Issue no.1 April 2015

Shi‘a StudieE-Journal of the Centre for Islamic Shi‘as Studies CONTENTS

EDITORIAL p.03 WHO WE ARE Shi‘a Studies is an academic quarterly produced by The Centre for Islamic Shi‘a Studies (CISS). Husayn Conference p.05 The CISS was established in July 2007 to bring the Shi‘a tradition and Western aca- demic tradition closer to each other as well as p.07 to foster greater understanding of and its دراسة حول بحث اخلمس intellectual heritage. It aims to produce research on traditional and contemporary issues specifi- The Institute of Ismaili Studies cally from the Shi‘a perspective and promote a better understanding of the Shi‘a , its people establishes Shi‘i Heritage p.11 and culture in academia and society. Series

CONTACT DETAILS in and Islam p.18 Centre for Islamic Shi‘a Studies, 247 High Road, Willesden, London, NW10 2RY

CONTRIBUTIONS Tel: +44 20 8451 3322 Graduate students, researchers and academics are invited to submit essays, book reviews and articles to Shi‘a Studies. Fax: +44 20 3556 6964

For more information contact: Website: www.shiastudies.org.uk [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

DISCLAIMER EDITORIAL BOARD The views expressed by authors & contributors in Shi‘a Studies do not Editor-in-Chief: Prof Oliver Scharbrodt necessarily reflect those of the Centre for Islamic Shi‘a Studies. Co-Editors: Haider Al-Khateeb Designer: Safa Kadhim Editorial

Within the academic study of Islam, Shi’a pursued academic research in their own the Shi’a Studies e-journal is one of the Islam has long been neglected. Only faith tradition. first fruits of this collaboration. in the last 30 years or so, Shi’a Studies have grown from an area of marginal The Shi’a Studies E-journal which is The particular aim of the journal is to interest to one that is seen as central launched with this edition seeks to make academic research accessible to to the understanding of the history of be a platform for dialogue between the wider community and to facilitate Islam, both its formative and pre-modern academic and traditional scholarship on dialogue between academic scholarship periods, and of the current geo-political Shi’a Islam. The e-journal is a joint venture on Shi’a Islam and the Shi’a hawza dynamics in the and the of the Centre for Islamic Shi’a Studies tradition. The editors of the Shi’a Studies wider . Despite the growth and the new Chester Centre for Islamic e-journal invite article submissions on of Shi’a Studies in the last few decades, Studies which is based at the University any area of Shi‘a Studies, from the there is still an enormous task ahead in of Chester. The Centre for Islamic Shi’a historical to the contemporary and from terms of accessing various manuscripts Studies under its director Fadhil the theological and philosophical to and textual sources, tracing the historical Bahrululoom has been engaged in a the sociological and ethnographic. The development of Shi’a communities across variety of scholarly activities to support articles do not necessarily constitute the Muslim world and researching the the study of intellectual traditions and new and original research but can be rich literary, poetic, artistic and scholarly outputs, articulated by persons abridged versions or translations of traditions of Shi’a Islam. or entities committed to the Shi’a Islamic research already published with the faith, and/or persons or groups concerned aim to make it accessible to a wider In the past, the academic study of Shi’a with the academic study of Shi’a Islam audience. We particularly encourage Islam at European and North American both past and present. It aims to offer submissions from PhD students and universities had little interaction with informed and scholarly perspectives early-career researchers who would representatives of Shi’a traditions of on historical and contemporary issues like to share their research with a wider scholarship. Very often, both appeared that affect and non-Muslims audience. Every edition of this e-journal to be quite separate if not conflicting alike. The Centre for Islamic Shi’a will also include an translation of avenues of investigating Shi’a Islam, Studies endeavours to offer original and an academic journal published in English one from a confessional insider insightful analysis drawing from both in Shi’a Studies or an Arabic article perspective, the other from a critical traditional seminarian traditions and presenting and discussing a significant outsider perspective. Roy Mottahedeh’s contemporary academic discourses. It is contribution to the academic study of work has been ground-breaking in this particularly committed to expanding the Shi’a Islam published in Europe or North regard, as he has engaged seriously reach of scholarship beyond traditional America. Repeatedly, scholars in the with Shi’a scholars in his own research. and contemporary academic discourses hawza tradition across the Shi’a world, The establishment of the Institute of in the field of Shi’a Studies. The newly- but in particular those based in the Ismaili Studies has likewise yielded established Chester Centre for Islamic hawza ‘ilmiyya in , have expressed important contributions to bridging Studies engages in academic research interest in gaining access to the academic the gap between Shi’a communities on Shi’a Islam in particular, investigating scholarship produced on Shi’a Islam. As and academic scholarship. The other both its historical and contemporary part of its remit, this e-journal will seek to significant factor is the coming of age dimensions. It particularly seeks to reach respond to this demand. of the children of immigrants of a Shi’a out to and involve Shi’a communities background who were born or grew up and to collaborate with them in various In this first edition, Somayeh Tohidi in Europe and North America and have scholarly endeavours. The publication of compares and contrasts various

3 Christian and Muslim doctrinal views Studies has an immense track record reviews in Arabic highlights the merits of on Jesus, thereby addressing an issue in publishing academic work in the Calder’s article but also points at certain relevant within the wider context of area of . Its new Shi’i shortcomings. Islamic Studies. Her inclusion of exegetical Studies series, published by I.B. Tauris, works of Mohammad Hossein Tabatabai includes monographs, edited volumes I would like to take this opportunity to provides an understudied Shi’a angle and translations of Shi’a texts relevant thank Sayyid Fadhil Bahrululoom for to Muslim views on Jesus. Haider Al- across the wide spectrum of Shi’a Islam developing the idea of this journal and Khateeb was invited to present at and is introduced by the series editor Haider Al-Khateeb and the staff at the the Sixth Al-Taff International Cultural Gurdofarid Miskinzoda. Sayyid Fadhil Centre for Shi’a Islamic Studies for their and Scientific Conference in in Bahrululoom discusses an article by editorial work. December. The conference was held Norman Calder on in early Shi’a at the Al-Mustansiriyya University and (10th – 16th centuries). The included papers on various aspects of article published in the Bulletin of the Imam Husayn’s uprising presented by School of Oriental and African Studies academics from across the world. His (Vol. 45, no. 1, 1982) is one of the few report on the conference is included academic contributions on this central in this edition. The Institute of Ismaili ritual duty in Shi’a Islam. Sayyid Fadhil’s

Prof Oliver Scharbrodt Professor of Islamic Studies and Director of the Chester Centre for Islamic Studies, University of Chester

4 Imam Husayn Conference at Al-Mustansiriyya, Baghdad, 3-4th of December 2014 CISS was invited to attend and participate at the Sixth Al-Taff International Cultural and Scientific Conference in Iraq, Baghdad.The conference was sponsored by both the Iraqi Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the Shia Endowment Office. The Conference was held at the College of Arts, Al-Mustansiriyya University under the Title of ‘The Rise of Imam Husayn: A Stand Against and a Call For Reform’.

The opening ceremony was attended by senior government officials among them the Vice President of the Republic of Iraq Nouri al-, the Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research, joined by the Minister of the Shia Endowment Office and the President of the Martyrs’ Foundation. Various members of the Iraqi Parliament and guests and scholars from across the globe also attended.

Researchers presented work concerned with the Battle of and events related to it in the past and in the present within various research disciplines discussing themes related to the Battle:

Literature and Linguistics, including: 1. The rhetoric in the speeches of the . 2. The aesthetics of the literature of the Battle of Karbala.

Philosophy, Psychology and Educational, including: 1. The role of women in the uprising of Imam Husayn – Sayyida Zaynab as an example. 2. The influence of the uprising of Imam Husayn on the revival of the Islamic community. 3. The educational and psychological aspects of his uprising and their effect on the revival of public morale in the Islamic community.

History, Sociology and , including: 1. The role of Ahl Al-Bayt in reviving the uprising of Imam Husayn. 2. The social aspects of the uprising. 3. The contribution of the youth to the uprising of Imam Husayn. 4. The influence of Imam Husayn’s uprising on other revolts against tyrannical governments.

Media and Library Studies, including: 1. The role of the uprising of Imam Husayn in holding those in power accountable to the public. 2. The role of mass media and electronic libraries in making sources and information on Imam Husayn and his uprising available.

5 A paper presented by Qussay Al- violent by its very nature or at least Another paper, by Yasir , Attabi of Brown University looked at had a problematic relationship towards investigated the the influence of the ‘Intertextuality in the Husayni Majlis’. Al- violence. Scharbrodt highlighted in uprising of Imam Husayn on mass Attabi argued that the significance of the his paper the importance of acquiring mobilisation against the regime of Reza majlis lied in the cultural intertextuality in . by. Nuzhat Moini examined of the narratives about the Battle of the role of Sayyida Zaynab in highlighting Karbala. His paper looked at how the of Imam Husayn. the majlis, through the invocations of Karbala, produced and reproduced a The majority of the presenters were counter-discourse to hegemonic readings from academic institutions from across of Islamic history. Particular attention was the . After the conference, paid to the case of the Imam Husayn participants were invited to visit the Majlis in Iraq over the past two years. Al- Holy of Imam Husayn and Imam Attabi assessed through his work whether ‘Ali and to meet prominent Shia scholars the common narrative could play a role such as the Grand Ayatullah Shaykh in the development of Shia-Sunni bonds. Bashir Husayn Al-Najafi and Grand proper understanding of the diverse Ayatullah Sayyid Mohammad Sa’id Al- Oliver Scharbrodt presented a paper range of views on violence within Islam. Hakim. The invited guests had time to entitled ‘Imam Husayn as a Role-model He moved on to explore the role of Imam listen and engage with these scholars. of Non-violence in Islam’. The paper Husayn and the tragedy of Karbala in These visits coincided with the Arba‘in looked at current misconceptions or defining attitudes towards non-violence Commemorations in Karbala last year. generalisation that Islam either was in the Shii tradition.

Haider Al-Khateeb Ph.D. candidate, Middlesex University CISS Manager

6 دراسة حول بحث اخلمس للدكتور نورمان كالدر

منذ مدة ليست بالقصيرة وفي نيتي أن أكتب حول بعض الدراسات ونقدها أو توضيحها ألجل فائدة الباحث والقارئ ولتعم الفائدة للجميع. والترجمة لبحوث كانت والزالت محط نقاش وآراء الباحثني في مجالي الفقه واألصول وفق املذهب اإلمامي ملدرسة أهل البيت )ع(. وقد وقع اختياري بادي ذي بدء على دراسات للدكتور نورمان كالدر )ت 1997( االستاذ والباحث في كلية سواس جامعة لندن، وسبب االختيار وأود أن أبني هنا من خالل مقدمة مختصرة بأن الغرض من هذه الدراسات هو كون دراساته تخصصية فقهية قلما جند من يحاول ان يكتب عنها هو توضيح وشرح منطلقات أو آراء هذا الباحث أو ذاك وذلك ألجل ارساء باللغة االنكليزية، فجل الباحثني باللغات االجنبية يفضلون الفلسفة قواعد ملباني دراسة آراء املستشرقني وبحوثهم مع محاولة لفهم تلك اآلراء والدراسات املعرفية وكذلك التاريخية على وجه العموم.

7 وللدكتور املذكور اكثر من بحث في هذا املضمار وقد اخترت بحث 6( سهم ابناء السبيل اخلمس ألهميته واختصاره على أن يلحق باملستقبل ببحوث أخرى السيما بحثه عن الزكاة باالضافة الى ترجمة نصية لتلك البحوث في املستقبل ولرمبا يستند الى قول احملقق في الشرائع "وقيل: بل يقسم خمسة أقسام القريب ان شاء الله. واألول أشهر" وهذا واضح يفهمه كل من يفهم لغة العرب والفقهاء، فعندما يذكر الفقيه قوال على نحو" قيل"يدل على التضعيف و التقليل وفي بحث اخلمس نرى أن الدكتور كالدر قارن أول االمر بني اراء السيما عندما يذكر ان الرأي اآلخر اشهر، ويتضح من عبارته التالية الفقهاء دون أن يتعرض الى استدالل ذلك الفقيه ولعله وهذه املسألة تشمل في الشرائع انه لم يتبنى ذلك الرأي ذاك. ًعلما انه ال يخفى على املراجع اآلخرين لعدم متكن الباحث الكرمي من اللغة العربية، السيما اللغة والباحث ان عبارة قيل نسبة الى ما ذكره صاحب مصباح الفقيه االغا الفقهية والتي هي بحد ذاتها حتتاج الى متخصص متمكن ومتمرس رضا الهمداني "فما حكى من شاذ من اصحابنا من انه اسقط سهم ً قلمترسا حتقيقه ملن لم يتدرج في الدراسة احلوزوية التدرج الدراسي رسول الله )ص( ضعيف، بل لم يعرف قائله". املعهود، لذا نرى بعضهم يتخبط في عرضه ويقفز من نظرية او فرضية الى اخرى دون التطرق الى منهجية االستنباط ودليلية البحث بالطريقة والعبارة جتيب عن التساؤل بكل وضوح، وال تعني أن احملقق كان املعهودة مما يوقعه في فخ املساءلة من قبل احلوزويني. ًمترددا ًابدا ًعلما بانه لم يذكر املصدر الذي تردد احملقق فيه بحسب قوله ، ولكنني استخرجت ذلك من هامش على عبارته في الشرائع )1(. والواقع أن السبب الرئيسي لذلك هو الهوة بني االستشراقيني والباحثني األجانب وبني العلماء في احلوزة العلمية، تلك الهوة التي كانت وال زالت ج( ثم يستطرد الدكتور فيقول بأن "الفقر هو شرط في كل هذه موجودة، واسبابها متعددة، نترك البحث عنها لدراسة مفصلة،عسى األقسام الثالثة. الطوسي لوحده كان ًمترددا في كون الفقر مطلوبا أن نوفق لها ً،مستقبال اال أن من اهم اسبابها عدم التمكن من اللغة لأليتام". وقصده من الثالثة الفقراء وااليتام وابناء السبيل من بني هاشم. بالشكل الذي يساعد على تيسير الهفوات واالشتباهات وتقليلها. وليت شعري من أين توصل الى ذلك وفي أي مصدر؟ حيث انه لم يذكر ذلك في الهامش. وقد راجعت النهاية بنفسي ولم اجد ذلك، واملفروض ان وقد حاولت من خالل التعرض لبعض النقاط حول بحث اخلمس للدكتور االحتجاج يكون به باعتباره اخر كتب الشيخ في الفقه. كالدر، أن أشير الى أمثلة من األمور التي يقع فيها الباحثون، ًمراعيا عامل التلخيص واالختصار، ًتاركا التفصيل لبحوث مستقبلية، عسى أما املبسوط فقد ذكر الشيخ ما نصه "واليتامى وأبناء السبيل منهم أن نوفق لنشرها ان شاء الله. يعطيهم مع الفقر والغنى، ألن الظاهر يتناولهم )2( " أقول: وهذه العبارة ال تعني ان الشيخ متردد، ورأيه واضح ملن كان لديه شم فقاهة. وقد خلصت االشكاالت في عدد من النقاط، اوجزها فيما يلي:-

1( ربط الدكتور بني مسألة اخلمس والدولة البويهية وذلك بعد واهم من ذلك ما ذكره فيما بعد "اما العاملني عليها فيستحقون عند ذكره آلية اخلمس مبا نصه: استحقاقهم، اي في حالة فقرهم اثناء عملهم او جبايته، حتى لو كانوا "وفقهاء اإلمامية بغض النظر عن كونهم قبل أو بعد الدولة البويهية غير مستحقني في اوطانهم". وال ادري من اين له هذا؟ فهو لم يذكراملصدر قسموا اخلمس الى خمسة أقسام وبالتأكيد ينقدح أو يتفرع منه قسم وال يوجد من يقول بأن في اخلمس ًسهما للعاملني عليها، ولعله خلط بني سادس للخمس. بعد وفاة الرسول ثالثة أقسام تعود الى اإلمام واألقسام الزكاة واخلمس، السيما بأن له بحثا مفصال عن الزكاة، علنا نوفق الثالثة األخرى للفقراء واليتامى وأبناء السبيل من بني هاشم. وبالنسبة لترجمته ومناقشته فيما بعد ولنشره في مجلتنا هذه. الى األقسام الثالثة األخيرة، هناك تردد من قبل احملقق" 2( مما جتدر االشارة اليه ان املؤلف عندما يناقش او يحلل ويرد على هذا أمور افكار وآراء ابن ادريس يقول: "وقد ُعرف ابن ادريس في تاريخ الفقه )1( ما عالقة الدولة البويهية بآراء الفقهاء؟ وما سبب استدالله بأن الشيعي بتحامله على الشيخ او مناقشته آلرائه، واذا الحظنا صفحة من آراءهم معتمدة على ذلك؟ ان هو اال استحسان من قبل الباحث الكرمي، سرائر االسالم فاننا جند انها البد ان حتتوي على نقد للشيخ الطوسي، ولرمبا يتناغم مع روح العصر ومحاولة حتميل الفقهاء وآرائهم على الدول كاعتماده على اخبار اآلحاد، وعدم متسكه بظواهر التنزيل او عموم الشيعية من بويهية وصفوية الخ. اآلية باالضافة الى حيوده عن براءة الذمة. وباالضافة الى ذلك فان ًقسما ً كبيرامن نهاية الطوسي او املبسوط كان قد ُاقتبس من قبل ابن ادريس. )2( كيف استدل بأن فقهاء االمامية قسموه الى خمسة أقسام ومن الواضح ان الطوسي ًسواءا كان ُاتبع او خولف فال يحكمه جتاهل ويتفرع منه سادس، ونص القرآن صريح ال يختلف فيه اثنان. "واعلموا تأثيره املهم. ومناقشة بحث اخلمس في سرائر االسالم توضح احلملة امنا غنمتم من شيء فان لله خمسه وللرسول ولذي القربى واليتامى العنيفة البن ادريس والتي هي ال تخلو من غرابة في تاريخ الفقه االسالمي واملساكني وابن السبيل" 41:8 وذلك لكونها حول قضية تتعلق بتملك ثروات هائلة وأموال".

وهذا واضح بكون االقسام ستة: اقول ويرد على ذلك الكثير، ً:من اوالاين له عنوان سرائر االسالم 1( سهم الله والكتاب عنوانه السرائر احلاوي لتحرير الفتاوي. 2( سهم الرسول )ص( 3( سهم ذي القربى ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 4( سهم اليتامى )1( شرائع اإلسالم 133:1 5( سهم املساكني )2( املبسوط 357:1

8 ً:ثانيا من الواضح أن املؤلف لم يفهم عبارة ابن ادريس والتي نذكرها 4( وفي مورد آخر نرى انه بعد ان يتعرض الى رأي ابن ادريس لالنصاف "وما يوجد في سواد بعض الكتب فإنه من اضعف اخبار وغيره، وبدل أن يناقشهم مناقشة موضوعية نرى انه يكمل ًقائال بأن اآلحاد، ألنه مرسل غير مسند، وعند من يعمل بأخبار اآلحاد ال يعمل "هذا كان ًالى مفيداالفقهاء بصورة عامة )اذا كانوا هم املوزعني بذلك، ألنه ال يعمل اال باملسانيد التي يروونها العدول دون املراسيل". لألخماس( كمسيطرين على مصادر الثروة في املجتمع. ولرمبا يكون مفيدا لهؤالء العلماء الذين هم من السادة )بني هاشم(. ومن الناحية وكل من له شم فقاهة ودراية بالفن يعرف رأي ابن ادريس في اخبار الفكرية اي ادعاء من الفقهاء حول السيطرة على سهم االمام من اخلمس اآلحاد، وهو منحى اتخذه بعض الفقهاء من قبله، كالشريف املرتضى، يختلف عن سيطرتهم على الزكاة حيث أن اخلمس يختلف عن الزكاة، وابن زهرة وبغض النظر عن اخلوض في تفاصيل ما املقصود بأخبار ألنه ًقانونيا ملك االمام. ومن خالل ادعائهم حق توزيع اخلمس فالفقهاء اآلحاد ألن ذلك يحتاج الى تفصيل اكثر من هذا املقام اال انه من الواضح جعلوا ألنفسهم عالقة خاصة باالمام". انمقصد الشيخ "هو انه من اضعف اخبار اآلحاد، ألنه مرسل غير مسند، وعند من يعمل بأخبار اآلحاد ال يعمل بذلك، ألنه ال يعمل اال وهذا في الواقع كالم خال من التحليل الفقهي املوضوعي، الذي ان باملسانيد التي يروونها العدول دون املراسيل" فاشكال الشيخ على اخلبر صدر فيجب أن يستند الى رأي فقهي قائم على أسس لها عالقة مباشرة املرسل وليس كونه من اخبار اآلحاد. بعملية االستنباط الفقهي، وليس ملجرد استحسان شخصي ألمر دون آخر، وتعبير عن وجهة نظر بحتة ال متت الى عملية االستنباط الشرعي واهل الفن يفهمون ما املقصود بهذ، ومن الواضح ان البحث قد اختلط بصلة، بل هي محض تكهنات سياسية واجتماعية. على مؤلفنا الكرمي. 5( من ناحية ضبط املصادر نرى أن الكاتب الكرمي يقع ًاحيانا 3( نرى انه في موضع اخر يستفهم عن مسألة ولم يوضح ما هو في اشتباهات قد ال ُيتسامح بها ًاكادمييا ًفضال عنها ًحوزويا مثل نقله مورد االستفهام وذلك حني يشرح مسألة حصول الزيادة وذلك بعد توزيع عن الشهيد األول بالعبارة التي انقلها منه ًنصا كالتالي: "الشهيد االول اسهم اخلمس فيقول: يتحدث عن اخلمس ُقائال: "يقسم الى ستة أقسام، ثالثة لإلمام تدفع مباشرة له أو الى نائبه في حالة غيبته أو ُيحفظ ...." وينسب ذلك في "وكان يعتقد بانه اذا كانت هناك زيادة بعد التوزيع فانها ستكون الهامش الى الشهيد االول في الروضة ص53 واحلال ان الروضة البهية عائدة الى االمام )كان تكون له خاصة(. وفي نفس الوقت اذا كانت للشهيد الثاني، وهي شرح للمعة الدمشقية للشهيد األول والفرق واضح هناك نقيصه ُفيفترض أن يدفعها من ماله )سهم من اخلمس؟(" – اقول وجلي. متت ترجمة العبارة ً حرفياوبالنص مع عالمة السؤال التي وضعها والتي لم افهم ما هو مقصوده منها، فهو هنا يذكر العبارة من املبسوط للشيخ 6( ربط املؤلف مسألة التصرف في سهم اإلمام من قبل املجتهد الطوسي وال معنى لعالمة السؤال هذه، ألنه ان كان لديه سؤال فعليه أن اجلامع للشرائط بقضايا وعوامل تاريخية وسياسية بحتة، ولنراجع ما يسأل املختصني، وان كان يتساءل عن احلكم فليس بحثه ًاستدالليا، قالهثم نناقشه يقول: "الشهيد الثاني في مسالك االفهام حتدث عن اال اذا كان يطرح اسئلة للشارع ،وفي هذه احلالة يفقد موضوعيته، ألن مشكلة توزيع اخلمس، وهذه املشكلة اثيرت في حالة حصول زيادة البحث يفترض ان يكون فقهيا محضا وال معنى لهذه االستفسارات هنا. لسهم بني هاشم، فانها تعود الى االمام. وعليه فيمكن القول كذلك وبعد ذلك يخوض املؤلف في العبارة فيذكر حالة حدوث نقص بعد بأن سهم االمام في زمن الغيبة سيعود الى بني هاشم وكذلك ميكن التوزيع فيقول: "وان نقص كان عليه أن يتم من حصة خاصته" )اقول توزيعه". وهذه العبارة اقتبسها بالعربية وباحلروف العربية(. الشهيد الثاني قدم ًعرضا لهذه املسألة وقال بأنه: ال ميكن لإلمام أن واحلال ان العبارة في املبسوط كمايلي: "وان نقص كان عليه ان يتم من يسد اي نقص لسهم بني هاشم، وهذا مما اعطاه التبرير الكافي له وملن حصته خاصة". اقول: والفرق واضح وجلي بني العبارتني، فاالولى مبهمة، سبقه من الفقهاء في توزيع حصة االمام للفقهاء في زمن الغيبة. واالخير واما عبارة الشيخ فواضحة املعنى ملن يلم بلغة الفقهاء وعباراتهم، وهي قدذكر في الروضة البهية القوانني اخلاصة بتوزيع اخلمس بصورة أن لإلمام ان يكمل النقص في توزيع السهام )لليتامى واملساكني وابناء عادلة، مما يعكس نظره الى صالحية الفقهاء "سهم االمام يجب ان السبيل من بني هاشم( من حصته من سهم االمام. وقد يكون اخلطأ في ُيسلم له )اي لالمام( حال احلضور، وفي زمن الغيبة لنوابه، وهم فقهاء االمالء او النقل، ولكن حينئذ ال معنى العتراضه باملرة. االمامية العدول وهؤالء هم من لهم شريعة )واعتقد انه يقصد شرعية( الفتوى ألنهم وكالؤه. ولذلك فانه محتم عليهم ان يتصرفوا وفق مذهبهم ثم يستطرد فيقول: "ووفق هذا فانه يعني انه يجب ان يصرف من سهمه )والظاهر قصده اجتهادهم ًمثال ألن عبارته موهمة( وهؤالء الذين يرون انه اخلمس كي يغطي نواقص بقية املستحقني وقد كان هناك تناقض يجوز توزيعه للمستحقني لسد احتياجاتهم، فهذا ينطبق مع نظراملشهور منطقي في ما افاده الطوسي، السيما انه بت في ان لالمام ان يفعل ما من املتاخرين )اقول: واملقصود زمن الشهيد الثاني( قد يوزعونه بحسب يريد بسهمه اخلاص، والسؤال هو انه ناقض نفسه". ما يرون اكثره او على العكس، اما هؤالء الذين ال يوافقون على ذلك فيبتون بأنه يجب ان يحفظ لإلمام كوديعة حلني ظهوره. وليت شعري اين هي املناقضة لعله قصد انه كيف يكون السهم له خاصة؟ وعليه أن يصرف ليغطي النواقص ،وهذا ليس ً،تناقضا وامنا ولذلك فطاملا ان االمام غائب ... او يحفظ لغاية ظهوره من قبل من يدفع ايضاح ملا هو لالمام، وكذلك هناك امور يتوالها بنفسه وليس ألحد اخلمس كوديعة كما فصلنا ذلك للنائب )=الفقيه(. من يدفع اخلمس القيام بها، باعتباره زعيم األمة وقائدها وأمامها،ولتوضيح هذه االمور قد ال يوزع سهم االمام من اخلمس ملستحقيه حتت اي ظروف، وكذلك نحتاج الى تفصيل اكثر، والكاتب يحتاج الى سعة اطالع حول منصب قد ال يعطيه ألي احد اال للحاكم الشرعي. واذا استولى اي احد على ذلك االمامة، واالمور املتعلقة به قبل ان يصدر ًحكما بهذا الشكل. فحينئذ ُيعتبر ضامنا لذلك.

9 ومن الواضح من عبارة الشهيد األول أنه يجب ان ُيعطى للنواب حيث انه في شرح القواعد وكذلك الفاضل املقداد السيوري في شرحه املعروف ال يحل ألي أحد التصرف بهذا اجلزء ما عدا مجموعته ]فريقه =؟ الفريق بالنافع يوم احلشر في شرح الباب احلادي عشر للعالمة وهذا ما يخطر الذي هو مسؤول عن اخلمس اي الفقهاء[". هذا وينسب ذلك الى الروضة ببالي على وجه السرعة ولو اتسع املقام لذكرت املزيد. البهية. ثم بعد ذلك يستطرد الدكتور فيقول "مسالك األفهام وهو شرح لكتاب اقول: من الواضح من عالمة االستفهام املوجودة في املنت االنكليزي أن الشرائع للمحقق كان ًشيئا ًسابقا لذلك ولكنه خشن )ويقصد صعب( املؤلف لم يفهم العبارة. العبارة ولرمبا قصد ً آخرشيئا ولكن اشتباهه واضح ألن أهل الفن يعلمون ان املسالك من أقوى ما ُكتب في املعامالت ولعل املؤلف لعدم ثم يستطرد بعد ذلك فيقول "والفقرة كما هو معتاد من الشهيد الثاني متكنه من اللغة العربية الفقهية توهم بأن عبارة الكتاب معقدة. توضح بعض املسائل املستعصية او القضايا اخلالفية، وكذلك تفصيل صالحيات الفقيه والتقليل من صالحيات األفراد. ًوختاما أود أن أشير الى اهمية هذه البحوث كونها وان كان فيها كالم اال انها تنقل ً شيئامن فقه االمامية الى متحدثي االنكليزية وقد حاول اقول: وهنا يتضح الدس والتحريض على خالف املوضوعية االكادميية املؤلف بذل قصارى جهده وترك املجال ملن بعده ليطور ويوصل االفكار املطلوبة، فهو يحمل على الشهيد الثاني ورأيه، ويعلله بأنه ألجل احلصول املطلوبة. ان السبب الرئيسي حلدوث هوة بني احلوزات العلمية بصورة على املزيد من الصالحيات، واحلال أن الشهيد الثاني ليس هو اول خاصة وبحوث اهل الشرق بصورة عامة من جانب ودراسات الباحثني من اقر بجواز التصرف في سهم االمام من قبل الفقهاء العدول، بل لو الغربيني او ما يعبر عنه بدراسات املستشرقني،من جانب اخر هو عدم تتبعنا ذلك نراه يعود الى ابن ادريس في السرائر، ولرمبا قبله، وشرح املام كالالطرفني بلغة اآلخر، لذا فإن التمكن من اللغات امر مهم هذا يتطلب ًبحثا ًمستقال أسأل الله ان يوفقنا له ًيوما ما، ومن يطلع على لالطالع على ثقافة االخرين، وفي نفس الوقت يجب أن يكون سعي تلك اآلراء يتضح له علة التحليل في جواز التصرف، وهي ليست لزيادة للتعرف على ثقافة الطرف االخر قبل اصدار احلكم، وهذا هو علة الصالحية وال ألي سبب سياسي ملا بعد او قبل الدولة البويهية، بل يرى أن السعي لترجمة هكذا بحوث ومحاولة كتابة دراسات حولها، ألن جلها فقهاء الطائفة قد خصصوا لذلك صفحات مفصلة من البحث واملناقشة وبضمنها بعض الكتب والدراسات الواسعة واملعمقة اشارت بطريقة او الدقيقة، والتي كان ً حرياباالستاذ املؤلف ان يطلع عليها، السيما انه بأخرى الى نقاط ضعف لم تكن موجودة لو كان هناك استيعاب كامل اكادميي متبحر. للغة العربية، او باألحرى للمنطق الفقهي الذي مييز املوسوعات والكتب الفقهية واألصولية. ثم نرى انه وقع للمرة الثانية في مسألة نسبة الروضة البهية الى الشهيد االول، وهي للثاني واحلال انه كان االجدر به ان ينقل رأي الشهيد األول وكلي أمل أن تكون محاولتنا هذه بذرة لشحذ همم اآلخرين وتشجيع، من منت اللمعة الدمشقية. )الحظ الهامش رقم 22 في النص االنكليزي(. ألن املهمة ليست بالسهلة،والطريق طويل وشاق فهناك الكثير من 7( ومما جتدر االشارة اليه ان الدكتور كالدر اختلفت طريقته الكتب التي كتبت باللغات االنكليزية او الفرنسية او االملانية بهذا في سرد املصادر في الهوامش فلو الحظنا على سبيل املثال الهامش رقم الشأن، وحوت الغث والسمني بهذا اخلصوص، ولم ينبر لها حلد اآلن )26( القزويني ص 47 – 48، 164، 53، 54، ص71. من يرد عليها او يصحح مفاهيمها، بل نرى البعض منها اصبح يعد من املصادر املهمة لدراسات فقهنا االسالمي او االمامي وتاريخه وعلومه، فيذكر املؤلف والصفحات في حني نراه في الهامش رقم 29 يورد املصدر مما يعكس حساسية وأهمية التوجه الى العناية بترجمة هذه البحوث كما يلي "س. كوتني، طائفة البحر املتوسط، اجلزء الثاني، بركلي، والدراسات لتوضيح املطالب الى الباحث الكرمي مهما كانت لغته 1971" وهذه تختلف عن سابقها، وهذا االمر كثيرا ما يورد به على ومهما كان توجهه. الطلبة واحملققني في اجلامعات االكادميية الى حد يعرفه اهل الفن والتحقيق في هذا املجال. Sayyid Fadhil 8( ذكر الدكتور بأن الشهيد الثاني "أول من اخترع طريقة Bahrululoom التأليف املعهودة بخلط كل من املنت والشرح ليكون منهما ًبحثا Executive Director of the ًمشتركا وهذا ما اخذه من طريقة السنة" ويشير في الهامش الى ترجمة Centre for Islamic Shi‘a الشهيد الثاني في الروضات للخونساري.اقول: من يراجع ترجمة الشهيد Studies الثاني في اجلزء الثالث من الروضات يرى ان اخلونساري ينقل عن ابن العودي في سرده حلياة الشهيد الثاني والتي يذكرفيها مؤلفاته فيقول: منها "الروضة البهية في شرح اللمعة الدمشقية للشيخ املبرور احملبور الشهيد املذكور مجلدان مزجا ًايضا، سلك فيه ًمسلكا ًلطيفا ّوحرره ًحتريرا ًمعروفا، الى ان قال: ّا وأمرغبته في شروح املزج فانه ملا رآها ّللعامة وليس ألصحابنا منها حملته ّاحلمية على ذلك، فهي في نفسها شيء حسن".

وأقول: هذا ال ُيفهم منه انه اخذها من اهل السنة فلرمبا انهم اكثروا من هكذا تأليف فأخذته احلمي، وال يخفى على القارئ الكرمي ان فخر احملققني قبله قام بشرح قواعد والده العالمة في كتابه ايضاح الفوائد

10 The Institute of Ismaili Studies establishes Shi‘i Heritage Series The Institute of Ismaili Studies was es- These objectives are realised through produces English translations of se- tablished in 1977 with the object of concrete programmes and activities lected classical Shi‘i texts of crucial promoting scholarship and learning organised and implemented by the significance as well as bibliographical on Islam, in the historical as well as Institute. Thus, one of the new endeav- projects. contemporary contexts. The Institute’s ours at the Institute is the launching of programmes encourage a perspec- the Shi‘i Heritage Series. It has been Through these publications and tive which is not confined to the theo- established as an intrinsic part of the various other research projects, the logical and religious heritage Institute aims to encourage of Islam, but seek to explore original research and the relationship of religious analysis of existing issues in ideas to broader dimensions the field. Recognising the of society and culture. The increasing interest in the study programmes thus encourage of in recent years, an interdisciplinary approach the Shi‘i Heritage Series to Islamic history and thought. aims to promote a better Particular attention is also understanding of Shi‘i Islam given to issues of modernity and its interpretations by that arise as Muslims seek to bringing together some of the relate their heritage to the most significant contributions contemporary situations. in the field and seeking to make these accessible to The Institute’s programmes wide audiences of academics concentrate on the diverse of and non-specialists. It also cultures in which Islam is prac- investigates the theoretical, tised today, from the Middle methodological and practical East, South and Central , challenges encountered in and Africa to the industri- Shi‘i studies. alised societies of the West, thus taking into consideration The Shi‘i Heritage Series the variety of contexts which intends to produce distinctive shape the ideals, beliefs and and highest quality practices of the Muslims. contributions in tackling the problematic lack of readily In particular, the Institute promotes re- publications programme of the Insti- available primary sources on Shi‘i search on those areas of the Muslim tute. It will include: monographs and Islam - which constitutes a major tradition which have received rela- edited volumes intended to enhance impediment to scholarship in the tively little attention from scholars. knowledge of Shi‘i Islam and Shi‘i field. In order to offer a wider and These include the intellectual and interpretations of Islam; textual stud- easier access to primary sources, literary expressions of Shi‘i Islam in ies leading to the publication of pri- the series will provide new editions general, and the Ismaili tradition in mary sources based on unpublished of works which have not received particular. manuscripts of important Shi‘i texts. appropriate consideration due to the In addition, the Shi‘i Heritage Series poor quality or inaccessibility of their

11 current versions. This will be done of . At the same time, the introductions and those that exist in through working partnerships with author’s accessible text will assure the contemporary study of Shi‘i Islam, individual scholars and academic a wide interest among general, along with the methodologies and establishments in the field and by non-specialist readers who follow tools of research that are currently identifying key institutions engaged contemporary events in the Middle used to address these issues. Each in similar endeavours. Moreover, East and the Islamic world. case-study deals with a number of the series intends to produce English significant methodological issues translations of selected classical The second book in the series, The central to the study of Shi‘i Islam as Shi‘i texts of primary importance, Study of Shi‘i Islam: History, well as contains analytical containing accompanied by new critical editions and Law represents an extensive descriptions of the features and and, where required, by introductory analysis of the field of Shi‘i Studies. contents of various developments or explanatory material. Its central objective is to provide in history, doctrine and thought. The The Editorial Board, which ensures the overview of the present state of introductions utilise these case studies quality and breadth of publications, the field and to showcase some of that follow to exemplify and highlight consists of: Farhad Daftary (General the major issues and approaches issues wherever appropriate without, Editor), Maria de Cillis (Managing through the publication of original however, limiting themselves to these Editor), Gurdofarid Miskinzoda studies. Edited by Farhad Daftary alone. It is hoped that the volume will (Managing Editor), Mohammad- and Gurdofarid Miskinzoda, the inspire further research and discourse Ali Amir-Moezzi, Hermann Landolt, book is divided into eight main parts. in the field leading to more exciting , Andrew Newman, These are: history and historiography, avenues for research in these and Sabine Schmidtke and Paul Walker. Qur‘an and its Shi‘i interpretations, Shi‘i other areas. , Shi‘i law, authority, theology, So far, three books have been rites and , and philosophy and The volume benefits from the diverse published in the Shi‘i Heritage intellectual traditions. expertise of nearly 30 eminent Series. The first book in the series, scholars, including Mohammad- by Dr Farhad Daftary, provides a The introductions to each of the parts Ali Amir-Moezzi, Meir M. Bar- definitive account of the development aim to provide an overview of that Asher, Farhad Daftary, Maria of Shi‘ism, also clarifying the particular sub-field in the study of Massi Dakake, Daniel De Smet, frequent misunderstandings and Shi‘i Islam within the more general Gerald R. Hawting, Nader El-Bizri, misrepresentations that colour the context of Shi‘i and Islamic studies. Etan Kohlberg, Wilferd Madelung, dominant perceptions about it. The They examine issues of methodology , Andrew author draws on the scattered findings and recent developments in their Newman, Andrew Rippin, Sajjad of modern scholarship to explain the respective sub-fields and represent a , Sabine Schmidtke and Paul E. formative era of Shi‘i Islam, when comprehensive overview of the topic, Walker. a multitude of Muslim groups and the state of research in that particular schools of thought were elaborating sub-field, how it has developed In 2010 The Institute of Ismaili Studies their doctrinal positions. Subsequent so far, primary aims at the current organised a colloquium entitled The chapters are devoted to the history stage of its development and what Study of Shi‘i Islam: The State of the of the Ithna‘asharis, or , the needs to be done to further future Field, Issues of Methodology and Ismailis, the Zaydis and the Nusayris research. Moreover, the author Recent Developments to coincide (now more commonly known in of each introduction has taken a complement the genesis of this as the ‘Alawis), the four communities unique approach to writing them volume. While focusing on the state of that account for almost the entirety for pragmatic reasons, in order to the field itself, the colloquium enabled of the Shi‘i Muslim population of the avoid repetitions and also to provide serious discussions on current issues in world (ca. 200 million). an extensive overview of the field in the study of Shi‘i Islam. By providing general. leading scholars as well as those new The result is a comprehensive history in the field, with the opportunity to of Shi‘i Islam that will serve as a work The ‘case studies’ (studies on a meet and discuss the state of the field of reference for academics in Islamic particular topic) themselves are and their current research, it sought and Middle Eastern studies, as well meant to explicate the type of to realise the aims of the Institute in as the broader field of the History issues and questions raised in the promoting the understanding of Shi‘i

12 Islam and enhancing further research. before exploring possible solutions to The latest book in the series is Words the ‘puzzle of fragments’ represented of Power: Hurufi Teachings between by the random composition of Shi‘ism and in Medieval Islam the Jawidan-nama. Parts One to by Orkhan Mir-Kasimov. It focuses on Three present a detailed analysis the Jawidan-nama-yi kabir (‘Great of the Jawidan-nama’s contents, Book of Eternity’), the magnum including cosmology, anthropology, opus of Fadl Astarabadi (d. prophetology and eschatology. 796/1394) and one of the most The Conclusion contextualises important known texts belonging to the Jawidan-nama within Islamic the mystical and messianic current intellectual history. Is the Jawidan- that became particularly active nama a work of Qur’anic ? in Iran and Anatolia following the Is it a Sufi work based on an original Mongol invasions. It illuminates the interpretation of Ibn al-‘Arabi’s ideas? contemporary reconfiguration of Or is it a continuation of the Shi‘i Ismaili religious and political authority along esoteric tradition elaborated during messianic and charismatic lines the phase of Nizari Ismaili that took place in the Islamic East, history? Although the Jawidan-nama and which arguably contributed does not answer all the questions that to the rise and consolidation it may raise, it exemplifies the diversity of the Ottoman, Safawid and and richness of the intellectual and Mughal empires. The conception of spiritual traditions of Islam. authoritative hermeneutics (ta‘wil) is at the core of Fadl Allah’s teachings and explains the claim ascribed to him by his followers to high religious Gurdofarid Miskinzoda and possibly also political office. The Research Associate, Institute of use of Jewish and Christian texts in Ismaili Studies the Jawidan-nama, together with the Muslim scriptural sources, suggests a universal dimension to Fadl Allah’s messianic project. Fadl Allah and his followers came to be known as Hurufis, a reference to the Islamic science of letters’ (‘ilm al-huruf). The Hurufis left behind a rich cultural heritage. Their literature and doctrines were integrated into Alevi and Bektashi milieus in the , and influenced the development of Azeri and Ottoman Turkish literatures. The longevity of Hurufi ideas and motifs is also evident in modern as, for example, in the work of Orhan Pamuk.

Words of Power is the first comprehensive study of Fadl Allah’s seminal work. The Introduction surveys Fadl Allah’s biography and the history of the Hurufi movement,

13 Jesus in This subject, namely, the comparison The area within of Christians’ and Muslims’ views Christian Theology about Jesus, is very extensive. The dif- which deals with ferences between different and understanding the branches of each make the person of Jesus issue very complicated and render Christ is known it almost impossible to be discussed as Christology. As comprehensively in a short essay. Karl Rahner (1904- Nevertheless, in what follows, I will 1984) brilliantly try to give a very brief account of puts it, Christology how Christians see Jesus and then approaches can contrast it to Muslims’ picture of him. be divided into two main catego- ries: Christology Jesus from a from below and Christian point of Christology from view above. The majority of Christians believe Christology from that Jesus is far more than a mes- below presents senger of . That is because in a human picture their view Jesus reveals God in an of Jesus. From this unprecedented manner. Moreover, point of view, Jesus he brought true salvation to human- is a prophet, a per- kind in a sense that no one had done fect man, a moral before and will do in the future. This teacher who is the best example In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus has about Jesus as the bearer of a for the humanity. He is neither eter- been portrayed as a practicing Pal- unique type of salvation has a crucial nal, nor does he have any attribute estinian Jew who fulfills the prophe- role in forming the Christian under- which is specific to God. The charac- cies of the Old Testament about the standing of the nature of Jesus. I will teristic of the followers of this view is . He was a kind preacher return to this point later. For a Chris- that they refrain from considering Je- who was close to ordinary people tian believer, Jesus is not just a histori- sus as God, no matter how perfect and compassionate towards the cal figure, but a personal redeemer he was. Adoptionists and Ebionists poor and outcasts such as prostitutes. with whom she has a direct internal are examples of those who adhered Although his message was full of no- connection. to this type of Christology amongst tions about God’s love and kindness early Christians. The proponents of and he believed that love is more It is important to note that Christian this view usually rely on the Synop- important than juridical correctness, theologians believe that the New tic Gospels and especially Mark to he confirmed Jewish law and prac- Testament, on its own, is not conclu- justify their point (Ware, 2005). Since ticed it himself. There are some refer- sive on the matter of ‘who is Jesus’ contrary to the fourth Gospel, one ences to Jesus as Son of God which (Ware, 2005). To understand who can hardly find a trace of the divin- are usually interpreted symbolically Jesus is, one needs to employ one’s ity of Jesus in the first three gospels, by proponents of Christology from faith as well as historical and theo- namely Matthew, Mark and Luke below. There are also some astound- logical evidence. (Ashrafi & , 2011). ing verses in these gospels which are explicitly monotheistic:

14 15 And Jesus answered him, 1.3). This became incarnate has to reach to the point of human ‘The first of all the com- through his birth from Mary (John need’. The first principle which has its mandments is: “Hear, O 1.14) and then sacrificed himself to re- roots in the Old Testament in addi- Israel, the Lord our God is deem humanity and unite them with tion to the fact that Jesus has come to one Lord.”’ (Mark 12.29) God (John 3.16). Finally, he resur- save us leads to the affirmation that rected three days after his crucifixion. Jesus is fully God. On the other hand, Moreover, there are verses that re- Although this notion of resurrection is the second principle states that Jesus, ject Jesus’ having divine attributes mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels in order to be able to communicate such as his being free of need or all- as well, but the context of these Gos- divine life to us human beings, has to knowing: pels leads the reader to consider it as become like us and therefore has to the most important miracle and sign fully assume human nature. In Ware’s …saying to them, ‘Go to of the truthfulness of Jesus’ prophet- words: the village ahead of you, hood. However, this event, namely and at once you will find resurrection, means far more than just Unless he is fully divine a donkey tied there, with a sign of in the context and fully human, the ‘ex- her colt by her. Untie them of the fourth gospel and the Paul’s change of gifts’ is fatally and bring them to me. If epistles. It is a confirmation for the be- impaired. Only if he is tru- anyone says anything lief that Jesus is God himself. ly human can we humans to you, say that the Lord receive that gift from needs them, and he will This fact that ‘Jesus is God’ has been and through him. (Ware, send them right away.’ explicitly confirmed in many verses 2005). (Matthew 21.2-3) of the New Testament. According to Raymond Brown, the most important Although this division of Christology But about that day or hour occasions, in addition to the famous into two categories of ‘from above’ no one knows, not even the John 1.1, which was mentioned be- and ‘from below’ is very helpful to in , nor the fore, are the confessions of Thomas get a good sense of how Christians Son, but only the Father. when he addressed the risen Christ thinks about Jesus, in the real world (Mark 13.32) as “my Lord my God” (John 20.28) of Christian Theology, there are and in the Hebrews 1.8 when Jesus is many sects and theologians whose On the other hand, Christology from addressed as God. (McGrath, 2011). Christologies cannot be put in either above introduces Jesus as a divine of these two categories. In fact, they eternal existent, the second person Christology from above has been are combinations of both. For instance of the Holy Trinity who was born in a shaped in a strong soteriological con- the Antiochene school, while giving human nature at a specific historical text. The paradoxical affirmation that more weight to the picture of Jesus point. He has both divine and human Jesus is fully God and fully human at as a moral teacher rather than a re- natures in full. He is one person with the same time, finds its justification in deemer (which is a characteristic of two natures (essences). The Nicene this context. Different soteriological Christology from below), strongly em- Creed is the classic formulation of models have been employed for this phasizes Jesus having two separate this type of Christology. It is mainly justification (ransom, , substi- natures. However, it seems that in the based on the fourth gospel which has tution, and victory). But according to majority of popular types of Christol- explicit assertions regarding Jesus’ Kallistos Ware (Ware, 2005), the most ogy the weight of Christology from being eternal: effective one is the model of ‘mutual above is greater. participation’. This model is based on In the beginning was the the idea that God became incarnate One of the very important types Word, and the Word was as Jesus to share with us what he of Christology is Spirit Christology with God, and the Word had. Since like is healed by like, he which interprets the presence of God was God. (John 1.1) has to assume human nature in order in Jesus differently. From this perspec- to be able to share with us his divine tive, Jesus is the bearer of the Holy In this gospel, Jesus is depicted as the nature. It can be said that this model Spirit and it is in this sense that God logos (an eternal existent) who was is based on two principles: first ‘only is present in him. If one wants to know God’s instrument in creation (John God can save’ and second ‘salvation Christ better, one has to know the

16 Holy Spirit first. In this way Pneuma- the permission of tology becomes the prerequisite of God. The Christology. This view is very appeal- explicitly rejects ing for those who are concerned any claim about about the divine aspect of Jesus and Jesus being God yet cannot digest the presence of or the son of God within him. However, theologi- God: ans like Pannenberg (1928) are op- posed to this idea, since they believe They have it will finally ‘lapse into some form of certainly adoptionism’ (McGrath, 2011). disbelieved who say It is important to note that any criti- that Allah cism about irrationality of the belief is Christ, that Jesus is fully God and fully hu- the son of man at the same time is in vain, since Mary… it is promptly referred by Christians to (5:17) the limited cognititive abilities of hu- man beings. But accepting this kind support from the Holy Spirit, who is of response means anyone can justify They say, ‘The All Merciful the special of God, which en- her position by just saying it is not un- has taken a son!’ Glory be abled him to do life-related miracles derstandable by human reason which to Him! They are only His such as calling some dead people is tantamount to the end of intellec- honored servants.” (21:26) back to life or giving life to clay birds tual debate about the subject. by breathing into them. There are several verses in the Quran emphasizing the fact that Jesus is a Regarding the issue of crucifixion, Jesus from an messenger and servant of God just Quran explicitly asserts that Jesus Islamic point of as all other prophets were. In addi- was neither killed nor crucified, but tion to his miracles, three character- those who were trying to kill him, killed view istics have been mentioned in the someone else in his place. There is an The Quran as the most important Quran for Jesus specifically: first, that important verse in the third of source of Islamic faith mentions the he was God’s word , second that he the Quran which says: names of Jesus, Messiah and Mary- was a from God and third he am sixteen, ten and thirty three times was supported by the Holy Spirit . When Allah said, ‘O Jesus, in- respectively. Jesus and his mother deed I will take you and Maryam are among the most re- According to Hossein raise you to Myself…’ spectful figures in the Quran. They Tabatabai (Tabatabai, 1984), Jesus’ were gifted by some unprecedented being the word of God means Jesus This verse alludes to a specific and miracles. Virgin birth, talking in the was created by the direct word of miraculous form of life which was con- cradle, healing incurable diseases, God and without mediation of instru- ferred to Jesus after the Romans at- and calling the dead back to life mental causes such as a father. In this tempted to kill him. Other commenta- are among Jesus’ miracles which are sense, his creation was very similar to tors like Tabatabaei believe that he mentioned in the Quran. the creation of . The term ‘soul’ was raised by both his soul and body in the description of Jesus as being a to heaven. So Jesus is still alive ac- Nevertheless, Jesus is no more than a soul from God, refers to the same soul cording to the understanding of most messenger of God in the Quran. He which was breathed into Adam by Muslims. According to some , was sent by God to remind people God in the process of creation and he will return towards the end of the about just like all other the same soul which is mentioned as time and all people will understand prophets. His miracles were just signs something of the affair of Lord. Con- and admit his truthfulness on his return. of his truthfulness. Almost every men- cerning the third notion, Tabatabaei tion of miracles is followed by remind- that Jesus received special ing that those miracles happened by

17 Conclusion , N., Harries, R. & Winter, T., Through a comparison of Christian 2005. Jesus in Christian, Jewish and and Islamic perspectives about Jesus, Muslim Thought. In: N. Solomon, R. we can see that claims like the vir- Harries & T. Winter, eds. Abraham’s gin birth, astonishing miracles such as Children: Jews, Christians and Mus- life-giving power of Jesus, have been lims in Conversation. London: Con- confirmed in both religions. But when tinuum International Publishing Group. it comes to claims such as , crucifixion and resurrection, Islam ex- Tabatabai, M. H., 1984. -e Almi- plicitly refuses to accept them. In fact zan. s.l.:s.n. in the cases which deal with the di- vine nature of Jesus (notions such as Ware, K., 2005. Jesus from a Christian incarnation) Islam’s position is more Perspective. In: N. Solomon, R. Harries severe than simply not accepting. It & T. Winter, eds. Abraham’s Children: considers it . Jews, Christians and Muslims in Con- versation. London: Continuum Interna- Islam and Christianity also have dif- tional Publishing Group. ferent views about the meaning of the term ‘Holy Spirit’ and the relation they portray between the Holy Spirit Somayeh Tohidi and Jesus. While Christians believe Researcher that Jesus was the bearer of the Holy Spirit, Muslims believe the Holy Spirit is the revelatory angel of God which supported Jesus throughout his life.

In fact, there are many points of re- semblance between the Islamic view of Jesus and Christology from below since in both of these Jesus is a hu- man and not God. But there are still differences especially when it comes to the issues of crucifixion and resur- rection.

Bibliography Ashrafi, A. & Qurbani, F., 2011. Masih shenasi dar Quran va Ahd-e- Jadid. Pazhuhesh-haye Qurani. McGrath, A. E., 2011. Christian Theol- ogy: An Introduction. s.l.:John Wiley & Sons.

Mustafa, B., 2005. Jesus from a Mus- lim Perspective. In: N. Solomon, R. Har- ries & T. Winter, eds. Abraham’s Chil- dren: Jews, Christians and Muslims in Conversation. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.

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