Topics in Linguistics (2016), 17(2), pp. 12-25

10.1515/topling-2016-0010

Cognitive of effect: energy flow as a means of persuasion in inaugurals

Serhiy Potapenko Nikolai Gogol State University of Nizhyn, Ukraine

. Abstract Cognitive rhetoric of effect deals with creating a referent’s favourable image throughout four text-forming stages: invention (looking for arguments); disposition (argument arrangement); elocution (verbal ornamentation); and performance, combining the ancient canons of memory and delivery. The cognitive procedures of rhetoric of effect rest on conceptual structures of sensory-motor origin: image schemas, i.e. recurring dynamic patterns of our perceptual interactions and motor programmes (Johnson, 1987, p.xiv), and force dynamics, i.e. a semantic category in the realm of physical force generalized into domains of internal psychological relationships and social interactions (Talmy, 2000, p.409). The embedding of sensory-motor structures into the text-forming stages reveals that cognitive rhetorical effects are created by managing the energy flow, which consists of force and motion transformations denoted by particular linguistic units. The phenomenon is exemplified by the analysis of the way impressions of freedom celebration and freedom defence are formed in the inaugurals of J.F. Kennedy (1961) and G.W. Bush (2005) respectively.

Key words cognitive rhetoric of effect, ethos, image schema, force dynamics, inaugural address

Introduction understanding derives from seeing Classical rhetoric is generally treated as a rhetoric as a science, a virtue, an art, a systematic and comprehensive body of faculty, or a knack (Kennedy, 2007, knowledge primarily intended to teach p.119). On the one hand, comprehending public speaking (Kennedy, 2007, p.104). it as an art or knack we underscore its Since its inception rhetoric has faced two intuitive underpinnings and restrict it to major problems concerning its object and the description of what the author is trying methods. The former is presently related to achieve and the strategies employed to to persuasion (Bonnefille, 2012, p.228; that end (Wesley, 2014, p.136). On the Hamilton, 2003, p.356; Leith, 2012, p.1), other hand, ’s idea of scientific covering a wide array of genres and media rhetoric (Craig, 2007, p.140) poses it as a (Tabakowska, 2012, p.275), since, as field with rigorous principles of Burke puts it, wherever there is influencing the addressee’s mind which persuasion, there is rhetoric (1969, can be done only if we know its p.172). In its turn, persuasion is defined organization and functioning. as influencing the audience’s mental state Consequently, neither rhetoric as as a precursor to action (O’Keefe, 2007, persuasion nor rhetoric as science is p.595) or, in more rigorous terms, as possible without the knowledge of how imposition of different types of constraints the human mind works. That’s where on the way the audience is led to process cognitive rhetoric comes in: an approach information (Maillat and Oswald, 2013, independently proposed by Sperber who p.137), i.e. persuasion relies on the way linked it to the mind and by Turner (1991) our mind works. As for the method, its 12

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who related it to the human brain modes of proof encompassing ethos, (Hamilton, 2005, p.280). logos and pathos (Campbell, 2007, p.523). Amongst them logos was the first to 1. Cognitive rhetoric of effect: definition receive its modern interpretation as a To date, cognitive rhetoric is defined from theory of argumentation (Perelman and two perspectives: ontological, i.e. that of Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969; Van Eemeren and communication participants, and Grootendorst, 2004) with pathos and epistemological, i.e. with respect to the ethos still awaiting a contemporary re- research methods applied. Ontologically, thinking. This paper argues that the from the sender’s position, this new development of modern media has been approach is viewed as a study of linguistic transforming ethos, traditionally treated as devices and strategies employed to affect a speaker’s favourable self-image the recipients’ viewpoint and way of (Baumlin, 2007, p.278), into rhetoric of thinking (Kwiatkowska, 2012, p.9), while effect aimed at creating an impression of from the sender-receiver interaction any referent by any media understood in perspective it is regarded as a study of McLuhan’s sense (1997) in any type of fundamental cognitive processes at both discourse. giving and receiving ends (Tabakowska, The cognitive rhetoric of effect unravels 2012, p.276). Epistemologically, cognitive the author’s intended impressions, taking rhetoric is treated as an application of into consideration the conceptual cognitive procedures to investigating structures which underlie text-formation persuasive means, i.e. as a study of at the stages of invention, disposition, correspondence between cognitive elocution and performance, with the last semantics, which seeks to understand how one combining ancient canons of memory we generally conceptualize, imagine, and and delivery. Consequently, cognitive reason, and rhetorical theory, which seeks rhetoric of effect can be defined as the to understand how we conceptualize, theory and practice of textual imagine, and reason in particular implementation of the author’s intention, situations (Oakley, 2005, p.455). These generally outlined in the introduction. two sets of definitions seem to interact It seems natural to start the elaboration since authors are supposed to be aware – of the procedures of the cognitive rhetoric though often intuitively – of the receivers’ of effect with the most basic conceptual conceptual structures they try to affect. structures related to the sensory-motor Therefore the integrated definition, experience. They include image schemas, combining ontology and epistemology, i.e. recurring dynamic patterns of our should treat cognitive rhetoric as the perceptual experience by means of which theory and practice of persuading we can make sense of that experience and explained with the application of cognitive reason about it (Johnson, 2005, p.27), and linguistic methodology. force dynamics, i.e. a fundamental Currently, cognitive rhetorical studies semantic category that allows us to think are mainly atomistic in their nature. and talk about events and relations in the Leaving aside ancient teaching, they focus physical domain as well as in epistemic on separate cognitive procedures: and social domains (Talmy, 2000, p.209). conceptual (Hamilton, 2012, In this article, the procedures of the p.220), force dynamics (Oakley, 2005, cognitive rhetoric of effect are exemplified p.455), image schemas (Bonnefille, 2012, by the analysis of inaugurals, which are p.229), conceptual integration (Gomola, central events in American political culture 2012, p.287), Cognitive Grammar (Reisigl, 2010, p.252). In such speeches, (Tabakowska, 2012, p.282). However, a the President tries to persuade his comprehensive cognitive rhetorical theory audience to believe him, to cooperate with seems impossible without taking into him, to perform his plans for the future consideration the ancient techniques and to feel convinced that they have made contributing to the persuasion process. It the right choice (Biria and Mohammadi, presupposes doing two things: first, 2012, p.1293). incorporating cognitive procedures into The analysis undertaken in this paper the ancient canons of invention, distinguishes inaugurals’ two functions: disposition, elocution, memory and universal and specific. The universal ones, delivery; second, taking into account the characteristic of any inaugural, include:

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unifying the audience; rehearsing Agonist, i.e. the focal force, and an communal values drawn from the past; Antagonist, i.e. a force opposing it (Talmy, setting forth political principles; 2000, p.410). In their turn, image demonstrating that the President schemas, initially suggested by M. Johnson appreciates the requirements and (Johnson, 1987, p.116), represent a limitations of his executive power, urging referent from four external perspectives: contemplation, not action and focusing on bodily, perceptual, moto-topological and the present while incorporating the past dynamic. Bodily schemas FAR – NEAR, UP – and the future (Campbell and Jamieson, DOWN, FRONT – BACK, CENTRE – 1986, p.235). Inaugurals’ specific PERIPHERY indicate the position of functions, overlooked so far, reflect a conceptualized objects relative to the president’s personal views, for example, human body. Perceptual schemas MASS – modesty, underscored in President COLLECTION – COUNT – OBJECT reflect Obama’s first inaugural (Potapenko, 2012, transformations of the images of the p.243), or personal interpretation of objects which are approached or perceived particular concepts, for instance, that of from distance. Moto-topological schemas freedom treated from the perspectives of OBJECT – SURFACE / CONTACT – celebration in President John F. Kennedy’s CONTAINER – FULL / EMPTY represent 1961 inaugural (We observe today not a motion of referents into CONTAINER or victory of party but a celebration of out of it. Dynamic schemas, reflecting a freedom) and of defence in W. Bush’s flow of energy, split into kinetic – 2005 address (For a half a century, distinguishing the trajectories of moving America defended our own freedom by objects in terms of PATH, VERTICALITY, standing watch on distant borders). CYCLE, and force, including The cognitive rhetorical procedure of COUNTERFORCE, COMPULSION, revealing an author’s planned effects is ATTRACTION, BLOCKAGE, RESTRAINT suggested in Section 2; data analysis of REMOVAL, DIVERSION, ENABLEMENT / implementing the specific views of DISABLEMENT (see: Potapenko, 2012, freedom in J.F.K. Kennedy’s inaugural and p.247). G.W. Bush’s second address is provided in The reconstruction of a concept on the Section 3; a discussion of similar and basis of dictionary definitions yields a specific strategies and moves applied in canonical model, reflecting the view of the the speeches is offered in Section 4. majority of language speakers and serving as a criterion for distinguishing two main 2. Cognitive rhetoric of effect method The strategies treated as plans of practices suggested cognitive rhetorical procedure adopted to achieve particular goals of revealing the effects produced by (Wodak, 2011, p.40): canonical, inaugurals as a type of ceremonial speech conforming to the reconstructed model, incorporates image schemas and force and non-canonical, deviating from it in dynamics into four text-building canons the ways indicated by particular textual indicating successive stages of analysis: moves subordinating the choice of naming inventional, dispositional, elocutionary units. and performative. The second – dispositional – stage is The initial – inventional – stage is aimed aimed at singling out the textual sections at reconstructing in terms of force which create an intended impression. The dynamics and image schemas the structuring of inaugurals with the help of canonical structure of a concept on the the traditional rhetorical scheme basis of the dictionary definitions of the suggested in the Rhetorica ad Herennium nouns naming particular effects. (Enos and Fahnestock, 2007, p.51) seems The difference between the employed preferable to the too-specific one outlined structures of sensory-motor origin for inaugurals (Campbell and Jamieson, consists in the perspectives from which 1986, p.235) and the too-general one they portray a particular concept. Force based on the degree of displacement from dynamics, acknowledged as one of the the immediate here and now of a speech main inspirations of the image schema act (Bartlett, 2014, p.157). According to theory (Dodge and Lakoff, 2005, p.57), the rhetorical scheme, an inaugural should draws on the notions of motion and rest to be divided into six sections: exordium, or depict the internal states of both an introduction, where the mind of the

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audience is put into proper condition to tendency towards motion while the feature receive the rest of the speech; narration, ‘without being controlled or restricted by where the arguments are set out; division, anyone’ represents that tendency where the speaker indicates what he and externally as RESTRAINT REMOVAL, i.e. the his opponent agree about and the areas absence of any restraint which suggests on which they disagree; proof, where the an open way or path (Johnson, 1987, speaker sets out his arguments; p.46). refutation, rebutting the opponents’ This reconstruction provides three arguments; peroration, or summing up premises for further analysis. First, it (Enos and Fahnestock, 2007, p.51). offers a canonical representation of the The third – elocutionary – stage freedom concept characterized by two presupposes a study of how canonical and tendencies: on the one hand, it is a non-canonical strategies, selected at the referent’s internal inclination towards stage of invention, determine the choice of motion, and on the other, it is the external moves subordinating the use of naming condition for that motion represented by units in separate utterances. RESTRAINT REMOVAL. Secondly, these two The fourth – performative – stage tendencies dominating in the accounts for the relation of a created reconstructed model of freedom concept impression to the communication underlie the canonical strategy, while conditions of two types: macrosituational, possible deviations represent the non- i.e. conforming to the culture of a canonical strategy. Thirdly, the formation speaking community or the challenges of the freedom impression can be linked facing a nation, and microsituational, i.e. not only to the noun freedom with its represented by a particular situation of derivatives and synonyms but also to a speech delivery. It is mainly the wider range of units referring to macrosituational factors that determine RESTRAINT REMOVAL, motion or absence the personal effects created by authors of of hindrances. ceremonial speeches in general and of inaugurals in particular. Being a target 3.2 Dispositional stage stage, performance seems to determine A comparison of the composition of the the author’s activity along the other two inaugurals at the second – phases of speech formation. dispositional – stage reveals two levels of organization: rhetorical and referential. 3. Procedure of analysis The rhetorical structure encompasses the In accordance with the outlined method sections of introduction (exordium), the analysis of freedom celebration and narration, division, proof, refutation and defence effects in J.F.K. Kennedy’s 1961 conclusion (peroration). This stage of inaugural and G.W. Bush’s 2005 address analysis indicates that the two addresses respectively goes through four stages: are structured according to the modified inventional, aimed at the force-dynamic variant of the traditional rhetorical and image-schematic reconstruction of scheme: the refutation section – rebutting the canonical structure of freedom the opponents’ arguments – precedes the concept; dispositional, singling out the proof section where the speaker sets out sections and passages creating the his views. indicated effects; and elocutionary, The referential patterning of speeches revealing the choice of naming units determines the order of representing subordinated to the intended impression. referents and their relations by particular strategies – organizing separate sections, 3.1 Inventional stage and moves – subordinating utterances. At the stage of invention the two types of From the referential perspective President structures – force dynamics and image Kennedy’s canonical strategy begins by schemas – are applied to the conceptual addressing the world community, reconstruction of the freedom concept successively divided into allies, new states, whose name is defined as the right to do neighbours, adversaries, rounded off with what you want without being controlled or an appeal to fellow citizens. Alternately, restricted by anyone (LDCE, 2003, p. 641). George W. Bush at first turns to the nation, In this definition the semantic feature uniting it against an adversary and then ‘want’ indicates an Agonist’s internal passes on to the world community and

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allies, returning to his fellow citizens in fought are still at issue around the the concluding section. globe – the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity 3.3 Elocutionary stage of the state, but from the hand of The elocutionary analysis reveals two God. interconnected tendencies in creating the impressions of freedom celebration and In the division section, where the speaker freedom defence. The first one concerns refers to the topics on which he agrees or the ratio of explicit and implicit references disagrees with his opponents, the dynamic to freedom with 43 direct nominations by presentation of freedom celebration the units free, freedom, liberty in depends on the specificity of the audience President Bush’s address and only eight addressed: the world community, poor cases in President Kennedy’s speech. The nations, southern neighbours and the UN. second tendency is reflected in the The passage addressing the world direction of the energy flow creating community is structured by two moves: freedom effects in terms of motion and energy release and energy emphasis. overcoming blockage: the canonical The energy release move is strategy in President Kennedy’s speech implemented by units evoking two modes results in the dominance of the units of RESTRAINT REMOVAL: actional, evoking RESTRAINT REMOVAL and motion expressed by the verb let with the while the non-canonical strategy in meaning of permission (LDCE, 2003, President Bush’s inaugural triggers an p.924), and perceptual, indicated by the opposite arrangement of units and a flow pronoun any with semantics of non- of energy – from protection to motion. boundedness (Westney, 1994, p.78). The link of RESTRAINT REMOVAL to freedom 3.3.1 Freedom celebration in President celebration is intensified at the end of the Kennedy’s speech passage by the phrase survival and the President Kennedy’s inaugural is success of liberty: dominated by a canonical strategy representing freedom celebration as an (3) Let every nation know, whether it unhindered flow of energy in the wishes us well or ill, that we shall introduction, narration and division pay any price, bear any burden, meet sections, with a non-canonical one any hardship, support any friend, building up hindrances in the refutation, oppose any foe, in order to assure proof and conclusion sections. the survival and the success of The introduction (1) creates a freedom liberty. impression by superseding BLOCKAGE denoted by the noun end with different The energy emphasis move, subordinating kinds of motion indicated by the units the five-fold combination of the pronoun beginning, renewal and change: we with the verb pledge, poses the speaker and his nation as an Agonist with (1) We observe today not a victory of a tendency towards motion, which is party but a celebration of freedom - indicated by the semantic features ‘do’ symbolizing an end, as well as a and ‘provide’ in the definition of pledge as beginning – signifying renewal as you will definitely do or provide something well as change. (LDCE, 2003, pp.1254, 1312): This much we pledge – and more. In the narration section (2), which sets out Portraying the USA as a worldwide the arguments, the idea of freedom champion of peace, this move is celebration is rendered by subordinating reinforced in the following passages the state (not from the generosity of the addressing nations with different status. state) to God (from the hand of God) who In the passage meant for allies the being unaccountable to any living being energy emphasis move rendered by the occupies the highest position in the predicate pledge is followed by the human hierarchy: attraction move subordinating three words denoting unity: the noun loyalty, the (2) And yet the same revolutionary participle united and the adjective beliefs for which our forebears cooperative:

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cannot help the many who are poor, (4) To those old allies whose cultural it cannot save the few who are rich. and spiritual origins we share, we pledge the loyalty of faithful friends. In addition, the termination of passage (6) United, there is little we cannot do in with the overheating move subordinating a host of cooperative ventures. the combination of the negative modal can with the verb save (it cannot save the few Depicting the prosperous countries as an who are rich) indicates a loss of tendency Agonist with a tendency to motion, the to motion by wealthy countries as a attraction move in (4) demonstrates their collective Agonist if they fail to pass their power to the other nations addressed energy surplus to the Antagonist further on with the help of the energy represented by poorer nations. emphasis move. It is preceded by a In the passages addressing southern statement reflecting the current state of neighbours (7) and the UN (8) the move of the audience addressed. simple energy transmission expressed by In the passage meant for the new the verbs offer and assist portrays the US nations (5) the energy emphasis move as an Agonist with a tendency to motion. expressed by the phrase we pledge our Moreover, in (7) the result of energy word is preceded by that of restraint transmission is underscored by a removal encoded by the verb welcome and transformation of Latin neighbours into an followed by that of blockage for the Antagonist with a tendency to motion. The enemies. The latter one is explicated by ability to overcome their misery is the combination of the negative particle indicated by the phrase to cast off the not with the verb pass (shall not have chains of poverty at the end of the passed away) denoting movement towards passage: a more severe COMPULSION indicated by the noun tyranny with the meaning of (7) To our sister republics south of our cruel or unfair control over the people border, we offer a special pledge – (LDCE, 2003, p.1794): to convert our good words into good deeds – in a new alliance for (5) To those new States whom we progress – to assist free men and welcome to the ranks of the free, we free governments in casting off the pledge our word that one form of chains of poverty. colonial control shall not have passed away merely to be replaced The UN is addressed in (8) by the move of by a far more iron tyranny. single energy transmission subordinating the verb support which indicates passing In the passage addressing the poor energy to two targets denoted by the nations (6) the blockage move expressed phrases shield of the new and the weak by the word combination the bonds of and area in which its writ may run: mass misery is followed by two moves depicting opportunities for this group of (8) To that world assembly of sovereign countries: double energy transmission and states, the United Nations, our last overheating. The double energy best hope in an age where the transmission move is rendered by the instruments of war have far repetition of the verb help in the phrase to outpaced the instruments of peace, help them help portraying America as an we renew our pledge of support – to Agonist with an increasing tendency to prevent it from becoming merely a motion to assist the poorer nations in forum for invective – to strengthen their struggle against misery: its shield of the new and the weak – and to enlarge the area in which its (6) To those peoples in the huts and writ may run. villages across half the globe struggling to break the bonds of The refutation section, rebutting the mass misery, we pledge our best opponent’s arguments, opens with a non- efforts to help them help canonical strategy of freedom defence themselves.[…] If a free society followed by a canonical one resting on the relations of motion.

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(Let both sides formulate serious and A non-canonical strategy is implemented precise proposals); exploration of the in (9) by a compulsion move aimed at universe (Together let us explore the opponents by the units request and quest, stars) and freedom for the suppressed: Let which evoke the COMPULSION image both sides unite to heed in all corners of schema: the earth the command of Isaiah – to “undo the heavy burdens […] and to let the (9) Finally, to those nations who would oppressed go free”. make themselves our adversary, we The proof section, addressing fellow offer not a pledge but a request: citizens, is structured by the non- that both sides begin anew the canonical strategy of freedom defence quest for peace. supported by compulsion and energy accumulation moves. Further on, a non-canonical strategy The compulsion move determines the evokes contrast between the moves of loss use of a number of linguistic units: the of energy and blockage. The former is two-fold repetition of the verb summon, implemented by the noun weakness employed impersonally; the three-fold portraying the President and his country reiteration of the noun call, evoking as an Agonist with a tendency to rest while COMPULSION for citizens; the use of the the latter is indicated by the noun arms preposition against, indicating (10) denoting means of defence: COUNTERFORCE levelled against enemies:

(10) We dare not tempt them with (12) In your hands, my fellow citizens, weakness. For only when our arms more than in mine, will rest the final are sufficient beyond doubt can we success or failure of our course. be certain beyond doubt that they Since this country was founded, will never be employed. each generation of Americans has been summoned to give testimony The blockage move is further intensified in to its national loyalty. Now the (11) by the negation neither and the unit trumpet summons us again – not as overburdened, indicating the upset of a call to bear arms, though arms we balance between America and its need; not as a call to battle, though adversaries: embattled we are – but a call to bear the burden of a long twilight (11) But neither can two great and struggle, year in and year out, powerful groups of nations take “rejoicing in hope, patient in comfort from our present course – tribulation” – a struggle against the both sides overburdened by the common enemies of man: tyranny, cost of modern weapons, both poverty, disease, and war itself. Can rightly alarmed by the steady we forge against these enemies a spread of the deadly atom, yet both grand and global alliance, North racing to alter that uncertain and South, East and West, that can balance of terror that stays the assure a more fruitful life for all hand of mankind’s final war. mankind?

The canonical strategy of freedom The energy accumulation move celebration organizes the second part of structuring the passage about world the refutation section by a nine-fold history (13) is implemented by converging repetition of the structure let somebody three sources of attraction denoted by the do something, which like passage (3) nouns energy, faith and devotion into one represents America as a source of named by the phrase light the world at the RESTRAINT REMOVAL by the energy end of the paragraph: release move introducing a number of initiatives: a new phase of international (13) In the long history of the world, relations (So let us begin anew); united only a few generations have been efforts for the sake of solving problems granted the role of defending (Let both sides explore what problems freedom in its hour of maximum unite us); new principles of coexistence danger. I do not shrink from this

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responsibility – I welcome it. I do 3.3.2 Freedom defence in President Bush’s not believe that any of us would address exchange places with any other The freedom defence effect in President people or any other generation. The Bush’s 2005 inaugural is created by a energy, the faith, the devotion non-canonical strategy in which virtually which we bring to this endeavor will every passage begins with units denoting light our country and all who serve energy application or accumulation. The it – and the glow from that fire can scene is set by the introduction (16) which truly light the world. underscores the intensity of force levelled against adversaries by a unification move The concluding part meant for American evoking the ATTRACTION image schema. citizens is structured by two inverted The move is rendered by the pronoun we compulsion moves reversing the roles of and its derivatives in conjunction with the the citizens and the state (14): fellow words unite and together: citizens as Antagonists with a tendency to rest (ask not what your country can do for (16) On this day, prescribed by law and you and ask not what America will do for marked by ceremony, we celebrate you) are endowed with the role of moving the durable wisdom of our Agonists, which is usually expected from Constitution, and recall the deep the state (ask what you can do for your commitments that unite our country and what together we can do for country. […] At this second the freedom of man): gathering, our duties are defined not by the words I use, but by the (14) Ask not what your country can do history we have seen together. for you – ask what you can do for your country; […] ask not what The narration section is structured by America will do for you, but what three protection moves evoking together we can do for the freedom corresponding image schemas with the of man. intervention of two energy moves. The first protection move is The inverted compulsion move concerning implemented by the phrases defended our the world (15) equates the roles of the freedom triggering the BLOCKAGE schema Agonist with the tendency to motion of and break the reign of hatred and both countries at large (ask of us the same resentment denoting RESTRAINT high standard of strength) and of America REMOVAL, with liberty implied by the word in particular (which we ask of you): combination force of human freedom at the end of the passage: (15) Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, (17) For a half a century, America ask of us the same high standards defended our freedom by standing of strength and sacrifice which we watch on distant borders […]. There ask of you. is only one force of history that can break the reign of hatred and To summarize, the effect of freedom resentment, and expose the celebration in President Kennedy’s speech pretensions of tyrants, and reward rests on a free flow of energy conforming the hopes of the decent and to the canonical structure of the liberty tolerant, and that is the force of concept which is reflected in the human freedom. domination of the units denoting motion and energy transmission, while a non- The first intervening move of an canonical strategy is applied in the emphasizing energy source is passages meant for adversaries and in the implemented in (18) by the noun survival, conclusion to compel fellow citizens’ portraying freedom in the USA as an further activity. Agonist with a tendency to rest dependent on the state of global liberty. The latter is depicted as an Antagonist inclined to motion by the phrase the success of liberty. This global energy flow is

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intensified at the end of the passage by the noun expansion depicting liberty The narration section ends with an energy worldwide as an Agonist with a tendency release move represented by the verbs to to motion: clarify and make clear evoking the RESTRAINT REMOVAL image schema which (18) The survival of liberty in our land implies an open way for understanding increasingly depends on the America’s position expressed by the success of liberty in other lands. nouns choice and success: The best hope for peace in our world is the expansion of freedom (22) We will persistently clarify the in all the world. choice before every ruler and every nation: The moral choice between The second protection move – more oppression, which is always wrong, intense in comparison with that in (17) – is and freedom, which is eternally implemented by a longer chain of units right. […] We will encourage reform (support, defend repeated twice, force of in other governments by making arms, sustain, protection) positioning the clear that success in our relations USA as a BLOCKAGE source for will require the decent treatment of adversaries: their own people.

(19) So it is the policy of the United In the final statement of (22) the energy States to seek and support the release move is intertwined with that of growth of democratic movements simple energy transmission expressed by and institutions in every nation and the verb encourage, subordinating culture, with the ultimate goal of clarification to the speaker’s tendency to ending tyranny in our world. This is motion. not primarily the task of arms, The refutation section, meant for the though we will defend ourselves enemies of freedom, is structured by two and our friends by force of arms blockage moves. The first one when necessary. Freedom, by its subordinates the verb question indicating nature, must be chosen, and opposition to the adversaries denoted by defended by citizens, and sustained the pronoun some. The second one – that by the rule of law and the of double blockage – is implemented by a protection of minorities. two-fold combination of the negation not denoting BLOCKAGE with the verb accept The second intervening move of simple naming RESTRAINT REMOVAL. This move energy transmission is rendered in (20) by poses the President and his country as a the verb help depicting the US as an powerful Antagonist with a tendency to Agonist whose tendency to motion is motion enabling them to supersede the passed on to the countries struggling for eternal problems of permanent tyranny liberty (attain their own freedom): and permanent slavery:

(20) Our goal instead is to help others (23) Some, I know, have questioned the find their own voice, attain their global appeal of liberty. […] We do own freedom, and make their own not accept the existence of way. permanent tyranny because we do not accept the possibility of The third protection move in (21) permanent slavery. subordinates the verbs end and protect denoting BLOCKAGE to the phrases this The division section, concerning a number nation and its people: of addressees – the victims of tyranny, democratic reformers, rulers of outlaw (21) The great objective of ending regimes and leaders of totalitarian tyranny is the concentrated work of governments – opens with the non- generations. […] My most solemn canonical strategy of freedom defence, duty is to protect this nation and its according to which force gradually recedes people from further attacks and into motion underlying the idea of emerging threats. freedom.

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The double protection move expressed three verbs: act (we have acted in the by the repetition of the phrasal verb stand great liberating tradition of this nation), for addresses those who suffer tyranny: achieve (tens of millions have achieved When you stand for your liberty, we will their freedom), reach (one day this stand with you. untamed fire of freedom will reach the darkest corners of our world): The attraction move rendered by the noun leaders raises the status of democratic (25) Our country has accepted reformers: America sees you for who you obligations that are difficult to are: the future leaders of your free fulfill, and would be dishonorable to country. abandon. Yet because we have The double counterforce move acted in the great liberating expressed by the verb deny and the tradition of this nation, tens of negation not warns the rulers of outlaw millions have achieved their regimes: those who deny freedom to freedom. […] One day this untamed others deserve it not for themselves. fire of freedom will reach the The motion move embodied by darkest corners of our world. combining the nouns journey and progress concerns the heads of totalitarian In the second part of the passage states: To serve your people you must concerning the past (26) the energy learn to trust them. Start on this journey accumulation move is reiterated by a of progress and justice, and America will different phrase (accept the hardest walk at your side. duties) with an energy transmission move The passage addressing allies (24) – rendered by the verb help underscoring tiny in comparison with that of President the might of the speaker and his country: Kennedy’s inaugural – is structured by two moves: that of energy accentuation (26) A few Americans have accepted the representing America as a target of hardest duties in this cause – in the influence by the verbs honor, rely and quiet work of intelligence and depend and that of energy accumulation diplomacy […] the idealistic work of characterizing free nations by the phrase helping raise up free governments. concerted effort: The passage concerning the present (24) And all the allies of the United characterizes the moral stand of States can know: we honor your contemporary Americans by an energy friendship, we rely on your counsel, release move evoking the units related to and we depend on your help. […] the RESTRAINT REMOVAL schema and The concerted effort of free nations denoting the following features of the to promote democracy is a prelude nation: economic independence (In to our enemies’ defeat. America’s ideal of freedom, citizens find the dignity and security of economic The proof section, addressing fellow independence, instead of laboring on the citizens, falls into three passages edge of subsistence. This is the broader concerning past, present and future. Like definition of liberty); private character (In the previous (division) section these America’s ideal of freedom, the public passages are structured by the non- interest depends on private character); canonical strategy of freedom defence human rights and independence (In with force receding into motion. America’s ideal of freedom, the exercise of The passage concerning the past rests rights is ennobled by service, and mercy, on opposition between two moves: energy and a heart for the weak. Liberty for all accumulation and energy transmission. does not mean independence from one The former is rendered by the phrase another). This passage is crowned with an accept obligations in the utterance: Our energy transmission move (27) expressed country has accepted obligations that are by the phrases look after a neighbor and difficult to fulfill, and would be surround the lost, which represent rank dishonorable to abandon. The latter, and file Americans as Agonists whose portraying America as an Agonist moving tendency to motion is passed over to other into multiple directions, is implemented by citizens:

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(31) We felt the unity and fellowship of (27) Our nation relies on men and our nation when freedom came women who look after a neighbor under attack, and our response and surround the lost with love. came like a single hand over a Americans, at our best, value the single heart. And we can feel that life we see in one another, and must same unity and pride whenever always remember that even the America acts for good, and the unwanted have worth. victims of disaster are given hope, and the unjust encounter justice, The passage dealing with the future and the captives are set free. comprises two fragments structured by blockage and attraction moves with an The restraint removal move in (31) is insertion of motion moves. The blockage further intensified in the concluding move in (28) is expressed by the phrase section by explicit and implicit motion the issues and questions while the moves concerning the future. The explicit overcoming of difficulties is rendered by one is rendered in (32) by the verbs go the motion move subordinating the verb forward, move, march and the noun advance in (29): direction denoting movement with the nouns freedom and liberty indicating its (28) From the perspective of a single targets: day, including this day of dedication, the issues and (32) We go forward with complete questions before our country are confidence in the eventual triumph many. From the viewpoint of of freedom. […] Not because we centuries, the questions that come consider ourselves a chosen nation; to us are narrowed and few. God moves and chooses as He wills. We have confidence because (29) Did our generation advance the freedom is the permanent hope of cause of freedom? And did our mankind. […] When our Founders character bring credit to that cause? declared a new order of the ages; when soldiers died in wave upon The attraction move in (30) uniting the wave for a union based on liberty; nation in the face of looming difficulties when citizens marched in peaceful determines the use of the verbs unite and outrage under the banner “Freedom to be bound, which denote a precondition Now”. […] History has an ebb and for further progress named by the verb to flow of justice, but history also has move forward subordinated to the motion a visible direction, set by liberty and move: the Author of Liberty.

(30) These questions that judge us also The implicit motion move generalizes in unite us, because Americans of the final passage of the concluding section every party and background, (33) the idea of freedom in three steps: Americans by choice and by birth, first, it names the Liberty Bell as a symbol are bound to one another in the of freedom; second, it positions America cause of freedom. We have known as a source of global freedom by the verb divisions, which must be healed to proclaim; third, it portrays freedom as a move forward in great purposes – target of the nation’s further progress by and I will strive in good faith to heal the final phrase achievements in the them. history of freedom:

The second attraction move is represented (33) When the Declaration of in (31) by the nouns unity and fellowship Independence was first read in which denote a precondition for single public and the Liberty Bell was energy transmission expressed by the verb sounded in celebration, a witness to give and resulting in RESTRAINT said, “It rang as if it meant REMOVAL named by the phrase set free: something.” […] America, in this young century, proclaims liberty throughout all the world. […]

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Renewed in our strength – tested, The different effects triggered by the but not weary – we are ready for the two inaugurals result in the specific ways greatest achievements in the history of organizing the division section. In both of freedom. addresses this section includes units denoting force but with a different vector. To sum up, in President Bush’s address President Kennedy mainly underscores the impression of freedom defence is passing the nation’s energy to others by mainly created through structuring moves of double and single energy separate sections by the moves indicating transmission as well as that of transformation of force into motion overheating. Conversely, the division underlying the canonical representation of section in President Bush’s address rests the freedom which results into the motto on units evoking a force vector aimed at of sustaining freedom through force. blocking the enemy which is reflected by the moves of double protection, attraction, 4. Discussion counterforce, gradually giving way to The application of cognitive rhetorical motion and energy accumulation. procedures based on force dynamics and Though occupying different positions in image schemas reveals that two effects – the two inaugurals, the refutation sections peace celebration and peace defence – are are structured by the moves of a similar implemented by canonical and non- (energetic) nature subordinated to a non- canonical strategies determining the flow canonical strategy. In President Kennedy’s of energy in separate inaugural sections address this section rests on units and passages, mainly reflected in the denoting compulsion, counterforce and choice of naming units. An unimpeded blockage while President Bush contrasts flow of energy represented by canonical two blockage moves. strategy dominates in President Kennedy’s The last but one (proof) section is inaugural, rendered by units denoting structured in the two addresses by motion with a gradual transformation into approximately similar moves. President BLOCKAGE for opponents. Conversely, Kennedy resorts to compulsion and energy President Bush’s inaugural employs a non- accumulation moves while President canonical flow of energy, as it opens with Bush’s much longer section employs units denoting force gradually receding energy accumulation and energy into motion. transmission moves to refer to the past, Dispositional analysis reveals that the resorting to the energy unleashing move ceremonial status of the inaugurals depicting the present and uses the modifies the standard rhetorical scheme of attraction move anticipating the future. text-building: unlike the traditional The concluding sections in both model, the proof section offering the addresses employ moves differing from speaker’s arguments crowns the the overall strategies structuring the body addresses. Due to the knowledge of the of the texts: President Kennedy relies on enemy’s identity the reference to freedom an inverted compulsion move mitigating a defence results in the specific order of force impression while President Bush President Bush’s speech where the employs explicit and implicit motion refutation section follows narration and moves turning to the canonical portrayal precedes the division section. of freedom. The elocutionary choice of naming This comparison reveals that the units is subordinated to strategies and persuasive potential of the two inaugurals moves. rests on various transformations of energy The canonical strategy of peace potential revealed by strategies and celebration is rendered by the motion moves, which paves the way for further moves in the introduction and narration studies of ceremonial speeches. section of President Kennedy’s address, while the impression of peace defence Conclusion results in the attraction move in the As for the object and methods of rhetoric, introduction and three protection moves the undertaken analysis yields two supported by energy release moves in the outcomes. First, the application of narration section of President Bush’s sensory-motor structures to exposing the inaugural. nature of persuading, treated as changing

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the addressee’s mental state and imposing study offer the rigour necessary for the varying types of constraints on development of rhetoric as a science. information processing, reveals that this Hence, the emerging cognitive rhetoric of impact is achieved by changing the flow of effect going back to ethos can be treated energy indicated by units with the as a scientific approach to an ancient field. meaning of force and motion. Secondly, the conceptual structures employed in the

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Author’s address and contact details Professor Dr. Serhiy Potapenko Nikolai Gogol State University of Nizhyn 16604, Nizhyn, Chernihiv Oblast Ukraine E-mail: [email protected]

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