluvial Formation which is boulder dominated and has been termed as Doon Gravels in the present study area. The hydrogeology of both the groups is discussed below:

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 56 Hard Rocks

As discussed under the sub head of geology, the Chandpur, Naghat, Blaini and Krol are formed of hard rocks. Their spatial distribution has been shown in Fig. 4.4. The southern boundary is formed of the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). Virtually the spurt in altitude coincides with the Main Boundary Thrust which passes from a place in the immediate northern neighborhood of Shanshahi Ashram. The main rock types are phyllites, quartzites and dolomitic lime stones. Phyllites and quartzites have very poor primary porosity. The secondary porosity due to structures is also limited. At places the secondary porosity and permeability is developed due to weathering. But this is of local nature. The dolomitic limestone also lacks the primary porosity and permeability. The solution activities have developed fairly good secondary porosity. The sinkholes vary in size up to few meter. The small and large size sinkholes as developed in krol Limestone have been shown in Fig.4.17 and Fig.4.18, respectively. These sink holes and other solution activities have developed the secondary porosity in the dolomitic limestone of krol Formation. The water passing through the caverns and sink holes contribute to the occurrence and movement of groundwater. Most the groundwater moves out through these structures due to high slope and makes the Rispana to flow. The storage of water within the aquifer is less and the slope is more than 20%. The aquifer is developed in pockets and the continuous water table does not exist, the aquifers so developed are not worthy of groundwater development. Groundwater manifests in the form of springs and seepages.

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Fig. 4.17: Small size sink holes in Krol Limestone

Fig. 4.18: Larger size sink holes in Krol Limestone

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 58 Alluvium

The alluvial deposits of fluvial and coluvial origin in the lower reaches of Rispana Basin in the form of fans and terraces are highly porous and permeable and hold promising areas for groundwater development. The intermantane valley is filled with a number of large alluvial fans and their sediments which descend from Lesser Himalayas and north facing Siwalik Hill slopes called as Doon Gravelsare characterized by very coarse boulders embedded in sandy and silty matrix. The clasts are mainly composed of quartzite, limestone, sandstone and phyllite, which are derived mainly from the Chandpur, Nagthat ,Blaini and Krol Formation of Lesser Himalayas. Pebbles from Upper Shiwalk conglomerate are also present in the Doon Gravels.

Doon Gravels are highly porous and permeable geological formation. They can store and transmit groundwater and form potential aquifers. Groundwater occurs and phreatic conditions. The Depth to Water (DTW) is shallower towards the Siwalik Hills.

The DTW increases on moving towards Lesser Himalayas as it is slope dependent. The DTW ranges from 6.0 m to about 100m bgl. Groundwater in earlier days was developed through dug wells for the water levels were shallow and technology of drilling through boulders was not developed and effectively implemented. The groundwater now is being developed through tubewells. The suitably constructed tubewells at proper sites may smoothly yield groundwater @1500 -2000 lpm.

Estimation of Recharge Using GEC Method

Rainfall is the main source of recharge to the aquifers in the study area. The altitudinal difference affects the amount of rainfall received in hilly and intermantane valley part of the study area. The normal rainfall of Mussoorie rain gauge station has been used for the recharge estimation of the hilly area (10.262 km2) and the normal rainfall of Dehradun rain gauge station is used for the intermontane valley portion (43.188 km2). There are two methods of groundwater recharge estimation, viz: (1) Rainfall Infiltration Factor (RIF) method and (2) Water Table Fluctuation (WTF) method (GEC, 1997). A

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 59 continuous water table does not exist in the hilly area and the water table monitoring data of an adequate size are not available for the valley portion. And hence RIF method has been used for the estimation of groundwater recharge in Rispana Basin.

In RIF method the recharge is estimated separately for monsoon and non-monsoon periods using the normal rainfall data. In the present study 50 years IMD- normal data available up to 1980, have been used. The recharge is estimated for the non-monsoon period if the non – monsoon rainfall exceeds 10% of the monsoon rainfall. The recharge is given by the following relationship:

Recharge (m3)= Area (km2) X Normal rainfall (m) X Rainfall Infiltration Factor X 106

The recharge estimation for both the areas has been discussed below:

Hilly area: The normal monsoon and non-monsoon rainfall for Mussoorie are 1942.2 mm and 304.8 mm, respectively. The Rainfall Infiltration Factor is taken 0.05 (GEC, 1997). The recharge estimation is given in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Recharge estimation for the Hilly Area

Area Monsoon Non- Rainfall Monsoon Non- monsoon Total (km2) Rainfall monsoon Infiltration Period Period Recharge (m) Rainfall Factor Recharge Recharge (MCM) (m) (m3) (m3) 10.262 1.9422 0.3048 0.05 996542.82 156392.88 1.153

Intermontane Valley Area:

The intermontane valley is spread over an area of 43.188 km2. The monsoon and non- monsoon rainfall are 1942.2mm and 304.8 mm, respectively. The GEC (1997) has recommended RIF value as 0.22 for alluvium aquifer areas and 0.20 for forested area. The recharge estimation is given in Table 4.3.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 60 Table 4.3: Recharge estimation for Intermontane valley area

Area (km2) Monsoon Non- Rainfall Monsoon Non- Total Rainfall monsoon Infiltration Period monsoon Recharge (m) Rainfall Factor Recharge Period (MCM) (m) (m3) Recharge (m3) Urban 40.876 1.9422 0.3048 0.22 17465660.78 2740981.056 20.207 (Alluvial Plain) Forested 2.312 1.9422 0.3048 0.20 898073.28 140939.52 1.039 hillocks around Nala Pani Total recharge from rainfall 21.246

Total quantum of recharge in Rispana Basin is estimated to be 22.399 MCM.

4.12 Remarks

The anthropogenic activities in catchment has changed the natural fabric of the Rispana basin. The geology, physiography and rainfall are the primary factors controlling the water infiltration, percolation, residence time within the geological formation and its subsurface and on the surface movement. There is contrasting difference between the disposition and properties of the rock formation of the hilly terrain and the non-hilly terrain. The hilly terrain is represented by the Chandur Phyllites, Nagthat Quartzites, Blaini Boulder Beds and rocks of Krol Group. The non- hilly portion is represented by the Doon Gravel Gravels. Hydrogeologically the hilly terrain forms the recharge zone and the non-hilly terrain, specifically in the central part of the intermontane valley forms the discharge zone. For river flow rejuvenation, in water retention activities need to be be concentrated in the recharge zone. The anthropological activities affecting the river health in the discharge zone need to be checked. The Chanpur Phyllites and Nagthat Quartzites are hard and compact rocks with the absence of primary porosity and permeability. The carbonate rocks of the Krol Group are the main contributors to the river flow and these rocks are suitable to construct recharge structures. The treatment measures or structures promoting infiltration and percolation constructed on carbonate rocks are technically feasible and economically viable.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 61 CHAPTER 5

ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY, SOURCE IDENTIFICATION AND RECOMMENDATION FOR QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

Unsustainable water uses and over exploitation of precious surface and groundwater resource cause depletion and deterioration. In addition, the fresh water resources are getting polluted due to the indiscriminate discharge of pollutants from habitation and industries. River Rispana is not an exception, and the health of Rispana has dropped over the years and drastically in the past few years. The river which used to be the home to small fishes and the children used to play on its banks has become the dump yard of both solid and liquid wastes from the town. The wastewater entering in the river is mostly untreated making the present condition of river an absolutely unfavorable situation for the ecology, therefore, to arrive at an effective management plan the information related to quality of water is needed.

In order to estimate the river health status and pollution load contributors, it is essential to analyze the water quality of river and drains. This helps in preparing the mitigation measures for the revival of the river. The parameters for estimating the physical, chemical and bacteriological status includes pH, temperature, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), major ions, trace metals, and coliforms (EC and TC).

River Water Sampling & Preservation In order to understand the impact of indiscriminate discharge of untreated wastewater and solid waste into the river, grab water samples were collected on monthly basis during February 2019 to April 2019 from 12 locations (Landour Bazar, WHS Pump House, WHS Landour Bazar, WHS Rispana, Mossy Fall, Jharipani Fall, Shikhar Fall, Rajpur Canal Diversion, Rispana Tail, Rispana up-Stream STP and Rispana STP) spread across the entire river stretch as per established standard methods and

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 62 procedures. The details of water samples collected for analysis of various parameters is provided in Table 5.1. The map showing the sampling locations is given in Fig. 5.1.

The water samples for physico-chemical and trace metals were collected in pre- cleaned 500 ml polyethylene bottle and for bacteriological parameters in sterilized 250 ml polyethylene bottle. Samples for dissolved oxygen (DO) were collected in a 300 ml borosil winkler bottles, and preserved by adding 1 ml manganese sulfate (MnSO4) and 1 ml alkaline iodide azide, taking precautions to avoid any trapping of atmospheric oxygen. Samples for chemical oxygen demand (COD) were collected in 100 ml polyethylene bottles and preserved by adding 0.2 ml sulfuric acid (H2SO4). For toxic trace metals, samples were collected in 60 ml polyethylene bottles and 0.3 ml nitric acid (HNO3) was added to preserve. The sampling bottles were labelled for location, parameters, date, and time at the time of sampling and were stored in ice box at 4 0C. The samples were analyzed for BOD and bacteriological parameters within 24 hrs. of sampling. Other parameters were analyzed within 7 days of sampling.

Table 5.1: Surface water samples collected from Rispana River

S. Sample Location Source Latitude Longitude No. ID Domestic 1 Landour Bazar R-1 30º27′17″ 78º05′19″ wastewater 2 WHS Pump House R-2 River 30º26′31″ 78º05′43″ 3 WHS Landour Bazar R-3 River 30º 26′91″ 78º05′64″ 4 WHS Rispana R-4 River 30º 26′26″ 78º05′55″ 5 Mossy Fall R-5 River 30º26′20″ 78º05′42″ 6 Jharipani Fall R-6 River 30º25′32″ 78º05′06″ 7 Shikhar Fall R-7 River 30º24′45″ 78º05′54″ 8 Rajpur Canal Diversion R-8 River 30º23′37″ 78º05′56″ Rispana River opp. 9 R-9 River 30º22′41″ 78º05′27″ Luxuria Farm 10 Rispana up-Stream STP R-10 River 30º15′73″ 78º02′35″ 11 Rispana Tail R-11 River 30º18′24″ 78º01′79″ 12 Rispana STP STP STP Treated Water 30º15′45″ 78º02′28″

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 63

Fig. 5.1: Sampling Locations

Analytical Methodology

All chemicals used for analysis were of analytical reagent grade (Merck-BDH). Standard solutions of metals ions were procured from Merck, Germany. De-ionized water was used throughout the analysis work. All glassware and other containers used for trace metal analysis were thoroughly cleaned by soaking in detergent followed by soaking in 10% nitric acid for 48 hours and finally rinsed with de-ionized water several times prior to use. The samples were analyzed as per Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, 2019). The details of analytical methods and equipment used

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 64 in the study are given in Table 5.2. Ionic balance was calculated and the error in the ionic balance for majority of the samples was within 5%. Table 5.2: Analytical Methods and Equipments used in the Study Sr. Parameter Method Equipment Used No. A. Physicochemical 1 pH Electrometric HACH-HQ40D Multi Meter 2 Electrical Conductivity Electrometric 3 Temperature Thermometer 4 Turbidity Nephelometric HACH-2100Q Turbidity meter 5 Total Dissolved Solids Gravimetric Method Oven & Balance 6 Bicarbonate Titration by H2SO4 Digital Burette 7 Calcium 8 Magnesium 9 Sodium 10 Potassium Metrohm 930 Compact IC Flex Conductivity Method 11 Chloride Ion chromatography 12 Fluoride 13 Nitrate 14 Sulfate Silicomolybdate 15 Silica DR 2800™ Spectrophotometer method C. Trace-Heavy Metals 16 Arsenic 17 Cadmium 18 Total Chromium Digestion followed by 19 Copper Inductively Coupled 20 Zinc Optical Emission ICP-MS 21 Iron Spectrometry (ICP- 22 Aluminum OES) 23 Manganese 24 Nickel 25 Lead D. Pollution Indicating Parameter 26 Dissolved Oxygen Modified Winkler Azide Digital Burette Biochemical Oxygen 27 Respirometric Incubator and WTW-Oxitop Demand COD digester and Digital 28 Chemical Oxygen Demand K2Cr2O7 digestion burette E. Bacteriological 29 Total coliform MPN Method IDEXX Colilert Analysis Kit 30 E-coli

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 65 Results and Discussion

pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) pH is one of the most important parameter in water chemistry and is defined as log[H+], and is measured as intensity of acidity or alkalinity on a scale ranging from „0‟ to „14‟. In natural water, pH is governed by the equilibrium between carbon dioxide, bicarbonate and carbonates ions and in general, ranges between pH 4.5 to 8.5. Although pH has no direct impact on the health of consumers, it is one of the most important operational water quality parameter. BIS (2012) have prescribed pH value in the range of 6.5 to 8.5 for water used for drinking purpose. The effect of pH on fish is also an important consideration and values which depart increasingly from the normally found levels will have a more and more marked effect on fish, leading ultimately to mortality. The range of pH suitable for fisheries is considered to be 5.0- 9.0, though 6.5-8.5 is preferable (EPA, 2001). CPCB also recommends pH value of 6.5 – 8.5 for the propagation of wildlife and fisheries. The results of the analysis of water samples collected from the river is presented in Fig. 5.2. The pH of the samples varied from 6.8 to 7.8. The pH of all the samples were within the desired limits.

Min. Acceptable Limit Max. Acceptable Limit 9.0

8.0 7.0 6.0

5.0 pH 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.2: Average pH value of river & STP

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the ability of an aqueous solution to carry an electric current. This ability depends on the presence of ions; on their total

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 66 concentration, mobility, and valence; and on the temperature of measurement. The electrical conductivity and dissolved salt concentrations are directly related to the concentration of ionized substance in water and may also be related to problems of excessive hardness and-or other mineral contamination. The overall range of the electrical conductivity varied between 371 µS/cm and 1050 µS/cm in the water samples (Fig. 5.3). The wastewater from Landour Bazar seems to be quite contaminated with significant amount of dissolved solids. CPCB & BIS prescribe less than 1000 µS/cm conductivity water for propagation of wildlife and fisheries (BIS, 1982).

1200

1000

800

600

400 (µS/cm) Conductivity 200

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP

Sample ID Fig. 5.3: Average conductivity value of river & STP

5.3.2 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) TDS in water includes all dissolved material in solution, whether ionized or not. TDS is numerical sum of all mineral constituents dissolved in water and is expressed in mg/l. TDS in river-water originates from natural sources, sewage, urban runoff and industrial wastewater. Concentrations of TDS in water vary considerably in different geological regions owing to differences in the solubility of minerals. The palatability of water with a total dissolved solids (TDS) level of less than about 600 mg/l is generally considered to be good; drinking-water becomes significantly and increasingly unpalatable at TDS levels greater than about 1000 mg/l. No health-based guideline value for TDS has been proposed (WHO, 2011). BIS (2012) have prescribed 500 mg/l

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 67 as the acceptable limit and 2000 mg/l as permissible limit in absence of alternate source for drinking and other domestic usage. Based on TDS contents, water can be classified in to four categories as fresh, brackish, saline and brine water (Table 5.3). TDS of the 100% of analyzed water samples fall in the category of fresh water (Fig.5.4). Moreover, the TDS of samples at around 50% locations were with the acceptable limit (500mg/l) prescribed by BIS (2012) for drinking water purposes.

Acceptable Limit 700

600

500

400

300 TDS(mg/l) 200

100

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig.5.4: Average TDS of river & STP

Table 5.3: Classification of Water Based On Total Dissolved Solids

TDS (mg/l) Water Quality % Samples

0 – 1,000 Fresh Water 100%

1,000 – 10,000 Brackish Water Nil

10,000 – 100,000 Saline Water Nil

>100,000 Brine Nil

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 68 5.3.3 Alkalinity

Bicarbonates contribute to alkalinity (acid neutralizing capacity), and BIS (2012) has prescribed 200 mg/l as acceptable limit and 600 mg/l as permissible limit in absence of alternate source for drinking and other domestic usage. The alkalinity of the water samples of the study area varies between 144 mg/l to 448 mg/l (Fig.5.5). Alkalinity in all the water samples analyzed were well within the permissible limit (600 mg/l).

Acceptable Limit Permissible Limit

700

600

500

400

300

Alkalinity (mg/l as CaCO3) as (mg/l Alkalinity 200

100

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.5: Average alkalinity of river & STP

Chloride (Cl-) The chloride concentration in the collected samples of the study area, varies between 0.9 mg/l to 54.4 mg/l (Fig. 5.6). BIS (2012) has prescribed chloride concentration 250 mg/l as acceptable limit and 1000 mg/l as permissible limit in absence of alternate source for drinking and other domestic usage. Chloride concentrations in all the analyzed samples were within the acceptable limit prescribed by BIS. Moreover, no health-based guideline value is proposed for chloride in drinking-water.

-2 Sulfate (SO4 ) Sulfate in drinking-water can cause noticeable taste, and very high levels might cause a laxative effect in unaccustomed consumers. Taste impairment varies with the nature of the associated cation; taste thresholds have been found to range from 250 mg/l for sodium sulfate to 1000 mg/l for calcium sulfate. High sulfate levels in drinking water

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 69 results in gastro-intestinal disorders, and hence, it is recommended that health authorities be notified of sources of drinking water that contain sulfate concentrations in excess of 500 mg/l (WHO, 2011). BIS (2012) has prescribed 200 mg/l as acceptable limit and 400 mg/l as permissible limit for sulfate in absence of alternate source for drinking and other domestic usage. The sulfate concentration in the water samples of the study area varies between 26.1 mg/l to 338.4 mg/l. The sulfate concentration in river water stretch between Mossy Fall to Rajpur Canal Diversion exceed the acceptable limit, however, is within the permissible limit at all locations (Figure 5.7). 60

50

40

30

Chloride (mg/l) Chloride 20

10

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.6: Average chloride concentration of river & STP

450 Acceptable Limit Permissible Limit

400

350 300 250 200

Sulfate (mg/l) Sulfate 150 100 50 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.7: Average sulfate concentration of river & STP

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 70 3− - + Nitrate (NO ), Nitrite (NO2 ), & Ammonium (NH4 ) Inorganic nitrogenous compounds comprising of nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium are highly soluble in water. These are found naturally in the environment and are an important plant nutrient. Nitrate is present at varying concentrations in all plants and is a part of the nitrogen cycle. Nitrate can reach both surface water and groundwater as a consequence of agricultural activity (including excess application of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers and manures), from wastewater disposal and from oxidation of nitrogenous waste products in human and animal excreta, including septic tanks. Surface water nitrate concentrations can change rapidly owing to surface runoff of fertilizer, uptake by phytoplankton and denitrification by bacteria. The presence of nitrate in drinking water is a potential health hazard when present in large quantities. Nitrites are formed by reduction of nitrate in the human body, which combines with hemoglobin in the blood to form methemoglobin that leads to methaemoglobinaemia (blue baby syndrome) in infants. The combination of nitrates with amines, amides, or other nitrogenous compounds through the action of bacteria in the digestive tract results in the formation of nitrosamines, which are potentially carcinogenic. According to the Indian Standard for drinking water (IS 10500:2012), the maximum allowable nitrate concentration in drinking water is 45 mg/l as NO3. The concentration of nitrate in the study area water samples ranges from non-detectable (ND) to 60.0 mg/l (Fig.5.8). Concentration of nitrite and ammonium ranged from ND-8.1 mg/l and ND- 57.7 mg/l respectively (Fig.5.9 & 5.10). Total nitrogen concentration more than 1.5 mg/l denotes poor water quality. High concentration of ammoniacal nitrogen in river water is detrimental to aquatic life. The T-N from nitrate, nitrate and ammonia in the river water samples during monitoring period ranged from 0.1 mg/l to 45 mg/l. Highest nitrogen concentration was observed in the water coming from Landour Bazar and requires treatment. The nitrogen concentration in the river water was again observed to increase after Luxaria Farm due to influx of domestic water from nearby habitation/encroachment and low flows.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 71 50 Acceptable Limit 40

30

20

(mg/l) Nitrate 10

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.8: Average nitrate concentration of river & STP

8 7

6

5 4

3 Nitrite (mg/l) Nitrite 2 1 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.9: Average nitrite concentration of river & STP

50 45

40 35 30 25 20 15 Ammonium (mg/l) Ammonium 10 5 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig.5.10: Average ammonium concentration of river & STP

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 72 Fluoride (F-) Fluoride is found in all natural waters at some concentration. Seawater typically contains about 1 mg/l while rivers and lakes generally exhibit concentrations of less than 0.5 mg/l. Many epidemiological studies have shown that fluoride in drinking water has a narrow range between intakes that cause beneficial and detrimental health effects. Fluoride intake to humans is necessary as long as it does not exceed the limits. The WHO (2011) and BIS (2012) estimates the maximum allowable limit for fluoride uptake to human‟s in drinking water as 1.5 mg/l. Excess fluoride intake causes different types of fluorosis, primarily dental and skeletal fluorosis. Concentration of fluoride in the water samples varies between 0.1 mg/l to 0.86 mg/l (Fig.5.11). 1.2 Acceptable Limit 1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4 Fluoride (mg/l) ) (mg/l) Fluoride

0.2

0.0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID

Fig. 5.11: Average fluoride concentration of river & STP

5.3.8 Total Hardness (TH) Hardness in water is caused by a variety of dissolved polyvalent metallic ions, predominantly calcium and magnesium cations. It is usually expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate per litre. The degree of hardness of drinking-water is important for aesthetic acceptability by consumers. Hardness is the property of water which prevents the lather (foam) formation with the soap. Hardness is classified in four categories as soft water, hard water, moderately hard water and very hard water (Table 5.4).

Drinking-water can be a contributor to calcium and magnesium intake and could be important for those who are marginal for calcium and magnesium. Consumers are

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 73 likely to notice changes in hardness. The taste threshold for the calcium ion is in the range of 100 mg/l – 300 mg/l, depending on the associated anion, and the taste threshold for magnesium is probably lower than that for calcium. In some instances, consumers tolerate water hardness in excess of 500 mg/l. BIS (2012) has prescribed 200 mg/l as acceptable limit and 600 mg/l as permissible limit in absence of alternate source for drinking and other domestic usage. No health-based guideline value is proposed for hardness in drinking-water (WHO, 2011). The hardness of the water samples ranged from 151.7 mg/l to 543.6 mg/l (Fig 5.12). 84.8% samples were falling under very hard water class while remaining samples were under hard water classification. The concentration of calcium in the river water samples during monitoring period were in the range of 41.7 – 123.8 mg/l. The concentration of magnesium in the samples varied from 0.5 mg/l to 59.4 mg/l.

Table 5.4: Hardness Classification of Water Hardness Water Class % Samples (mg/l) 0-75 Soft -- 75-150 Moderately hard -- 150-300 Hard 15.2 >300 Very hard 84.8

700 Acceptable Limit Permissible Limit

600

500 400 300 200 100 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP

Total Hardness (mg/l as CaCO3) as (mg/l Hardness Total Sample ID Fig. 5.12: Average hardness of river & STP

Sodium & Potassium No health based guideline value has been derived for Na & K, as the contribution from drinking water to daily intake is small (WHO, 2011). Based on taste threshold, the

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 74 recommended concentration of sodium in the water should be less than 200 mg/l. The BIS and WHO has not included K in drinking water standards. However, the EEC has prescribed guideline level of 10 mg/l potassium. The sodium and potassium concentration in the water samples ranged from 2.30 mg/l to 50.16 mg/l and 0.78 mg/l to 27.3 mg/l, respectively (Fig 5.13).

50 Sodium Potassium 45 40

35 30 25

20 Na & K (mg/l) K & Na 15 10 5 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.13: Average sodium and potassium concentration of river & STP

Water Type and Hydro-chemical Facies The Hill and Piper plot is very useful in determining relationships of different dissolved constituents and classification of water on the basis of its chemical characters. The triangular cationic field of Piper diagram reveals that the groundwater samples fall into Ca type class, whereas in anionic triangle majority of the samples fall into bicarbonate field.

The plot of chemical data (Figure 5.14), on diamond shaped central field, which relates the cation and anion triangles, revealed that the major water types in the studied locations were Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4 type. This diagram indicates that the bicarbonate and sulfate are the predominant anions in the water samples while among cations calcium is the dominant cation followed by magnesium. The facies mapping approach applied to the present study shows that Ca-Mg-HCO3 is the dominant hydro geochemical facies in the Rispana river water.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 75

Fig. 5.14: Hill and Piper plot showing water type and different hydro chemical facies

Transition Metal/Metalloid Distribution Transition metals and metalloids in water have a considerable significance due to their toxicity and adsorption behavior. Despite the presence of trace concentrations of Cr, Mn, Co, Cu and Zn in the aquatic environment, which is essential to a number of life processes, high concentrations of these metals become toxic. The major sources of toxic metals in ground and surface water include weathering of rock minerals and waste effluents on land and runoff water. The toxic effects of these elements and extent of their contamination in Rispana water is discussed in the following sections.

Arsenic (As): Arsenic is usually present in natural waters at concentrations of less than 1–2 μg/l. However, in waters, particularly ground waters, where there are sulfide mineral deposits and sedimentary deposits deriving from volcanic rocks, the concentrations can be significantly elevated. Arsenic has not been demonstrated to be essential in humans. Concentration of arsenic in river water varies between 0.0 to 0.0091 mg/l (Fig.5.15). The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 0.010 mg/l as the As desirable limit and 0.050 mg/l as the permissible limit for drinking water (BIS,

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 76 2012). It is evident from the results that none of the collected surface water samples from the study area exceeded the permissible limit. Maximum concentration of As was observed in the samples collected from the river near Luxaria Farms.

Acceptable Limit 10

8

6

Arsenic (ppb) Arsenic 4

2

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID

Fig. 5.15: Average arsenic concentration of river & STP

Aluminum (Al): Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element and constitutes about 8% of Earth‟s crust. High residual concentrations may ensure undesirable color and turbidity. There is little indication that orally ingested aluminum is acutely toxic to humans despite the widespread occurrence of the element in foods, drinking-water and many antacid preparations. It has been hypothesized that aluminum exposure is a risk factor for the development or acceleration of onset of Alzheimer disease in humans. Concentration of Aluminum in river water samples, varies between 0.0 to 1.7779 mg/l (Figure 5.16). The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 0.030 mg/l as the acceptable limit and 0.20 mg/l as the permissible limit for drinking water (BIS, 2012), and 22% samples exceeded the prescribed permissible limit. Maximum concentration of Al was observed in the water coming from Landour Bazar.

Chromium (Cr): In water, chromium occurs in two oxidation states, Cr (III) and Cr (VI). Chromium (III) is an essential human dietary element. It is found in many vegetables, fruits, meats, grains, and yeast, while Chromium (VI) occurs naturally in the environment from the erosion of natural chromium deposits. It can also be produced

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 77 by industrial processes. There are demonstrated instances of chromium being released to the environment by leakage, poor storage, or inadequate industrial waste disposal practices. Concentration of Cr in sampled water varies from 0.0 to 0.005 mg/l (Fig.5.17). The acceptable limit prescribed by BIS (2012) is 0.05 mg/l and all the samples were well with the prescribed value.

1400 Acceptable Limit Permissible Limit

1200

1000

800

600

(ppb) Aluminium 400

200

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.16: Average aluminum concentration of river & STP

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0 (ppb) Chromium 0.5

0.0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.17: Average chromium concentration of river & STP

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 78 Copper (Cu): Copper is both an essential nutrient and a drinking-water contaminant. It is used to make pipes, valves and fittings and is present in alloys and coatings. Beyond 0.05 mg/l the water imparts astringent taste and cause discoloration. The concentration of copper in water samples varies between 0.0 to 0.0537 mg/l (Figure 5.18). The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 0.05 mg/l as the desirable limit and 1.5 mg/l as the permissible limit in the absence of alternate source (BIS, 2012), and only one sample, Landour Bazar, exceeded the acceptable limit.

50

40

Acceptable Limit 30

Copper (ppb) Copper 20

10

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.18: Average copper concentration of river & STP

Iron (Fe): Iron in trace amounts is essential for nutrition. High concentrations of iron generally cause inky flavor, bitter and astringent taste to water. The concentration of Fe in water samples varies between 0.0 to 6.5 mg/l (Fig.5.19). The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 0.3 mg/l as the as the maximum permissible limit for iron in drinking water (BIS, 2012). It is evident from the results that 27.8% samples exceeded the maximum acceptable limit of iron.

Lead (Pb): Lead is used principally in the production of lead-acid batteries, solder and alloys. The organic lead compounds tetraethyl and tetra methyl lead have also been used extensively as antiknock and lubricating agents in petrol, although their use for these purposes in many countries including India has largely been phased out. Exposure to lead is associated with a wide range of effects, including various neuro

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 79 developmental effects, mortality (mainly due to cardiovascular diseases), impaired renal function, hypertension, impaired fertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes. The concentration of Lead in the surface water and ash pond water samples of the study area varies between 0.0 to 0.0524 mg/l (Fig.5.20). The concentration of lead in the 5.5% analyzed samples exceeded the permissible limit of 0.01 mg/l prescribed by BIS (2012).

5 Acceptable Limit 5 4

4

3 3

Iron (ppm) Iron 2 2 1 1 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP

Sample ID

Fig. 5.19: Average iron concentration of river & STP

40 Acceptable Limit 35

30

25

(ppb) 20

15 Lead 10 5 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.20: Average lead concentration of river & STP

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 80 Manganese (Mn): Manganese is one of the most abundant metals in Earth‟s crust, usually occurring with iron. It is used principally in the manufacture of iron and steel alloys, as an oxidant for cleaning, bleaching and disinfection (as potassium permanganate) and as an ingredient in various products. More recently, it has been used in an organic compound, methyl-cyclo-pentadienyl manganese tri-carbonyl, or MMT, as an octane enhancer in petrol. Manganese is naturally occurring in many surface water sources, particularly in anaerobic or low oxidation conditions. At levels exceeding 0.1 mg/l, manganese in water supplies causes an undesirable taste in beverages and stains sanitary ware and laundry. The presence of manganese in drinking-water may lead to the accumulation of deposits in the distribution system. Manganese will often form a coating on pipes, which may slough off as a black precipitate. The concentration of manganese in the water samples of the study area varies between 0.0 to 1.2973 mg/l (Fig.5.21). The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 0.1 mg/l as acceptable and 0.3 mg/l as the as the maximum permissible limit for Mn in drinking water (BIS, 2012). 66.7% analyzed samples exceeded the maximum permissible limit in terms of manganese concentration. 1200 Acceptable Limit Permissible Limit 1000

800

600

400

(ppb) Manganese 200

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID

Fig. 5.21: Average manganese concentration of river & STP

Cadmium (Cd): Cadmium compounds are widely used in batteries. Cadmium is released to the environment in wastewater, and diffuse pollution is caused by contamination from fertilizers and local air pollution. Cadmium accumulates primarily in the kidneys and has a long biological half-life in humans of 10–35 years. There is

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 81 evidence that cadmium is carcinogenic by the inhalation route, and IARC has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds in Group 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans).

4.5 Acceptable Limit 4.0 3.5

3.0 2.5 2.0

1.5 Cadmium (ppb) Cadmium 1.0 0.5 0.0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.22: Average cadmium concentration of river & STP

Concentration of cadmium in the water samples varies between 0.0 to 0.0051 mg/l (Fig.5.22), and the concentrations of Cd in all the samples except Landour Bazar were less than BIS-2012 permissible limit (0.003 mg/l) for the drinking water.

Nickel (Ni): Nickel is an essential metal for several animal species, micro-organisms and plants, and toxicity symptoms can occur when too little or too much nickel is taken up. The average abundance of nickel in the earth‟s crust is 1.2 mg/l, in soils it is 2.5 mg/l, in streams it is 1 μg/l and in groundwater it is <0.1 mg/l. Nickel is obtained chiefly from pyrrhotite and garnierite. Nickel is released to the environment from the burning of fossil fuels and waste discharge from electroplating industries. In general concentration of nickel in water resources is generally below 0.02 mg/l. The concentration of nickel water samples varies between 0.0 to 0.0165 mg/l (Fig 5.23). The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 0.020 mg/l as the acceptable limit for drinking water (BIS, 2012), and all the nickel content was well within the prescribed limit.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 82 20

15

10 Acceptable Limit

Nickel (ppb) Nickel 5

0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.23: Average nickel concentration of river & STP

Zinc (Zn): Zinc is an essential trace element found in virtually all food and potable water in the form of salts or organic complexes. The solubility of zinc in water is a function of pH and total inorganic carbon concentrations; the solubility of basic zinc carbonate decreases with increase in pH and concentrations of carbonate species. In general, concentration of zinc in surface water and groundwater normally do not exceed 0.01 and 0.05 mg/l, respectively. The concentration of zinc in the water samples varies between 0.0 to 0.8396 mg/l (Fig. 5.24) The Bureau of Indian Standards has recommended 5.0 mg/l as the desirable and 15.0 mg/l as the maximum permissible limit for drinking water (BIS, 2012), and all the samples are well within the acceptable limit for all the samples.

700 600 500

400 300

Zinc(ppb) 200 100 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.24: Average zinc concentration of river & STP

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 83 5.3.12 Pollution Indicating Parameters

Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Dissolved oxygen analysis measures the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous solution. Oxygen dissolves into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis. The concentration of DO in water is affected by many factors, including ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, and ion activity (ionic strength of the water body). Adequate DO is necessary for the survival and growth of many aquatic organisms and is used as an indicator of the health and geochemical quality of surface-water and groundwater systems. Oxygen is a necessary element to all forms of life and natural water body purification processes require adequate oxygen levels for the bacteria to mineralize the organic matter in the water. Thus, excess organic material in lakes and rivers can cause eutrophic conditions, which is an oxygen-deficient situation that can cause a water body "to die”. The DO levels in the river water samples were more than the desired value of 4 mg/l for propagation of aquatic life, except one from Landour Bazar (Fig 5.25).

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) determination is an empirical test in which the polluting strength of the wastewater is evaluated by measuring the amount of molecular oxygen consumed by bacteria for the decomposition of organic matter at certain temperature over a specified time period. The BOD test is used to measure waste loads to treatment plants, determine plant efficiency (in terms of BOD removal), and control plant processes. It is also used to determine the effects of discharges on receiving waters. BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams. The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream. This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life. The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die. The BOD value of analyzed samples ranges from non-detectable to 390 mg/l (Fig. 5.26). Highest BOD was observed for Landour Bazar sample. Also, the BOD concentration in the river water was observed to be increasing after Luxaria Farm. This is due to reduced flows and increase in sewage influx from the habitation in the river proximity. However, the DO values were still high due to the high turbulence and in turn high reaeration.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 84 12 Acceptable Limit

10

8

6

(mg/l) DO 4

2

0

R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP

Sample ID Fig. 5.25: Average DO of river & STP

350 300 250 200

150 (mg/l) BOD 100 50 0 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 R-5 R-6 R-7 R-8 R-9 R-10 R-11 STP Sample ID Fig. 5.26: Average BOD of river & STP

Total Coliform (TC) & Escherichia Coli (EC): Bacterial contamination in water is indicated by the presence of coliform bacteria that find their way into rivers mostly through untreated sewage and cause waterborne diseases. Microbiological examination of water samples is conducted to determine the sanitary quality and degree of contamination with wastes. Tests for detection and enumeration of indicator organisms, rather than of pathogens, are used. The coliform group of bacteria is the principal indicator of suitability of a water for domestic, industrial, or other uses. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is the major species in the fecal coliform group. Of the five general groups of bacteria that comprise the total coliforms, only E. coli is generally

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 85 not found growing and reproducing in the environment. Consequently, E. coli is considered to be the species of coliform bacteria that is the best indicator of fecal pollution and the possible presence of pathogens. Fecal coliforms may enter surface water by a number of ways, from contaminated soil runoff from storm water, from vegetation and insects, wash from cities, or from direct sewage pollution by man or animals. The TC and FC in the river water ranges from 1 to 7701000 MPN/100 ml and 1 to 2419600 MPN/100 ml respectively (Fig.5.27).

10000000 TC EC

1000000

100000

10000

1000

LogColiform Count (MPN/100ml) 100

10

1 RS-1 RS-2 RS-3 RS-4 RS-5 RS-6 RS-7 RS-8 RS-9 RS-10 RS-11 STP Sample ID

Fig. 5.27: Average TC & FC counts in river & STP

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Based on the field surveys and analysis of water samples, following conclusions are drawn- • The overall river water quality is satisfactory upto Rajpur Canal diversion, but at some places trace metals and organics are higher than acceptable limit. However, the river stretch upto Rajpur Canal is not of concern for wildlife propogation.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 86 • At Sikhar Fall, few trace metals and ions were observed above acceptable limits prescribed by BIS and corrective measures are required to reduce their levels before supplying as drinking water. • The drain from Landour Bazar is quite contaminated in terms of organics, microbes, and trace toxic metals and is influencing the river water quality to a great extent and needs to be treated before joining main stream. Hence , A STP needs to be proposed at Landor Bazaar • The organics and other contaminants concentration increases after Nagal bridge (Luxaria Farm) due to influx of sewage from the habitation in proximity. Also, during the lean season, the fresh water flow in the river is almost negligible at this location. • The ammonia and coliforms in the treated water from STP at Mothrowala were on higher side and treatment needs to be improved for reducing the concentration of these pollutants.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 87 Photo Slides of Sampling Locations

RS-1: Rispana River (Landour Bazar Drain)

RS-2: Rspana River (Woodstock High School Pump RS-3: Rispana River (Drain from Landour Bazar) House)

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RS-4: Rispana River (After Confluence of Streams RS-6: Rispana River (Jharipani Fall) from WHS and Landour Bazar Side)

RS-5: Rispana River (Mossy Fall)

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RS-7: Rispana River (Shikhar Fall)

RS-8: Rispana River (Rajpur Canal Diversion)

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RS-9: Rispana River at Nagal Bridge (Near. Luxaria Farm)

RS-10: Rispana River (Upstream STP)

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RS-11: Rispana River (Before confluence with Bindal)

STP: Sewage Treatment Plant

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 92 CHAPTER 6

STRATEGIC PLAN FOR LAND AND WATER MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS

As described in earlier chapters, the Rispana catchment does not have sufficient surface water storage options due to very steep river bed, hence, it is proposed to develop various land and water management interventions which may decrease the portion of rainfall going as runoff and increase the ground water recharge. This augmentation of ground water will supplement the flow in Rispana river in the post- monsoon period in the hilly portion of the catchment. It is also expected that the ground water level in the Dehradun city will also rise which will contribute to the Rispana river as baseflow during lean season. In this chapter, proposed plan for land and water management interventions has been described.

Prerequisites for Land and Water Management Plan Land and water management interventions are predominantly applied for improving the groundwater recharge through reducing the velocities of runoff water and thus providing more time for rainfall to infiltrate into the soil. For developing the plan for land and management interventions, the following information was taken into consideration:

Physiography of the Area Physiography includes size, shape, relief, channel slope and length, stream order, stream network etc. of the catchment. These parameters are required to assess the quantum of peak runoff, runoff volume, types, size and extent of interventions. These parameters for the Rispana catchment have been assessed using the DEM Hydro- processing. For this purpose, SRTM DEM of 30 m resolution has been downloaded and processed using the Arc-GIS 10.4 software. At first, the sinks in any of the grid in DEM are filled using the Fill tool (Hydrology Tool) in ArcGIS. If cells with higher elevation surround a cell, the water is trapped in that cell and cannot flow. The Fill Sinks function modifies the elevation value to eliminate this problem. Further, using the “Flow Direction” tool, the flow direction for a given grid is computed. The value in

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 93 any given cell of the flow direction grid indicates the direction of the steepest descent from that cell to one of its neighboring cells. “Flow Accumulation” tool uses the flow direction grid to compute the accumulated number of cells that are draining to any particular cell in the DEM. The result of “Flow Accumulation” is a raster of accumulated flow to each cell, as determined by accumulating the weight for all cells that flow into each downslope cell. The accumulated flow is based on the number of cells flowing into each cell in the output raster. The current processing cell is not considered in this accumulation. Output cells with a high flow accumulation are areas of concentrated flow and can be used to identify stream channels. Output cells with a flow accumulation of zero are local topographic highs and can be used to identify ridges. Thereafter, the stream order map was created and the stream segments were numbered. The DEM, stream order map, stream segment map and slope map for the Rispana catchment are shown in Figs. 6.1 to 6.4. The Google earth view of the study area along with stream segment map laid over it has been shown in Fig. 6.5.

Fig. 6.1: DEM of Rispana catchment

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Fig. 6.2: Stream Order Map of Rispana catchment

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Fig. 6.3: Map showing numbering of stream segments

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Fig. 6.4: Slope Map of Rispana catchment

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Fig. 6.5: Google earth view of study area alongwith stream segment map (north arrow, legend & scale not clear)

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 98 Rainfall

The rainfall data of meteorological observatory of IMD at Dehradun from 1989 to 2016 was procured from IMD. Fig. 6.6 shows the monthly rainfall variations at Dehradun.

Average RF (mm) 800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SPT OCT NOV DEC

Fig. 6.6: Monthly rainfall variations at IMD observatory, Dehradun

The rainfall data shows that the monsoon rainfall contributes approximately 80% of total annual rainfall. Hence, it is proposed to delay the monsoon runoff induced by heavy monsoon rainfall and augment the flows in non-monsoon season through various land and water interventions.

Proposed Land and Water Management Interventions A variety of land and water management interventions for conservation of monsoon rainfall and augmentation of non-monsoon water availability are proposed in literature. For the present scope of study, these technologies have been classified in four groups: 1. Vegetative measures (plantation of trees, grass barriers and bushes etc. across the slopes) 2. Semi-structural measures (contour bunds, terracing, trenching, gully plugging, gabion structure, etc.) 3. Groundwater recharge structures (ponds, pits, percolation tanks, bunds, etc.) 4. Engineering/structural measures (masonry check dams / stop dams, in-stream storages structures etc.) for water retention and ground water recharge.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 99 Vegetative measures Vegetative measures for soil and water conservation work by their protective impact on the vegetation cover. These measures prevent splash erosion; reduce the velocity of surface runoff; increase surface roughness which reduces runoff and increases infiltration; the roots and organic matter stabilise the soil aggregates and increase infiltration. The Mussorrie Forest Division has provided the details of forest areas in the Rispana catchment as shown in Tables 6.1 and 6.2 respectively for the reserve forest area and private estates.

Table 6.1: Details of Forest Area in Rispana catchment S. No. Division Range Forest area Area (ha) 1. Mussoorie Mussoorie Chamsari – 2 217.60 2. Chamsari – 3 398.80 3. Raipur Ladpur - 2 100.10 4. Ladpur – 3b 18.30 5. Raipur - 3 75.60 6. Raipur - 4 88.60 7. Raipur – 5a 53.70 8. Raipur – 7a 85.20 Total 1037.90

Table 6.2: Details of private estates in Rispana catchment S. District Forest Range Name of Private Estate Area (ha) No. Division 1. Dehradun Mussoorie Mussorie Wood Stock School 41.46 2. Winewarg Estate 12.15 3. Seven Oaks Estate 10.12 4. Bala Hissar Estate 26.19 5. Merryvil Estate 32.39 6. Manor House (St. George 82.28 College) 7. Lambi Dhar Jhari Paani 23.48 8. Fair Loan Estate 36.44 9. Oak Groove School 102.83 10. Makhreti Gaon 2.00 11. Paritibba Estate 242.91 12. Eastward House Estate 3.24 13. Enfield Estate 13.50 14. Anjuman Estate 20.24 15. Spring Villa Estate 0.81 Total 650.04

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 100 Most of the reserve forest area in the Rispana catchment is dense forest, hence, for the present study, the relatively degraded portions of reserve forest area in the Rispana catchment have been identified for plantation which is approximately 75 ha and is shown in Fig. 6.7. The plantation in the private estate is being taken up by the Eco Task Force which should be supplemented by the expertise of Forest Department.

Fig. 6.7: Map of proposed area for plantation

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 101 Semi-Structural Measures In gully control, temporary structural measures such as woven-wire, brushwood, logs, loose stone and boulder check dams are used to facilitate the growth of permanent vegetative cover. Check dams are constructed across the gully bed to reduce the velocities of flowing water induced by the rainfall by reducing the original gradient of the gully channel, hence, the flowing water gets more time for infiltration. Temporary check dams, which have a life-span of three to eight years, collect and hold soil and moisture in the bottom of the gully. To obtain satisfactory results from these structural measures, a series of check dams should be constructed for each portion of the gully bed wherever feasible locations are available. Because they are less likely to fall, low check dams are more desirable than high ones. Check dams should be combined with retaining walls parallel to the gully axis in order to prevent the scouring and undermining of the gully banks. Stabilized watershed slopes are the best assurance for the continued functioning of gully control structures. Therefore, attention must always be given to keeping the gully catchment well vegetated. If this fails, the structural gully control measures may fail as well. After visualizing the longitudinal profile of the gully, the number of check dams for each portion of the main gully channel can be calculated so as the bottom elevation of first check dam should be equal to the crest elevation of second check dam and so on. The first check dam should be constructed on a stable point in the gully such as a rock outcrop, the junction point of the gully to a road, the main stream or river, lake or reservoir. If there is no such stable point, a counter-dam must be constructed. The distance between the first check dam and the counter-dam must be at least two times the effective height of the first check dam.

Loose boulder check dams Loose boulder check dams made of relatively small rocks are placed across the gully. The main objectives for these dams are to control channel erosion as well as the runoff along the gully bed and to stop waterfall erosion by stabilising gully heads. Loose stone check dams are used to stabilise the incipient and small gullies and the branch gullies of a continuous gully or gully network. The length of the gully channel should not be more than 100 metres and the gully catchment area should be two hectares or less.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 102 As shown in Fig. 6.3, stream segments were numbered and stream order map was also created for the whole catchment. For each stream segment, the stream segment map was placed on the Google earth. Then, for each of the stream segment, based on the stream order, longitudinal profile and the field observations, suitable sites for loose boulder check dams were identified. An illustrative diagram of loose boulder check dam is shown in Fig. 6.8. The selected locations for loose boulder check dams are given in Table 6.3 and Fig. 6.9. The selection of sites for loose boulder check dams has been restricted up to first order of streams and due to very steep slopes which may generate the velocities in the range of 4-5 m/s, very limited number of loose boulder check dams have been proposed. In addition, few RR dry check dams have also been proposed by the Forest Deptt. as shown in Fig. 6.10.

A-A Section of the first boulder check dam and counter dam

Fig. 6.8: Illustrative diagram of loose boulder check dam

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 103 Table 6.3: Locations for loose boulder check dams

Stream Stream Slope ElevUP, ElevDS, Relief, RivLen, Crest Total No. Segment Order (%) m m m m Height of No. from Structures River Bed (m) 17 1 39.259 1727 1674 53 135.000 1 1 84 1 7.040 926 902 24 340.919 1 3 86 1 5.828 959 883 76 1304.117 1 5 88 1 2.801 901 896 5 178.492 1 2 90 1 5.258 894 877 17 323.345 1 3 96 1 6.111 881 862 19 310.919 1 2 Total no. of loose boulder check dams proposed 16

Fig. 6.9: Locations for loose boulder check dams

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Fig. 6.10: Locations for RR dry check dams (proposed by Forest Deptt.)

Gabions (wire crate check dams) Gabion check dams are small barriers constructed of a series of gabion baskets bound together to form a flexible row that acts to slow down the water flow in drainage ditches or storm water runoff channels. They are commonly used with moderate slopes up to 10% and positioned in series with a typical spacing of 25 -100 m apart. These dams are either constructed straight across the channel or in a crescent shape with its open end upstream.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 105 The procedure for selecting the sites for gabions was the same as detailed for loose boulder check dams. For each stream segment, the stream segment map was placed on the Google earth. Then, for each of the stream segment, based on the stream order, longitudinal profile and the field observations, suitable sites for loose boulder check dams were identified. The selected locations for gabions are given in Table 6.4 and also shown in Fig. 6.11. The selection of sites for gabions has been restricted up to third order of streams. The wire crate check dams proposed by the Forest Deptt. are also shown in Fig. 6.12. The indicative design of gabion structures has been shown in Fig. 6.13.

Table 6.4: Identified locations for gabions Stream Stream Slope ElevUP, ElevDS, Relief, RivLen, m Crest Total No. Segment Order (%) m m m Height of No. from Structures River Bed (m) 15 3 8.002 1792 1767 25 312.426 1.5 2 16 2 9.517 1825 1767 58 609.411 1.5 2 18 3 15.445 1767 1674 93 602.132 1.5 4 83 2 5.792 947 902 45 776.985 1.5 5 87 2 3.431 902 896 6 174.853 1.5 1 89 2 4.090 896 877 19 464.558 1.5 4 93 2 2.820 877 862 15 531.838 1.5 2 98 2 2.685 862 850 12 446.985 1.5 3 99 3 2.071 850 847 3 144.853 1.5 3 103 3 2.308 847 830 17 736.690 1.5 2 106 3 1.907 830 827 3 157.279 1.5 1 107 3 4.142 827 824 3 72.426 1.5 1 140 2 3.347 755 731 24 716.985 1.5 1 143 2 2.557 752 723 29 1133.970 1.5 6 150 2 2.469 731 717 14 566.985 1.5 1 152 2 1.907 723 710 13 681.838 1.5 3 153 3 2.288 710 706 4 174.853 1.5 1 156 3 1.681 706 700 6 356.985 1.5 1 Total no. of gabions proposed 43

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Fig. 6.11: Identified locations for gabions

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Fig. 6.12: Locations for wire crate check dams (proposed by Forest Deptt.)

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Fig. 6.13: Design details of gabion structure

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 109 Groundwater Recharge Structures

The ground water recharge structures generally consist of some depression area which hold the runoff from the nearby areas and let it infiltrate into the ground thus contributing to the ground water. According to the slope map of the catchment, the sites for contour trenches, percolation tanks and ponds have been identified.

Staggered Trenches

Staggered trenching is excavating shallow pits of rectangular shape in a row with shorter lengths across the slope and as nearly on contour as possible in the upper reaches of the catchment with interspace between them. The trenches in successive rows will be staggered, while in alternate rows the trenches will be located directly below one another (Fig. 6.14). Suitable vertical intervals between the rows are restricted to impound the runoff expected from above, without overflow. The depth and top width of the trenches may be taken as 0.3 m and 0.6 m with side slopes as 0.5:1 or 1:1. The excavated soil from the trench should be placed parallel to the downstream edge of the trench with 6 inches clearance from the downstream edge of trench. Plantation on the bund may be preferred to stabilize the bund. The trenches retain the runoff and help in establishment of the plantations made on the bund. The main idea is to create more favourable moisture conditions and thus accelerate growth of vegetation. Theses trenches also break the velocity of runoff. The rainwater percolates through the soil slowly and travels down, and benefits the better types of land in the middle and lower reaches of the catchment. Where the lower fields are bunded, these trenches also protect the bunds from the runoff from upper reaches of the catchment.

Fig. 6.14: Layout of staggered trenches

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 110 The areas identified for staggered trenches in the reserve forest area is shown as Fig. 6.15. Total area proposed for contour trenching has been estimated to be 446 ha with 200 trenches in one hectare. The dimension of trenches is suggested to be approximately 2 X 1 X 0.5 m (Length X Breadth X Depth).

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 111 Fig. 6.15: Proposed areas for staggered trenching in the Rispana catchment

Percolation Pits Percolation pit is an artificial reservoir which is constructed in the areas with adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to collect surface water run-off and allow it to percolate within the permeable land. This is one of the effective methods of groundwater recharge. The areas identified for percolation pits in the reserve forest area are shown as Fig. 6.16. Total area proposed for percolation pits in the reserve forest area has been estimated to be 446 ha with 10 percolation pits in one hectare. The dimension of percolation pits is suggested to be approximately 3 X 2 X 1 m (L X B X D). Few percolation ponds are also proposed near the streams where the stream water may be diverted to fill the ponds as given in Table 6.5 and also shown in Fig. 6.17. The dimension of percolation ponds should be approximately from 3 X 2 X 1 m (L X B X D) to 5 X 3 X 2 m (L X B X D) as per the site suitability.

Table 6.5: Identified locations for percolation ponds near the streams

Stream Stream ElevUP, ElevDS, Relief, Stream No. of Segment Order m m m Segment Structures No. Length, m 11 1 1899 1844 55 249.853 1 42 2 1456 1312 144 542.132 1 43 1 1465 1312 153 353.345 1 46 2 1312 1307 5 30.000 1 67 1 951 932 19 178.492 1

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Fig. 6.16: Identified locations of percolation pits in the reserve forest area of Rispana catchment

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Fig. 6.17: Identified locations of percolation ponds near the streams of Rispana catchment

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 114 Ponds Water conservation ponds prove a strategic adaptation practice, collecting rain water and replenishing groundwater reserves during the monsoon, as well as preventing excessive erosion and surface runoff down landslides slopes. Conservation ponds may be built in many different ways and sizes to suit the specific purpose. It is strongly encouraged to use local tools, materials and labour in order to facilitate maintenance and reduce costs. A critical feature is the size of the pond, which depends on land availability and slope considerations, as small ponds are better suited for porous soil and over-topping concerns. Location is another important feature, as the pond can hold a potentially troubling runoff in landslide-prone areas and increase soil moisture in strategic places. In the present case, it is recommended to construct the ponds at natural depressions. Hence, based on the slope map of the catchment and discussion with forest officials, the locations for proposed ponds have been shown in Fig. 6.18 with the dimension of approximately (5-10) X (3-5) X (1-2) m (L X B X D) depending on the site.

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Fig. 6.18: Identified locations for ponds (proposed by Forest Deptt.)

Engineering/Structural Measures

Masonry Check Dams / Stop Dams The check dams constructed in third or fourth order streams are required to be of permanent nature with much more structural strength than the temporary check dams. For large gullies in which excessive runoff from the top is expected and a high degree

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 116 of safety and permanence is desirable, permanent gully control structures of masonry and concrete are constructed. These structures have a main function to safely dispose peak rate of runoff for a given frequency, from higher elevation to lower elevation. These should have arrangements to dissipate the kinetic energy of discharge within the structure, in a manner and degree that will protect both, the structure and downstream channel from damage. These structures are usually made of Reinforced Cement Concrete. The water stored in these structures is mostly confined to stream course and the height is normally less than 2 m and excess water is allowed to flow over the wall. In order to avoid scouring from excess run off, water cushions are provided at downstream side. The site selected should have sufficient thickness of permeable bed or weathered formation to facilitate recharge of stored water within short span of time. To harness the maximum run off in the stream, series of such check dams can be constructed to have recharge on larger scale. The proposed locations of these check dams are given in Table 6.6 and also shown in Fig. 6.19.

Table 6.6: Identified locations of masonry stop dams / check dams Stream Stream Slope ElevUP, ElevDS, Relief, Stream Crest Total No. Segment Order (%) m m m segment Height of No. length, from Structures m River Bed (m) 19 3 10.145 1674 1636 38 374.558 2 2 23 3 6.667 1636 1620 16 240.000 2 2 52 3 11.569 1307 1242 65 561.838 2 1 58 4 16.004 1242 1192 50 312.426 2 1 61 4 6.845 1036 1003 33 482.132 2 1 61 4 6.845 1036 1003 33 482.132 4 1 68 4 5.549 951 932 19 342.426 2 1 69 4 5.340 932 922 10 187.279 2 2 75 4 4.142 922 910 12 289.706 2 1 76 2 9.267 938 910 28 302.132 2 1 77 4 3.889 910 903 7 180.000 2 1 81 4 3.940 903 854 49 1243.675 5 1 92 4 2.618 854 817 37 1413.381 5 2 95 4 3.038 817 806 11 362.132 2 1 110 4 2.177 806 776 30 1378.234 2 1

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 117

Fig. 6.19: Identified sites for masonry check dams in the Rispana catchment

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 118 Upgradation of Diversion Structure for Rajpur Canal

Presently, Rajpur Canal Head is an existing diversion structure on Rispana river from where supply for Rajpur canal is being made. This structure is about 175 years old constructed in the year around 1841-1844. The location of this structure is greatly suitable both for water diversion as well as ground water recharge because it is situated at the upper reaches from where Doon Gravels starts. The headworks of canal consists of sluice and hand operated wooden gates so that water level is raised and diverted into the canal, which off takes from left bank of the river. This diversion structure may be renovated, strengthened and upgraded to store more water for augmenting ground water recharge. At present, the crest height is approximately 6 m and width of inundation is 15 m. It is estimated that this structure may contribute to the groundwater recharge of approximately 1,30,000 cubic meter taking 2% bed slope of river bed. Few masonry stop dam structures have also been proposed in the upstream of this diversion stop Dam structure, which will also help in reducing the course material depositing in the inundation area of this structure and its design capacity may be retained for longer time. Also, according to the site suitability condition there is scope to retain more amount of water by constructing a structure like barrage up to 12 m height at this site.

Head Works of Canal View of Canal

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 119 Estimation of Groundwater Recharge from Proposed Land and Water Management Interventions in the Rispana Catchment

As stated earlier in this chapter, there is not sufficient scope for major surface water storages in the Rispana catchment due to very steep terrain. The non-monsoon flows of the river can only be augmented by reducing the monsoon runoff through groundwater recharge. The interventions suggested in the Section 6.2 have been assessed for the quantum of recharge obtained during monsoon season for flow augmentation of Rispana river during non-monsoon season. Tables 6.7 to 6.12 summarize the quantity of ground water recharge expected through the proposed interventions.

Table 6.7: Recharge by loose boulder check dams Stream Stream Slope Stream Crest Total No. Approx. Length of Volume, Wetted Saturated No. of Ground Segment Order (%) Segment Height of width of inundation, cubic surface infiltration rainy water No. Length, m from Structures stream, m meter area, rate, mm/hrdays (>10 recharge River m sq. m mm) in during Bed monsoonmonsoon, (m) season cubic meter 17 1 39.26 135.00 1 1 3 2.55 3.82 7.64 10 44 80.69 84 1 7.04 340.92 1 3 3 14.20 63.92 42.61 10 44 450.01 86 1 5.83 1304.12 1 5 3 17.16 128.70 51.48 10 44 543.61 88 1 2.80 178.49 1 2 3 35.70 107.10 107.10 10 44 1130.93 90 1 5.26 323.35 1 3 3 19.02 85.59 57.06 10 44 602.56 96 1 6.11 310.92 1 2 3 16.36 49.09 49.09 10 44 518.42 16 Total groundwater recharge during monsoon 3326.23

Table 6.8: Recharge by gabion check dams Stream Strea Slop Stream Crest Total No. Approx Length of Volume Wetted Saturated No. of Ground Segmen m e (%) Segmen Heigh of . width inundation , cubic surfac infiltratio rainy water t No. Order t t from Structure of , m meter e area, n rate, days recharge Length, River s stream, sq. m mm/hr (>10 during m Bed m mm) in monsoon (m) monsoo , cubic n season meter 15 3 8.00 312.43 1.5 2 7 18.75 196.83 131.22 10 44 1385.67 16 2 9.52 609.41 1.5 2 5 15.76 118.20 78.80 10 44 832.16 18 3 15.45 602.13 1.5 4 7 9.71 203.95 67.98 10 44 717.90 83 2 5.79 776.99 1.5 5 5 25.90 485.62 129.50 10 44 1367.49 87 2 3.43 174.85 1.5 1 5 43.71 163.92 218.57 10 44 2308.06 89 2 4.09 464.56 1.5 4 5 36.68 550.13 183.38 10 44 1936.48 93 2 2.82 531.84 1.5 2 5 53.18 398.88 265.92 10 44 2808.10 98 2 2.69 446.99 1.5 3 5 55.87 628.57 279.37 10 44 2950.10 99 3 2.07 144.85 1.5 3 7 72.43 1140.72 506.98 10 44 5353.76 103 3 2.31 736.69 1.5 2 7 65.00 682.52 455.01 10 44 4804.96 106 3 1.91 157.28 1.5 1 7 78.64 412.86 550.48 10 44 5813.04 107 3 4.14 72.43 1.5 1 5 36.21 135.80 181.07 10 44 1912.06 140 2 3.35 716.99 1.5 1 5 44.81 168.04 224.06 10 44 2366.05 143 2 2.56 1133.97 1.5 6 5 58.65 1319.71 293.27 10 44 3096.91 150 2 2.47 566.97 1.5 1 5 60.75 227.81 303.74 10 44 3207.51 152 2 1.91 681.84 1.5 3 5 78.67 885.08 393.37 10 44 4153.96 153 3 2.29 174.85 1.5 1 7 65.57 344.24 458.99 10 44 4846.92 156 3 1.68 356.99 1.5 1 7 89.25 468.54 624.72 10 44 6597.08 43 Total groundwater recharge during monsoon 56458.21

Table 6.9: Estimation of recharge from dugout ponds

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 120 S. Type of No. of Area No. of Dimensions Volume of Total No. structures structures designated, structures of structure each volume, per ha ha structure, cubic cubic meter meter 1. Ponds - - 80 - 35 8400 Note: It is assumed that the ponds may get filled for at least 3 times in monsoon.

Table 6.10: Ground water recharge estimation from trenches and percolation pits

(A) Estimation of recharge by trenches No. of trenches in 1 ha 200 No. of percolation pits in 1 ha 10 Dug area of trench (2m x1 m) 2 m2 Dug area of percolation pit (3mx2m) 6 m2 1 percolation pit equivalent to (w.r.t. area) 3 trenches 10 percolation pits equivalent to 30 trenches Total dug out structures equivalent to trenches in 1 ha (200+30) 230 Drainage area covered by each trench (10000/230), m2 43.478 Threshold runoff for which all trenches will overflow, mm 23 Runoff Coefficient 0.3 Threshold rainfall above which trenches will overflow (mm) 76.667 No. of times in monsoon all trenches will be full 5.4 No. of times in monsoon all trenches will be full (Say) > 5 times Volume of one trench (cubic meter) (2 m x1 m x 0.5 m) 1 Additional recharge by one trench during number of days > 77 mm rainfall 5 Total average rainfall during days with < 77 mm rainfall 1315 Total recharge in catchment of one trench during days with < 77 mm rainfall (cubic meter) assuming 80% rainfall going into recharge, m3 45.739 Recharge in catchment of one trench during rainy days with < 77 mm rainfall in the absence of trenches (cubic meter) assuming 50% of rainfall going as recharge, m3 28.587 Additional recharge by one trench during days < 77 mm rainfall 17.152 Total additional recharge by one trench (cubic meter) 22.152 Total additional recharge by all trenches (cubic meter) 1975973.913 (B) Estimation of recharge by percolation pits

Drainage area covered by each percolation pit, m2 130.435 Threshold runoff for which all percolation pits will overflow, mm 46 Runoff Coefficient 0.3 Threshold rainfall above which trenches will overflow, mm 153.333 No. of times in monsoon all percolation pits will be full 0.551 No. of times in monsoon all percolation pits will be full once in 2 years Total average rainfall during days with < 153 mm rainfall, mm 1814 Total recharge in catchment of one percolation pit during days with < 153 mm rainfall (cubic meter) 189.287 Recharge in catchment of one percolation pit during days with < 153 mm rainfall in the absence of trenches (cubic meter) 139.073 Additional recharge by one percolation pit during days < 153 mm rainfall (cubic meter) 50.214 Total additional recharge by all percolation pits (cubic meter) 223952.759 Total additional recharge due to trenches and percolation pits, (cubic meter) 2199926.672

Table 6.11: Estimated Recharge Potential by roof top rainwater harvesting

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 121 Built up area Area taken for Area taken for Average Effective Total ground in Rispana roof top roof top annual Recharge water catchment, % rainwater rainwater rainfall, mm Coefficient recharge harvesting, % harvesting, potential sq. km through roof top rainwater harvesting, m3 24% 5% 2.9 2247 0.8 5213040

Table 6.12: Recharge by masonry check dams / stop dams Stream Stream Slope Stream Crest Total No. Approx. Length of Volume, Wetted Saturated No. of Ground Segment Order (%) Segment Height of width inundation, cubic surface infiltration rainy water No. Length, from Structures of m meter area, rate, days recharge m River stream, sq. m mm/hr (>10 mm) during Bed m in monsoon, (m) monsoon cubic season meter 19 3 10.145 374.558 2 2 10 19.71 394.27 197.14 10 44 2081.76 23 3 6.667 240.000 2 2 10 30.00 600.00 300.00 10 44 3168.00 52 3 11.569 561.838 2 1 10 17.29 172.87 172.87 10 44 1825.54 58 4 16.004 312.426 2 1 15 12.50 187.46 187.46 10 44 1979.53 61 4 6.845 482.132 2 1 15 29.22 438.30 438.30 10 44 4628.47 61 4 6.845 482.132 4 1 15 58.44 1753.21 876.60 10 44 9256.94 68 4 5.549 342.426 2 1 15 36.04 540.67 540.67 10 44 5709.51 69 4 5.340 187.279 2 2 15 37.46 1123.68 561.84 10 44 5933.01 75 4 4.142 289.706 2 1 15 48.28 724.26 724.26 10 44 7648.23 76 2 9.267 302.132 2 1 7 21.58 151.07 151.07 10 44 1595.26 77 4 3.889 180.000 2 1 15 51.43 771.43 771.43 10 44 8146.29 81 4 3.940 1243.675 5 1 15 126.91 4758.96 1903.58 10 44 20101.85 92 4 2.618 1413.381 5 2 15 191.00 14324.81 2864.96 10 44 30253.99 95 4 3.038 362.132 2 1 15 65.84 987.63 987.63 10 44 10429.40 110 4 2.177 1378.234 2 1 15 91.88 1378.23 1378.23 10 44 14554.15 19 Total groundwater recharge during monsoon 127311.92

The above tables show that the total estimated volume of ground water recharge through the proposed structures may be 2525422 cubic meter (2.525 MCM). The estimated recharge potential through roof-top rainwater harvesting may be about 5213040 cubic meter (5.21 MCM). Thus, the potential recharge estimated through the proposed interventions may be in the order of 7600063 cubic meter (7.738 MCM). In the present condition, it has been realized that the groundwater levels in the Dehradun city region remain much below the Rispana river bed during the non-monsoon season, hence, the contribution from groundwater as baseflow to the Rispana is negligible. Therefore, the additional groundwater recharge created through the proposed measures may not immediately augment the flows of Rispana river in the tune of expected groundwater recharge. If the groundwater extraction is not increased further, these interventions will first increase the groundwater levels and as the groundwater levels keep on increasing, more and more amount of the additional recharge created through the proposed interventions may be translated into the flows of Rispana river during non-monsoon season.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 122

As one storage dam is also being planned on the Song river, from where the domestic water supply to Dehradun city and adjoining areas is planned. Therefore, it may be expected that the groundwater extraction in the Rispana catchment may reduce in future due to more sustained domestic water supply. Moreover, the return flow in the tune of 80% of supplied water may again add to the Rispana river catchment after due treatments.

Moreover, it was concluded from the analysis that the rooftop rainwater harvesting and staggered trenching are the two most effective interventions for conserving the monsoon rainfall pertaining to the Rispana catchment. Therefore, the trenching may be a preferred option for augmentation of groundwater recharge and spring flows. Moreover, it is also recommended to consider the private estates covering 650 ha of land to execute similar interventions at the feasible locations in their premises to further enhance ground water recharge in the Rispana catchment.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 123 CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The Uttarakhand Irrigation Department entrusted this study to National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee to carryout detailed hydrological, hydrogeological, water utilization and water quality investigations, assessment of water resources and to prepare a suitable plan for land and water management interventions for rejuvenation of Rispana River. The primary objective of this study was to advise a technical plan for enhancement of ground water recharge, augmenting lean season flows in the springs, and to conserve water in the catchment to sustain flows in Rispana River system. The detailed field observations and investigations have been carried out including review of historical literature on Rispana River.

Usually, the drinking water supply schemes and runoff diversions are planned at perennial flow sites on the river course. The evidence of then existence of flour mills in the upstream of canal head works and along the then constructed Rajpur canal diversion (in 1841-1844 by British) are reasonable evidence to believe that the Rispana River was then perennial up to the Rajpur Canal Head Works (RCHW) site certainly in the mid of 19th century and may be in the downstream too. At present, the Rispana River has perennial flow characteristics up to Shikhar Fall only. About 14 mld river water is tapped at the Shikhar for drinking water purpose. In the downstream of Shikhar Fall is river flow starts depleting in the lean season (i.e., non-rainy season) because the river course is relatively more favorable to ground water recharge. After the month of January, the river course near Rajpur Canal Head become almost dry.

The detailed field investigations and hydrological observations have been conducted during the study period to measure streamflows, spring discharge, infiltration rates and water quality parameters. It is found that there are several perennial springs in the Rispana catchment. In hilly part of the catchment, the perennial water yielding spring are located in the Mossy Fall area and in its up-reaches. Some of the springe are tapped for domestic water supply purposes. Beside the river flow diversion above Massy Fall for domestic supply and for irrigation in small patches, significant part of spring flow is tapped for drinking and other purposes from the upstream of Shikhar

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 124 Fall. Also there is spring water tapping for drinking purposes in Ladpur and other areas. The total water utilization from springs and river flow has been estimated as 5.20 MCM approximately.

The water budgeting study of Rispana catchment indicate that there is a total annual inflow of water from rainfall (average RF = 2247 mm) received in the Rispana catchment is about 120.102 MCM. Out of total inflow, about 55.607 MCM goes as out flow in the form of evapotranspiration and as runoff about 40.939 MCM annually. The remaining amount of rainfall goes in to the sub surface as a part of groundwater recharge estimated to be approximately 23.556 MCM. The total utilization of water from major springs and river flow tapping is about 5.200 MCM. The spring flows and river flows diverted for utilization in lean season is actually the part of groundwater recharge from rainfall.

The annual water requirement to keep continuous flow in Rispana River in lean season (Nov-May) in a defined section of river course with 10 m breadth and 15 cm depth has been estimated as 38.447 MCM. This amount of annual water requirement appears quite high compared to the total average annual runoff (41.939 MCM) from the Rispana catchment. Further, there is limitation of water storage sites in the Rispana catchment because the upper hilly reaches have greater slopes (>10%) and the lower reaches are occupied with urban settlement of Dehradun city. Hence, it may not be feasible to create storages of required amount to make Rispana flowing during lean season. Therefore, the land and water management options remain the preferred alternative to enhance ground water recharge.

The geology, physiography and rainfall are the primary factors controlling the water infiltration, percolation, residence time within the geological formation and its subsurface and on the surface movement. There is contrasting difference between the disposition and properties of the rock formation of the hilly terrain and the non-hilly terrain. The hilly terrain is represented by the Chandur Phyllites, Nagthat Quartzites, Blaini Boulder Beds and rocks of Krol Group. The non-hilly portion is represented by the Doon Gravel Gravels. Hydro-geologically the hilly terrain forms the recharge zone and the non-hilly terrain, specifically in the central part of the intermontane valley forms the discharge zone. The Chanpur Phyllites and Nagthat Quartzites are hard and

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 125 compact rocks with the absence of primary porosity and permeability. The carbonate rocks of the Krol Group are the main contributors to the river flow. The treatment measures/structures promoting infiltration and percolation on carbonate rocks are technically feasible and economically viable.

The water quality assessment indicates that the overall quality of river water is fairly good and as such is not of concern as far as wildlife propagation is concerned. The drain from Landour Bazar is quite contaminated both in terms of organics, microbes, and trace toxic metals and is influencing the river water quality in upper stretch to a great extent and needs to be treated before joining main stream. The organics and other contaminants concentration increases after Nagal Bridge due to influx of sewage from the habitation in proximity. Also, the fresh water flow season in the river is almost negligible, during the lean season, at this location. The sewage treatment plant (STP) is functioning well and the treated water from STP is of good quality.

A technical plan for land and water management interventions to augment groundwater recharge has been prepared based on the topography, slope, soil characteristics, site suitability, stream order of drainage network, land use/land cover. The proposed catchment area treatment measures include land treatment and gully/in- stream treatment. Land treatment measures consist of plantation, staggered trenches, percolation pits and dugout ponds. Gully/in-stream treatment measures consist of loose boulder/random rubble check dams, gabions/wire crate check dams, masonry stop dams and capacity enhancement of exiting diversion structure. The quantification of groundwater recharge from each of these structures has been carried out. The total estimated volume of ground water recharge through the proposed structures may be achieved as 2.525 MCM. As the Rispana catchment comprises of 24% urban area located in alluvial plains, the roof-top rainwater harvesting was also considered for augmenting groundwater recharge. The recharge potential through roof-top rainwater harvesting has been estimated to be about 5.21 MCM. Thus, the potential recharge estimated through the proposed interventions may be in the order of 7.738 MCM.

The available historical ground water level information indicate that the groundwater levels have depleted considerably (~ 20 m and ~ 5 m) compared to the average of that during 1995-2004 and 2006-15 respectively. In the present condition, it has been realized that the groundwater levels in the Dehradun city region remain much below

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 126 the Rispana river bed during the non-monsoon season, hence, the contribution from groundwater as baseflow to the Rispana is negligible. Therefore, the additional groundwater recharge created through the proposed measures may augment ground water recharge. If the groundwater extraction is not increased further, augmentation of groundwater recharge from proposed interventions will first increase the groundwater levels and as the groundwater levels keep on increasing, the additional recharge through the proposed interventions may get translated into the flows of Rispana river in future during non-monsoon season.

Moreover, the assessments indicate that the rooftop rainwater harvesting and staggered trenching are the two most effective interventions to augment groundwater recharge in the Rispana catchment. Therefore, it is suggested that the trenching and roof-top rainwater harvesting in 650 ha land of private estates may also be considered for implementation for further augmentation of ground water recharge in the Rispana catchment.

The conclusions drawn from the study are as follows: 1. Total water requirement to sustain lean season flows in Rispana river is in the order of about 38.5 MCM. Considering total surface runoff of about 41 MCM and hilly terrain, the creation of surface water storages is not feasible to sustain lean season flows of Rispana river. Therefore, the groundwater recharge remains the alternate option. 2. Groundwater levels in the catchment have depleted significantly in recent years and therefore, base flow contribution to the river is negligible during lean season. Hence, efforts to recharge groundwater need to be maximized to raise the water table. 3. The Krol formations in upper reaches are primarily water yielding rocks in lean season. Upper reaches with Krol formation need to be protected from anthropogenic activities. 4. Detailed plan of land and water interventions for augmenting groundwater recharge has been proposed in the study report. The stakeholder departments may suitably execute the proposed plan as per their respective areas of expertise. 5. Rooftop rainwater harvesting and staggered trenching have been found the two most effective interventions for groundwater recharge and needs to be promoted in long run.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 127 6. The overall river water quality is satisfactory up to Rajpur Canal Head, but at some places trace metals and organics are higher than acceptable limit. However, the river stretch upto Rajpur Canal is fair for wildlife propagation. 7. The drain from Landour Bazar is quite contaminated in terms of organics, microbes, and trace toxic metals and is influencing the river water quality to a great extent and needs to be treated before joining main stream. Hence, a STP is proposed to treat the wastewater from Landour Bazar and adjoin areas. 8. The organics and other contaminants concentration increases after Nagal bridge (Luxaria Farm) due to influx of sewage from the habitation in proximity. Also, during the lean season, the fresh water flow in the river is almost negligible at this location. 9. The ammonia and coliforms in the treated water from STP at Mothrowala were on higher side and treatment needs to be improved for reducing the concentration of these pollutants. 10. At Shikhar Fall, few trace metals and ions were observed above acceptable limits prescribed by BIS and corrective measures are required to reduce their levels before supplying as drinking water.

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee 128 REFERENCES

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