Acta Universitatis Palackianae Olomucensis – Geographica, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2012, pp. 15-30 15

CHANGING CONCEPTS OF IN THE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

1,2 1,3 Martin Šveda , Michala Madajová 1 Institute of Geography, Slovak Academy of , Štefánikova 49, 814 73, Bratislava 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected]

Abstract represents analytical perspective for the analysis of human activities and movements in -time. For more than 40 it has attracted considerable research interest and has brought many useful concepts and models helping us to understand the everyday human life. However, development of in- formation and communication technologies and their role in everyday life of individuals has brought about new phenomena, which disrupted the conventional view of human’s behavior in time and space. The aim of the paper is to a new view of basic concepts of time geography and to outline possible trends of space-time research.

Key words: time geography, concepts, revision, information and communication revolution, virtual mobility.

INTRODUCTION TOWARDS A NEW TIME GEOGRAPHY

In the last four decades, time geography has built up Before the onset of ICTs that provoked deep changes not only an elaborated conceptual and methodologi- in time and spatial distribution of human activities, cal apparatus but it also acquired a respected position the time-geographical studies, particularly those among other than geographical scientifi c disciplines involved with the geography of human time have (psychology, sociology, studies), which pursued several directions. The fi rst is the research adopted some of its techniques. However, since the into human activities in integrated system of time time when the fi rst concepts of time geography were and space under the effects of spatio-temporal con- formulated, society and life of humans have dra- straints. Authors, apart from conceptualisation of matically changed. Development of information and the spatio-temporal behavior of individuals (Häger- communication technologies (ICTs) and their role in strand 1970, 1975, 1985; Lenntorp 1976; Pred 1977; everyday life of individuals has brought about new Thrift 1977; Parkes, Thrift 1978; Carlstein 1982; phenomena, which disrupted the conventional view Ellegård 1993, 1999), were principally involved with of human’s behavior in time and space. This is the biographies of individuals (Hägerstrand 1978; Dan- reason why the need to revise the concepts of time iels and Nash 2004; Frändberg 2008) or empiric geography and their adaptation to new conditions of studies based on “classical” time geography. The the post-modern society (mobile communication, central interest was devoted to the analysis how is internet, hypermobility) is necessary. time used in households and to the study of individ- ual mobility (Lenntorp 1978; Goodchild and Janelle The aim of the paper is to present a new view of 1984; Janelle et al. 1998; Dijst 1999), observation of basic concepts of time geography and to outline transport fl ows (Lenntorp 1976, 1978; Hägerstrand possible trends of future space-time research. 1985), or transport accessibility (Burns 1979; Thill

AUPO Geographica Vol. 43 No. 1, 2012, pp. 15-30 16 Changing concepts of time geography and Horowitz 1997; Kwan 1998). Some results of of sustainability for individual everyday activities time-geographical research were employed in prac- of Bratislava’s inhabitants. Drbohlav (1990) and tice as they became parts of commercial or public Drgoňa et al. (1994) conducted applied spatio-tem- decision-making activities. Example of specifi c poral research. While Drbohlav (1990) investigated application of time-geographical concepts are the behavior of the Prague secondary schools students, studies under the framework of governmental plan- Drgoňa et al. (1994) observed the daily mobility of ning (Ellegård et al. 1977), social reforms (Carlstein pedestrians in the of Nitra. Osman (2010), deal- and Thrift 1978), formulation of regional policies ing with the specifi of spatio-temporal behav- (Mårtensson 1978) or organization of industrial ior of immobile persons and Mulíček et al. (2010), production (Ellegård 1996). who investigated transformation of post-industrial city from the viewpoint of its time organization The research branch referred to as socio- also based their research in time geographical con- scientifi c one concerned with everyday activities of cepts. At present, Czech geographer Jakub Novák humans developed in response to exaggerated phys- actively deals with time geography. Based on time icality of time geography. It endeavours in fi nding spatial behavior of suburban migrants, Novák links between time geography and different fi elds along with Sýkora report on time-spatial structure of social such as creation of families, choice of the metropolitan area of Prague (Novák and of study subjects or choice of job, adaptation strat- Sýkora 2007) and Novák (2010) in his dissertation egies of women, and other (Halin 1991 in Osman thesis studied movements of individuals using the 2010). Studies of rather sociological nature devoted mobile operator data. Temelová and Novák (2011) to the analysis of time used by an individual void of emphasize the necessity to take into account the any regards to space might be included as well. But time dimension of space in urban planning and the it must be added that a comparatively large part of everyday manifestations of increasing cultural and so far conducted research is located on the inter- social diversity of life styles in the transforming face of the two above-mentioned directions: every- Prague city centre. Temelová et al. (2011) employ activities of individual’s area analysed only with tools of time geography to the analysis of adapta- partial regard for spatial dimension and with limited tion strategies of population in peripheral localities. attention given to effects of constraints on human Klapka and Roubalíková (2010) analyse stations and activities. Similar studies appeared in both the Slo- the effects of changing urban environment on the vak and Czech literature, where time geography was spatio-temporal behavior of university students. not given too much signifi cance. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF TIME Ira (1986a, 1989, 2001) has brought the fi rst theoret- GEOGRAPHY ical knowledge of time geography here. Apart from him, Drbohlav (1995) and Žigrai (1999) dealt with Lenntorp (1999) discerns as many as 52 concepts a brief theoretical basis of time geography. Ira was in time geography which make it possible to com- simultaneously the fi rst author in the Czech or Slo- prehend spatial and time behavior patterns of indi- vak environment to introduce possibilities for appli- viduals along with constraints and barriers which cation of spatio-temporal approach on an example limit them. The principal basic time geographical of the village Lom nad Rimavicou (Ira 1986b). Ira concepts include: activities, stations, space-time paths, also dealt with the analysis of everyday activities of bundles, constraints and space-time prism. locals in this marginal village in 1997 and 2011 try- ing to capture and explain possible changes in spatial Everything done by a human can be referred to as behavior of the local community under the effects an activity. Activities take place in certain time and of the (post-)transformation conditions (Ira 2003; place. Places where desired or compulsory activities Ira et al. 2011). Besides, he also researched into the are carried out are stations. According to Ellegård mobility of Bratislava’s population (2000) and his (1993), stations represent the spatial bases for paper from 2006 brings a subjective assessment activities and interactions. Humans move between

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Figure 1 Visualization of individual space-time path. 1) home, 2) drive to work, 3) work, 4) walk to lunch, 5) have lunch, 6) walk back from lunch , 7) work, 8) drive back home, 9) grocery shopping, 10) return home. individual stations and communicate with them. the individual for the transfer from one station to Environment where individuals occur consists not another. If two or more individuals’ trajectories only of stations but also of transport channels and meet at a certain place (station) we talk about bundles. communications (Ira 2001). Stations are “tubes”, Typical bundles are household, working place, etc. through which an individual’s spatio-temporal tra- (Figure 2). jectory referred to as the space-time path passes in the course of day (, , life) (Figure 1). It should However, activities of humans are limited to certain be noted that Hägerstrand (1970) considers the life extent. They are determined by constraints, which path the basic concept of a space-time path (track, are among the fundamental concepts of time geog- trajectory) and any other paths describing shorter raphy. Hägerstrand (1970) defi nes three types of intervals are its partial elements. Space-time paths constraints – capability constraints, coupling constraints are most often visualised in a 3D orthogonal space – and authority constraints. The interpretations of these space-time map where a two-dimensional horizon- terms are as follows: tal plane represents the geographical space and time is represented by a vertical axis. 1. Capability constraints are derived of the physical (biological) construction of a human and his/ Individuals’ trajectories stand for changes of alloca- her needs such as sleeping, eating, hygiene, etc. tions or physical mobility in time and space. While Satisfaction of these needs requires space and an individual remains some time in one place his/ time, which reduce the overall usable part of an her trajectory is in the form of a constant vertical individual’s day, including the constraints given line. Inclination of individual’s trajectory points by the capability of individuals and capacity of to the relationship between his/her movement in tools, for instance a car with the limiting factors space and time necessary for such move. The longer of maximum speed or possession of driving and steeper the curve, the more time is needed by licence.

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Figure 2 Visualization of bundle in space-time.

2. Coupling constraints are given by the fact that a forms. Hägerstrand (1975) reports that any situa- human must carry out his/her activities in cer- tion is anchored in situations emphasizing that tain time in a certain place and mostly uses some all human activities are limited by the life-span and tools or company of other individuals. It must indivisibility of human being as he/she cannot stay be also taken into account that the human being simultaneously in several places in space. Human is limited by the fact that he/she cannot stay in being is also limited in the sense that they cannot all places and with all people. It requires a deci- attend to more than one task in time. Time too, is sion between several alternatives of stay, trans- indivisible and its amount is limited for an individ- port or activity. ual. Each activity takes some time and the moves 3. Authority constraints are given by the society (legal between points in space consume time as well. Like- standards, economic rules and barriers), or they wise, space is also limited. Hägerstrand (1975) talks are determined by the general ethical or moral about the limited capacity of space (limited number principles or the personal value system of each of people in certain space) and about its limited size individual. Accomplishment of any activity (limited space available for certain activities in cer- can be, carried out in a particular place and in tain time). a particular time. Some individuals can be even prohibited to stay in a particular place or to be The time-spatial prism expresses the limited move- active in any way. ment of an individual in space and time. This con- cept (Figure 3) may be defi ned as part of space Apart from concepts of constraints, classic time reachable by an individual in certain interval (day, geography also leans on general conditions of week, year). It is based on the principle of return. human existence defi ned by Hägerstrand in 1975. If a day is taken for a basic organizational time unit They are the elementary constraints that determine of human life, the prism for a human in the course life of humans and as Ira (2001) reports they pose of this day is delimited by the space, from which the limits to possible structural and organizational individual can return to the point of start that day –

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Figure 3 Space-time prism and the potential path area of individual (Yu and Shaw 2008). place where he/she lives (sleeps). The all day long to the fulfi lment of some common objective it is prism, says Hägerstrand (1970) consists of several not necessarily an individual matter. Many projects smaller prisms; such partial prism can be sorted out concentrate many individuals pursuing the same at any transit from one station to another. In such objective. Such project can follow similar behavior cases the principle of return is replaced by different patterns and apply regular procedures common for points of start and fi nish. While the point of start is several individuals (Ira 2006). As a matter of fact, the same as that of fi nish, it is a symmetrical prism time geography assumes that the everyday life of (or return), if not, the prism is asymmetrical (Thrift individuals is a process which determines to some 1977). Hence, the scope of the prism is, apart from extent the nature of the whole society on different individual constraints (location and of hierarchic levels. Investigation of such processes obligatory human activities: sleeping, going to work in their progress and their geographical and social and the like), determined by numerous other factors: frameworks may disclose different social phenom- available time for the accomplishment of activities, ena and relationships between human activities and amount of time necessary for the transfer between the environment. stations and the speed of used transport means. Pro- jection of the time-geographical prism into a two- THE REVISION OF TIME-GEOGRAPHY dimensional geographical plane gives the potential CONCEPTS UNDER THE INFLUENCE path area (Lenntorp 1976), which delimits all places OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICA- in space reachable by a human in a given time. TION REVOLUTION

Although time geography primarily leans on the anal- Basic concepts of time geography have been formu- ysis of the individual space-time trajectories, it also lated more than 40 years ago when the ICTs were provides a conceptual link between individuals and only at the beginning of their development. Since the socio-economic system. For instance, the con- the time when the fi rst time geographical concepts cept of project defi ned as a sum of activities heading were formulated though, the world and everyday

AUPO Geographica Vol. 43 No. 1, 2012, pp. 15-30 20 Changing concepts of time geography life of individuals have profoundly changed. The of meetings) on the other side they not only reduce postmodern society brought new phenomena into but also generate the movement in physical space (e.g. population’s life which changes its everyday life. First visiting coffee house for wi-fi connection). of all, the widespread possession of personal com- puters, easy communication with the whole world Regarding the concept of virtual mobility its inte- via Internet and the development of mobile phones gration within three types of human spatial behav- changed the ways of people work, educates, buy or ior should be presented (Vilhelmson, Thulin 2008): spend their leisure time. Hägerstrand (see Häger- • Physical (corporeal) mobility as interaction facil- strand 1970) and his colleagues were aware of the itated by transit by car, bus, train, plain, etc. importance of telecommunication, however, the pre- • Virtual mobility which represents the interper- vailing part of interactions took place in the physi- sonal contact via PC, Internet, mobile phones, cal space hence there was no need to consider non and the like. physical interaction. In the world of today, people • Medial (mass) communication via television, under the effects of ICTs are able to pursue sev- radio and other communication means. eral parallel activities and most especially, their living space has been enriched by what is referred to as the Combination of the quoted types of mobility in virtual mobility, which distorts the basic principles of one time yields hypermobility (Gillespie and Richard- organization, location and coordination of human son 2000), a result of combination of the physical, society, among them, for instance, the face-to-face con- medial and virtual mobility (for instance surfi ng on tacts, bonds to a place, indivisibility of human being, Internet while travelling to work on bus). Precisely task of distance, and the like. All that leads to reor- hypermobility urges us to reassess the traditional con- ganization of human activities in time and space. cepts of time geography. Hence, the traditional concepts of time geography must be subject of a new approach which refl ects Brief characteristics of key changes of traditional the modern trends in space-time behavior. concepts of time geography in the present post modern society will follow. While in the classical time geography an individual and his activities were strongly linked to physical space, Space-time path in the new time geography is necessary to consider hybrid physical-virtual space (Shaw and Yu 2009). The space-time path is a concept anchored in physical Under the infl uence of ICT activities of individual space and discreet time represents the basic element can be carried out from distance and from different of construction for the time-geographical analysis. places saving time necessary for the physical move- The relative simplicity of this concept though, is dis- ment. In the traditional understanding of the time turbed by the virtual mobility activities, which are not geography a man has to be physically present for the only frequent complements of physical activities, but purpose of participating in any activity or interaction recurrently become the key elements of everyday life with other individuals at a specifi c location (station). with effects on spatial behavior of individual. Moreo- The human movement between stations was inevita- ver, an individual can not only communicate through ble. In contrast, in hybrid physical-virtual space (or virtual connection but he/she can acquire informa- cyberspace, see Janelle and Hodge 2000; Kwan 2001), tion about, for instance, the most comfortable trans- the information is transmitted much more effi ciently port means, shopping offers or coordinate decisions and quickly. It is then obvious, that activities in both regarding other persons. Individual paths on the one physical and virtual are mutually intercon- side can become more diversifi ed regarding the trans- nected and affect each other (Batty and Miller 2000; port means, visited stations or activities, while hyper- Yu and Shaw 2008). On the one side, information mobility may simplify and shorten the individual’s fl ows in virtual space offer greater fl exibility for paths on the other side as his/her spatial behavior accomplishment of some activities (mobile phones is optimised and the activities can be accomplished provide a more natural and more fl exible organization without the necessity of physical displacement.

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In the context with the concept of human extensi- bility, Adams (1995) introduced time-space extensibility diagram (Figure 4). This method may be used to rep- resent a diverse range of human activities both in the physical and virtual worlds, including telephoning, driving, e-mailing, reading, remembering, meeting face-to-face and television viewing. Adams’ diagram is based on individual’s visualisation of activities and interactions as multiple space-time branches of paths in three dimensions. In this way it is possible to represent the temporal and spatial harmony/dis- harmony of varied activities. Regarding the increas- ing complexity of the space-time behavior of individuals, Couclelis (2009) proposed to abandon the 3D space and consider multidimensional space which along with the activities in physical space also includes those in virtual space. Couclelis (2009) fur- ther proposed the analysis of individual trajectories in time and space accomplished in separate struc- tures, models and stories. An example of work with multidimensional data is the technique of the paral- lel coordinate plots (Figure 5). The n-dimensions are represented as a series of parallel axes, and a point in n-dimensional space is represented as a polyline crossing the axes. The advantage of this expanded Figure 4 Time-space extensibility diagram. Simplifi ed model is that we do not need to sacrifi ce the carto- representation of one day in life of individual. The bold graphic visualization, which constitutes the strength line represents the location of the presence. The shaded of the space-time prism representation. area represents extension of an individual in space-time (Adams 1995). However, the quoted methods for the analysis of population’s spatio-temporal behavior remain in the position of theoretical concepts. Development of One of the most important problems of the modern the Geographical Systems (GIS) though offers the time geography is the search for methodological and possibility for a meaningful processing of the com- analytical tools for incorporation of virtual mobility plex time-spatial data. Kwan (1999) was the fi rst to into the concept of space-time path. The key is com- implement the space-time aquarium and space-time prehension of human activities through the concept paths in a 3D GIS environment using individual-level of human extensibility. The concept of the individual activity travel diary data. In her work (Kwan 2000) as an extensible agent was fi rst formulated by Janelle she describes the GIS-based meth- (1973), where extensibility represents the ability of a ods for dealing with the spatial and temporal dimen- person to overcome the through sions of human activity-travel patterns at the same using space-adjusting technologies, such as transpor- time while avoiding the interpretative complexity of tation and communication. “Human extensibility multivariate pattern generalization or recognition not only expands a person’s scope of sensory access methods. The following studies (Kwan 2001; Kwan and knowledge acquisition; it also enables a person and Lee 2003) show, that the GIS provides an effec- to engage in distant social actions whose effect may tive environment for implementing time-geographic extend across disparate geographical or his- constructs and for the future development of oper- torical episodes” (Kwan 2004:275). ational methods in time-geographic research. The

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Figure 5 representations of physical and virtual activities through a graph of parallel coordinate plots. Virtual means used to perform tasks, and remotely accessed locations, are represented below the horizontal axis. Stacks of profi les, ordered by time or another dimension, may be useful as data models in many cases (Couclelis 2009). understanding and operationalizing the concept of bundles in physical space are identifi ed through time-space path is the most signifi cant task in the spatial and temporal proximity between individual further time-geographic research. The concepts of space-time paths, in virtual space, relationships path provide a useful basis for understandings of between them should be rather considered. In clas- fundamental ecological and social conditions and sical time geography, a person can be at only one processes. As noted by Lenntorp (2004:223) “The location at a time. In virtual space, a person can trajectory can provide an equally operational basis form virtual bundles at multiple virtual stations at for understanding ecological forms as the molecule the same time. does in many of the natural sciences.” Prism Stations An important aspect of the new time geography Time-spatial paths are not isolated; they meet in is the defi nition of the space-time prism, which has, stations where the individuals’ activities concentrate up to now, appropriately refl ected the relationship into bundles. Traditional stations such as work place of physical activities within the different space- or shop receive competition in form of their virtual time limits. However, as far as any activity occurs counterparts (Figure 6). Their conceptualization out the territory of individual’s potential path though is not defi nite. In what station is the indi- delimited by the original space-time prism, the vidual performing his/her work via teleworking? individual cannot participate in it. A person with Is shopping in on-line shop some kind of virtual access to virtual world though, disposes of several station? Activities in virtual social networks such options how to participate in a given activity. At as Facebook, or MySpace, which also represent sta- fi rst glance, it may seem that the time-geographical tions with abundant interactions between individu- prism in virtual space is unlimited. But here too als, should be also mentioned. While stations and several limits forming its time-spatial geometry

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Figure 6 Traditional and new concept of stations in space-time. exist. Yu and Shaw (2008), for instance, stress that i) fi xed connection which makes it possible to carry the indispensable condition in entering the virtual out virtual activities from fi xed localities (phone world is the physical presence at the place that line, cable connection), and ii) wireless connec- makes such access possible. Conducting activities tion which unlike the discrete point localities offers in virtual space is still controlled by constraints an approach to virtual world from a territory with in physical space and time. Another limits are in an area determined by the scope of the given net- relation with the phenomenon of digital divide. A work (a territory covered by mobile and wi-fi net- digital divide refers to an inequality between indi- works). Based on two types of access channels they viduals, households and geographic areas (at dif- defi ne the widened form of the time-spatial prism ferent socio-economic levels) in terms of access as derived from the intersection of the traditional to ICT. Another meaning of digital divide refers to Hägerstrand prism and the space-time life path. The abilities of individual users to consume or produce authors distinguish two forms of the space-time internet content. life path depending on whether the individual uses the fi xed or wireless connection: space-time life lines of Yu and Shaw (2008) distinguish two type of access wired accesses or space-time life cylinders of wireless accesses channels (Miller uses portal 1) to virtual world: for the permanence in the virtual world (Figure 7). Their visualisation is reached by extension of the 1 In the context of space-time conditions Miller (2005) has ex- corresponding access channel into the virtual space tended the time-geographic measurement theory. He included virtual interaction and introduced two new time-geographic ob- along the temporal dimension during which indi- jects: portals and message windows. A portal is a type of space- vidual can carry out the virtual activity. time station where actors can access communication services. He distinguishes wired and wireless connectivity. Wired portal have number. A necessary condition for virtual interaction is the in- zero service radius. Its range for ICT access, indicating the maxi- teraction of an individual with the portal. The message window mum distance from the source at which an actor can access the refers to the potential for interaction. It is a time interval when service, is 0. For wireless connectivity is the range positive real actors interact with portals.

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Figure 7 Adjusted space-time prism for virtual activities with a) wired access b) wireless access (Yu and Shaw 2008).

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Constraints However, it is diffi cult to establish the generally valid consequences of ICTs. The relationships between Constraints in traditional time geography are per- ICT and spatio-temporal constraints depends on ceived above all in connection with limits of physi- the type of activity a person that carries it out, used cal space (existence of transport network, speed technology, as well as the cultural, institutional and limits, and the like), claims on transport (duration physical context. of transport), or institutional limits (opening ). However, the option to perform certain activities in In order to help understanding the increasing diver- virtual space impairs physical constraints – relaxation sity of human spatial behavior, the category of of constraints, which become ever less important ele- cognitive constraints is adding to the list of traditional ments determining our everyday live. For instance, concepts of constraints. Cognitive constraints pro- thanks to on-line shopping it is possible to buy a vide a guide how to fi ll the gap between individual product from a shop 100 km away which would and social factors determining the spatial behavior not be cost-effective if visited personally (cost of (see Raubal et al. 2004). The idea of cognitive con- transport). But traditional constraints still play a straints is based in Gibson’s theory of affordances. signifi cant role in everyday life of humans as the According to Gibson (1979), a representative of majority of activities in virtual space is anchored in ecological psychology, affordance represents a set the physical and social space (see Kwan 2001; Dijst of options for the use of a given object by a par- 2004; Schwannen and Kwan 2008). Information ticular individual. During any activity individuals and communication infrastructure which makes it perceive various physical and socio-institutional possible to enter the virtual world is not (so far) affordances and use them in order to reach their accessible from any place in physical space. Hence, aim. For instance, a bus stop offers an option to the physical space still plays its role in performance get on various busses, to buy a ticket and simultane- of human activities. It is not only the store and car- ously to talk on phone. Such approach is useful for rier of physical activities but also a kind of liaison the creation and provision of location-based services with the virtual world (Yu and Shaw 2008). In the which enjoy a boom with the mass expansion of consequence of virtual mobility, new forms of con- mobile phones and portable computers. straints emerge which may defi nitely infl uence the spatial behavior of individuals (for instance, choice CONCLUSION of a café with access to wi-fi ). Postmodern society and information-communica- Effects of ICTs on traditional time geographical tion revolution require transformation of traditional constraints have been treated in detail by Schwan- concepts of time geography. It must be admitted nen and Kwan (2008). In their opinion, a human though, that it is not only necessary to adapt the cannot always perform anything, anywhere, any geometry of the time-spatial tools and concepts time. Practical constraints given by the space and but also the overall paradigm of our approach to socio-institutional constrains exist that affect the the issue. Changes in individuals’ behavior to great individual’s capacity to distribute his/her activities extent are invisible and independent on space. In at will. The binary nature of presence (means corporeal difference to a journey to a shop or to work, on- presence) or absence of traditional time geography is line shopping and teleworking are not ruled by the modifi ed due to the capacity of telepresence (means principles of physical accessibility and the short- incorporeal presence) through voice or text messages est distance and do not leave observable trajectory and other form of communication (Adams 1995; in space. As noted by Lenntorp (1999), the new Schwanen and Kwan 2008). Generally, based on time geography offers a mental approach which accessible references, it is possible to assert that makes it possible to consolidate spatial and tempo- Internet and mobile communication remove some ral perspectives of research via different scientifi c spatio-temporal constraints. Some of them do last disciplines. It simultaneously brings a more solid or even become more important in life of humans. platform for research that the traditional approach

AUPO Geographica Vol. 43 No. 1, 2012, pp. 15-30 26 Changing concepts of time geography considering only the physical space often degrades An appropriate tool for processing and interpre- time geography to a certain simplifying apparatus tation of time-spatial data becomes GIS. The of individuals’ life visualisation. Visualising tools possibilities and capabilities of GIS have grown are important for time geography but in signifi cantly over the past two decades, so now is their background is crucial. Precisely this deeper possible to overcome several limitations of tradi- dimension of time geography allows us to trans- tional methods of time-space research of human form our view of the world and approaches to its behavior. GIS allows the integration of both study. Shaw (2009) refl ects on three key advances in time, the physical space and also virtual activi- time geography from: ties of individuals. Using GIS we are able to cap- • from an “aggregate” approach towards a “dis- ture activities and interactions of individuals as aggregate” approach; “processes” anchored in time and space. The GIS • from a “static” approach towards a “dynamic environment is also powerful visualization tool. and real-time” approach; and Another impulse for further research is the Glo- • from a “space-centric” approach towards a bal Positioning System (GPS). This revolutionary “space-and-time-centric” approach. technology provides new possibilities of collect- • Although some modifi cation of time-geo- ing individual spatial data in the detailed resolu- graphical concept have been suggested in this tion and simple data collection as never before. paper, there still remain many unanswered The use of GPS for spatio-temporal research methodological and conceptual questions. The of everyday activities became an area of interest most important ones are: of authors of this paper. Based on several test • How can be the concept of space-time prism records of everyday activities (see Madajová and perceived (defi ned) in virtual space? Šveda 2012) we point out the possibility of using • How can be concept of stations perceived GPS devices for individual data collection. The (defi ned) in virtual space? How do we repre- contribution has a character of pilot test study sent such virtual locations to best support anal- and provides methodology for the collection and ysis of human activities and interactions? processing of individual spatial data. Using GPS • Does time geography avail of adequate theo- and GIS allows new options for the collection ries, models and methods capable of capturing and processing of data complex analysis of time- the changing individual data records? space movement and spatial patterns of human • Can we extract the hidden spatio-temporal pat- behavior. terns and relationships in the individual space- time records? A meaningful time-geographical analysis though, also needs along such powerful tools a fi rm con- Time geography is a powerful conceptual frame- ceptual methodological hinterland. In the near work for understanding the spatio-temporal con- future, a dynamic development of time geography straints on human activity participation. As noted and increasing efforts in its application is expected. by Miller (2005:39), “it is less successful as an ana- The topical challenge is creation of such concep- lytical framework since its fundamental compo- tual and methodological framework which will be nents and relationships have never been stated in a able to cover the new phenomena emerging in the rigorous and consistent manner.” But the qualitative present postmodern society and information/com- improvements in the fi eld of computer technol- munication technologies such as fragmentation of ogy, the spread of mobile communication, satel- everyday activities, virtual mobility or multitasking. lite navigation systems and accessibility of spatially In case of successful affronting the outlined chal- referenced data contribute new incentives to time lenges, geography of time may become the key (not geography. Researchers in this fi eld thus receive only) geographical approach able to capture, ana- powerful hardware and software tools for process- lyse and comprehend the ever more complex life ing and analysis of great volumes of spatial data. of individuals.

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Novák, J., Sýkora, L. 2007: A city in motion: time- Vilhelmson, B., Thulin, E. 2008: Virtual mobility, space activity and mobility patterns of subur- time use and the place of the home. Tijdschrift ban inhabitants and structuration of spatial voor economische en sociale geografi e 99, 602-618. organization in Prague Metropolitan Area. Geo- Yu, H., Shaw, S.L. 2008: Exploring potential grafi ska Annaler B 89, 147-168. human activities in physical and virtual spaces: a Osman, R. 2010: Specifi ka časoprostorového cho- spatio-temporal GIS approach. International Jour- vani imobilních osob. In Geografi e pro život ve 21. nal of Geographical Information Science 22, 409-430. století: Sborník příspěvků z XXII. sjezdu České geo- Žigrai, F. 1999: Význam a možnosti štúdia časového grafi cké společnosti. Ostrava, Ostravská univerzita aspektu socioekonomického transformačného v Ostravě, 478-482. procesu z pozície slovenskej geografi e. Acta Parkes, D., Thrift, N.J. 1978: , Spaces and Pla- Facultitatis Studiorum Humanitates Naturae Univer- ces. New York, John Wiley. sitatis Prešoviensis, Folia Geographica 32, 110-115. Pred, A. 1977: The choreography of existence: some comments on Hägarestrand’s time geo- graphy and its effectiveness. Economic Geography Résumé 53, 207-221. Raubal, M., Miller, H.J., Bridwell, S. 2004: User- Meniace sa koncepty geografi e času v ére centred time geography for location-based ser- informačných a komunikačných technológií vices. Geografi ska Annaler B 86, 245-265. Shaw, S.L. 2009: Individual-based Tracking Data: Geografi a času si za štyri desaťročia svojej existen- Potentials and Challenges to Transportation cie vybudovala nielen prepracovaný konceptuálny Geography. Fleming Lecture delivered at the a metodický aparát, ale aj uznanie v rámci negeo- Annual Meeting of the Association of American grafi ckých vedných disciplín (psychológia, soci- Geographers, Las Vegas, Nevada, March 22-27, ológia, dopravné štúdie), ktoré prebrali viaceré jej 2009. východiská a výskumné techniky. Avšak od čias for- Shaw, S. L., Yu, H. 2009: A GIS-based time-geo- mulovania prvých konceptov geografi e času sa spo- graphic approach of studying individual activi- ločnosť a život človeka výrazne zmenili. Súčasná ties and interactions in a hybrid physical-virtual postmoderná spoločnosť charakteristická masív- space. Journal of 17 (2), 141- nym využívaním informačno-komunikačných tech- 149. nológií prináša viacero nových fenoménov, ktoré Schwannen, T., Kwan, M.P. 2008: The internet, menia charakter, ale aj dynamiku každodenného mobile phone and space-time constraints. Geo- života človeka. Virtuálny priestor, paralelné vyko- Forum 39, 1362-1377. návanie aktivít či fragmentácia činností rozrúšajú Temelová, J., Novák, J. 2011: Daily street life in tradičné pevné väzby medzi aktivitami človeka a ich the inner city of Prague under transformation: časovým a priestorovým ukotvením. Čoraz aktuál- the visual experience of socio-spatial differen- nejšou sa preto stáva aj potreba revízie konceptov tiation and temporal rhythms. Visual Studies 26, geografi e času, ktoré je nevyhnutné prispôsobiť 213-228. novým podmienkam postmodernej spoločnosti Temelová, J., Novák, J., Pospíšilová, L., Dvořá- (mobilná komunikácia, internet, hypermobilita). ková, N. 2011: Každodenní život, denní mobi- Príspevok prezentuje nový pohľad na základné lita a adaptační strategie obyvatel v periferních koncepty geografi e času, medzi ktoré zaraďujeme lokalitách. Sociologický časopis 47, 831-858. časovo-priestorovú cestu (space-time path), stanice Thill, J.-C., Horowitz, J.L. 1997: Travel-time con- (stations), obmedzenia (constraints) a prizmu (prism). straints on destination-choice sets. Geographical Vychádza pritom z prác renomovaných odborníkov Analysis 29, 108-123. v tejto oblasti a predstavuje niektoré významné kon- Thrift, N.J. 1977: An introduction to time-geography. ceptuálne zmeny, ktoré zohľadňujú vplyv informač- Norwich, Geo Abstracts, University of East ných a komunikačných prostriedkov na každodenný Anglia. život jednotlivcov.

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Jedným z najvýznamnejších problémov, ktorými sa ponúka myšlienkový prístup, ktorý umožňuje kon- potýka súčasná geografi a času, je hľadanie meto- solidovať priestorové a časové perspektívy výskumu dických a analytických nástrojov, ako inkorporovať rozličných vedných disciplín. Zároveň prináša pev- virtuálnu mobilitu do konceptu časovo-priestorovej nejšiu platformu pre výskum než tradičný prístup cesty. Východisko je porozumenie ľudským aktivi- zohľadňujúci výlučne fyzický priestor vďaka čomu tám prostredníctvom konceptu individuálnej exten- sa geografi a času často „degraduje“ len na určitý sibility (Janelle 1973), ktorý zohľadňuje schopnosť zjednodušujúci aparát na vizualizáciu života jed- človeka prekonať „odpor vzdialenosti“ prostred- notlivcov. V tejto súvislosti Shaw (2009) uvažuje níctvom technológií ako je mobilná komunikácia o troch kľúčových posunoch v geografi i času: a internet. Extensibilita neznamená len prístup • od agregovaného prístupu k dezagregovanému, k vzdialeným miestam (osobám, staniciam), ale aj • od statického prístupu k dynamickému (prebie- možnosť prístupu k informáciám a schopnosť par- hajúceho v reálnom čase), ticipovať na sociálnych aktivitách naprieč geogra- • od priestorovo orientovaného prístupu k časovo- fi ckými regiónmi a historickými epizódami (Kwan priestorovo orientovanému. 2004). V súvislosti so snahou zachytiť aj virtuálne aktivity jednotlivcov predstavuje Adams (1995) Geografi a času poskytuje prepracovaný konceptu- rozšírený časovo-priestorový diagram (time-space álny rámec pre porozumenie časovo-preistorovému extensibility diagram), ktorý je založený na vizualizá- správaniu jednotlivcov, sociálnych či etnických cii aktivít a interakcií jednotlivca ako viacnásobných skupín, ako aj celej spoločnosti. Avšak analytické vetiev časovo-priestorových ciest (space-time path) možnosti tohto multidisciplinárne orientovaného v troch dimenziách. Môžeme tak znázorniť časový vedeckého smeru boli až doteraz výrazne limitované a priestorový súlad/nesúlad rozličných aktivít. možnosťami na zber, spracovanie a analýzu indivi- Vzhľadom na narastajúcu zložitosť časovo-priesto- duálnych časovo-priestorových dát. Kvalitatívne rového správania sa jednotlivcov navrhuje Couclelis zlepšenia v oblasti výpočtovej techniky, rozšíre- (2009), aby sme sa pri časovo-priestorových ana- nie mobilných komunikačných zariadení a satelit- lýzach odpútali od trojdimenzionálneho priestoru ných navigačných systémov prináša do geografi e a uvažovali o multidimenzionálnom priestore, ktorý času nové impulzy. Výskumníci v tejto oblasti tak popri aktivitách vo fyzickom priestore zahŕňa aj dostávajú silné hardwarové a softwarové nástroje aktivity vo virtuálnom priestore. Couclelis (2009) na spracovanie a analýzu veľkých objemov priesto- navrhuje, aby boli analýzy individuálnych trajektórií rovo-referencovaných dát. Otázkou však naďa- v čase a priestore realizované v separátnych štruk- lej zostáva sfunkčnenie konceptov geografi e času túrach, modeloch a príbehoch. Príkladom práce v ich analytickom zmysle a vytvorenie takého meto- s viacrozmernými dátami je technika paralelných dického a výpočtového aparátu, ktorý by umožnil dejov (parallel coordinate plots). sofi stikované analýzy zachytávajúceho nielen pohyb jednotlivcov v priestore a čase, ale aj ich zložité Postmoderná spoločnosť a informačno-komuni- fyzické a virtuálne interakcie. V prípade vysporia- kačná revolúcia si vyžiadali transformovať tradičné dania sa s načrtnutými problémami (výzvami) sa koncepty geografi e času. Treba však poznamenať, geografi a času môže stať kľúčovým (nielen) geogra- že nie je nutné len upraviť „geometriu“ časovo- fi ckým prístupom schopným zachytiť, analyzovať priestorových nástrojov a konceptov, ale aj celkovú a porozumieť čoraz zložitejšiemu životu jednotliv- paradigmu nášho prístupu k tejto problematike. cov, ako ja fungovaniu celej spoločnosti. Zmeny v správaní jednotlivcov sú do veľkej miery nezávislé na priestore a „neviditeľné“. Na rozdiel od cesty do obchodu alebo práce, on-line naku- povanie a teleworking nie sú určované tradičnými princípmi fyzickej dostupnosti a najkratšej vzdia- lenosti a nezanechávajú pozorovateľnú trajektóriu v priestore. Podľa Lenntorp (1999), nová geografi a času

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