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Original Communication Dietetics in Ancient Greek Philosophy: Plato's Concepts of Healthy Diet European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2001) 55, 532±537 ß 2001 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 0954±3007/01 $15.00 www.nature.com/ejcn Original Communication Dietetics in ancient Greek philosophy: Plato's concepts of healthy diet PK Skiadas1* and JG Lascaratos1 1Department of History of Medicine, University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens, Greece Plato (5th ± 4th century BC), one of the most important philosophers of Greek antiquity, left a valuable spiritual heritage, compiled in his famous dialogues. His teachings extend to almost every single ®eld of human knowledge. Among other philosophical concepts, Plato's works are imbued with the fundamental principle of moderation. This spirit is characteristically evident in his references to human diet. According to the philosopher, a moderate and thus a healthy diet, consists of cereals, legumes, fruits, milk, honey and ®sh. However, meat, confectionery and wine should be consumed only in moderate quantities. Excesses in food lead to ailments and therefore should be avoided. Plato considers physicians responsible for the regulation of human diet, for medicine is a science and not merely an art as in the case of cookery. The dietary pattern presented in Platonic dialogues shares many common components with the highly-reputed Mediterranean diet. As a whole, Plato's writings represent a valuable source for the study of the nutritional customs during the classical period of ancient Greece. Descriptors: history of nutrition; dietetics; Plato European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2001) 55, 532±537 Introduction With the gradual transition of medicine from an empiri- cal to a rational art, dietetics became a separate branch of Ancient Greeks paid special attention to nutritional matters medicine. It is noteworthy that Podalirius, one of the two because they believed that the proper diet is a precondition physicians mentioned in Homer's epics (8th century BC), for corporal and intellectual well-being. It was everyday had a special interest in dietetics. Later on, Hippocrates experience that made them recognise the importance of diet (5th century BC), the most eminent ancient Greek physi- in both health and illness. In fact, many diseases were cian, dedicated his treatise `On diet' to the presentation of attributed to `unhealthy' diet and nutritional intervention his nutritional concepts and the role of diet in the treatment was a very common means of treating the various human of diseases. Furthermore, many remarks of the entire ailments. Hippocratic work (Corpus Hippocraticum) lucidly reveal the importance of the nutritional choices in human noso- logy and therapeutics. In the following centuries, many physicians emphasised the importance of diet in maintain- ing health. Erasistratus and Herophilus (3rd century BC), both members of the famous medical school of Alexandria, Celsus (1st century AD), and Galen (2nd century AD) wrote extensively on diet (Fidanza, 1979). Diet was a *Correspondence: PK Skiadas, 121 ± 123 Anakreodos Street, 15771 favourable issue not only to physicians but even to philo- Zografou, Athens, Greece E-mail: [email protected] sophers. Athenaeus (2nd ± 3rd century AD), for example, Guarantor: PK Skiadas. recorded many of the nutritional habits of the classical era Contributors: This study was conceived by PKS, who also wrote the of Greek antiquity (5th and 4th centuries BC) in his work original paper. Both the contributors reviewed Plato's works in regard to entitled `Deipnosophists'. The famous philosophical works references to human diet. JGL carefully reviewed the text and gave this of Plato with their frequent references to diet are another article its ®nal form. Received 3 October 2000; revised 21 December 2000; example of how food in¯uenced almost every aspect of life accepted 10 January 2001 in ancient Greek society. Plato's views on diet PK Skiadas and JG Lascaratos 533 Dietetics in platonic dialogues inward'. For this reason `all doctors forbid the sick to take oil, except the smallest possible quantity, if one is going to Plato is one of the most important philosophers of Greek eat' (`Protagoras' 334B ± C). As stated by Protagoras, the antiquity. He was born in Athens during a plague epidemic utilisation of olive oil should be restricted to small quan- in 428 BC and died in 348 BC. Plato visited many places tities added to meals for reasons of taste. He also consid- around the Mediterranean; these trips gave him the oppor- ered its application necessary in therapeutics as a `sore tunity to become familiar with the culture of the Egyptians, labour's balm' (`Menexenus' 238A). Olives accompanied the Sicilians, the Phoenicians, the Babylonians and the the consumption of bread and pies, so as to eke out the food Jews. In 387 BC Plato returned to his native city and (`The Republic' 372C and `Laws' 782B). established the famous Academy, which is thought to be the ancestor of modern universities. His students compiled Cereals his teachings in 43 books. With only one exception, these writings have the form of dialogues between Plato's Contrary to olive oil, wheat and barley-meal are praised by spiritual and philosophical mentor, Socrates, and his stu- Plato as `good and bene®cial food' (`Epinomis' 975B and dents. Platonic writings cover almost every aspect of `The Republic' 363C) because with these `the race of philosophy and science. mankind is most richly and well nourished' (`Menexenus' In a purely philosophical collection, such as the Platonic 238A). The stress given to the consumption of cereals is work, the appearance of nutritional habits of the time could be particularly shown in terms like `sitia', `sitevo', `sitizo' and expected to be rather limited. Nevertheless, the philosopher `sitos'(`sitos' means wheat), which were used commonly to does not omit to use even the human diet as an example and include all kinds of nourishment. Cereals were the ®rst background for intellectual quest but also takes this opportu- vegetable source that mother earth had to offer for man's nity to criticise harshly the materialistic concept of life and to nourishment. According to mythological tradition, Demeter, condemn the attachment of the individual to earthly posses- the Earth mother, wishing to express her gratitude for the sions. The nutritional references in the Platonic dialogues hospitality that she received from Triptolemus' parents in correspond totally to the moderate atmosphere prevailing in Eleusis, offered the hero a chariot which was pulled by Greek antiquity, which constituted the moral symbol of all winged dragons, ordered to sow grains of corn in the earth. aspects of intellectual and social life. Triptolemus was a mythological hero, worshipped as the Many passages in the Platonic texts prove that the inventor and patron of agriculture. As an expression of philosopher recognised the importance of the right nutrition acknowledgement for `the gifts of Demeter' which Tripto- for corporal development: `For there ought to be no other lemus carried to the human species there were instituted secondary task to hinder the work of supplying the body festivities in honour of Demeter called `Thesmophoria' with its proper exercise and nourishment' (`Laws' 807D).{ which took place in Athens (`Laws' 782B). In Greek The myth of the cicadas who were singing the whole day language cereals are also called `demetriaka' in honour of long and died as a consequence of `forgetting food and the goddess Demeter, who donated them to mankind. drink' symbolises the necessity of nourishment for survival Wheat, barley and ¯our which derive from corn were (`Phaedrus' 259B ± C). Physical development is achieved considered principal kinds of nourishment and for that with nutrition through which `¯esh is added to his (ie reason the trading and distribution of these products to man's) ¯esh and bones to his bones, and in the same way citizens was regulated by legislation (`Laws' 848A and the appropriate thing is added to each of his other parts' 849C ± D). Pies made of barley meal and wheat ¯our con- (`Phaedo' 96C ± D and `The Statesman' 288E ± 289A). In stituted one of the most fancied meals (`The Republic' 372B). `The Republic' (369D) it is strongly emphasised that `the ®rst and chief of our needs is the provision of food for Legumes existence and life'. Beans (`kyamoi') and chickpeas (`erevinthoi') were also a favourite kind of food in ancient Greece (`Critias' 115B Olive oil and `The Republic' 372C). Although the preparation of According to Plato, although olive oil `is helpful' (`Prota- beans was often dif®cult (`Laws' 853D), their soup goras' 334B), it should not hold an important place in the (`etnos') was extremely tasty, especially when `a golden diet, a notion, which is in contrast with the broad cultiva- ladle... or one made of ®g wood' was used during its tion of olives in antiquity (Waterlow, 1989). In fact, olive stirring (`Greater Hippias' 290D ± E). and sesame were the primary sources of oil. Olive oil was used for anointing the skin as part of the body's hygiene (`Theaetetus' 144C and `Protagoras' 334B). Protagoras Fruits emphasises that olive oil `is good for the outward parts of Fruits were consumed after the main meal (`metadorpia') man's body, but at the same time as bad as can be for the `as welcome remedies for the sufferer from repletion' (`Critias' 115B). Critias, in the dialogue bearing his name {All quotations from Plato's works are derived from: Fowler (1919 ± 1935). (115B), considers the inhabitants of Atlantis blessed for the European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Plato's views on diet PK Skiadas and JG Lascaratos 534 abundance of fruit on their island. Fruit also constituted a Fish fundamental kind of nourishment when man ®rst appeared Both marine and fresh water species (like tuna, mackerel, on earth (`The Statesman' 272A). Figs, dried or not mullet, anchovy, octopus, sole, eels, mussels and oysters) (`Epistle XIII' 361B, `The Republic' 372C and `Laws' were highly desired.
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