The Randstad-Holland 5

The Randstad-Holland

Fig. 5.1: The Randstad (also known as Deltametropool). Reproduced here with special permission from Tom Janssen (2006).

167 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

Fig. 5.2: “The Look”, Photo by Arlette Hitz (2007). Life in the networked city might involve a large amount of commuting time. 5.1. Introduction and non-material nature and they function at different spatial scales. This includes an analysis of the role of the city-region as a convincing The aim of this chapter is to describe and ‘global city’ in the new (post-Fordist) stage of analyse the The Randstad-Holland under two capitalism. The question here is whether the perspectives: Randstad-Holland, being a complex polycentric city-region, can be considered a ‘global city’. a. A ‘spatial unit’ of analysis: in relation to its Is the Randstad a global city or a collection of spatial organization as a coherent and articulate specialised ‘small global cities’? urban region where new structures are emerging as a result of the intensification of global flows. In this section, the role and the position of Here, the emphasis is on the form and the structure the Randstad in the global network of flows of the urban region as well as the organization is analysed with an explicit emphasis on the of nodes shaping articulate urban networks. attraction of Foreign Direct Investment in the Governance issues concerning the management form of Advanced Producer Services. It includes of the Randstad are also discussed. an investigation on the position of the Randstad in the frame of city competitiveness, related to b. A ‘socio-economic object’ of analysis: in its specific advantages and disadvantages and relation to its role as a space where socio- the various kinds of attractiveness rankings for economic agents produce, articulate and the attraction of foreign direct investment and disseminate global flows through various command functions. networks. These networks are of a material

168 The Randstad-Holland

5.2. What is the Randstad? The “firstfirst conceivedconceived as the would-be DutchDutch metropolismetropolis”. Spatial Organisation It already stood out as the nation’s “most urbanised region and economic powerhouse” (Werff(Werff et al., 2005, :2). The scattered layout of the Randstad For non-residents of The Netherlands, the term was then perceived as a “unique asset that would ‘Randstad’ may sound utterly unfamiliar. In The give the region a considerable advantage compared to Netherlands, however, the term is frequently used cities such as London and Paris. It offered its four to designate the densely urbanised area situated million residents ease of access to omnipresent green in the west of the country, adjacent to the North Sea, and home of the four largest Dutch cities: and healthy environs, while the absence of a massive Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. central, congested core would ensure the free flow of Literally, Randstad means “border city”, or the city people and goods between its centres for years to come. that lies at the border of the Groene Hart (‘Green […] it would be a boon to the country’s economy Heart’) , a vast, more or less build-free reserve of and simultaneously, due to its dispersed nature, keep ‘green’ open space spreading over the Provinces the nation free of the troubles and despair that were of South and North- Holland and Utrecht (see associated with the traditional monocentric metropolis” further for definition of ‘Green Heart’). (Lambregts, 2006, 114). According to P. de Jong, the name Randstad was The development of the Randstad as a polycentric first used in the 1950’s by the then President of metropolis corresponds to the ‘fusion urban KLM Dutch Airlines to define the large urbanised development mode’ described by Champion area that his company served from the newly (2001) and used by Lambregts (2006). inaugurated Airport of Schiphol. The use of the term then spread and was incorporated in the common Dutch vocabulary. The word Randstad appears in the reputable Dutch dictionary Verklarend Woordenboek der Nederlandse taal (Koenen and Endepols, 1969), that puts forward the following definition: “het stedengebied van Holland (de provincies Noord-Holland en Zuid-Holland) en Utrecht, gezien als één grote stad langs Nederlands westrand”: “The urbanised partpart of Holland (the provinces of North Holland and South Holland) and Utrecht, which are seen as one large city along the Dutch west coast”. The idea that the Randstad was, or would be one day, one single large metropolis, has been on the mind of Dutch planners and the Dutch public for a long time. In 1958, the Randstad made its way into official documents as a planning concept (Nederland, 1958a, , Nederland, 1958b), when the Randstad was, according to Lambregts (2006, 114) Fig. 5.3: Approximate area of The Randstad-Holland in the Netherlands. Map R. Rocco (2006) based on various sources.

169 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

Lambregts notices that, among the polycentric and the keeping of the ‘Green Heart’ as an area urban regions of north-western Europe, where urban development is discouraged. there is a great variety in spatial arrangement. Some urban regions are characterised by even distribution of middle-sized cities across space However, Werff et al. (2005, 2) point out that (e.g. The Randstad, The Ruhr, and Northern the Randstad has always been torn between two Switzerland), whereas other take the shape of conflicting visions for its future. On the one had, large urban centres surrounded by smaller units some thought it should be encouraged to develop (e.g. Le Bassin Parisien, South East England, into a ‘real’ metropolis in order to let economic Greater Dublin). Other urban regions are agents benefit from the resultant agglomeration characterised by an intermediary configuration economies. On the other hand, others believed (Rhine Main and Central Belgium). that efforts should be made in order to prevent the area from becoming a dense metropolis, thus keeping the Netherlands free from the much-feared effects of metropolisation, such The ‘fusion’ of urban areas in the Randstad- Holland is nevertheless hindered by a clear as congestion, unhealthy living conditions and policy of non-conurbation between urban areas crime (Werff et al., 2005, 2 apud Lambregts and through the use of green containment areas Zonneveld, 2004) The ‘anti-metropolitan’ perspective has clearly prevailed until very recently, creating a scattered metropolis, where rural landscapes coexist somehow unexpectedly with urban ones. Indeed, the First National Planning Memorandum (1960) of the national Government explicitly recommended that growth be directed to other parts of the country to prevent the Randstad from ‘overheating’ and congesting (Werff et al., 2005, 2). The preoccupation over the preservation of a green landscape has directed development policies ever since. According to Werff et al., the Second National Planning Memorandum (1966) introduced the ‘clustered deconcentration strategy’, which directed growth to designated new towns and urban regions across the country. In the Randstad, growth was directed to a few ‘new towns’ in the traditional urban ring (e.g. Zoetermeer, Capelle a/d Ijssel and others) or new towns and selected growth centres in the outer edges of the Randstad (e.g. Lelystad, Almere, Alkmaar, etc.). The Third National Planning Fig. 5.4.: Lambregts’ “alternative paths for the evolution of polycen- Memorandum (1973-1983) had to deal tric urban regions” (Lambregts, 2006: 116, apud Champion, 2001: 665)

170 The Randstad-Holland with weak economic growth and the outflow of the Randstad. According to Werff et al. (2005), middle and high-income households from the this also addressed the issue of excessively de- larger cities, causing socio-spatial decline. Even concentrated urban growth, which resulted in then, according to Werff et al. (2005), the focus unnecessary use of green space and growth in remained on the growth of the peripheral regions traffic congestion between urban nodes. This of the country. “New towns and growth centres new approach had affinities with the ‘compact earlier defined continued to play an important city’ idea, which would appear later in the 1990’s role in accommodating population growth in the (Jenks et al., 1996). Randstad area”(Werff et al., 2005, 3). The shift towards a tertiary-based economy Therefore, throughout most of the Post- was reflected on the emphasis laid on two main war period, official policy makers pursued the objective to keep the larger cities from growing spatial features: ‘too much’ and the accent was given to secondary − The country’s two ‘main ports’ (Schiphol and new urban centres. The result is the absence Airport and Rotterdam Port), which work as of a strong primal city and the extraordinary great articulators of the new economy, not only large number of middle-sized cities constituting in their obvious functions as nodes of production a sparse green urban region where suburban- and people flows, but also as hubs of logistics like landscapes predominate. The remarkable and producer services. process of suburbanisation experimented by the region through the 1980s and 1990s is often − A number of large-scale, office-oriented attributed to the lack of suitable housing in the large urban projects in Amsterdam, Rotterdam core municipalities. Although this phenomenon and The Hague. Obviously, a tertiary-based may be considered one of the main propellers economy would need more distinctive and modern of suburbanisation and urban scattering in the office space. However, this movement can also be Randstad, it is part of a larger set of actions and interpreted in the light of city competition and policies. large urban projects being developed all around The absence of a ‘true’ metropolitan structure the world in order to accommodate command has not prevented some of the undesirable effects functions and advanced producer services. associated with big metropolises: congestion It may be argued that these developments, though of highways connecting the main cities during steered by the public sector, were nothing more rush hours is a chronic problem (Koopmans and than an internal redirecting of capitals into Kroes, 2004), as well as the appearance of socially the real estate market, mainly carried out by 1 disadvantaged areas (Vrooman and Hoff, 2004) . local agents (financial institutions and pension However, the ‘anti-metropolisation’ perspective funds). It remains that at the time, authorities has succeeded in preserving local identities in a were imbued with the ‘global city competition’ remarkable green environment, where quality of ideas. Urban renewal and the construction of life is considered outstanding. flashy office locations were (and, largely, still are) seen as ‘keys’ to economic success and the The ‘sparse-metropolis’ approach began to participation in ‘global circuits’, as discussed in change when policy makers started to realize previous chapters. that the country had to make the shift from an industrial-based economy to a services-based In fact, the 1990’s saw a great upswing in one in the wake of an increasingly liberalised Dutch economy, mainly related to the following market economy. The Fourth National Planning factors: Memorandum (1988-1991) promoted the 1. the success of gas and oil exploitation creation of adequate spatial conditions for a service-oriented economic growth, directing 2. the expansion of Dutch TNCs into new both population and economic growth to the markets largest urban centres, both within and beyond 3. the expansion of real estate market and

171 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

the liberalisation of housing policies in particular and that mobility and accessibility to the main ports , as well 4. the amazing success of financial as the big cities, must be improved. institutions who financed the growth process 2. The establishment of spatial knelpunten (‘reference points’) mainly in the form of office developments in the largest cities The National Spatial Strategy (NOTA RUIMTE: and urban agglomerations, where highly VROM, 2004a), based on the Fifth National productive activities take place and the Planning Memorandum (VROM, 2002b) (1999- advantages of agglomeration can be 2001) and the Second National Structure Plan exploited. for Rural Areas, is an expression of the new In short, the Dutch government claims that economic reality. It explicitly recognises the offering attractive locations for firms and tackling Randstad as the political, administrative, social, the growing mobility problems are vital points for economical and cultural heart of the Netherlands. economical growth and implicitly links growth The document claims that growing international to the attraction of FDI. “The attractiveness competition demands the strengthening of of the Dutch economy for firms operating Dutch competitiveness in the international internationally depends on the degree to what scenario and links this process with clear spatial these firms can make use of advantages produced interventions promoted by the public sector. by agglomeration and the access to international These interventions are mainly related to: transportation networks” (VROM, 2004b)2. 1. Mobility and accessibility to the ‘main In short, the national government recognizes ports’ of the country. It indicates that the need for excellent space for international traffic congestion has become one of companies to operate in the metropolitan areas the main issues for spatial planning in and around the main ports of the country. the Netherlands and in the Randstad

Fig. 5.5: Nota Ruimte Map 2: Urbanisation in The Netherlands, indicating the six national urban networks. Source: VROM 2004

172 The Randstad-Holland

Figure 5.6: The Randstad, according to Regio Randstad (2004). Map R. Rocco based on Regio Randstad 2004 (a): 31.

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The Memorandum recognises the progressive planning Minister S. Dekker declared: “As far as development of the Dutch society towards building development is concerned, (…) such building a ‘network society’ and points towards the should take place in a bundled fashion, in accordance constitution of three main spatial structures that with the provincial framework ‘buiten bouwen’ respond to the new spatial requirements of this (building development in the country). This will society (VROM, 2004c): also have the effect that the ratio between urban and rural areas will not change” (Dekker,(Dekker, 2004) − National urban networks − Economic core areas 5.2.1. Governance Tools in the Scattered − Main connections axes Metropolis The national government defines six ‘national urban networks’, including the Randstad, (which is seen as the main urban network of the country), One of the main problems concerning the study as well as Brabantstad, Zuid Limburg, Twente, of the Randstad as a competitive and coherent Arnhem-Nijmegen and Groningen-Assen (see metropolis is the absence of proper governance figure 2) tools and a legal-administrative status that would allow for the formulation of a consistent However, the definition of urban networks development policy and speed up decision-making. offered in the Nota Ruimte is desperately Although it is a recognised territorial entity in minimal. A national urban network is defined as official documents, the Randstad does not enjoy a [territorial] “entity with larger and smaller cities, a clear legal status, which would provide it with including the open spaces between them” (VR (VROM,OM, clear boundaries, easy compilation and assessing 2004c). Previously, the Fifth National Planning of data and allow decision makers to speed up Memorandum ”(VROM, 2002b) had define urban development strategies. networks as “highly urbanised areas formed by large and small compact cities, each [retaining] its own The Central Bureau of Statistics of the character and profile within the network”. Netherlands (CBS), for instance, does not publish any specific information on the ‘Randstad Region’. Later, Dutch urban networks were better defined “For us it is not an official segmentation”, sasaysys MrMrs.s. in the document De Stedelijke Netwerken Rond M. Kern, employee of the CBS Infoservice . The (VROM, 2002a), but not scientific definition of CBS only gathers and provides information at the urban networks is offered. For VROM, a network level of Provinces, EGG-Regions and COROP- is a question of “good organisation”, as the cities Regions3 at the municipality level. that constitute these networks “complement each others’ strengths, so that they have more to The Nota Ruimte (2004) divides the Randstad in offer together than they do as individual cities”, three economical cores: highlighting the importance of the emergence of − The North-Wing (roughly corresponding new, more agile and flexible governance tools. to Amsterdam, Haarlem, Hilversum, The text of the Nota Ruimte insists on the Harlemmermeer, Zaanstad, Purmerend and importance of urban networks as spatial Almere) structuring elements, offering the framework − The South-Wing (Rotterdam, Den for cooperation between different levels of Haag, Delft, Zoetermeer, Dordrecht) government concerning spatial interventions and political agreements, including task sharing and − Utrecht (Utrecht, Amersfoort) specialisation, particularly in long term projects (VROM, 2004c). Other middle-sized municipalities, such as However, the ‘anti-metropolisation’ bias is still Alphen a/d Rijn and Gouda are not mentioned present to an important degree. In 2004, spatial

174 The Randstad-Holland

Groningen

Friesland

Drenthe

North Holland

Flevoland Overijssel Alphen aan den Rijn

Hilversum Gouda

Gelderland

Utrecht South Holland

Gorichen

Noord Brabant

Zeeland

Municipalities Limburg

Municipalities belonging to 8 Metropolitan Agglomerations in the Randstad Area (CBS)

Important municipalities not included in Metropolitan agglomerations

Province Borders

Green Heart Borders

0 50 100 10 kilometers

Fig. 5.7: Municipalities included in the eight Metropolitan Agglomerations defi ned by CBS (2006), corresponding roughly to the Randstad Urban Network around the area known as ‘Green Heart’, defi ned by VROM in the Nota Ruimte (2004).

175 An Urban Geography of Globalisation in the document. (VROM, 2004a, :PKB kaart 2), containing the ‘indicatief begrensd bundelingsgebied’ (indica (indicativetive Regio Randstad (Regio Randstad, 2004) delimitation of conurbation areas), as well as recognises only two areas with distinct socio- an indication of the Dutch urban network, economic characteristics: The South Wing was used. We proceeded to a comparison with (roughly the Province South-Holland) and the the official statistical delimitation of the eight North Wing (Provinces North-Holland, Utrecht Metropolitan Agglomerations defined by the and part of Flevoland). Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics. Four middle- Regio Randstad, a task group of the provinces sized municipalities of importance are left out of South and North-Holland, Utrecht and the eight Metropolitan Agglomerations defined by CBS: Alphen aan den Rijn, Gorichen, Gouda Flevoland offers a more accurate definition of and Hilversum. Based on the study conducted by the boundaries of the Randstad-Holland. For Werff et al. (2005), they are included here in a the task group, the Randstad is composed of four tentative definition of a Randstad metropolitan ‘kernsteden’ (core-cities): Amsterdam, Utrecht, agglomeration because they generate enough Rotterdam and The Hague, plus the ‘stedelijke commuting to qualify them as core municipalities omgeving’ (urban surroundings), the ‘Randstad in the Randstad 25 Functional Urban Regions buitengebied’ (external(external areas) and the Green (FURs: see further). Heart (Regio Randstad, 2004, 31) We also used the Nota Ruimte Randstad map The Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) (VROM, 2004a, : PKB kaart 9), which does not recognises eight metropolitan agglomerations in offer any delimitation of the Randstad itself, but the area defined by the Nota Ruimte as belonging shows a clear delimitation of the area known as to the Randstad: the ‘Greenheart’. The result is a map showing 1. Amersfoort (including the area of the Randstad Metropolitan Agglomeration and Nijkerk, in the Province Gelderland) the border of the area known as ‘Greenheart’. 2. Utrecht The population of 98 municipalities forming the Randstad Metropolitan Agglomeration 3. Amsterdam (includes the area of Almere was approximately 5.5 millions in 2003 (CBS, in the Province Flevoland) Statline). 4. Haarlem This attempt at an objective definition of the legal boundaries of the Randstad is not enough 5. Leiden to describe the complexity of the region in 6. Den Haag terms of structure and governance, but it may help us define an area where statistical data can 7. Rotterdam be collected and analysed. 8. Dordrecht Lambregts (2006, : 114) asserts that planners In 2003, the area included 94 municipalities in the Randstad area are “still desperately trying of various sizes4 (the largest was Amsterdam to forge this repository of smaller and larger urban and the smallest Valkenburg, in the region of centres, suburban settlements, rural villages, industrial Leiden, with approximately 4.000 inhabitants), estates, food production sites and green fields into a distributed among four provinces (excluding coherent metropolitan system capable of meeting the a small part in the province Gelderland). The test of international comparison and competition’(e.g total population of the 94 municipalities was 5.3 MVROM, 2004; Regio Randstad, 2003, 2004a)” million inhabitants in 2003 (CBS). Apart from the four major Dutch cities As a departure point, an instrumental definition (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and of the Randstad Metropolitan Agglomeration Utrecht), the four provinces that compose the (RMA) boundaries was sought in order to allow data comparison. The official Nota Ruimte map Randstad have 8 cities with more than 100.000

176 The Randstad-Holland

Groningen

Friesland

Drenthe

North Holland

Flevoland Overijssel

Gelderland

Utrecht South Holland

Noord Brabant

Zeeland

Limburg

0 50 100 10 kilometers

Fig. 5.8: Rough delimitation of the Randstad using the offi cial Nota Ruimte map (VROM, 2004a:PKB kaart 2), containing the ‘indicatief begrensd bundelingsgebied’ (indicative delimitation of conurbation areas), as well as an indication of the Dutch urban network. Map R. Rocco, 2007.

177 An Urban Geography of Globalisation inhabitants and 20 cities with between 50.000 prospective metropolitan scenario. The scattered and 100.000 inhabitants. There are more than and suburban character of large parts of The 200 towns and villages with less than 50.000 Randstad seems to reflect a deep-rooted aversion inhabitants, distributed over four provinces: of some sectors of Dutch society to large urban North Holland, South Holland, Utrecht and the agglomerations. south of Flevoland (see appendix). This results in a complex governance setting, If the provinces composing the Randstad were where the national government has a certain taken as a whole, the Randstad would have an prominence, but where municipalities enjoy an exaggerated primacy in the Dutch urban system. uncommon degree of independence in various The total population of the four provinces was instances. Geographer A. Mulder, from TU 7.5 million (CBS, 2003) or 46.5% of the total Delft, points out that the limited size of the national population (16,192,572 in 2003, CBS) Dutch territory and its historic development distributed over an area of 8.313 km2. have contributed to the creation of a distinctive national planning strategies and strong territorial The population of the 98 municipalities control at the national level. Paradoxically, composing the Randstad metro agglomeration also due to particular historical developments, was 5.5 millions in 2003 (CBS) or 40% of the Dutch municipalities have preserved many of total national population and 73.3 % of the their political prerogatives. This is particularly population of the 4 provinces. true for the larger municipalities that form the Amsterdam, the largest Dutch city with Randstad: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, 736.562 inhabitants in 2003 (CBS) accounted and Utrecht. By being able to conceive particular for approximately 4.5% of the total Dutch strategies to attract much of the investment and population and 13.4 % of the population of the the generation of employment in the post-war Randstad Metro Agglomeration. The larger period, these cities managed to remain relatively agglomeration of Amsterdam (COROP Groot independent in some instances of decision- Amsterdam, CBS) had 1.013.147 inhabitants in making regarding spatial planning and housing 2003: 6.2% of the Dutch population and 18.3 % policies. of the Randstad Metro Agglomeration (CBS, Municipalities have sometimes challenged the 2006). centralised planning of the national government In economical terms, the Greater Amsterdam and have many times ‘de facto’ disregarded region had a GDP of € 54.757 mi in 2003 (11.5% provincial power. In a certain way, the large of total Dutch GDP of € 476.349 mi in 2003, municipalities were able to determine the CBS). direction of their own development, but also This large urbanised region has therefore a very indirectly influenced the development and varied and speckled urban system, composed by planning of the neighbouring municipalities a myriad of middle-sized and small cities that - smaller neighbouring cities and dorpen (little enjoy high connectivity and rely on each other for villages). the provision of specific services and amenities. On the other hand, small municipalities have However, the constitution of a coherent urban a high bargain power and are willing to trade region in the form of a ‘network metropolis’, far off advantages. In some cases, they will hinder from being unanimously acknowledged, is the strategic projects proposed by the national or subject of heated debate. provincial governments in the name of the The different levels of government that overlap preservation of the landscape, their way of in The Randstad often have conflicting agendas. life and environment protection. However, the The smaller and sometimes conservative larger municipalities often must rely on smaller municipalities resist the integration into a municipalities for room to grow and develop new housing and business projects.

178 The Randstad-Holland

According to A. Mulder, since the end of WW The ‘shift’ from homogeneous development to II, the Dutch national government has sought to ‘peaks’ of comparative advantages is supported finance the costs of infrastructure and dwelling by evidence that only sustainable competitiveness production for future generations, in the can result in growth. Storm (2004, :10) considers framework of the Welfare State, through a system that ever scarcer government funding should be of taxation and shadow pricing. This, despite primarily directed to collective investments that the relative independence of municipalities, has promote high-points in competitiveness (‘peaks’). According to Storm, these high-points should be allowed infrastructural and social conditions that preferably located in densely urbanised areas, are comparatively homogeneous throughout the since they draw on scientific, industrial and national territory in general, and in the Randstad service clusters. However, Storm correctly points in particular. out that the promotion of high-points also mean These relatively homogeneous conditions are the appearance of relatively disadvantaged areas only lessened by the strength of the four main and increasing imbalance. For some, the document nodes in the urban network (the four big cities) has failed in not ascribing sufficient importance and the relative position of the other smaller to the strengthening of the Randstad Holland as nodes of the urban network in relation to them. a coherent whole (Regio Randstad, 2004) . In other words, cities and regions may enjoy More recently, task groups such as the ‘Regio some advantages or suffer slight disadvantages Randstad’ and the ‘Delta Metropool’ have because they are either not centrally positioned in undertaken the chore of formulating and the urban network, or because their connectivity advocating specific policies that take into account with the main nodes of the network is poor. the Randstad as a specific urban region, pushing up the idea of strengthening the Randstad as This has been partially reversed with the competitive European metropolis. realisation by the national government that the national economy is better served by making use The ‘Regio Randstad’ is a shared task group of of the comparative advantages of regions rather the Dutch provinces of North Holland, South than seeking overall equilibrium through the Holland, Utrecht and Flevoland. The aim of the support of the weaker regions only (Lambregts partners involved in this group is “to strengthen et al., 2005a). The document ‘Peaks in the Delta’ the international competitive position and to improve (MEZ, 2004), elaborated by the Ministry of the quality of life in the western Netherlands and Economic Affairs, explicitly recognises the in the Randstad-Holland” (www.regio-randstad.(www.regio-randstad. Randstad as a region where certain ‘peaks’ nl/index_eng.php, 24.05.2006). Regio Randstad (spatially located structural advantages) must offers a platform for public authorities, where be strengthened in order to promote growth they can come together in search of joint and and enhance international competitiveness. In articulate solutions. The group also acts as a this document, the Randstad is again divided think-tank, providing authorities with data, into Northern and Southern Wings, whose information and offering input for new actions. very different profiles are clearly acknowledged. The ‘Delta Metropool’ is an alliance of The North Wing is clearly advantaged with a city councils, public authorities and private diversified, service-oriented economy. Lambregts institutions in the urbanised ‘Delta’ located in the et al. (2005a, 6 ) observe that, from a national Midwestern region of the Netherlands, which perspective, the North Wing is “considered to “have joined forces to develop a metropolis”(Deltame be critically important to further strengthen the tropool, 2004). Delta Metropool is therefore an region’s international business profile, its high initiative of the four main municipalities in the value added logistics services and its position as region (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and an international tourist attraction”. Furthermore, Utrecht) which have signed a joint declaration the vital role of Schiphol airport as an articulator in 1998 with the explicit agenda to promote the of international flows is highlighted. strengthening of metropolitan characteristics in

179 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

entities (Kloosterman and Lambregts, 2001) The authors list as examples of polycentric urban regions the Kansai- area (Japan), the Rhine-Ruhr region (Germany), the Po Valley (Northern Italy) and the Dutch Randstad. Quoting Hohenberg and Lees (1985: 242), they assert that the Randstad “goes beyond the rather thin definition [of polycentricpolycentric urban region] and is a prime example of a network system in a relatively pure form”. For Kloosterman and Lambregts, the research into polycentric urban regions has “moved up higher on the agenda, now transportation and telecommunication technologies increasingly enable polycentric urban regions to achieve agglomeration economies of comparable magnitude as large monocentric cities” (Kloosterman(Kloosterman and Lambregts, 2001). Fig. 5.9.: Randstad Network of Transportation. Map R. Rocco, Kloosterman and Lambregts certainly 2007. Data source: Deltametropool, 2002. regard the Randstad as a metropolitan the polycentric urban region. body. They tried to define it empirically through their description of the clustering of The idea of a polycentric urban region with activities, which they assess through the study metropolitan characteristics is challenging, of start-up business in 13 selected cities in the from the point of view of both governance and Randstad region in 4 selected years out of a ten- urban structure. However, Kloosterman and year time period. They used data collected in Lambregts (Kloosterman and Lambregts, 2001) 13 different municipalities, which they identify among others, describe the Randstad using this as the largest historical urban centres of the model. For them, a polycentric urban region is Randstad, therefore dispensing with what they characterised by: call the ‘new cities’, such as Almere, Zoetermeer − A number of historically distinct cities, or Hoofddorp. The cities used in the study are: located in more or less close proximity (roughly Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht, within current commuting distances). Zaanstad, Amersfoort, Dordrecht, Leiden, Delft, − The lack of a primary city, which dominates in Alkmaar, Haarlem, Hilversum and Schiedam political, economic, and cultural aspects. Instead, Using empirical evidence based on start-up polycentric urban regions tend to consist of a businesses, rather than concentrating on linkages small number of larger cities, that do not differ in terms of commuting patterns and of (potential) that much in terms of size or overall economic functional relationships between the individual importance, and a greater number of smaller components, they conclude that the Randstad cities. is “becoming more of a uniform milieu rooted in − The member cities are not only spatially the same kind of localisation economies and social distinct, but also constitute independent political networks that are instrumental in creating a highly

180 The Randstad-Holland specialised inter-urban economy” (Kloosterman(Kloosterman and economies depends upon a series of ever Lambregts, 2001). changing factors related to an economy that is increasingly mobile, scattered and detached from For Kloosterman and Lambregts, “These linkages old determining factors of localisation. However, between the constituent parts of the polycentric urban the concentration of infrastructure, resources regions are crucial in helping to create agglomeration and a highly skilled labour force have a tendency economies for all parts concerned on a higher level for concentration that has been the subject of than the individual parts (cf. Batten et al., 1995)”. many studies, engaging research in a new agenda The authors identify the formation of urban for the study of polycentric agglomerations and networks in the sense that they constitute a economies of localisation. contiguous travel-to-work area, thus providing planners and decision makers with an important According to Kloosterman and Lambregts, element for the understanding of the urban “judged by the trends in business formation, network in a functional way. the polycentric urban region Randstad seems to be on the way to become more of an economic Localisation economies are mostly found region that hinges on the same strategic sources where a high supply of highly specialised of competitive advantage, namely highly skilled labour is available. The relationships found labour”. by Kloosterman and Lambregts refer to the appearance of linkages between different nodes Kloosterman and Lambregts, together with in the polycentric urban region based on business Werff and Kapoen (Werff et al., 2005) have relationships. recently advanced further towards a functional definition of the Randstad as a polycentric However, the concentration of resources metropolis. Within the framework of Polynet5, and investment that enables a city to become they have investigated: a recognisable area for the appearance of agglomeration economies is within the boundary − Commuting patterns created by the travelling and commuting times − Service network connectivities in eight of workers and consumers. According to APS sectors Kloosterman and Lambregts (quoting Scott, 1998: 92), “the daily journey to work represents a particularly − Functional Business relations expensive kind of transaction per unit of distance”. − Travel and telecommunication traffic Apart from a small number of high-ranking workers who might travel large distances in Based on their findings, they have adopted a order to carry out administrative and managerial new functional definition of the Randstad. The tasks, the majority of workers and consumers in extended Randstad region is based on an extended a coherent urban agglomeration economy must functional reach of the two main centres of the be within the travel-to-work boundary (which is Randstad (Amsterdam and Rotterdam) along elastic and may vary according to the efficiency three main transportation corridors: A12/A15 and reliability of the means of transportation to the East, A2 to the Southeast, A16/A27 to available). Therefore, studies indicate that daily the South. They also argue for the inclusion of movement of workers and consumers are of the area north of Amsterdam to an extended utmost importance in defining the boundaries Randstad area based on commuting patterns that of an urban network, since there seems to be a show that many inhabitants of the area work in recognisable limit for competitive clustering of Amsterdam, Amstelveen and Haarlemmermeer activities. (Werff et al., 2005, 5) As indicated by the Kloosterman and Lambregts, This is consistent with the multiple nuclei model, such clustering of activities can only be verified by Harris and Ullman (1945), a step forward empirically, as the formation of location from Hoyt’s sector model. Harris and Ullman developed a model that intended to prove that

181 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

Groningen

Friesland

Drenthe Hoorn

Alkmaar

IJmond North Holland Purmerend Zaanstad Flevoland Overijssel Haarlem Amsterdam Almere Haarlemmermeer Hilversum Amersfoort Leiden

Alphen aan den Rijn Gelderland Zoetermeer Utrecht Veenendaal Utrecht South Holland Arnhem The Hague Rotterdam Nijmegen

Den Bosch Noord Brabant

Zeeland Breda Gorinchem

Gouda Dordrecht Limburg

FUR Core: 7 jobs/ha > 20.000 jobs FUR Ring: Contiguous NUTS 5 units from which > 10% commute to adjacent core Municipalities < 20.000 jobs Provincial borders Municipal borders 0 50 100 10 kilometers

Fig. 5.10.: Geographic defi nition of FURS in Randstad region. The functional relations between FURS include Veenendaal, Arhhem, Nijmegen, Den Bosch and Breda as part of an extended Randstad region, due to their functional links with the ‘traditional’ Randstad. (Werff et al., 2005: 3)

182 The Randstad-Holland cities have ‘attraction nodes’ connected by The Hague (810.00) and Utrecht (640.000). transportation axis. In Harris and Ullman’s Although the municipality of Amsterdam has model, some activities are ‘attracted’ by certain more inhabitants than Rotterdam, the contrary kinds of nodes, whereas others are repulsed, is true for their respective FURs6. The most creating specific kinds of activities clustering. densely populated FUR is The Hague (2.500 inh./km2) followed by Amsterdam (2.000 inh./ This model precedes current theories on km2). Rotterdam and Utrecht FURs are much agglomeration economies. However, the specific less dense, because their territories include the contribution of Harris and Ullman is the port and a great green area, respectively. importance they give in their model to spatial links in the city as promoters and articulators The extended Randstad area contains 4 million of agglomeration of mutually complementary jobs (57% of the total employment in The activities. Deceptively simple, the idea is the base Netherlands, 7.1 million jobs in 2006, CBS). The for theorizations on urban networks, because FUR with the largest employment density is The it links explicitly the appearance of clusters Hague (1.300 jobs/km2) and Amsterdam (1.000 of specialized activities (nodes), constituted by jobs/km2). No other FUR has job densities ≥ mutually supportive activities, to the physical 1.000 jobs/km2. network operating over a geographical base An important indicator of the relevance of (links). the tertiary sector in the economy of The Werff et al.’s definition of a larger Randstad Netherlands and the Randstad in particular is the region (including municipalities such as Alkmaar, growth of total jobs related to business services Hoorn, Arnhem, Nijmegen, Den Bosch and in the last few years. From 452.000 (1996) to Breda), is based on the functional relationships 601.000 (2002), there was an increase of 41%. In between contiguous Functional Urban Regions. the Netherlands, there were 908.000 such jobs in 2002 (CBS). Therefore, the extended Randstad A Functional Urban Region (FUR) is composed by area contained 66% of all jobs related to business a core and a hinterland. The core is generally one services in the country in 2002. or more contiguous municipalities (NUTS5) that have more than 20.000 jobs and attract ≥ 10% of Werff et al. considered eight service sectors in out-commuters from surrounding municipalities, their research, presented here with the number in an area where no other municipality attracts of jobs in the extended Randstad region in 2002 a larger share of commuters from the core (CBS): municipality. In the case of the Randstad, they 1. Design Consultancy (171.000) only considered municipalities where the job density was ≥ 7 jobs/ha or more, using a one sq/ 2. Logistics services (140.000) km grid map showing spatial distribution of jobs 3. Management Consultancy (112.000) in The Netherlands. A core may be contiguous to another core, and they can serve more than one 4. Finance (65.000) (contiguous) hinterland. 5. Insurance (65.000) The results show that the larger Randstad area 6. Accountancy (59.000) is composed (according to such criteria and the 7. Advertising and functional relationships between units) of 25 FURs (Werff et al., 2005, 5). However, whether 8. Law (27.000) these 25 small FURs constitute a single large Functional Urban Region is not clear. According to the methodology developed by Werff et al. (2005), the four most populous FURs are Rotterdam (1.4 million), Amsterdam (991.000),

183 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

The sectors that grew most in the period 1996- 2002 were: 1. Management consultancy (100%) 2. Legal Services (47%) 3. Advertising (37%) 4. Accountancy (35%) 5. Insurance (32%) And the ones that grew less: 6. Design (29%) 7. Logistics (29%) 8. Finance (20%)

The FURs where these sectors grew most, between 1996-2002, were 1. Almere (168%): an ‘anomaly’ because of the city recent construction and its amazing growth in the last decades 2. Den Bosch (68%) 3. Hilversum (66%) 4. Schiphol/ Harlemmermeer (59%) 5. Amsterdam (40%) The Hague (35%) and Rotterdam (30%) were slight underperformers in relation to the national average. Despite is comparatively feeble growth, Amsterdam is the FUR where most business service jobs can be found (119.000), what is confirmed by our survey on the location of APS headquarters. Rotterdam follows, with 99.000 jobs, Utrecht (78.000) and The Hague (53.000). This puts The Hague as the least integrated city into the new service economy, which is partly compensated by the large number of government-related service jobs. The FUR Schiphol/Haarlemmermeer confirms its vocation as a great attractor of commuters and a great hub of work-intensive service operations. Even with a population much smaller than The Hague, it has almost as much jobs connected to Business Services (52.000).

184 The Randstad-Holland

5.3. The Space of Flows: The In line with this process, the Dutch national Randstad as a global city-region government has set in motion an ambitious program of development of new infrastructure (i.e. improvements in the country’s main ports, The Nota Ruimte of VROM7 explicitly connection with the high-speed train European recognises the necessity to create attractive spaces network, internet main hubs, etc.) and the for international investment and where certain development of new business centres, which kinds of economic activity can locate. This is are designed to take advantage of existing and consistent with a scenario where “businesses are future structural conditions. increasingly mobile, volatile and likely to be relocated” The main projects are the six Key Projects (Ernst&Young and CSA, 2006, : Editorial). (Sleutelprojecten), of which four are inserted in The accentuated mobility of firms, where the the Randstad-Holland: Amsterdam ZuidAs, location of offices and headquarters becomes an Rotterdam Centraal, Den Haag Nieuw Centrum important element of corporate strategy, is the and Utrecht-Centraal. The Amsterdam ZuidAs result of the expansion of TNCs, the dispersion is highlighted by VROM as ‘a top location with of production and the consequent increase in international perspective’ (VROM, 2004a). Foreign Direct Investment flows This creates the The trend towards tertiarisation and need for new and improved places for the operation internationalisation of the economy is of command activities. Post-Fordist capitalism, undoubtedly stronger in The Randstad than in as we analysed in previous chapters, is a powerful the rest of The Netherlands. “The Randstad lead element in urban transformation today. This can in business services over the rest of The Netherlands be observed especially in the emergence of new is not of recent date. Being the country’s most transport and telecommunications infrastructure, urbanised region, The Randstad was the first region but also in the appearance or development of in The Netherlands to undergo a transition from a new corporate centralities, where firms tend to predominantly industrial to a predominantly post- agglomerate. industrial or service economy” (Lambre (Lambregtsgts et al., 2005b, 2) But Lambregts et al. (2005) identify that considerable differences exist concerning the service profiles of the major cities in the region. Amsterdam has traditionally been the country’s centre for financial and logistics services connected to a long history of trade and banking. Today, Amsterdam has the largest concentration of financial services, as well as in advertising and law firms. It has by far the largest number of number of TNCs headquarters (including a large number of the largest Dutch TNCs). The authors have empirically verified, within the framework of Figure 5.11.:The location of the four main large urban projects Polynet research on polycentric urban being carried out in The Randstad-Holland (Urban Network regions, that the area stretching from n.1): Amsterdam Zuidas, Den Haag Nieuw Centrum, Rotterdam Amsterdam to Utrecht is, in any case, Centraal and Utrecht Stationsgebied. Source: Map PKB 2 Nota Ruimte (2004) the “most service oriented economy

185 An Urban Geography of Globalisation of The Randtad” (Lambregts et al., 2005b, : 2). area. There is some evidence that the whole region works as an extended metropolitan area, It is clear that, in many ways, Amsterdam enjoys as Lambregts et al. (2005b) try to demonstrate predominance over the urban network in the through their analysis of service businesses Randstad and the Netherlands as a whole for the connections within the Randstad. provision of sophisticated producer services and the articulation of international and national Using the GaWC methodology as a base for flows. their study, they have analysed service firms’ office networks within The Randstad. Their In fact, in a hypothetical hierarchy of world cities study shows that different sectors maintain elaborated by GaWC8 (Beaverstock et al., 1999), very different location strategies. Accountancy Amsterdam is the only Dutch city to be ranked firms and banks operate through extended as a ‘world city’. The inventory was built based office networks; no doubt, because they are also on the presence of advanced producer services consumer services that have to locate very close firms, following Sassen’s (1991, and various both to corporate and individual consumers. years) and Castells’ (1996, and various years) Advertising and insurance firms, on the other propositions for the identification of a world city hand, seldom operate with more than one single network. Cities are thus ranked ‘Alpha’, ‘Beta’ and office in The Randstad. ‘Gamma’, according to the presence of certain advanced producer services offered: accountancy, Again, advertising is a typical producer service advertising, banking/finance and law. Cities were whose resources must be spatially concentrated further divided in ‘Prime’, ‘Major’ and ‘Minor’ and whose services may be offered to clients centres based on the presence of these services. located in a broad area. Insurance firms offer also producer and consumer services, but in the Amsterdam appears as a third rank ‘Gamma’ case of consumer’s, most transactions are made World City, as compared with London and via internet or telephone, or even via employers, Paris (Alpha) or Madrid and Frankfurt (Beta). which avoids the need for an extended branch The other Randstad big cities to appear in the network. It is possible that in the future, banks GaWC inventory are Rotterdam, The Hague will also operate in the same way. Law firms and Utrecht, but only as minor centres for are in an intermediary position. Together with accountancy services. According to GaWC, accountancy, they vary a lot in terms of size. This Rotterdam and The Hague present only ‘some is a determining factor for the kind of clients (and evidence’ of ‘world city-ness’, and Utrecht therefore the kind of networks) they have. Many presents only ‘minimal evidence’. accountancy and law firms operate with one up Clearly, the types of advanced producer services to 10 employees with a single office. These are taken as parameters favour Amsterdam as mostly consumers’ oriented and therefore are a centre of command. Transportation and place-bond. As for the big international firms communication services, as well as international studied by Lambregts et al., they are mostly institutions related services, if taken into account, producer oriented and may choose to concentrate would certainly put Rotterdam and The Hague their operations in one prime location or to higher in the rank of world cities. branch operations to few major centres, but their GaWC’s inventory is only one of the possible office network need by no means by as extended ways of evaluating ‘world city-ness’. It takes as banks or large accountant firms. into account, roughly speaking, the location of According to Lambregts et al. “Advertising firms advanced producer service firms and/or the are almost exclusively located in Amsterdam and number of their employees in a given city9. In neighbouring Amstelveen, Insurance companies are the case of the Randstad, the services discussed more or less equally spread over (…) the four largest (accountancy, advertising, banking/finance and cities”, a strategy similar to law firms, who prefer to law) may be offered and employed in a wide be located in one of the four main cities, but having

186 The Randstad-Holland

Amsterdam as they preferred location. “Design and city to international networks, standing out in management consultancy firms also tend to operate the Randstad as its main international node. through multiple offices and have a strong presence Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht follow in each of the largest cities, but they are to be found at some distance, whereas Lambregts et al. in smaller centres as well. Logistic service providers note that Amstelveen and Haarlemmermeer are, as could be expected, strongly tied to the region’s are very well positioned in the international largest transport hubs: Schiphol national airport and connectivity index. (Lambregts et al., 2005b, : the port of Rotterdam” (Lambregts(Lambregts et al., 2005b,2005b, 9). Whereas Amstelveen is closely connected : 8). to producer services developments in the south of Amsterdam, Haarlemmermeer is the home Lambregts et al. observe that the truly large of Schiphol airport and some related hubs of global players choose to locate in Amsterdam producer service provision (i.e. Hoofddorp, and its immediate surroundings. “(…) foreign law Schiphol-Rijk) firms, advertising companies and banking firms hardly venture out into different areas of the Randstad. The international airport of Schiphol is an Foreign accountancy firms, insurance companies, important structuring element in the Randstad. management consultants, design consultants and Hall (1997), for instance, identifies a tendency on logistic service providers are somewhat more the part of business to migrate from traditional adventurous, but still the majority of them has at least centres to suburban locations close to airports a minor presence in the country’s capital” (Lambregts(Lambregts – “a trend long observed in the United States, but now et al., 2005b, : 8). becoming evident in Europe also, in developments around London Heathrow, Paris Charles de Gaulle, Lambregts et al. study measured business Amsterdam Schiphol or Stockholm Arlanda” (Hall, interconnectivity between cities in the Randstad. 1997, n.p.) “High connectivity scores (…) basically mean that a city, through the office networks of business service Hall also underlines the importance on the train firms, has relations with a large number of other transportation system in the structuring of many cities in the networks defined” (Lambregts(Lambregts et urban networks and regions. In The Netherlands, al., 2005b, :10). The geographical patters of this is reflected in the National Government’s firm interconnectivity indicate that regional decision to investment more than € 1 billion in interconnectivity is very strong. Various cities six new key projects (sleutelprojecten), located in are relatively well connected both with each the vicinity of six railway stations serving the other and with other cities outside the Randstad. European high-speed railway network (HSL), to According to Lambregts et al. (2005b, 8: 8), which the Netherlands was recently connected. Amsterdam is the city best connected to the The national government expects that such rest of the Randstad, while Rotterdam, quite projects, which include The Zuidas, Den Haag surprisingly, is the city that is best connected Nieuw Centrum, Rotterdam Centraal and with other regional and national centres. Utrecht Centraal in the Randstad-Holland, will promote the growth of the cities where they At the regional level however (internal are located and “persuade many national and connectivity within the region), the primacy of multinational businesses to move close to them” Amsterdam is still not as marked as observed (VROM, 2003 1). The main goals of this joint in other agglomerations studied by Polynet. In development are: other regions, a ‘first city’ clearly stands out from the other cities in the network (Zurich, Brussels, −“To develop the HSL station areas holistically, Paris, London), whereas Amsterdam’s primacy ensuring high architectural and environmental over Rotterdam, Utrecht and The Hague is not quality. The areas must be also easily accessible quite so marked (Lambregts et al., 2005b, : 9). and attractive places to live and work Amsterdam is, however, the best-connected −To maximise the spin-off from the investment

187 An Urban Geography of Globalisation in the HSL station areas in urban renewal and service flows (meaning, firms located at different the intensive use of urban space nodes provide different inputs for the network) or simply that some firms find it impossible to − To maximise the spin-off from investment serve the whole area of the Randstad from one in commercial real estate in urban renewal and single point, as explained earlier. One of the [create] a better environment” (VROM, 2003 arguments supports polycentricity. The other :2) goes against it, because it means that there is not The importance of train transportation is of a unified market in the region and several nodes special interest, since the proposed rapid train do not necessarily mean intensive flows between transportation system might change the balance these nodes. between the cities in the Randstad. London, The question whether the Randstad can be Paris and Amsterdam form what the EC's considered a unified market place is vital in order Europe 2000+ report calls the ‘National Capitals to define the area as a polycentric metropolis Region’(Hall, 1997), the impact of the rapid and deserves further investigation. Lambregts train system connecting London, Paris, Brussels, et al. leave the question open and suggest that Rotterdam and Amsterdam (but not the Hague we need to know more about firms’ reasons for and Utrecht) might have decisive implications for keeping multiple offices in the different areas of the structure of the Randstad, either accentuating the Randstad. the dominance of Amsterdam or, to the contrary, strengthening the metropolitan characteristics A tentative hypothesis is that the Randstad is of the region as a whole. For Hall (1997: n.p.), a metropolis ‘in the making’. In other words, it “(…) it seems certain that they [London, Paris and has metropolitan elements, but the markets (job Amsterdam] will constitute an effective central core market, house market, service market) are not of the European urban system”. unified. In short, it is still not possible for a large amount of people to live in Utrecht and work The analysis carried out by Polynet shows that in Delft, for example. As indicated by Werff et there is a “dense and well-spread network of business al. (2005), commuting distances are directly service flows between the main business centres of the proportional to income level. Well-to-do people Randstad” (Lambre(Lambregtsgts et al., 2005b2005b,, :10), butbut the have more mobility. layout of these connections and flows differs On the other hand, we must acknowledge that it is from commuting patterns investigated. Whereas possible forfor many people to livelive in Amsterdam and the strongest commuting patterns are defined work in Rotterdam, for instance, as commuting within city-regions (Greater Amsterdam, Greater patterns clearly show. It is also possible, depending Rotterdam, etc.) commuting patters linking the on the character and size of business service firms, whole Randstad are still a modest phenomenon. to serve the whole Randstad from a single office (generally located in one of the four big cities). As for the linkages and flows created by business This is not surprising, because some services service provision, there is a strong network do not need constant direct interaction between running all over the Randstad. The strongest providers and buyers and internet transactions linkages naturally occur between the four largest are becoming increasingly common. cities and not so much between the largest cities and their surrounding sub-centres. Lambregts Another indicative of metropolisation would et al. are cautious in the interpretation of this be household mobility between nodes and the phenomenon. First, they draw our attention to possibility to look for jobs in the entire region. How many people change jobs annually? How the fact that the dense network of intraregional many are willing to travel relatively long business service linkages is the result of many distances in order to work? How many buy or firms having multiple offices in the Randstad area. rent new houses in different cities every year? This might support the idea of a polycentric urban Is this kind of mobility more intense in The region characterised by (intra-firm) business Randstad than elsewhere in The Netherlands?

188 The Randstad-Holland

5.3.1. The response of the firms On the other hand, the region has a very high percentage of knowledge-intensive services in its economy, which vouches for the importance However, how are firms of the advanced service of attracting Advanced Producer Services and sector responding to the efforts of the Dutch headquarters, as the existing pool is already government, planners and other stakeholders significant. to promote The Randstad-Holland as a single Some spatial-structural features are amongst the metropolis? Here we give a brief overview on how most important advantages of the Randstad- international investors see the Dutch scenario Holland, which works as an important gateway and the efforts concerning spatial planning. In for European markets through its two main ports the next chapter, we will analyse the current (Schiphol Airport and Rotterdam Port), as well as location of selected samples of service firms and the largest Internet hub in the continent (located headquarters in order to analyses in depth the in Amsterdam). The poor connectivity with the spatial requirements sought by such firms. European rapid train network is highlighted We have seen the profile of Foreign Direct as one of its weakest points. However, the Investment in The Netherlands in chapter 3. It complexion of the connection to the European is important to emphasize once more the fact Rapid Train Network (PBKAL network) linking that spatial requirements are only some of the the main capitals of Northwest Europe, and the conditions for firms to locate. The presence of The ‘Betuwe Line’, an exclusivelyexclusively commodity an attractive consumers’ market, the political and transportation line connecting the port of fiscal climate, a skilful workforce are some of the Rotterdam with Arnhem and the Rhuhr Gebied non-spatial requirements firms are looking for, in Germany, are expected to push up railway both at the international scale and in the national connectivity significantly. one. It would be erroneous, therefore, to dissociate Rankings and business attractiveness coefficients spatial and non-spatial characteristics for the are constantly being formulated by several attraction of firms and investment. Not only consultancy firms and government agencies. are they deeply linked: the main stakeholders, There are all kinds of rankings. Some concentrate decision-makers, and business consultants are on quality of life, other on environmental issues, constantly analysing both spatial and non-spatial business attractiveness, fiscal climate, quality of advantages in order to make location decisions. the workforce, etc. Although there is an increasing interest in The Economic Intelligence Unit, for instance, investment in the location headquarters in The has developed a ‘business trip index’ for 127 Netherlands, the country has lost its position in cities worldwide (2005), ranking the best and the top ten European countries with the largest worst business destinations in the world. The number of FDI projects (Ernst & Young and Economist (Copestake, 2005, 123) claims that CSA, 2006, 3) and is loosing competitiveness in surveys of this kind usually focus on costs, relation to other large European metropolitan whereas ignoring other factors that might make a areas. “The Randstad-Holland economy does not city attractive to make business or hold a business keep pace with the economic growth of its most convention: crime, climate, transport, recreation, important competitors. This is the most important etc. “Contrary to popular perceptions, however, business conclusion that can be drawn from the 2004 Randstad travel is no longer driven primarily by this consideration. Monitor” (Regio(Regio R Randstad,andstad, 2004, 44-45). The The reasons for business travel are increasingly varied. weakest points for the region identified by the Surveys have shown that conventions, training, corporate Randstad Monitor are of a non-spatial nature: meetings and seminars now account for a greater share comparatively low per capita productivity and of business travel than client meetings. What is more, a low productivity growth, as well as relative large proportion of business travelers (exceeding half in low spending in R&D, with accompanying low some surveys) try to combine business travel with leisure high-tech employment. The number of tourists time, such as vacations” (The Economist Intelligence and congress visitors is not as high as desirable Unit; http://www.economist.com/). The business (Regio Randstad, 2004, 45). travel index comprises 5 categories and 31 sub-

189 An Urban Geography of Globalisation categories. Weighting is divided equally between and Prague (Czech Republic) were cheaper in sub-categories, except cost: Europe. − Stability (weight 25%) Mercer also develops a similar comprehensive research on Overall Quality of Living. Here, − Healthcare (weight 10%) cities are evaluated according to the following 10 − Culture & environment (weight 25%) categories, subdivided in 39 factors: − Infrastructure (weight 20%) - Consumer goods − Cost (total weight 20%) - Economic environment Amsterdam ranks surprisingly low (50th place) in - Housing this survey, between Osaka (49th), Lisbon (51st) Medical and health considerations and Munich (52nd). Copenhagen (17th), Zurich - th th th (17 ), Stockholm (17 ) and Geneva (20 ) are the - Natural environment best-placed European cities. The best business Political and social environment travel destinations in the world are Vancouver, - Calgary in Toronto (The Economist Intelligence - Public services and transport Unit: http://www.economist.com/). - Recreation Although this kind of survey may give us some Schools and education hints on cities are performing from the point - of view of structural advantages, travelling - Socio-cultural environment to a business destination is very different from Amsterdam is again very well positioned (12), locating business there. For large TNCs, costs although it has lost 2 positions since 2005 (see still matter and to a large degree will determine table below). whether an office will be located in a city or not. Consultancy Firm Cushman & Wakefield Mercer Human Resources Consulting Cost of Healey & Baker (London) in one of the many Living Survey (MERCER^Consulting, 2006). consultants publishing ‘best cities for business’ Mercer’s survey covers 144 cities across six rankings (Cushman & Wakefield/ H&B, 2005). continents and measures the comparative cost of In their ‘European City Monitor’, Amsterdam is over 200 items in each location, including housing, well-positioned (6th place in Europe), but lost the transport, food, clothing, household goods and 5th place it previously occupied to Barcelona. The entertainment. According to the company report highlights that access to markets is, not website, “it is the world’s most comprehensive cost surprisingly, the most important single factor of living survey and is used to help multinational for the attraction of business, together with companies and governments determine compensation availability of qualified staff. allowances for their expatriate employees” (www. mercerhr.com/, July 11, 11:44 a.m.). Obviously, Communication infrastructure and connectivity rankings like the one prepared by Mercer have are vital elements for all types of companies, a great impact in corporate decisions. New York followed by cost factors, of which labour costs city serves as the base for comparison (scoring are the most important. In fact, for companies 100 points in cost of living). In 2006, Moscow already operating in the cities surveyed, transport (123.9 points) was the most expensive city in the issues are considered the most important issue to world for international workers and Asunción be addressed. “Transport links with other cities is (Paraguay, 43.5 points) was the least expensive. the single most demanded improvement, followed by London, Geneva, Copenhagen, Zurich and Oslo improvements to traffic circulation within the city and were amongst the 10 most expensive cities for public transport provision” (Cushman & Wakefield/Wakefield/ business in the world. Amsterdam was the 41st H&B, 2005, 4) most expensive city for business (83.4 points), Cushman & Wakefield report asserts, somewhat a comparatively comfortable position. Among surprisingly, that factors related to quality of life 50 cities researched, only Bratislava (Slovakia) are the least significant, according to interviews

190 The Randstad-Holland with corporate managers and directors. investors disregard the comparative advantages offered by the Western part of The Netherlands. London is the forerunner in this ranking, They are just not aware of the place as a single because of its unparalleled access to markets, metropolis. the availability of qualified staff, international transport links, telecommunications factors, and Amsterdam is practically the only city to stand languages spoken. out as a top investment destination and a ‘global city’ where international firms would like to Cushman & Wakefield emphasizes that the locate. In Mercer’s rankings, The Hague is the importance of certain factors varies according to only other Dutch city covered by the surveys the type of company. The labour costs are more (www.mercerhr.com/). This is meaningful, important to industrial companies, while cost because according to Mercer, the choice of cities and availability of offices are more important surveyed is based on the demand for data from for service firms (Cushman & Wakefield/ H&B, companies and governmental organizations 2005, 2) (Mercer Consulting, 2006) One of the important characteristics to be taken This does not mean that international firms do intro account in most city ranking methodologies not locate in other parts of the Randstad or The is that the name ‘Randstad’ is virtually ignored. Netherlands. It means that cities like Rotterdam The Randstad is not perceived as a metropolis and Utrecht do not have a high international by international consultants and investors, and profile and are probably inadequately advertised. therefore is not recognised for its qualities as a It also means they could perform better as networked-metropolis. This does not mean that international investment attractors if their image

Overall Quality of Living Ranking Base city: New York (=100)

Rank 2005 Rank 2004 City Country Index 2005 Index 2004

1 1 GENEVA Switzerland 106.5 106.5

1 1 ZURICH Switzerland 106.5 106.5

3 3 VANCOUVER Canada 106 106 3 3 VIENNA Austria 106 106

5 5 FRANKFURT Germany 105.5 105

5 10 MUNICH Germany 105.5 104.5

5 12 DUSSELDORF Germany 105.5 104

8 5 AUCKLAND New Zealand 105 105

8 5 BERN Switzerland 105 105 8 5 COPENHAGEN Denmark 105 105

8 5 SYDNEY Australia 105 105

12 10 AMSTERDAM Netherlands 104.5 104.5 13 12 BRUSSELS Belgium 104 104

14 12 MELBOURNE Australia 103.5 104

14 15 BERLIN Germany 103.5 103.5

14 15 LUXE MBOURG Luxembourg 103.5 103.5

14 15 STOCKHOLM Sweden 103.5 103.5 14 15 TORONTO Canada 103.5 103.5

14 15 WELLINGTON New Zealand 103.5 103.5

Source: Mercer Consulting 2006 Fig. 5.12.: Sample of cities with overall best quality of living (Mercer Consulting, 2006). The index is based on an ensemble of indexes collected by various organisations. New York has the basic index of 100 and all other cities are measured against this basic index

191 An Urban Geography of Globalisation was connected to that of a vibrant international 2005, , Parkerson and Saunders, 2005). Some metropolis. cities have built their image as a result of centuries of history. Others frankly adopt strategies This might explain why places and companies in order to brand or promote themselves as ‘attach’ their brands to the name ‘Amsterdam’. centres of innovation and creativity. There are This subject was highlighted by Manshandel various acknowledged strategies for branding (2006, 1), for instance: or advertising a city: publicity campaigns, “‘If it is Tuesday, this must be Brussels’, says an promotion of cultural or sportive events or old joke that draws our attention to the fact that, incentives to a certain kind of specific activity. elsewhere in the world, Europe is not always perceived However, companies are looking for more seem in all its nuances. The frequent confusion between the to be looking to an image of innovation and Netherlands and Denmark is also an example of this modernity associated with certain structural and phenomenon. Therefore, it is fortunate that Amsterdam formal attributes that allow them to operate. is located in the Netherlands. Because, in spite of all The question of image building seems to be vital bragging that Amsterdam dwellers are famous for, for the attraction of business. Companies are not Amsterdam is a strong international brand, which is only looking for a saleable brand name. They are successful in the cultural and creative sectors, in foreign also looking forward to projecting an effective tourism and in financial services. In the international corporate image through association to daring arena, Amsterdam is frequently seen as the face of the architectonical projects located in flashy new Netherlands, whose main characteristics are lifestyle, corporate locations. The large number of Large freedom and creativity”. Urban Projects and extensive urban renewal In fact, ‘city branding’ and city promotion, which schemes carried out in the 1990’s bear witness supposedly helps attract business, has been a to the urge faced by local administrations to important theme in literature in recent years promote urban transformation and renewal as (Kavaratzis, 2004, , Kavaratzis and Ashworth, tools for improving structural advantaged and image. Image becomes thus intimately related to investment opportunities and real estate valuation. According to Cushman & Wakefield survey (2005), London, Paris and Frankfurt remain the best-known cities in Europe. Barcelona, Prague, and Madrid are perceived by investors as the cities doing the most to improve themselves as business locations. Amsterdam has scored well through Fig. 5.13.: Commercial advertisement, ING Bank (Spain). Apart from using its headquarters offi ce building located in the Zuidas as active part of its marketing strategy, ING advertises itself as “ING Amsterdam”. On the lower right hand corner, the little balloon reads: “I was born in Amsterdam”. Source: El País (Madrid), July 4, 2006: 17.

192 The Randstad-Holland

The Regio Randstad/ TNO monitor actually monitors a number of different indexes and rankings produced by various institutions and collect statistical data in order to be able to compare European metropolises in various fields. The Randstad Monitor works as a depository and supplier of statistical information about the Randstad. In this way, the ‘concept’ of Randstad- Holland can start to be recognized by firms and policy makers as a identifiable metropolis in the West of the Netherlands.

Figure 5.14: “The best cities to locate a business today”. Ranking of best cities for business. Source: Cushman & Wakefi eld (2005) the 1990’s, but has recently been replaced by Barcelona at the 5th place. Regio Randstad, in consortium with TNO Ruimte Structuur (Delft), has recentlrecentlyy bebegangan to developdevelop a monitor of 19 comparable European urban regions in order to provide enterprises and decision makers with reliable data comparing the Randstad-Holland with other European agglomerations. They regard the Randstad- Holland as the fifth conurbation of Western Europe (Regio Randstad/ TNO, 2005, 5) and as such, reliable to compete with other large metropolises such as London, Paris, or Milan.

193 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

5.4. Conclusions The region of Amsterdam has been internationally oriented for centuries. Today, the region stands out and is easily recognised as a destination for The existence of networked metropolis in the international investment and the establishment Western part of the Netherlands appears to of international headquarters. be just beginning to become a reality because Other parts of the Randstad, although also of extraordinary advancements in ICT, successful in attracting international investment, transportations technology and infrastructure. are far behind. This entails new challenges concerning the governance and the management of such a On one hand, the whole Randstad enjoys complex urban region. homogeneous structural advantages that allow advanced producer service firms to service the However, in spite of the obvious spatial, entire region from one office in Amsterdam, structural and environmental qualities enjoyed Amstelveen or Haarlemmermeer, for instance. by dwellers and firms in the region, the absence In this sense, if the Randstad has a ‘center’, it is of a clear metropolitan structure represents an located at the South of Amsterdam. In this sense, obstacle for the appearance of sustainable and the emphasis on the development of a super competitive agglomeration economies in a larger node around the Amsterdam Zuid train station scale. Mobility and agglomeration economies are and directly over the A10 city ring makes perfect two of the factor that characterise a coherent sense. metropolitan body. On the other hand, consumer oriented firms find The predominantly suburban-like urban it necessary to have more extended networks landscape makes it difficult to associate the in the region, with offices or stores located in Randstad with true metropolitan qualities, important nodes of the network, because they whereas factors like the green environment rely on accessibility from clients. This indicates and high overall quality of life are obscured that market catch area is limited for certain by increasing congestion between the main activities and more extended for others. This is a nodes of the network. Densities are not high common feature in many metropolises and does enough to promote the synergies commonly not give us a clear indication of the coherence of associated with large metropolises like London the area as a metropolitan body. or Paris. However, the Randstad-Holland offers an attractive alternative: a truly polycentric Indeed, the relations between firms indicate a far extended urban region where synergies might more complex pattern of relationships between be channelled and directed through strong the four big cities of the region, the smaller urban transportation and communication linkages, centres, other regions in The Netherlands and having the ‘key projects’ around main train the world. On the other hand, internal service stations as super-nodes of connectivity. These firms’ flows and start-ups give us a more clear super-nodes facilitate and accelerate the flows indication of the emergence of a coherently running around the network. organised market place where exchanges of all sorts between firms are intense. The efforts to make the Randstad-Holland a comparatively homogenous and well-developed Further, the location of jobs and commuter region are slowly paying-off. However, slight patterns indicate the existence of functional structural advantages make all the difference. urban regions deeply interconnected. Although The ‘Peaks in the Delta’ idea is an official the Randstad cannot be considered a coherent recognition of the necessity to increase densities metropolitan region yet, these patterns and invest in certain areas that offer comparative consistently indicate that the Randstad has the advantages as a way to promote growth and potential and is on its way to form a coherent increase competitiveness. polycentric metropolis, despite some hindrances.

194 The Randstad-Holland

In the next chapter, we will investigate how foreign direct investment in command activities is changing the face of this soon-to-be metropolis and how ‘peaks’ are consolidating as articulation nodes in the urban network. The location pattern of various advanced producer service firms is investigated and analysed against the theoretical framework presented and the spatial parameters discussed in previous chapters.

Fig. 5.15.: “The subway in Rotterdam”, photo by Arlette Hitz (2007). Easy commuting in The Randstad- Holland is essencial for the city-region’s coherence.

195 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

5.5. Appendix

TableTable 2:1 FourFour Majormajo rDutchDutch Citiescities:

Utrecht 265,151 's-Gravenhage 463,826 Rotterdam 599,651 Amsterdam 736,562 Total 2,065,190

Table 3: Eight Cities in The Randstad with more than 100.000 inhabitants (- 4 Big Cities) Table 2: Eight cities in the Randstad with more than 100.000 inhabitants:

Zoetermeer 112,594 Leiden 117,689 Dordrecht 120,043 Haarlemmermeer 122,902 Amersfoort 131,221 Zaanstad 139,464 Haarlem 147,097 Almere 165,106 Total 1,056,116

Note: There are more than 200 small municipalities with less than 50.000 inhabitants (total population = 2,967,911 (% of The Randstad, % of The Netherlands)

196 The Randstad-Holland

Table 3: 20 cities in the Randstad with between 50.000 and 100.000 inhabitants: Table 4: 20 Cities in The Randstad with between 50.000 and 100.000 inhabitants

Rijswijk 48,094 Zeist 59,799 Den Helder 60,026 Veenendaal 60,953 Nieuwegein 62,124 Capelle aan den 65,318 Ijssel Hoorn 67,515 Velsen 67,527 Lelystad 68,555 Alphen aan de n 70,706 Rijn Gouda 71,641 Leidschendam - 73,747 Voorburg Vlaardingen 74,322 Purmerend 74,921 Spijkenisse 75,354 Schiedam 75,802 Amstelveen 78,095 Hilversum 83,306 Alkmaar 93,390 Delft 96,588 Total 1,427,783

197 An Urban Geography of Globalisation

5.6. References

BEAVERSTOCK, J. V., SMITH, R. G. & TAYLOR, P. J. (1999) A Roster of World Cities. Cities, 16, 445-458. CASTELLS, M. (1996) The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Cambridge, Mass., Blackwell Publishers. COPESTAKE, J. (2005) Where Business Is a Pleasure: The World’s Best and Worst Cities. The Economist: The world in 2006. CUSHMAN & WAKEFIELD/ H&B (2005) European Cities Monitor, London, Cushman& Wakefield. CUSHMAN&WAKEFIELD/H&B (2005) European Cities Monitor, London, Cushman& Wakefield. DEKKER, S. (2004) Bundling Building, Preservation of Core Values. Randstad Holland, 1, 6. DELTAMETROPOOL (2004) Leiden in De Deltametropool: Een Sterke Sleutelpositie Door Samenwerking in De Regio, Leiden, Vereniging Deltametropool. ERNST & YOUNG & CSA (2006) The Netherlands...Taking Care of the Future: Netherlands Attractiveness Survey 2005. Utrecht, Ernst & Young Real Estate Advisory Service. ERNST&YOUNG & CSA (2006) The Netherlands...Taking Care of the Future: Netherlands Attractiveness Survey 2005. Utrecht, Ernst & Young Real Estate Advisory Service. HALL, P. (1997) Megacities, World Cities and Global Cities. Rotterdam, Mega City Lectures, Megacities Foundation. HARRIS, C. D. & ULLMAN, E. L. (1945) The Nature of Cities. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 242 Building the Future City, 7-17. JENKS, M., BURTON, E. & WILLIAMS, K. (1996) The Compact City : A Sustainable Urban Form?, London ; New York, E & FN Spon. KAVARATZIS, M. (2004) From City Marketing to City Branding: Towards a Theoretical Framework for Developing City Brands Place Branding, 1, 58-73. KAVARATZIS, M. & ASHWORTH, G. J. (2005) City Branding: An Efferctive Assertion of Identity or a Transitory Marketing Trick? Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 96, 506. KLOOSTERMAN, R. & LAMBREGTS, B. (2001) Clustering of Economic Activities in Polycentric Urban Regions: The Case of the Randstad. Urban Studies, 38 713-728 KOENEN, M. J. & ENDEPOLS, J. (1969) Verklarend Handwoordenboek Der Nederlandse Taal, Groningen, Wolters-Noordhoff N.V. KOOPMANS, C. & KROES, E. (2004) Estimation of Congestion Costs in the Netherlands. Amsterdam, Stichting voor Economisch Onderzoek der Universiteit van Amsterdam. LAMBREGTS, B. (2006) Polycentrism: Boon or Barriage to Metropolitan Competitivess? The Case of the Randstad Holland. Built Environment, 32, 114-123. LAMBREGTS, B., RÖLING, R. & KLOOSTERMAN, R. (2005a) The Randstad: Analysis of Policy Doucments and Policy Focus Groups. Action 3.1., London, Polynet. LAMBREGTS, B., WERFF, M. V. D. & KLOOSTERMAN, R. (2005b) The Randstad: Quantitative Analysis of Service Business Connections. London, POLYNET Action1.2/ The Young Foundation. MANSHANDEN, W. (2006) If It Is Amsterdam, This Must Be Holland: Samenwerking Rijk _Amsterdam Voor Een Internationaal Prominente Cultuur. IN OCW (Ed., Cultuurcovenant 2005-2008, Amsterdam. MERCER CONSULTING (2006) Mercer Human Resource Consulting: Cost of Living Survey - Worldwide Rankings 2006. New York. MERCER^CONSULTING (2006) Mercer Human Resource Consulting: Cost of Living Survey - Worldwide Rankings 2006. New York. MEZ (2004) Pieken in De Delta, Gebiedsgerichte Economische Perspectieven (Peaks in the

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Delta:Territorial Economic Prospects). The Hague, Ministry of Economic Affairs (EZ). NEDERLAND (1958a) De Ontwikkelimg Van Het Westn Des Lands: Toelichting (the Development of the Western Netherlands: Explanatory Report). The Hague, Werkcomissie Westen des Lands. NEDERLAND (1958b) De Ontwikkeling Van Het Westen Des Lands: Report (the Development of the Western Netherlands: Report). The Hague, Werkcomissie Westen des Lands. PARKERSON, B. & SAUNDERS, J. (2005) City Branding: Can Goods and Services Branding Models Be Used to Brand Cities? . Place Branding, 1, 242-264. REGIO RANDSTAD (2004) Randstad Economic Strategy: Factsheet 5. Utrecht, Regio Randstad. REGIO RANDSTAD/ TNO (2005) Randstad Holland in Europe 2005. Utrecht, Regio Randstad/ TNO Ruimte Structuur. SASSEN, S. (1991) The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo, Princeton, Princeton University Press. STORM, E. (2004) Managing Randstad Holland. 40th ISoCaRP Congress 2004: The Management of Urban Regions. Geneva. VROM (2002a) De Stedelijke Netwerken Rond: Gespreken Met En over Stedelijke Netwerken Op Weg Naar Deel 3 Van De Vijfde Nota. Den Haag, VROM. VROM (2002b) Vijfde Nota over Ruimtelijke Ordening 2000/2020: Ruimte Maken, Ruimte Delen. De Haag, VROM. VROM (2003 ) New Key Projects: The Station as Gateway to the City (Brochure). Den Haag, VROM Interdepartamentale Projectorganisatie Nieuwe Sleutelprojecten. VROM (2004a) Nota Ruimte. The Hague, VROM Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and The Environment. VROM (2004b) Nota Ruimte: Ruimte Voor Ontwikkeling: Hoofdstuk 1: Sturingsfilosofie En Ruimtelijke Visie. 1.2.1. Versterking Van De Concurrentiepositie Van Nederland. Den Haag, VROM. VROM (2004c) Nota Ruimte: Ruimte Voor Ontwikkeling: Hoofdstuk 2: Netwerken En Steden 2.2 Nationale Stedelijke Netwerken 2.2.1. Inleiding. The Hague, VROM. VROOMAN, C. & HOFF, S. (2004) The Poor Side of the Netherlands: Results from Teh Dutch ‘Poverty Monitor’, The Hague, SCP/CBS. WERFF, M. V. D., LAMBREGTS, B., KAPOEN, L. & KLOOSTERMAN, R. (2005) The Randstad: Commuting and the Definition of Functional Urban Regions. London, Institute of Community Studies/ The Young Foundation/ Polynet.

Footnotes 1 These are generally associated with ethnic enclaves, especially in Rotterdam, Amsterdam and The Hague. According to Voorman and Hoff (2004:34), both Rotterdam and The Hague have a number of areas where more than 35% of the residents live on a low income. For Vrooman and Hoff, the concentration of low-income households in the three largest cities has a number of different causes: the higher concentration of people living on social assistance or unemployment benefits, as well as disabled people and retired workers, who fall below the low-income threshold more often than those living elsewhere in the country. However, Voorman and Hoff demonstrate that social segregation resulting from low-income households’ agglomeration is not comparable to segregation patterns found in American cities, for instance. Only The Hague presents a marked separation of income-levels resulting in some social segregation. For Stouten (2000:341) , sharp social polarisation has been prevented through social safety nets and extended urban renewal programs. Stouten asserts that “State intervention in the housing market has produced a substantial improvement in housing conditions of the less well-off and of ethnic minority groups, but [has] also led to increasing fragmentation and differences in housing production and consumption” (Stouten, 2000:341) 2 Dutch official documents are translated from the Dutch language by the author. 3 Coördinatie Commissie Regionaal Onderzoeksprogramma (COROP) was the name of the commission that, in

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1971, divided The Netherlands into 40 statistical units, called, therefore, COROPs. 4 Since then, new administrative subdivisions have increased the number of municipalities. Population estimates are not complete for the period after 2003 (CBS). 5 Polynet is an INTERREG IIIB Study Project co-funded by the European Regional Development Fund and project stakeholders in seven North-West European countries. It addresses priorities set by the European Union, that is, to create an attractive and coherent system of cities, towns and regions, focusing on the way to enhance complementarity between North-West European polycentric city-regions. This should happen within a global and European context and cross border sustainable development. The project also addresses internal and external accessibility issues, aiming at understanding the priorities for improved transnational information flows, skills, knowledge and sustainable mobility. Polynet has conducted studies in eight “networked polycentric mega-city regions in NW Europe: South-East England, The Bassin Parisien, Central Belgium, the Randstad- Holland, Rhine-Ruhr, Rhine-Main, Northern Switzerland and Greater Dublin. 6 All data concerning FURs in The Randstad are from Werff et al. (2005). 7 ‘Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer’ (Ministry for Social Housing, Regional Planning, and Environment Administration) 8 The Globalization and World Cities Study Group & Network of the University of Loughborough (UK). See complete table elaborated by GaWC at appendix- table 1. 9 A complete account of the methodology is to be found in Bearverstock et al., 1999.

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