Chapter4:EarlyMedievalAgenda Chapter 4

The Early Medieval Period Research Agenda

by Rachel Newman and Mark Brennand

With contributions by Rosemary Cramp, Nick Higham, Philip Holdsworth, Mark Leah, Sue Stallibrass and John Trippier

Introduction continued on from Roman occupation, or, alterna- tively, there may be evidence for such activity, either The early medieval period is perhaps the most chal- proto-urban or of an entirely different nature, pre- lenging of all those eras defined by archaeologists, dating a medieval town or village. It is also clear that other than those at the very beginning of human there is considerable evidence to be recognised in the activity in Britain. Whilst there is a veneer of histori- dispersed settlement of rural areas, both in the low- cal information concerning the North West for this land and the upland parts of the region, if method- time, it can frequently create confusion, rather than ologies likely to identify such activity are adopted. illuminate the population of the region, since it tends The potential to identify early medieval activity is to be of a very general nature, and was clearly written tremendous, both from commercially-driven pro- for purposes other than objective description. This, jects, and also in those areas where development is when coupled with the difficulties of identifying a minimal, such as in the Cumbrian fells. However, it cultural assemblage, or assemblages, which can depends on an awareness of this potential on the part instantly signify a site of this period when under ex- of the excavator, and the adoption of very careful cavation, means that these vital 700 years are even methodologies to maximise information retrieval, more under-represented in the archaeological record particularly in Roman urban or military sites, of the region than they are in the country as a whole. where early medieval remains can easily be mistaken It was, however, clearly a time of immense change, for residual material or are indistinct in comparison when the structure of Roman Britain dissolved and with the large stone buildings preceding them. society slowly moved towards that recognisable in the medieval period. ChronologiesandDating The last 30 years or so has seen a growing body of information concerning the period, which has moved The early medieval period nationally is generally di- any discussion away from the fragmentary frame- vided into three broad phases, although the terminol- work created by the scant documentary sources ogy used for these varies between different regions, towards sites that can be proved conclusively to have since it is based largely on an assumption of popula- been occupied at some point between the 5th and 11th tion movement. Thus, in the south of England, the centuries AD. This has largely, although not later two phases tend to be referred to as the Middle exclusively, been associated with the growth of radio- and Late Saxon periods, since it is assumed that an carbon dating as a routine technique. One of the ethnically Saxon population had a significant influ- clear conclusions to be drawn from a review of the ence there. It is arguable that such terminology evidence for the period, however, is that frequently would not be inappropriate in Cheshire. In the rest the evidence has come from multi-period sites, or of the region, however, the Anglian kingdom of even those where excavators have expected to find a Northumbria held sway in the 7th to 9th centuries, site of another period altogether. and thus reference to ‘Saxon’ here is at best generic. The challenges of site recognition are therefore Whereas in southern England the 10th and 11th cen- considerable. In urban areas, activity may have turies saw distinctive traits, such as the development

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Fig4.1PotterykilnunderexcavationatFremington,Cumbria(OANorth). of urban settlements, in the north perhaps the signifi- For many years, whilst the importance was recog- cant event of that time was the growing influence, nised of the ‘dark earth’ deposits overlying Roman culturally and politically, of people of Scandinavian towns in the south-east of England, horizons, origin. The lack of any common terminology that is whether dark or otherwise, above Roman sites in the applicable to all regions in Britain has led to consid- North were given little or no priority, since they con- erable confusion, with a multiplicity of terms being tained only Roman pottery and were declared used, often very loosely, for both the sub-phases and ‘residual’. This southernocentric view has meant that the material culture belonging to them. these layers have tended to be removed as a block, A lack of clearly datable finds assemblages, and sometimes even by machine, and excavation tech- similarly the lack of publication of those few that we niques were not formulated to attempt to identify do possess, has meant that precise and detailed chro- any detailed phasing within them, nor to record in nologies for material culture have not been devel- detail the material from them. In analytical pro- oped. Indeed, apart from some culturally diagnostic grammes, the material from them, in towns such as metalwork, such as weaponry and personalia, there is Carlisle, was largely ignored because of this assumed a complete lack of material that can be readily associ- residuality, and thus, even in published reports, this ated with the period. Such diagnostic material tends crucial period of change has largely been ignored, or to be found only in ‘extraordinary’ circumstances, is grossly under-represented. Similarly, rural sites with weaponry almost exclusively from graves or containing only a few sherds of Roman pottery have hoards, and personalia from metal detector finds, and traditionally been dated to that period, particularly in to date almost exclusively from potential monastic excavations from before the advent of radiocarbon sites, such as those at Dacre, Carlisle and Working- dating. Recently, the adoption of such absolute dat- ton. Only a very few pieces have clearly come from ing as a relatively routine technique in rural excava- other types of settlement. Pottery is almost non- tions has demonstrated a far more complex picture. existent, although handmade ceramics have been In recent years the vital role played by absolute recognised as being made at Fremington (C), which, dating of material in the growth in our understanding if found without any other evidence, would almost of the period is self-evident. The number of sites certainly be identified as of Bronze Age date. This dated in such a manner is not as yet sufficient, how- clearly has potential repercussions for existing mate- ever, to allow this closely dated sequence to be ap- rial in museum collections and other archives, which plied to any cultural assemblages. In addition, the need to be examined as a matter of urgency. abundance of waterlogged deposits of the early

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Roman period in places such as Carlisle and Ribches- • Anglo-Saxons from the kingdoms of southern ter does not extend into the later Roman levels, and and central England; Britons from Strathclyde, thus the only waterlogged material from the early and those descended from Irish settlers in medieval period recognised as yet comes from deep western Scotland, and potentially also some negative features, such as wells and a very few pits. influence from the Picts; To date, dendrochronological analysis has only been possible on three sites in Carlisle, and even there, it is • and, at the very end of the period, Normans, not clear that the dates produced can firmly locate at least at the level of lordship. the feature chronologically, since some of the sam- ples showed signs of reuse. It is therefore vital that The reason for these wide cultural influences is quite every opportunity should be taken for radiocarbon or simple. The borders between England and Wales, other scientific dating, to try to create a firmer foun- and England and Scotland, only became firmly estab- dation for the results of excavations in both urban lished during the medieval period. The coalescence and rural contexts. of smaller polities to the south into the nascent England, to the north into the nascent Scotland, and Regionaldistinctiveness to a much more limited extent, to the west of the region, particularly from the 10th century onwards, The early medieval period has, perhaps, the greatest however, meant that the North West came under level of potential population movement of any time political pressure at intervals throughout the latter in the region’s past, and certainly the cultural influ- half of the 1st millennium AD, as it was competed ences from those centuries laid the foundations for over by more powerful political entities. The North the differences in some customs and in the regional West is unique in England in that it has two national dialects still spoken today. The extent to which cul- boundaries and a lengthy seaboard dividing it from tural and linguistic influences equate with the physi- other nations. The early medieval period is unique in cal movement of people continues to be debated that it was the time when these nations began to (Fellows-Jenson 1985; Higham 1986; Hadley 2002; form, whilst other conscious or unconscious bids for Abrams & Parsons 2004; Griffiths 2004), and the permanent political influence, such as that from lack of skeletal material from the period hampers any Scandinavia, failed. This crucial element in the scientific examination of this contentious subject. formation of nations has never been examined From the historical sources, however, it is clear that archaeologically, to date having been studied only in the North West, certainly more than in any other through historical sources and a consideration of region of England, there is potential influence from place-names. an enormous range of ethnic and cultural groupings. For part of the period, at any rate, Cheshire looked Within this region, influence might be expected to the south and the growing kingdom of England, from: whilst in the northern part of the region the preoccupations of the population seem to have been • the native Romano-British population; Fig4.2Fragmentofdecoratedstonedisplaying‘Pictishstyle’ • individuals or even groups of other ethnic zoomorphic carving recovered from Scordale, Cumbria populations within the Roman Empire who (RichardNewman). continued to live in the region after the ending of Roman governance, and their descendants;

• peoples from Ireland and modern-day Scot- land;

• Anglians who first settled in the North East, presumably at least in part inter-marrying with the local population;

• the Welsh (and presumably descendants of the inter-married Welsh and Irish populations);

• peoples of Scandinavian origin, perhaps largely, but not exclusively, from present-day Norway, although inter-married with peoples from the Northern and Western Isles, as well as mainland Scotland, Ireland, and the Isle of Man;

ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) 75 ResearchandArchaeologyinNorthWestEngland with the political developments in the North East, to 4.8 Link place-name studies with wider landscape the north in the growing kingdom of Scots, and to research in an attempt to place the known sites the west, across the Irish Sea. Over and over again, it into some sort of landscape context. is clear that there are culturally distinct traits in Cheshire, which differ from those evident in Cum- The Ending of Roman Britain bria, perhaps seen most vividly in the differing styles of the ecclesiastical stone sculpture of the 8th to 10th The end of Roman governance in Britain has been centuries, and the clear linguistic boundary in the viewed as one of the key dates in British history, yet vicinity of the river Ribble. In every case, the differ- the archaeological record is increasingly demonstrat- ences are clear between these two counties, but the ing that this was a continuing and quite long drawn- lack of information from Lancashire hampers an un- out process, rather than a single catastrophic event. derstanding of the process of change. It is thus cru- Changes can be identified in the archaeological re- cial to ascertain whether the apparent ‘black hole’ in cord from at least the mid 4th century, if not earlier, this county is a result of a genuine lack of activity, or which form a continuum into the 5th century, and a lack of antiquarian or more recent research, or arguably even later. To date, this sequence of change whether the methodologies adopted more generally is only clearly visible in the North West at across the region are not suitable to the specific geo- Birdoswald on Hadrian’s Wall (Wilmott 1997), but logical and environmental conditions pertaining ever since the evidence from that site was made pub- there. lic, the same types of activity have been recognised elsewhere, in particular in the fort at Carlisle (Zant Initiatives forthcoming). Similarly, the apparent collapse of urban life in Chester and Carlisle, and of the proto- There are several important initiatives that are crucial urban activities recognised in extramural settlements to forward the study of the region in the early such as at Lancaster (Howard-Davis etal forthcom- medieval period. Such work is needed to create a ing), in some areas seems to begin in the mid 4th more coherent context for all the early medieval re- century. Yet evidence from Scotch Street (McCarthy search themes than exists at the present. 1993) and Blackfriars Street (McCarthy 1990) in Carlisle would suggest that to the residents of those 4.1 Establish an agreed common terminology areas, at least, a ‘Roman’ way of life was continuing across the region for the types and phases of well beyond the early 5th century. If Bede’s famous activity found in the early medieval period. comment is to be believed, of course, it implies that a functioning Roman water system still existed in 4.2 Establish methodologies for the excavation of Carlisle in the late 7th century (Webb 1998). There are sites where there is potential for early medieval hints in places such as Lancaster that populations activity, to maximise the chances of its identifi- survived longer in fort sites than they did in the cation and recording, including regular metal adjacent open, extramural settlements. This has never detector surveys to aid artefact recovery. been truly tested, however, yet is crucial to an under- standing of the administrative, as well as societal, 4.3 Undertake radiocarbon dating as a matter of changes occurring at the end of Roman governance routine on any site with the potential to pro- in Britain. duce early medieval activity. The dating of such sub-Roman activity is tenuous depending largely on coinage sealed beneath it, such 4.4 Prioritise dating by other methods, particularly as at Birdoswald (Wilmott 1997) and Scotch Street, dendrochronology, where appropriate. Carlisle (McCarthy 1993), since the one thing that does seem secure is that the early 5th century saw the 4.5 Ensure that any palaeoenvironmental sampling collapse of the monetary economy. It is therefore and analysis should not be focused only on the crucial that every effort is made to provide secure prehistoric levels, but should include, and date, dating for this type of activity, if possible by absolute later material. means. In this context, it is vital that any organic matter, such as animal bones or charcoal, that is 4.6 Attempt to link the fragmentary artefact clearly not residual, should be dated. In addition, in sequences to some kind of chronologically ro- such circumstances, any buried soils take on an bust framework. added significance, since these might not only provide material for dating, but could also contain 4.7 Undertake focused research on issues of bor- evidence of the environment, such as pollen, which ders and cultural identity, including cross-border will indicate whether urban conditions prevailed, or research initiatives with Wales and Scotland, whether vegetation associated with abandonment and also the Isle of Man and perhaps Ireland. becomes visible in the record.

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Fig4.3PrincipiabuildingwithintheRomanfortatCarlisleattheendofthe4thcentury(OANorth).

However much Roman towns may have survived is often found, having been worked into gaming in some form into the 5th century and beyond, they counters or spindle whorls. There has been a general clearly changed, and one of the most obvious chal- assumption in the past that this occurred immediately lenges for students of the early medieval period is to after the end of its use as a ceramic artefact, but this develop methodologies that allow these changes to need not be the case. Even where there are clearly be defined and analysed. Where dark earths are rec- elements of residuality, such as the presence of ognised, or indeed any other apparently amorphous abraded pottery, this need not be the case for the build-up of soil, it is again vital that geoarchaeologi- whole assemblage; it is perfectly possible for residual cal samples should be taken routinely. These should pottery to be found alongside animal bones that are investigate soil formation, for instance whether the considerably later. Indeed, if, as is commonly material formed as a result of agricultural or horticul- assumed, the use of ceramic containers for cooking tural mixing, whether there is evidence of nutrient and eating became rare in the early medieval period, enrichment, or importation of material from else- such a scenario would be highly likely, since even where, or insitu burning, or the clearance of materials when using other materials for storage and cooking, from areas which have been burned. It is only by the people still needed to eat, even when not using adoption of such techniques that questions can be ceramic plates! Bulk sediment sampling for plant addressed as to whether such build-ups demonstrate remains and fish bones will have the added advan- abandoned, waste land, or land that was still being tage of ensuring full recovery of small artefacts or used actively, as gardens, or even for wider, agricul- artefactual fragments and of industrial residues (such tural purposes, or whether there had been deliberate as hammer scale or droplets from other types of slighting of standing buildings for some reason, such metalworking or glass making). as clearly happened to the Principia at Carlisle (Zant In other parts of the country, such as the South forthcoming). In terms of the artefacts from such West, there is evidence that towns, and also forts, deposits, rather than assuming, as was common in became increasingly depopulated in the 4th and 5th the past, that such material is residual, the artefacts centuries (Wacher 1995, 342; 375), and this seems to and ecofacts need to be checked for evidence of go hand-in-hand with a re-occupation of earlier abrasion, which would demonstrate some longevity defended sites, such as the hillfort at South Cadbury in a deposit which was being worked, or evidence of (Alcock 1972). There are several place-names reworking themselves. For instance, Roman pottery throughout the region with elements that might echo

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Fig4.4PossibleearlymedievalbuildingunderexcavationatShap,Cumbria(CumbriaCountyCouncil). this, such as caer and possibly also burh/g, although in garrison commander is likely to have found himself Cheshire, at any rate, this latter should not be con- in a position of increasing autonomy. It is thus easy fused with the burhs established by Aethelflaed, Lady to contemplate such an individual moving seamlessly of the Mercians, and Edward the Elder, in the early from being an officer of the Roman army to the 10th century (Thacker 1987). In this context, the leader of what was, in essence, a war band, and the emergence of Caerluelout of Luguvalium is of consid- garrison beneath him changing from a unit in the erable interest. Such a population shift can only be Roman army into such a war band (Shotter 2004). speculation at present, but again work to prove or This begs the question, of course, of whether the disprove such an hypothesis is of immense impor- many small kingdoms that seem to have existed in tance in the effort to create any sort of proper frame- the North in the sub-Roman period were based on a work for the region before the growth of the Anglo- disintegrating Roman administrative system, or Saxon kingdoms in the 7th century. whether they reflect much older Iron Age tribal divi- The few historical sources which seem to reflect sions, or, indeed, whether there was any difference events immediately beyond the traditional end of between these two systems. The absence of large Roman governance indicate that there were numer- multivallate hillforts in the North West, and the gen- ous war bands in the region at that time (Miller erally small sizes of the univallate hillforts that have 1975). The excavations at Birdoswald (Wilmott 1997) been identified, might support the argument that suggest that the limitanei, the garrison troops manning power in the pre-Roman Iron Age in this region was the forts of northern Britain, were not removed at more locally based than elsewhere. If the hypothesis the same moment, or even subsequently to the with- of population shift away from towns and forts can be drawal of the field army, which seems to have sustained, then this apparently decentralised occurred in the later 4th century, and by AD 406 at pre-Roman political structure would have been the latest (Johnson 1980, 104). Instead, as the ideally suited to the needs of the post-Roman period. imperial hold over Britain slackened, such garrisons Given the paucity of any material culture that can would have found themselves increasingly relying on be clearly associated with the 5th and 6th centuries in self-provision, rather than supplies from a central the North West, the period before Anglo-Saxon command, perhaps in return for protection in influence is often dismissed with little or no increasingly unstable political circumstances. As the comment, as researchers have tended to dwell on army pay chests became more irregular in their arri- positive evidence, perhaps rightly believing that any- val, until the moment they ceased altogether, each thing else is mere speculation. Absence of evidence,

78 ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) Chapter4:EarlyMedievalAgenda however, is very different from evidence of absence, analysis of deposits overlying Roman stratigra- and there is an urgent need to explore exactly what phy, such as testing for soil formation, was happening culturally at this time. The people agricultural or horticultural mixing, and nutrient living in the North West in these centuries have been enrichment. homogenised, or even effectively airbrushed out, despite the clear indications of a visible social dispar- 4.12 Ensure that opportunities are taken to examine ity both at the end of the Roman period and also the veracity of the commonly-held view of a within the Kingdom of Northumbria. The funda- population shift away from towns into mental issue that even in the 11th century there were defended places at the end of the Roman indications of a recognisably ‘British’ culture in the period. region has been largely ignored. When raised, the presumption has been that this resulted from the 4.13 Ensure appropriate methodologies are adopted influence of the kingdom of Strathclyde in the 10th on all sites with a potential for early medieval and 11th centuries (Jackson 1953, 218-22), rather than remains, to identify and characterise activity the survival of an indigenous way of life. Yet Saint leaving scant and possibly confusing cultural Cuthbert is recorded as having met a reeve called indicators. Waga, a British name, in Carlisle in AD 685 (Colgrave 1940), and the Vita Wilfridi (Colgrave 4.14 Target sites that may contribute to an under- 1985) describes how Wilfrid, during the dedication of standing of social disparity in the early medieval his new church at Ripon (AD 671-678), read out a period. list of consecrated places that were clearly west of the Pennines which the British clergy had deserted when 4.15 Develop methodologies to identify British cul- fleeing from a Northumbrian army. This seems to tural remains in the post-Roman milieu. refer to the Northumbrian annexation of the northern parts of the region, and indicates vividly a Settlement and Land-use surviving culture, at least until that moment, that was clearly Christian. In addition, a legal text, the An understanding of settlement patterns for the early NorthleodaLaga, that seems to have been compiled by medieval period throughout the North West is in its Archbishop Wulfstan of York in the mid 9th century, infancy, and knowledge of associated land-use is incorporated clauses on wergild for ‘Welshmen’ from even more fragmentary. Yet again, however, the his- the law codes of Ine of Wessex (AD 688-726). Pat- torical sources hint at the probability of recognisable rick Wormald has noted (1999, 394) that ‘the author landholdings and ways of life beginning to come into looked up Ine’s law on “Welsh” status for guidance existence, at least in the later part of the period, that in a northern society with a still significant British would develop clarity in the 13th and 14th centuries. ingredient’. The flowering of Northumbrian stone This can be seen in the emergence of a series of sub- sculpture, in particular, and certainly when coupled regional names, often first recorded in the Domesday with the influence of the writings of the Venerable Survey (Faull & Stinson 1986; Morgan 1978), such as Bede (Colgrave & Mynors 1969) and the number of Amounderness, and in the 12th century in Cumbria, Old English place-name roots, makes it all too easy such as Copeland. The predominating pattern to over-estimate the effects of Northumbrian rule; throughout the region seems to have been that of surviving British cultural remains should therefore dispersed settlement, any evidence of nucleation, not only be anticipated, but methodologies should be particularly in the form of urbanism, fading with the developed to seek them actively. collapse of the Roman monetary economy, and not developing again until the 10th century in the south Initiatives of the region, and after the Norman takeover in the north. 4.9 Re-examine old excavation archives from key There is currently very little known about land-use, Roman sites, for instance Carlisle, to look again landscape and climate change from the 5th to the 11th at evidence for latest activity. centuries, on both a regional and national level. Coastal studies (eg Tooley 1978) have demonstrated 4.10 Ensure that methodologies for the excavation that the period was one of some volatility in terms of of late Roman deposits are appropriate for sea levels, although some changes may have been recognising, characterising and dating later localised, and a trend towards greater stability can be material above the more easily identifiable seen through time. Fluvial activity has also been Roman features. recognised, which may at least in part be linked to changing sea levels, such as the evidence from exca- 4.11 Ensure suitable sampling strategies for dating, vations at Damside Street, Lancaster, where early geoarchaeological, and palaeoenvironmental Roman deposits were covered by more than 1m of

ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) 79 ResearchandArchaeologyinNorthWestEngland increasingly sterile silts, suggestive of a riverine incur- sion, which were in turn cut by medieval features (LUAU 1991). The peat resource has been demon- strated to retain late Holocene deposits that span the early medieval period in much of the region, but little systematic work has been undertaken to produce a comprehensive picture, nor has dating tended to con- centrate on the upper parts of the peat sequence. At present, such work as has been carried out is biased towards the north of the region. Palaeoenvironmen- tal studies there have demonstrated a complex sequence of both woodland regeneration and the creation and maintenance of clearances, but there is currently little synthesis of the data. Recent studies of sediments and peat deposits in the Howgills and the Forest of Bowland have indicated several periods of accelerated soil erosion on upland slopes during the Holocene, including a period possibly starting during the 10th century AD (Harvey & Chiverrell 2004), al- though other studies have dated such activity to later in the medieval period (eg Wild etal 2001), indicating, perhaps, a complex pattern of localised events. Many more areas have suitable sediments for studies of soil erosion, river sediment transportation and deposi- tion, or for vegetation studies, all of which contribute to an understanding of changes in vegetation cover and erosion/sedimentation in response to climate change and to human interference. Fig4.5Partofaprobableearlymedievalbowsidedbuilding On a regional scale the excavated evidence for atIrby,Wirral(NationalMuseumsLiverpool). land-use is at present, sparse, although much of the region is rich in features that may have originated far as possible. There is at present little evidence for from the early medieval period onwards. These con- agricultural regimes and economies, or even for sist primarily of civil parish boundaries, many of everyday diet and subsistence, and it is clear that any which still survive as banks, hedges, or ditches, and fieldwork project should develop methodologies to which usually began as township and ecclesiastical maximise retrieval of material which will contribute boundaries (Lewis & Pepler 2002a; 2002b). Many, of to an understanding of these crucial topics. Any course, will have originated in the medieval period or early medieval site is likely to have had evidence of later, but some may go back to the pre-Conquest diet and subsistence practices deposited during occu- period. Indeed, it is possible that some major features pation, and charred, mineralised or waterlogged plant might even reflect pre-Roman territorial divisions remains should survive on many sites. As for all peri- which were given renewed importance by the frag- ods, animal bones are only likely to survive in mentation of society following the collapse of sediments with neutral or alkaline pH, and this is Roman rule. The likelihood of an early medieval most likely to occur in urban conditions or on base- origin is enhanced where a boundary originally rich bedrock such as limestone. Shells of marine marked the limits of one of the large, multi-township shellfish, however, are likely to survive relatively well. parishes that were characteristic of the region in the Despite the poor quality of survival of many animal past. These features may sometimes seal or contain bone assemblages, considerable potential remains. valuable palaeoenvironmental evidence, such as bur- For instance, there is a large assemblage of butchered ied soils, pollen and macrofossils (Gifford & Partners animal bones from Castle Street, Carlisle (Rackham et 2002). Excavated data relating to early medieval set- al 1991), although it is dated through association tlements and landscape boundaries, however, remain only, giving a possible range for the activity, either in rare and, if theories are to be tested, there is a need the 7th to 10th centuries or the 12th to 13th centuries. for more information from excavations. Synthesis of An estimated 2,700,000 fragments of cattle bones such evidence will also need to include a much wider from specifically selected parts of the carcass dataset, including the pattern, as far as it is (deriving from approximately 1500 animals) were understood, of routes, particularly Roman roads, recovered, which had been butchered in a very dis- appropriately drawn information from medieval land- tinctive manner, presumably representing an holdings, and place-names, to develop the picture as extremely organised and specifically-targeted activity.

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Such a degree of organisation is remarkable for any through morphology to the Romano-British period, period, and is particularly important if it does relate have at times been presumed to be abandoned at the to the early medieval period, since so little is known end of Roman governance, and there has been about the continued occupation of urban sites or almost no work to address the resulting hiatus in a agricultural practices. Likewise, the date of the depos- detectable settlement pattern before visible dispersed its at the base of a well at Castle Street (McCarthy farmsteads apparently emerged in the medieval 1991) is controversial and needs to be resolved. period. The physical evidence of past land-use, clear- There, the presence of grain beetles may imply rela- ance and division is visible in both the uplands and tively intense activities of a type normally to be found lowlands, but these features are not normally in an urban environment, such as bulk grain storage ascribed an early medieval date. This is despite the and/or importation of grain supplies from Europe, fact that there are few dates for cairnfields, stone and could potentially make a revolutionary contribu- banks or field ditches from the entire region and that, tion to the understanding of the period as a whole. on one occasion at least, an early medieval date has One context where bone survival is good is within been recovered from a clearance cairn (Quartermaine caves, and most especially those of south Cumbria & Leech forthcoming). Similarly, the system of trans- and Lancashire. While there is little evidence for the humance in the uplands, particularly of Cumbria, can use of caves in the region during the early medieval be distinguished in the medieval period, and has lin- period, this area of research has, like many others, guistic links with dialect derived from Scandinavian been presumed to be an unprofitable avenue of study roots, but there has been no coherent work to date because of negative evidence. Many caves have evi- this site type on anything other than morphological dence of activity throughout the prehistoric and grounds or from ceramics or documentary evidence; Romano-British periods, and then it is presumed to both of these are, by their very nature, going to pro- have ceased. Recent dating of worked antler and a vide a medieval or later date. It is therefore possible cattle metatarsal from the Doghole in south Cumbria that this pattern of landscape exploitation originated (H O’Regan pers comm) clearly confirms the excava- in the early medieval period. Apart from a small tors’ belief (Benson & Bland 1963) that activity in the number of well-studied sites, data on the nature, cave continued from the Romano-British into the preservation, and extent of archaeological deposits at early medieval period. The practices of deposition many important early medieval centres (usually those within caves are still poorly understood, but it must identified on the basis of place-name or documentary be borne in mind that such activities may have con- evidence) are often entirely lacking. There is evidence tinued beyond the end of the Roman period. for possible continuity of occupation in some of the Roman proto-urban centres and military stations, but Settlement the exact date and nature of this activity is unclear. The dearth of excavated sites from the sub-Roman Many of the problems regarding settlement studies of period onwards has on occasion led to the develop- the period stem from the perceived lack of chrono- ment of models of settlement relying on place-name logically diagnostic artefacts, coupled with a timber evidence and historical data. This can lead to the building tradition, at least in the southern part of the unsafe presumption that place-names reflect the region. This has rendered much of the evidence for ethnicity of either their original inhabitants or those human occupation difficult to detect, particularly in in the surrounding area, rather than a much more these lowland parts of the region, or to be seemingly subtle and complex pattern involving not just new invisible. Indeed, the ephemeral nature of even quite settlement, but the renaming of existing entities to substantial buildings (eg McCarthy 2002, 136) might suit changing ownership or even taste. The small suggest that many more structures from the period number of known sites is also exacerbated by the may have been encountered during the course of lack of a morphological typology for sites of this antiquarian and archaeological excavations, but period. Many rural settlements are known from aerial remained unrecognised. The distinctive sunken- photography and field survey, represented by earth- featured buildings known as grubenhauser are only works in the uplands and cropmarks in the lowlands, known for certain from one site (Oliver etal 1996). but these sites have often been interpreted as dating In addition, few of the rectangular stone buildings to other periods, although many may well have been identified in the uplands, or the series of enclosures occupied in the early medieval period, and some may in the Eden valley, have been dated in any meaning- have had continuous occupation from the Romano- ful way. British period, or even before. The marginal nature This situation has to some extent fuelled the tradi- of so much land in the North West means that, in tional view that the ending of Roman Britain led to the uplands at any rate, settlements will have existed the collapse of an agricultural economy that was pri- at the interface between land suitable for cultivation marily supplying the Roman army. Thus enclosures, and the ‘outfields’ suitable for grazing for many houses and field systems, that have been dated largely thousands of years, as they do to this day. This makes

ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) 81 ResearchandArchaeologyinNorthWestEngland the challenge of identification greater, since these holistic approach is vital. Clearly, the challenge is to confined areas are likely to have a palimpsest of recognise such sites. Rosemary Cramp (1994) has occupation, with only limited lateral movement. In pointed to the conjunction of Roman fort, or, effect, the only obvious sites in the landscape in such indeed, earlier fortified site, early place-name and a pattern are the most recent, and those that have later medieval estate centre on the same parcel of failed, for whatever reason. Fieldwalking, evaluation land, which can be identified again and again, such as and excavation of sites may fail to recover chrono- in the vicinity of Brougham and Penrith in Cumbria, logically diagnostic artefacts due to an apparent low of course at Chester, Lancaster and Carlisle, and per- level of usage of inorganic materials during the 1st haps also in the juxtaposition of the fort at millennia BC and AD. Ultimately, only excavation Ravenglass and Muncaster Castle, also in Cumbria. It coupled with absolute dating techniques will address is quite clear that, to some extent at least, the same some of these questions, but such projects will need strategic parameters were relevant in the medieval to be developed with care, to maximise data retrieval. period as were current in the previous millennium, Aerial photography has always played an important and thus centres of power that proved their strategic role in the recognition of rural settlement, particularly importance in both the Roman and medieval periods where arable agriculture predominates. Rural settle- are good candidates for significant early medieval ment sites will always be under-represented in areas activity. This may be particularly important on key of permanent pasture, where cropmarks are less routes, such as that along the Mersey Valley, follow- likely to form, and the North West has large tracts of ing the Lune in Lancashire and southern Cumbria, land which have been used for arable in the past, but and down the Eden in Cumbria. In addition, locales are now down to permanent pasture. In such loca- where there is a conjunction of a medieval estate cen- tions early medieval sites are most likely to be discov- tre and a church producing early medieval sculpture ered during development projects, often while in the are also clearly significant (Cramp 1983). Indeed, the process of investigating sites of other periods. New presence of a church with evidence of activity before aerial photography should, however, be used inten- the Norman Conquest can be used as a clear sively in those areas of potential, particularly target- indicator of settlement, for whilst the surrounding ing places that have not been flown to any great ex- settlement pattern is likely to be dispersed, neverthe- tent in the past. Attention is increasingly being given less the church will have acted as a focus. to the significance of littoral parts of the region A further dataset that may in the long term aid the throughout the early medieval period, both in terms discovery of early medieval settlement sites is the of the potential for headland settlements, and the information being accumulated by the Portable possibility of landfalls in inlets and estuaries, and Antiquities Scheme (PAS). Typologically distinctive clearly such areas would benefit from targeted pro- high-status metal artefacts may be indicative of spe- grammes of flying. cific activities or forms of deposition (such as a grave Recent excavations have shown that the period is or ecclesiastical site), but a distribution of even a sin- not entirely aceramic (eg Oliver etal 1996) but gle artefact may indicate activity or the location of artefacts cannot be relied upon to date excavated settlement. Access to the finds data is currently prob- features or sites. Some forms of locally made pottery lematic, and there is a time delay for the dissemina- are difficult to identify and are not currently chrono- tion of information to the region’s HERs. A periodic logically diagnostic; scientific dating techniques are regional synthesis of reported early medieval finds thus required. Absolute dating techniques that are would greatly aid this form of research. Similarly, most relevant to this period are radiocarbon dating metal detectorist rallies can target localised areas, as and archaeomagnetic dating of materials heated insitu can individuals over a longer period, the value of (hearths, ovens, kilns etc); Optically Stimulated such an approach being obvious, providing sufficient Luminescence (OSL) may be applicable to sediments levels of recording are undertaken. Encouragement buried by subsequent deposition, eg beneath banks. of detailed metal detector surveys, particularly fol- Sites for which some artefactual dating evidence lowing a regular grid and with precise positions being exists (eg Roman or medieval pottery) should be marked (for instance with GPS techniques) would included in any re-assessment of the chronology of also greatly enhance the quality of the data. rural settlement, and should also be subject to abso- lute dating techniques. Particular attention must be Urbanism given to post-Roman and pre-medieval stratigraphy, even when seemingly sterile. In contrast to almost every other region of England, A site forming an important focus in the early me- the re-establishment of towns in the North West is dieval period, if archaeological deposits can be largely a medieval phenomenon. Indeed, it would shown to survive, will have great potential to address seem that any move away from a dispersed settle- issues concerned with the organisation, chronology, ment pattern towards any sort of nucleation, be it function and economy of the period, and thus an rural or proto-urban, does not seem to have been an

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and there is a recurrent suggestion that markets were developing in association with church sites, hardly surprising, perhaps, as these would be the focus of the local population at specific times of the year. Some at least of these foci seem then to have acted as a catalyst for nucleation. It seems clear that the church played an important role in the development of nucleated settlement, but it is to date uncharacterised in the region, and there is almost no firm evidence to support the contention.

Initiatives 4.16 Integrate palaeoecological and archaeological data to investigate how people’s use of the landscape altered it and to try to distinguish changes relating to climate from changes related to human activities.

4.17 Date late Holocene peat sequences by radiocar- bon assay, particularly in the south of the region, which currently lacks any well dated analysed sequences.

4.18 Target river basins and valley bottoms to investigate erosion sequences potentially associated with the intake of fields, woodland clearance or soil disturbance. This could be Fig4.6CrossHill,Thingwall,Wirral(NationalMuseums undertaken in conjunction with investigations Merseyside). of peat deposits for climatic indicators and changes in settlement and land-use. early occurrence. The exception would seem to be in Cheshire, the only part of the region to lie beyond 4.19 Re-examine and date deposits of animal bones the borders of Northumbria, and where the expan- and environmental material from Castle Street, sion of the nascent kingdom of England in the 10th Carlisle, to resolve at least some of the and 11th centuries created an economic climate not uncertain date of existing material excavated seen further north until after the Norman Conquest. from urban contexts. In Cheshire, Chester quickly became a centre of pro- duction from the 10th century onwards, and accrued 4.20 Analyse any animal bones, and charred, miner- most of the attributes of urbanism in the next 200 alised or waterlogged plant remains, identified years (Carrington 1994). Chester’s renaissance from any site of the period as a matter of prior- appears to have followed the establishment of a ity. Mercian burh there in AD 907. It is thus tempting to equate the growth of proto-urbanism elsewhere with 4.21 Record, wherever possible, sections through this phenomenon, to the extent that Higham (2004a, extant civil parish boundaries threatened by 140-1) has suggested that Penwortham, on the oppo- development. Opportunities are most likely to site side of the Ribble from Preston, and the only site arise through linear development projects, such north of the Mersey to be listed with burgages in as pipelines and road schemes, as well as Domesday Book (Morgan 1978), may have been housing developments. Work should such a creation, although in the reign of Edward the concentrate not just on recording sections but Elder (AD 900-24) rather than his predecessors. No also on assessing the potential for the preserva- coherent study of these sites has been undertaken, tion of environmental data (buried soils, pollen, however, and hardly any excavation has taken place macrofossils etc). outside of Chester. Elsewhere, there are slight indications that some 4.22 Create a large-scale map for each district or sites were favoured for the exchange of goods, for county of the various boundary types as an instance, Meols on the Wirral coast (Griffiths 2004), essential curatorial tool.

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4.23 Ensure the upper stratigraphy of Roman period mal archaeological work undertaken to explore the sites and the lower stratigraphy of medieval sites context of the material. Since then, conservation has is subject to detailed scrutiny for what may be been a key theme for ecclesiastical sites, which pre- ephemeral traces of early medieval activity. sents its own challenge for furthering understanding of their developmental sequence, since opportunities 4.24 Ensure method statements and research designs for anything other than very small-scale work are for the excavation of rural settlement in the extremely limited. Such opportunities as do present region build in costings for absolute dating, in themselves should be taken, however, particularly in most cases for a series of dates, particularly tar- association with refurbishment of the church fabric geting short-lifespan material, such as twiggy itself, or in any development that affects key ele- charcoal, animal bones and charred cereal ments of the churchyard, such as well-established grains, as well as archaeomagnetic dating of boundaries, paths, trees, and so on. materials heated insitu (hearths, ovens, kilns, etc). EarlyChristianity

4.25 Examine, wherever possible, presumed centres Late Roman histories record that Christianity became of early medieval activity, particularly the nature the official and sole religion of the Roman Empire in of surviving archaeological deposits, coupled the reign of Constantine in the early 4th century with a detailed programme of dating. These (MacMullen 1987), and yet there is almost no physi- might include settlements with churches pro- cal evidence for its practice in the North West ducing early sculpture, or medieval estate cen- (Thomas 1971). Superficially, the lead salt pans found tres re-occupying Roman sites. at Shavington (Ch), which record an episcopus named Viventius (Penney & Shotter 2002), appear to be the 4.26 Monitor the distribution pattern of material best evidence in a late Roman or sub-Roman context, reported to the Portable Antiquities Scheme but at that time an episcopus could have held a secular throughout the region, to highlight ‘hot spots’ adminstrative post, and there is no independent of early medieval activity, and individual sites proof of a Christian context. The name Viventius, with archaeological potential. however, seems to have Christian affinities, and thus it is at least possible that this may represent a rare 4.27 Undertake systematic metal detector surveys in survival of an administrative structure that otherwise such ‘hot spots’ to attempt to define and char- is known only from the few documentary sources for acterise early medieval activity. the period. This demonstrates the essentially seren- dipitous ways in which the scattered information that 4.28 Sample suitable deposits throughout urban informs the period can come to light, and highlights stratigraphic sequences systematically, for scien- the need for seizing every opportunity to explore tific analyses, coupled with absolute dating tech- new evidence to the full. niques, to refine both the chronology and an Since Kenneth Cameron’s work in the 1960s, it has understanding of the activity taking place. been recognised that the place-name element ‘Eccles’ derives from the Welsh eglēs ‘a church’, itself a loan 4.29 Prioritise significant sites for publication. from Latin ecclesia.The element is particularly con-

Religion and Burial Fig4.78th9thcenturypectoralcrossfromFaddiley,Cheshire (PAS). In many ways the pattern of Christian life, in the form of stone sculpture, certainly from the 8th cen- tury onwards, is more visible than any other type of activity in the early medieval period in the North West. Despite this, a true understanding of what the presence of these sculptural fragments actually mean, and what this tells us about the North West at this time, is in its infancy. Much of the sculpture came to light in the 19th century, during the massive ‘campaign’ to refurbish the dilapidated parish churches of the country, which in many cases in the North West led to an almost total rebuilding. In most of these cases, the early material was found built into medieval or later masonry, or the circumstances of the discovery were not recorded; in no case was for-

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but may represent an early Christian cemetery. The potential for further work at this site remains, to place these early finds in context and to establish the longevity of burial activity. Certain churches within the region have unusual dedications, which, if not clearly belonging to post-medieval re-dedications, may imply a medieval tradition of an early site. For instance, few medieval churches are dedicated to St Martin, yet there are three in Cumbria, and others have associations with the Celtic church, principally through references to Ninian and Kentigern (or Mungo). At one such site, Ninekirks near Brougham (C), such a tradition is backed up by both the physical presence of an enclo- sure, seen on aerial photographs (Loveluck 2002), and metalwork dated to the 8th century (Bailey 1977a), but it has never been subject to formal exca- vation. Excavations close to sites such as Brampton Old Church (C), dedicated to St Martin, have con- centrated on the earlier Roman activity in the vicinity, rather than the church itself. Other dedications have clear Irish associations, such as those to St Bega/St Bridget on the west coast of Cumbria, and there has been a long tradition, dating to at least the 16th century (Fowler 1903), of linking dedications to St Fig 4.8 Cross shaft at Halton, Lancashire (Lancashire Cuthbert with places where the saint’s body rested CountyCouncil). during the travels (and travails) of his community in the 9th and 10th centuries. The way in which such traditions can be tested to ascertain whether they are centrated in English place-names in the historic based on fact needs careful thought, however, given counties of Lancashire and the West Riding of York- that the majority of such sites are either living shire. In Lancashire, there is a coincidence between churches or have a long tradition of burial in and Eccles place-names and the structure of hundreds or around them. In the same vein is the tradition of holy wapentakes (Barrow 1969), as they are understood to wells, many of which also have unusual dedications, have existed by the high Middle Ages. This may and some of which may theoretically at least have reinforce the case for their earlier role as churches origins in the pagan past. Such sites are fraught with serving an extensive territory of the type represented difficulty for the archaeologist, though, and so far it by the Northumbrian shire identified by Jolliffe has not been possible to prove their longevity. In an (1926). If these place-names, as is generally believed, area with few documentary records until the rela- do offer the opportunity to localise post-Roman but tively recent past, this makes judgement difficult as to pre-English Christian cult sites, then their research whether these are genuinely ancient, or the creation should be given a high priority and a systematic study of later traditions. take place of one at least of these concentrations. Some sites, such as Eccles in Salford (GM) and Churches Eccleston to the west of St Helens (M), have been heavily developed and thus may be more challenging The recovery of early medieval metalwork through for archaeological survey or excavation, other than metal detecting has the potential to locate previously desktop research. In contrast, other potential sites, unknown churches and also aid in their classification, such as Eccleshill in Blackburn and Little Eccleston even if the metalwork itself is not directly Christian and Great Eccleston on the south side of the Wyre in its iconography. Indeed, at those rare sites re- (L), remain largely undeveloped and might benefit corded in documentary sources, such as Dacre (C), from both desktop and ground survey to attempt to most of the metalwork recovered through excavation locate the historic cores. A series of burials was actu- would not have been out of place on a high-status ally excavated at Eaglesfield (C) in the 19th century, secular site (Newman & Leech forthcoming). At of which one contained recognisably Scandinavian Dacre, and elsewhere in the country, the recovery of artefacts, but the remainder were oriented east to items such as styli and book clasps has provided west, and apparently without grave goods (Cowen unambiguous evidence of literacy which in a pre- 1967). These burials are therefore not closely dated Conquest environment is almost certain to mean a

ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) 85 ResearchandArchaeologyinNorthWestEngland connection with a religious community. some analysis of the monuments themselves could The origins of churches in the North West, as in now be attempted. For instance, there are clear dif- most regions, are shrouded in mystery, although a ferences between the material found in Cumbria and foundation as a minster or fully functioning monas- north Lancashire, in other words, the Kingdom of tery for some at least is probable (Morris 1989) and Northumbria, and that in Cheshire (Mercia). Simple many of the churches at the heart of the larger division between clear grave markers and more medieval parishes are likely to have originated as complex monuments would help to refine our under- pre-Conquest minsters and/or important estate cen- standing of the purpose of the sculpture, particularly tres. It is at least possible that Anglo-Saxon kings saw for the 10th and 11th centuries, when the number of the placing of monasteries within the ruins of Roman identified grave markers rises. This would allow a sites as a means of revival (on the Continent and in focus on the unusual monuments, such as the Dacre Kent these tended to be specifically female houses; R Stone, with its unique theological programme of Cramp pers comm), and whether this is true or not, iconography (Bailey 1977b), and in-depth study of the association between early churches and Roman whether this could represent some teaching or even centres, as at Chester and Carlisle, is not surprising missionary activity at that site (R Cramp pers comm). (Matthews & Wilshaw 1995; McCarthy 2002). It In the same vein, understanding the meaning of the would be tempting in this way to see the placing of linking of Christian and Scandinavian subjects on the medieval parish churches in the ruins of Roman Heysham hogback, or at Gosforth, would be useful. forts, a relatively common occurrence in the north- Such sculptural material is often associated with ern part of the region, as evidence of some sort of centres that later developed into towns, as at Penrith, continuity, but at Brampton Old Church (C) at least, Kendal, Carlisle and Workington (all Cumbria), but there is no evidence from excavations that the there are significant exceptions, although these tend Roman site was occupied beyond the mid 2nd century to be major medieval church sites. Some considera- at the latest (Simpson & Richmond 1936). There is tion of the factors at work here would be useful, and also evidence that, in parts of Northumbria, headland a regional landscape study of where the major sites have significance, as at Whitby, Hartlepool, and medieval churches developed would be welcome, Monkwearmouth (Cramp 1976). The recent work at although this should, perhaps, be linked into a wider St Michael’s, Workington (C), as well as at Heysham consideration of churches as indicators of settlement. (L) (Potter & Andrews 1994), has indicated that this Little is known of the structure of early medieval may be a more general trend in Northumbria, and to churches since, with the possible exception of a very this end, study of sites such as Moresby (C) would be small group in eastern Cumbria, and St Patrick’s of interest. Chapel at Heysham (L), no firmly dated structure Whilst modern evidence suggests a less precise pre-dating the 12th century remains (Taylor & Taylor boundary between monasticism in the 7th to 9th cen- 1965). Unsurprisingly, these remains are all of stone turies and its collapse under the onslaught of Viking bonded with mortar, but this does not mean that all, raiders in the 10th (Morris 1989), nevertheless, the or even most, early churches were built in this way. little evidence recovered to date does suggest an in- Indeed, it is likely that dry stone construction as well creasing ‘secularisation’ of such sites from the 9th as wholly timber buildings were the norm, and in century onwards, although without any sharp disloca- areas such as the Solway, the tradition of clay tion in activity (see, for instance, Newman & Leech forthcoming). The development of so-called church Fig4.9PotentialVikinggravegroupfrom Meols,Wirral markets, whilst probable, has not been proven be- (NationalMuseumsLiverpool). yond doubt, and deserves attention. Given the com- plete lack of detailed documentary sources, careful fieldwork is the only way in which evidence will be gathered. This creeping secularisation is one route by which monastic sites could have metamorphosed into nascent parish churches, although to what extent the pattern was infilled by new foundations by secu- lar lords in the 10th to 12th centuries is a matter for debate. The presence of early sculpture is the most sure indicator of a church founded in the early medieval period, particularly those few examples with Northumbrian art forms and also Scandinavian motifs, indicating some form of continuity into the 10th century and beyond. Whilst the corpus is clearly incomplete, and new sculpture continues to be iden- tified, the pattern is sufficiently understood that

86 ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) Chapter4:EarlyMedievalAgenda buildings may be very ancient, although none earlier 1981), and perhaps also at Hardendale (C) (Williams than the medieval period have been proven to & Howard-Davis 2004). The suspicion is that this survive (Messenger 2000; Jennings 2003, 33-45). The represents a much more widespread phenomenon distinctive group of apparently early churches in east than is currently recognised and an aspect of a Cumbria, when linked to others sharing the same tradition well-known from elsewhere in the country long segmented structure, but with no clearly early (Williams 1997). Many excavated unaccompanied masonry, such as at Brough and Orton (C), are human remains in barrows have been presumed to clearly worthy of further study, particularly when be prehistoric, although in many cases this has not evidence of cobbles is visible beneath the ashlar been confirmed by scientific dating techniques. Only masonry, perhaps indicating an earlier structure used a small proportion of the region’s barrows have been in the foundations of the later. In this case, it would excavated to modern standards, but there is a great also be beneficial to expand such a study beyond deal of material in local museums from the many less modern administrative boundaries, as there are com- rigorous excavations carried out in the past. Only a monalities with the adjacent part of Yorkshire, in few individuals are to be expected from any single particular. site, but this is in no wise a valid reason for giving the It is recognised that church archaeology has been material a low priority. The putative ‘battle cemetery’ an understudied discipline in most parts of the at Heronbridge (D Mason pers comm) is not typical, region. The opportunity for intrusive archaeological although the ongoing study should throw fascinating work within or around churches is limited, but not new light on this period. altogether out of the question. As well as ground- The period is characterised by migration and move- works for maintenance, the current emphasis on ment, but the extent and details of such movement providing toilet and kitchen extensions has provided and settlement are not known. Whilst place-name several opportunities to examine the depth and evidence and distinctive artefact styles are signifiers nature of the archaeological deposits at these sites, to some degree, they do not necessarily indicate peo- usually through evaluation trenching, and a valuable ple of a distinct ethnic origin. Stable isotope analysis body of data has already been collected in Cheshire. cannot identify ethnicity, but may help to identify It is likely that similar opportunities will continue to where an individual spent their childhood, and hence arise in the future and it is therefore important that the area of their origin. Soil conditions in the North the curatorial framework is in place so that opportu- West are generally inimical to the preservation of nities are not missed. An understanding of the bone, and thus few burials with bone surviving can development of ecclesiastical structures in the early be expected. The small number of burials dating medieval period should not, of course, concentrate from this period makes it imperative that all available solely on the church itself, since a monastic site material should be analysed for stable isotopes as a would lie at the centre of a much wider estate, but matter of routine. study of the wider landscape is again in its infancy. The recently excavated cemetery at Cumwhitton The detached elements of parishes, seen particularly (C) has demonstrated that completely unforeseen in medieval Cumbria and Cheshire, may be faint sites can be identified fortuitously, in this case by echoes of such as, for instance, at St Bees. Similarly, metal detectorists (Brennand 2006). There, the finds the process through which parishes developed, reported to the Portable Antiquities Scheme were so widely believed to have fully formed by the 13th distinctive that a burial could be anticipated, and century (Higham 2004a), is neither well understood funding for formal excavation was secured. In other nor dated. Whilst place-names can aid in the identifi- cases, evidence of potential burials may be more sub- cation of ancient institutions, the boundaries of many tle. A survey of other metalwork in the region, both parishes were marked physically, often by earth- recently discovered and in museum collections, is works, and every effort should be made to establish a urgently needed to establish the potential for other firm date for such features through excavation and such sites in the region, where further research would radiocarbon dating. be beneficial. A detailed survey of those churches and churchyards where potential or actual Viking- Burials Age burials have been identified would also be useful.

With notable exceptions, the region is almost entirely Initiatives lacking in burial evidence from the early medieval period. Beyond those associated with a church, the 4.30 Archaeological curators need to formalise and few known instances often involve the secondary use agree appropriate protocols with the Diocesan of prehistoric burial mounds for inhumation, exam- authorities which will enable all intrusive work ples ranging from the cemetery at Southworth Hall, on and around these sites to be monitored Warrington (Freke & Thacker 1987), to fragmentary archaeologically, and for evaluation or excava- single inhumations at Withington (Ch) (Wilson tion to be carried out where appropriate.

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4.31 Target appropriate sites with Eccles place- decline in pottery use may be a factor of production names with systematic survey of surrounding and supply, but equally one of desirability, where settlement. organic containers of leather and wood were pre- ferred to ceramic ones. It must also be noted that 4.32 Target churches on headlands for study as some ‘Roman’ artefacts apparently enjoyed a con- possible early sites, particularly when they are tinuation of use in the sub-Roman period (Cool associated with Roman material or early medie- 2000). It does seem logical, however, to suggest that val stone sculpture. the scale of production was generally reduced, from one of mass consumption, to a more personal and 4.33 Examine all types of evidence for church mar- immediate supply. This certainly seems to be indi- kets. cated by the evidence from Birch Heath, Tarporley (Ch) (Fairburn 2003). In most instances, though, sites 4.34 Analyse differences between stone sculpture at of this date are often indistinguishable from those of a sub-regional level. other periods, without scientific dating. The region is commonly perceived to be materially 4.35 Prioritise the study of long segmental churches impoverished in the early medieval period, with an in both east Cumbria and adjacent parts of almost total absence of pottery throughout the area. Yorkshire. Other classes of artefact are usually considered to be almost as rare, except for metalwork from sites with 4.36 Prioritise any possibly early medieval burials or an ecclesiastical, if not monastic, connection. Work funerary material for full scientific analysis in the 1990s has begun to alter this perception, with including absolute dating, stable isotopes and the recovery of hand-made pottery from an excava- DNA investigations. tion in Cumbria (Oliver etal 1996), and also the iden- tification of its means of production, in a simple 4.37 The presence of stray finds recovered by metal clamp kiln. This has, however led to the possibility detectorists needs to be highlighted, which may that at least some early medieval material has been indicate burials of this period being damaged by misidentified as of Bronze Age date in the past, given agricultural practice, and they should be priori- its crude nature. An increasing body of metalwork tised for investigation. has also been recovered, more recently recorded through the Portable Antiquities Scheme. The distri- 4.38 Previously excavated skeletal and artefactual bution, quantity, and meaning of this material, material (particularly pottery) needs to be however, remains poorly studied, but it has the po- re-examined, and, where appropriate, scientifi- tential to identify unknown sites. The definition of cally dated, to establish whether a phase in the early medieval traditions of hand-made pottery would development of burial practice in the region aid the identification of sites of this date in the field, has, to date, largely escaped notice. and an examination of museum collections for misidentified material would be beneficial. 4.39 Maximise opportunities to excavate and date Evidence of copper mining and smelting during parish boundaries. this period is sparse on a national scale, and it has sometimes been considered that the raw materials 4.40 Key sites for publication need to be prioritised. were imported from the Continent (Ponting forthcoming). The evidence for metal working and Technology and Production smithing is confined to iron working, no ore extrac- tion sites being currently known in the region, The 4th and 5th centuries undoubtedly witnessed although they should be anticipated in areas such as widespread changes in both the scale, form and Alderley Edge (Ch), the Pennine fringes, particularly means of production of most types of material, as the Alston area (C), and the Lake District. If, how- well as in the routes of trade and exchange. Models ever, evidence for either Romano-British or medieval of Romano-British agricultural systems have stressed mining is identified then post-Roman activity must the primary importance of supplying the Roman also be anticipated, since post-Roman societies are military, with the personal and social aspects of equally likely to have needed and exploited the Romano-British communities being a secondary con- natural resources of the region even though the sideration. The decline of the Roman army did not evidence may not be so easily identifiable. necessarily indicate that the means of agricultural On a national scale there is an increasing incidence production or that for other goods collapsed entirely of mixed alloys of non-ferrous metals during the within rural communities. Major sources of archaeo- Romano-British period (Bayley 1998, 167), which logical information do, however, cease to be found appears to have continued into the early medieval on Roman military and proto-urban sites. The period. This mixing is thought to be a result of the

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detailed classification of the material from the region might help to establish a more localised chronologi- cal framework, both for metalwork and other classes of material. Studies of early medieval material culture need to ascertain not just what cultural affiliations the styles indicate, but where and how such items were made. Metallurgical studies of metalwork, whether from metal detecting or from stratigraphically exca- vated deposits, are also required to investigate this, and to test the contention that there was a general continuation of practice from the Romano-British period until this was replaced by an influx of new raw materials during the latter part of the early medieval period. Despite the substantial number of sites and quan- tity of material associated with Roman and medieval salt production now known from Cheshire, there is no firm evidence for production in the early medieval

th period. Penney and Shotter have speculated (2002, Fig4.10Late8 –9thcenturyIrishhangingbowlmount 59), however, that the finding of a bronze pennanular fromArnside,Cumbria(PAS). brooch close to the findspot of one of the lead brine recycling of existing metalwork. From about the 8th pans from Shavington (Ch) suggests that these brine century onwards, however, specific alloys (especially springs may have been the focus for continuing ac- brass) reappear, indicating a new input of ‘pure’ raw tivity beyond the formal Roman period. Given the materials. Other classes of material would also seem evidence for a continuing industry to the south at to have been recycled, particularly glass, since cullet Droitwich (Worcestershire), any further work at is a relatively common find on any site of the period Shavington or in centres of salt-production in both (for instance, at Dacre; Howard-Davis forthcoming). the Roman and medieval periods should specifically Apart from noting its existence, however, little address this issue. The identification of seaweed at formal work has been undertaken to forward an Fremington (C) might also suggest that such material understanding of the levels and complexity of the was being transported from the coast in the north of industrial process. In terms of data collection, there is the region (Oliver etal 1996), and highlights the im- a need for every excavation strategy on any site, portance of targeted palaeoenvironmental studies as whether rural or urban, where early medieval activity part of any excavation campaign. Other organic ma- might be present, to allow for extensive sampling, terial can also point towards industries that are to both of specific material and bulk samples, not just date little understood. For instance, the recovery of for palaeoenvironmental material but for small arte- the extensive assemblage of cattle bones from Castle facts and industrial residues. Such material, including Street, Carlisle (Rackham etal 1991), which had been that not necessarily easily identifiable without sieving, butchered in a very distinctive manner, must repre- could include hammerscale and droplets of metal, sent an organised and targeted activity, such as, indicating metal working or glass production that has perhaps, tanning. If the deposit dates from the early otherwise left no understandable trace in the ar- medieval period, which whilst not proven is a defi- chaeological record. nite possibility, then the material could revolutionise A synthesis of metal artefacts from this period our understanding of activity in former Roman cen- within the North West may provide a foundation for tres at this time. Similarly, the radiocarbon dating to the study of both imported and locally manufactured this period of what would appear to be evidence of items, the distribution of which may provide an hemp retting at Glasson Moss (C) (Cox etal 2000) indication of manufacture or trading centres. The demonstrates the importance of work on the contribution of the Portable Antiquities Scheme wetlands and also highlights the need for close dating needs to be acknowledged in the development of of any features identified, as one of the few ways that regional models for this period. Significant material industries of the period will be recognised in the continues to be reported, particularly in the south of archaeological record. the region, and it seems that a similar pattern is emerging as the scheme establishes itself in the Initiatives north. The vast majority of these items are dated only by typological analogies, rather than by stratigraphy 4.41 Raise awareness in those responsible for the or associated absolute dates, these analogies for the excavation of sites that ceramics initially classed most part referring to other parts of the country. A as prehistoric might represent examples of a

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regional tradition of early medieval hand-made pottery.

4.42 Examine any relatively undiagnostic ceramic material currently held in museums and classed as prehistoric, to establish whether any of this could actually be early medieval in date.

4.43 Recognise the continued use of ‘Roman’ arte- facts into the 5th century as a topic worthy of further research, and ensure all late Roman Fig4.11Pinsand‘purseclasp’fromDacre,Cumbria,dating th th assemblages are scrutinised for such. fromthe9 to11 centuries(OANorth).

4.44 Consider controlled metal detecting on archaeo- 1994), and others recently recognised from Carlisle logical excavations to aid artefact recovery for (Swan etal forthcoming). The exception to this gen- early medieval sites and those of other periods. eral absence of evidence is that material indicating the presence of Scandinavians, particularly the 4.45 Enact a full sampling and dating strategy for Hiberno-Norse from Ireland (Griffiths 2004; production residues and deposits on all urban Higham 2004b), since both place-name and burial and rural sites, to detect evidence of hammer- evidence exist throughout the region. scale, metalworking or glass production. Models indicating that a higher relative sea level existed during the Roman period, particularly in the 4.46 Establish a regular period-based review or Lancashire/Morecambe Bay area (Tooley 1980), have publication scheme for artefacts recorded by come under recent scrutiny, and it has been sug- the PAS, including metallurgical studies, as gested that such a change may actually have occurred appropriate. in the later Roman or post-Roman periods (Zong & Tooley 1996; Wells 2003). The implication for this is 4.47 Undertake metallurgical studies of early far-reaching in relation to the navigability of rivers medieval metalwork as a matter of routine. and the location of coastal settlement and activity during the early medieval period, although it must be 4.48 Prioritise the absolute dating of key assem- borne in mind that such change could be relatively blages, such as the animal bone from Castle localised. Whilst much of the coastal part of the Street, Carlisle. region is low-lying, headlands exist in North Lancashire and northern Cumbria, which, on analogy 4.49 Ensure methodologies for any excavations of with the North East, could have significance both as late Roman or medieval sites are sufficiently trading points and as a focus for early Christianity. robust to allow for the possibility of early Obvious examples of this are at Heysham (L) (Potter medieval industrial/craft production, including & Andrews 1994) and Workington (C) (P Flynn pers salt. comm). The use of GIS mapping to predict changes to the coastline, and from this to highlight areas Trade and Exchange where settlement might have been likely, is an impor- tant tool for the future. The western seaboard of the North West formed a Few early medieval coastal settlements are known major routeway in the early medieval period, with between Meols on the Wirral and Whithorn in Gallo- traffic apparently moving between the Continent, the way, although promontories and headlands, and south-west of mainland Britain, Dublin, the Isle of around natural inlets, harbours and estuaries, are all Man, Western Scotland, the Northern Isles, and potential locations for settlements and trading Scandinavia. Indeed, in many ways the evidence for centres. The potential improved navigability of major intercommunication in the so-called Irish Sea rivers during the period also increases the likelihood Province is more vivid in the early medieval period, of trading contacts and settlement on river courses particularly in the 10th and 11th centuries, than at further inland. There is no immediate reason to almost any other time. Firm evidence to date is, how- assume that the formal end of payments to the ever, very limited in the region, in contrast to that for Roman army in the north signalled an end to all both the seaboards to the west and south, in Wales, coastal transport and trade, and the water routes to and the north, along the Galloway coast. former Roman proto-urban sites may well have been In particular, the absence of imported Mediterra- navigable for small craft. In this respect, the estuaries nean wares of the 5th and 6th centuries is striking, of the Esk, Irt and Mite (C), as well as those of the apart from a small quantity from Chester (Carrington Ribble and Lune (L), may well be significant, since all

90 ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) Chapter4:EarlyMedievalAgenda have evidence of Roman military and civilian settle- comprising, as it does, material from selected parts of ment close by, as well as early medieval activity in the the carcass, which had been butchered in a very form of stone sculpture. In addition, those coastal or distinctive manner. This presumably represents an riverine areas where any late Roman or post-Roman extremely organised and specifically-targeted activity, coinage has been found, not just hoards, should be as well as suggesting importation from elsewhere, studied. although this may simply have been the surrounding The artefacts from Meols attest to trading contacts rural hinterland. It is, however, dated only by from far afield continuing beyond the end of the association, either to the 7th to 10th centuries or the Roman period in the North West. Goods and 12th to 13th centuries. Such a degree of organisation is commodities traded and exchanged would undoubt- remarkable for any period, and is particularly impor- edly have varied widely, including organic and tant if it does relate to the early medieval period. perishable goods, and potentially people themselves. Some evidence of trading patterns, or lack of There is, however, evidence of antiquarian selection movement, may have wider connotations. For of material from Meols, given the relative lack of instance, the lack of Chester ware from north of the ceramic material within the surviving assemblage Mersey may indicate that its distribution was limited (Griffiths 1992). Meols, though, offers a type-site to the old kingdom of Mercia, which, at the time of from which, perhaps, predictive modelling of the the production of this pottery, was rapidly becoming coastline could be developed, which would aid an part of the expanding English kingdom. During the understanding of not just the Wirral but the North course of the 10th century, however, England would West more generally. have incorporated the area that became Lancashire, Those materials most likely to be available to ar- and thus a purely political reason for its absence is chaeologists are metalwork, glass and amber, and harder to sustain. possibly ceramics, although foodstuffs such as grain In the absence of urban centres, and their substan- and animal bone may be recovered from contexts tial cultural assemblages, until late in the period, and with preferential preservation. Inadvertent contami- then only in the south of the region, such as at nants, such as insects, may also be an indicator of the Chester (Carrington 1994), methods of distribution movement of goods. For instance, Kenward (in are little understood. Meols stands out as an example press) has suggested that the incidence of grain of a coastal or beach market, but elsewhere there is beetles is a good indicator of urban activities, given slight evidence that church sites might have acted in the bulk storage of foodstuffs needed for a large, many parts of the North West as a focus for the relatively static population. In general, these insects exchange of goods, a trend reflected in the tradition are almost absent from sites of the early medieval of markets being sited at the gates of churches in the period, although frequent in both Roman and medieval period. This can, perhaps, be seen in medieval towns. In Carlisle, such beetles have been changes that can be inferred from the artefact assem- found in deposits at the base of a well at Castle Street blages from monastic sites such as Dacre, as well as (McCarthy 1991), the dating of which is controver- others in the North East, where there seems to have sial. been a move to a more secular lifestyle, although the The huge assemblage of cattle bone from Castle religious focus survived (R Cramp pers comm). Street (ibid; Rackham etal 1991) is also important, It is clear that the monetary economy collapsed at the end of Roman rule in Britain, and presumably a system of barter became prevalent. Whilst coinage Fig4.12EarlymedievalsilverswordpommelfromMoulds was reintroduced in the 8th century, and, indeed, worth,Cheshire(PAS). there are indications of a mint in Chester from the late 9th century (Dolley 1970), no physical trace of this, or indeed of other coin production or formal exchange, exists in the region. It is likely that, in addition to barter as the principal method of ex- change, redistribution of surplus crops and livestock formed a key element of tribute, or taxation, in the region, an echo of which is seen, perhaps, in the taxa- tion of Cornage, still evident in the 12th century in Cumbria. This was a payment of cattle, a largely royal due paid throughout the old counties of Cumberland and Westmorland, as well as parts of the North East, and represents payments outside the monetary system, which was at this point still not well estab- lished in the area (Kapelle 1979).

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Fig4.13ThingmountatLittleLangdale,Cumbria,(WilliamRollinson/LDNPA). Initiatives Carlisle (Zant forthcoming), has been demonstrated, but as yet there has been little work at other forts in 4.50 Take into account in all coastal survey or re- the region specifically targeted towards the later search, any former sea level rises and the possi- sequence. There is also as yet little evidence to place ble locations of settlement on promontories, such activity in the context of the wider population river inlets and on water courses, including for- of the North West. An Iron Age date has tradition- mer channels now in-filled. ally been attributed to upland defended sites or ‘hillforts’, although there is a strengthening argument 4.51 Undertake detailed landscape surveys of head- to place the origins of some of these monuments land sites. within earlier periods of prehistory (Edmonds 2004, 176), and a Bronze Age origin has been proven at 4.52 Treat any early medieval coin and artefact finds, some sites (Ellis 1993). It is ironic therefore that the not just hoards, in coastal and river-edge areas only radiocarbon assay from a Cumbrian upland as potential sites, and monitor such areas defended site dates to the 6th or 7th century cal AD closely. (LUAU 1999). The position of this dated sample, in the base of a rock-cut ditch, suggests either construc- 4.53 Develop a GIS to aid understanding of historic tion or an extensive overhaul at this time. Data from changes in sea level, and their effect on possible other similar sites in Cumbria and Lancashire are coastal settlement. currently lacking but the potential for early medieval occupation would seem to be extremely high at many 4.54 Develop a programme of sampling and dating sites. There is now, however, increasing evidence for of suitable samples, such as those from Castle the actual construction and occupation of defended Street, Carlisle, to enlarge the corpus of insects sites in the centuries following the Roman period. from the region, and our understanding of the Recent work at Heronbridge suggests that an conditions in which they thrived. embanked enclosure was constructed to the south of Chester before the 8th century AD (D Mason pers Defence and Warfare comm). Similarly, evidence from the fortified site at Buckton Castle, Tameside (GM), appears to be The continued occupation of at least some Roman pre-Norman in origin (M Nevell pers comm). military sites beyond the formal end of Roman In the later part of the period, it is clear from docu- governance, such as Birdoswald (Wilmott 1997) and mentary records that sites in Cheshire were being

92 ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) Chapter4:EarlyMedievalAgenda occupied and defended as part of a concerted meetings frequently occurring at such borders. As programme of acculturation, accompanying the late as the 12th century the bishop of Glasgow was development and expansion of England in the 10th claiming influence over the land as far south as the century (Thacker 1987). To date, there has been little Rey Cross on Stainmore (Collingwood 1927, 3), lend- archaeological investigation of this activity, apart ing support to the importance of this river system at from in Chester, where clearly urban attributes began some point in the development of the two major to develop from this period (Carrington 1994). If this nations in Britain. policy was extended northwards in later reigns, then Despite the region having clearly been in a state of the Domesday reference to six burgesses at political flux throughout much of the early medieval Penwortham (Farrer & Brownbill 1911, 57) may be period, few, if any, battle sites have been identified significant, perhaps representing a forward position with any degree of confidence. Bromborough in the reign of Edward the Elder (Higham 2004a), as remains a strong candidate for the Battle of may the morphology of Penrith (Winchester no Brunanburh in AD 937 (O’Hanlon 1986), although date). The fact that the river Eamont seems to have the candidates for the site of this battle range as far been a frontier between the Scots and English in the afield as the Humber (Kirby 1975) and Burnswark in reign of Athelstan (Earle & Plummer 1892) suggests Scotland (Anderson 1922). Several other possible that this, too, could have acted as a forward, battle sites are listed in the various SMRs and HERs, defended base. In each case, however, firm archaeo- but the provenances are loose and all are based on logical evidence is lacking. tradition, although place-name evidence perhaps It is unlikely that any political boundary, however points more strongly than most to the Battle of important, will have been marked in a formal man- Arthuret (Armterid; AD 573) having been fought in ner, as for instance was the border between Mercia the vicinity of Arthuret or Netherby in northern and Wales by Offa’s Dyke,or the northern frontier of Cumbria (McCarthy 2002). The recent excavation of the Roman Empire, defined by Hadrian’s Wall. a mass grave at Heronbridge (Ch), some five miles to Indeed, the manner in which Hadrian’s Wall ceased the south of Chester, produced skeletons that have to be an effective boundary is of considerable inter- been dated to cal AD 430-640 and cal AD 530-660 est, since it is clear that, by the 7th century, it had no (D Mason pers comm). This has indicated the poten- political relevance, since from the reign of Oswald tial to link historical references to physical evidence, (AD 633-42), the kingdom of Northumbria was said as such a large number of bodies buried at once must to have held sway over the Picts and Scots (Hunter- surely reflect a catastrophic event. Given the appar- Blair 1976). Certainly, it was seen by Bede as an ent injuries to many of the bodies, one candidate at object of historical curiosity only (Colgrave & least could be the Battle of Chester of AD 615/6. Mynors 1969). It is likely that, to a considerable extent, boundaries Initiatives were defined in natural terms, and therefore the rivers which flow east to west in the region are 4.55 Ensure excavation methodologies are in place important. The extent of the polities of the region to recognise and characterise post-Roman has long been a source of considerable discussion. activity in Roman forts. Both the Mersey and Ribble have been suggested as the southern boundaries of Northumbria, and it is, of 4.56 Ensure all opportunities are taken to date course, perfectly possible that each formed the material from both the defences and interiors of border at different times. In this context the dating hillforts, and from potential burh sites in of the Nico ditch, Greater Manchester, is of impor- Cheshire. tance (Higham 1993), although it is possible that it had no significance in terms of a political boundary. 4.57 Obtain appropriate samples from the Nico Clearly, the cultural differences between Cumbria ditch to provide radiocarbon dating. and north Lancashire in the north and Cheshire in the south, as reflected by the stone sculpture of the 4.58 Examine the evidence for Arthuret being the period and linguistic differences, indicate that site of a significant battle. the border between the two Anglo-Saxon king- doms lay somewhere in Lancashire, at the point at Legacy which the differing traits were developing, presuma- bly in the 8th to 9th centuries. In the 10th century, it The early medieval period in the North West, as in seems likely that, at least for a short time, the Ea- much of the rest of England, is largely archaeologi- mont/Eden corridor near Penrith formed the border cally invisible, and is perhaps the least understood between the expanding English kingdom and the period, in purely archaeological terms, of any in the lands to the north, since Athelstan met his northerly region. Indeed, until recently, without the few neighbours there (Earle & Plummer 1892), such documentary references, the ‘Dark Ages’ would have

ArchaeologyNorthWestVol9(issue19for2007) 93 ResearchandArchaeologyinNorthWestEngland been utterly black. Absence of evidence, though, is medieval documentation, there is little doubt that very far from evidence of absence, nor does it imply some, at any rate, are ancient. This is reflected in the an impoverished society, fallen on hard times follow- archaeological record in the differences between ing the collapse of the ‘sophisticated’ Roman lifestyle. Cumbria and Cheshire, one firmly in the northern With the growth of absolute dating techniques, the and Northumbrian aegis, whilst the other looked to development of methodologies which encourage the the south and Mercia. Lancashire is therefore crucial recognition and recording of all archaeological to an understanding of the ebb and flow of these features, and perhaps also a growing interest in the polities, and yet it is precisely there that the record is period, sites are beginning to be recognised and lacking, or the hardest to interpret. information about these centuries is accumulating The position of the North West, with national rapidly. boundaries to both the north and west, makes In the nostalgic literature coming out of Wales ethnicity a live issue, particularly in the early medieval from the 9th century, the north of what is now period, where there is both historical, linguistic, and England was an heroic place in the 5th and 6th archaeological evidence for different cultural influ- centuries, with a sophisticated society moving ences. A strong element of this reflects the position forward from its Roman antecedents. Similarly, in of the region on a seaway from the Mediterranean literature and in history, the floruit of the Anglian through to Scandinavia, which brought material from Kingdom of Northumbria was seen as a golden age, both north and south, as well as from the west across when art and architecture, literature and learning the Irish Sea. In many ways, whilst the record is flourished, and some of the most important legal certainly biased at present, those parts of the coast and political institutions of the period developed. As that do not show evidence of such contacts are this kingdom declined, so the might of the Kingdom equally interesting as those that do. of Mercia grew, and their kings, in particular Offa, There is clearly much work needed to create a assumed the mantle of Bretwalda or over-king, from coherent framework for the period. In particular, it is Northumbria. The North West, then, was inhabited increasingly clear that information exists, whether in by societies that were seen by their contemporaries as the Portable Antiquities Scheme records, within important, and were looked back on with nostalgia: museum collections, or in unpublished archives, that yet this apparently vibrant society is hardly glimpsed would benefit from re-evaluation, and bringing into in the archaeological record. The region was, how- the public domain. Targeted projects will begin to ever, only a part of these wider political entities, and shed light on certain types of site, particularly if they it would be limiting in the extreme to see the North are coupled with absolute dating. It is now clear that West in isolation, without reference to the North no potential site of the period should be excavated East and Yorkshire, and the Midlands. Thus, cross- without a programme of absolute dating, as it is only regional comparisons are essential to further an through this that assumptions can be tested. understanding of the development, not just of the However, it is equally clear that as many of the key North West region, but of the nations of the island. pieces of evidence will be gained in a serendipitous For the early medieval period is the time when the fashion, during the excavation of sites of other nations we know today as the United Kingdom really periods, and therefore the ability to recognise such formed, and whilst the political boundaries, both material is equally crucial. ecclesiastical and secular, only become clear in

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