Gulf of Mexico OCS Region OCS Study MMS 88-0035

Proceedings: Eighth Annual Gulf of Mexico Information Transfer Meeting

December 1987

Doubletree Hotel New Orleans, Louisiana

December 1-3, 1987

Author

Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region

Prepared under MMS Contract 14-12-0001-30305 by Geo-Marine, Inc. 1316 14th Street Plano, Texas 75074

Published by

U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office 1988 Session: CURRENT PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE COASTAL REGIONS OF FLORIDA Chair: Mr. Richard J. Anuskiewicz

Date: December 3, 1987

Presentation Title Author/Affiliation

Current Prehistoric Archaeological Mr. Richard J. Anuskiewicz Research in the Coastal Regions of Minerals Management Service Florida: Session Overview Gulf of Mexico OCS Region

Inundated Archaeological Sites of the Ms. Melanie J. Stright Florida Coastal Region: A Regional Minerals Management Service Overview Gulf of Mexico OCS Region

A Consideration of Archaeological Dr. Glen H. Doran Wetsites Florida State University Department of Anthropology

Results and Implications of the Mr. Wilburn A. Cockrell Multidisciplinary Archaeological Florida State University Research Project At Warm Mineral Department of Anthropology Springs, Florida

Some Archaeological Sites in the Mr. Michael Faught Apalachee Bay of Florida University of Arizona Department of Anthropology

Preliminary Archaeological Mr. Richard J. Anuskiewicz Investigations at Ray Hole Spring Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region

Archaeological Sites·in the Drowned Mr. James S. Dunbar Tertiary Karst Regions of the Eastern Florida Department of State Gulf of Mexico Bureau of Archaeological Research

388 Current Prehistoric lrchaeologi.cal information from their current Research in the Coastal Regions research that may be applicable to of F1orida: Session overview the MMS cultural resource management program for the eastern Gulf of Mr. Richard J. Anuskiewicz Mexico. Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region The focus of this session is to report on the current status of prehistoric archaeological research The MMS of the Department of the in the coastal regions of Florida and Interior is responsible for all OCS then to determine if the present minera 1 s activities and their analytical models used by MMS, potential for impacting natural and derived from previous baseline archaeological resources. In order studies, are appropriate for to fulfill its responsibilities for performing the requisite MMS cultural archaeological resources management, resource management analysis. MMS has developed a program to inventory, manage, and protect The first speaker in our session was valuable, nonrenewable, prehistoric Ms. Melanie J. Stright of MMS. Ms. and historic resources. The MMS Stright began the session by giving meets its goal of archaeological an archaeological overview of resource protection through a inundated archaeological sites in the multilevel analysis system. The M1S coastal regions of Florida. She conducts Regional baseline studies to reported that 17 inundated determine where on the OCS archaeological sites have been archaeological sites are most likely documented within the coastal area of to occur. F 1 o r i d a • T h e s e s i t e s became inundated as a result of glacio­ The MMS baseline studies have e us tat i c and g 1 a c i o - is o tat i c con centrated on the central and adjustments during the late western Gulf of Mexico because most Wisconsinan glacial epoch and during of the oil and gas exploration and the Holocene. The distribution of production has occurred in this area sites should not be considered of the Gulf • However , the recent representative of the true past has seen the projection of distribution of inundated exploration and development of archaeological sites. There is a natural resources in the eastern Gulf strong bias towards shallow water of Mexico. Regionally-specific sites since activities such as archaeological resource management dredging and sport diving generally models were originally derived from concentrate in shallow waters and this baseline data for analysis and have led to the discovery of many of management of prehistoric the sites. archaeological resources potentially located in the western and central Diagnostic artifacts recovered Gulf of Mexico. However, the models include lithics and pottery and span are not completely applicable for all cultural periods from Paleo­ archaeological analysis in the Indian through the Woodland. Human eastern Gulf of Mexico. In an skeletal material from Paleo-Indian attempt to resolve this problem, M1S and Late Archaic Periods have been has enlisted the aid of recovered, as well as numerous archaeologists conducting current species of late Pleistocene fauna. prehistoric research in the coastal regions and offshore Florida. This The inundated archaeological sites has been done in order to examine new discovere~ thus far within the 389 coastal areas of Florida suggest that and/or soil chemistry, oxygen levels there will be an abundance of in the soil and water, temperature, archaeological material found off the physical stability, and integrity of coast of Florida and that these the soil matrix. When all of the materials (including organics) will environmental conditions are right, often be well preserved. Sites will there is also a good potential for probably concentrate in the preservation of plant material like vicinities of sinkholes, relict stems, seeds, leaves, and pollen. fluvial channels, relict estuarine Additional soft tissue that can deposits, and outcrops of survive includes preserved brain cryptocrystalline rock. Information tissue. At the Windover contained in these sites may provide archaeological wetsite, which Dr. important information on prehistoric Doran has been excavating since 1983, human migration, settlement patterns, Dr. Doran states that the preliminary subsistence, and cultural contacts analysis of preserved brain tissue across now submerged land.masses. indicated a replacement process, that resulted in elevated sulfur levels. The next speaker was Dr. Glen Doran Microscopic and macroscopic features • of Florida State University. His of the brains are still preserved, as paper focused on the preservation are some molecular structures. patential of organic materials at Elemental analysis of bone samples p rehistoric archaeological sites indicates an abnormal absorption of located in wet or saturated strontium, obviating some studies of environments. He defined these types dietary composition based on of archaeological sites, or strontium levels. At the same time, "wetsites," as locations where some proteins appear well preserved remnants of past human activities are enough for researchers to attempt to preserved in saturated or nearly develop a biological profile of the saturated settings. These types of 7, 00 O year old population being sites can be found in river channels, studied. coastal marine settings, and within lakes, ponds, and springs. However, The uniqueness of the preservation of there may be some problems in organic materials at wetsites like locating wetsites because of their Windover also presents some unique almost invisible nature and the problems in material preservation. frequent necessity of entering a Waterlogged conditions of "hostile" environment to locate them. archaeological material recovered Wetsites are either underwater, or necessitated special conservation they are difficult to identify techniques. Saturated faunal and because of water-saturated human bone was treated with bulking conditions. agents which replaced the water. Polyetholglycol (PEG) was initially The potential preservation of organic used, but an acrylic emulsion, materials is largely due to the Rhoplex, proved more satisfactory. presence of moisture, which reduces Fl oral materials (seeds, leaves, the physical stress on organic wooden artifacts, etc.) involved a materials by limiting the frequent variety of conservation procedures hydration/dehydration cycle that including refrigeration, alcohol promotes deterioration of organic saturation, treatment with PEG and remains by expansion and contraction. Damar, and other compounds. Brain There are many other factors that tissue was rapidly removed, placed in contribute to the preservation plastic bags, flooded with nitrogen potential of materials. These gas, sealed, refrigerated for factors include the dynamics of water transport, and frozen at -70 degrees

390 centigrade within 24 hours to semifriable incrustation around the minimize possible degradation and to mouth of a hot spring. The limestone maximize future analysis matrix of the spring is possibilities. rep res entative of the Hawthorn Formation, which dates back to the Many scientific and archaeological Miocene Period. accomplishments were realized at the Windover prehistoric wetsite. The Current research is being conducted collection, representing a minimum of on a 13-meter ledge, and at the 155 adults and subadults, is one of sinkhole's debris cone at a depth of the largest samples of human skeletal 50 meters. The archaeological diving material and associated cultural is being conducted by utilizing both materials of this antiquity in the SCUBA and surface supplied air New World. The collection dates systems. The technology utilized at between 7,000 and 8,000 years Before Warm Mineral Springs reflects both the Present ( B. P. ) and represents an standard underwater excavation Archaic Period hunting-gathering methods at the 13-meter ledge and population. Data on health, diet, some new and innovative techniques at disease , demography, etc. , in some the 50-meter level where deep diving ways, represent "baseline data, 11 is required. useful in looking not only at human adaptation, but providing an There are three archaeological foci abundance of archaeological, at the Warm Mineral Springs climatological, and environmental archaeological site. They include data. (1) a terrestrial site located around the rim of the sinkhole, (2) Mr. Wilburn A. (Sonny) Cockre11, archaeological material at the 13­ Director of the Warm Minerals Springs meter ledge deposited prior to the Archaeological Research Project, was present level of inundations, and (3) the next speaker, and he described a stratified matrix of undisturbed his archaeological site as a 70-meter natural sediments and archaeological deep spring-fed sinkhole, located 16 materials located in the existing kilometers inland from the Gulf of sediment cone at the 50-meter level. Mexico in Sarasota County, Florida. Saline anaerobic water enters the Archaeological material excavated at sinkhole at the 70-meter depth at a Warm Mineral Springs ranges from the temperature of 32-34 degrees present to the Formative Period centigrade. The source of the (approximately 2,500 years B.P.), springs' water is the Floridian from the Formative to the Archaic Aquifer some 1, 000 meters below the Period (approximately 2,500 B.P. to surface. Approximately 19.4 million 8, 500 B. P.), and from the Archaic gallons of natural, hot mineral water Period to the Paleo-Indian Period flow through the spring each day. (approximately 8,500 B.P. to 11,000 B. P.). Archaeological materials The sinkhole's limestone walls are excavated from the Paleo-Indian draped intermittently with dripstone period have been radiocarbon dated to formation zones from 4 to 30 meters approximately 11,000 B.P. below the surface. In addition, some Stratigraphic and chronologic of the underwater sediments are analysis of the archaeological producing a tufa-like formation. materials excavated indicates that This sedimentary rock, composed of human and other animal faunal calcium carbonate, is formed by remains, such as the ground sloth, evaporation as a thin, surficial, saber-tooth tiger, horse and camel, soft, spongy, cellular or porous, were found to coexist during the same

391 time period. Analysis of preserved substantiate or dispute existing sea botanical remains has provided a level curves for finding additional continuous paleo-environmental record prehistoric sites of a terminal extending back approximately 30,000 Pleistocene age (Paleo-Indian years B.P. In addition, there have Period). been unsubstantiated reports that cave divers in the early 1960 's Mr. Faught further stated that the removed a skull from the 13-meter continental shelves represent a ledge area of the spring and that missing and potentially large data this skull contained preserved brain set where it is extremely difficult material. to find either relict topographic and geologic features or submerged Planned future excavations of the archaeological sites. Wave action anaerobic sediment cone at the 50­ destruction, subaerial erosion, mete r level may provide a complete Holocene alluviation, and neritic time continuum of this archaeological sedimentation are significant natural site and, perhaps, provide more processes that could obscure the preserved faunal material and Pleistocene geology and continental preserved soft tissue. shelf archaeology.

The fourth speaker was Mr. Michael The search for submerged or drowned Faught, a graduate student from the prehistoric terrestrial sites by Mr. University of Arizona. His topic Faught began after careful involved locating and excavating examination of onshore settlement underwater prehistoric archaeological pattern models for late Archaic and sites in the Apalachee Bay area of Paleo-Indian Periods. Research was Florida, located in the northeastern focused on upland areas of high­ area of the Gulf of Mexico. Mr. density, extinct faunal remains and Faught suggested that anthropologists their associated lithio artifacts and are somewhat puzzled by the on a potential offshore survey area archaeological reconstruction of the that exhibited minimal alteration to cultural transition from the Paleo­ the natural geology since the Indian Period to the Archaic Period. Pleistocene. A preliminary In the same vein, Quaternary predictive model and research design geologists are having similar were developed to search for lithic ·-­ problems reconstructing the procurement stations, theorizing that geolomorphical transition from the lithic cultural material would have Pleistocene to the Holocene Period. the best possibility of surviving Both disciplines are acutely aware of natural destructive forces of sea the need to study sea level changes level changes through time. The and the need to continue to collect selected survey area included paleo-environmental data from the nearshore regions of the St. Marks, continental shelf. The missing Aucilla, and Eoonfina Rivers of the archaeological and geological data Apalachee Bay because the alluvial includes information about relict sedimentation in these rivers is geomorphology, prehistoric settlement extremely low due to the solutional patterns, and the timing and effects ch a r a o t eris tics of the k arst of sea level change on these factors. drainage. There has been much written in the archaeological literature about sea The results of the initial survey level curves; however, very little located four lithic procurement archaeological research has been stations in the five areas examined. conducted on the continental shelf to Three sites were found close to shore locate inundated sites to in approximately 2 meters of water.

392

. ­ The fourth site was located 4.02 strikes down and southeast from the kilometers offshore at a depth of 3.7 18-meter depth to approximately 30 meters and produced a large number of meters. modified lithic materials including bifacially trimmed cores and The October 1986 investigation of the associated flakes. Associated with spring revealed a completely the lithic debris were pieces of different environmental setting at cypress wooden, which radiocarbon the site. The diving reconnaissance dated to 5, 160 '!. 100 years B.P. indicated that the spring had almost completely filled in with recent The preliminary results of offshore (since 1976) marine shell detritus. archaeological surveys in the Only about 3 meters of relief existed Apalachee Bay region indicate that by in the southeastern end of the sink. utilizing the developed predictive The archaeological investigation of model, drowned prehistoric the site included diver swimming archaeological sites can be located. reconnaissance, mapping, attempts at By examining relict features in the coring, and waterjet excavation of inundated karst region and selected test units. Coring was concentrating on surveying the discontinued because the coring tool associated rock outcrops, site made very little penetration in the location is highly predictable. shell matrix as a result of the small core diameter and the large size Mr. Rik Anuskiewicz of MMS was the matrix of the marine shell detritus. next speaker, and he reported After negative results from Test preliminary archaeological Units 1 and 2, and Core Tests 1 and investigations at Ray Hole Spring, a 2, testing was moved to the outer rim submerged karst feature located on of sink. One dive team began the OCS. The MMS, in cooperation excavating with the waterjet at a with the Florida Bureau of large crevice. It was theorized that Archaeological Research, conducted if this were an archaeological site, preliminary underwater archaeological cultural material may have fallen or investigations at Ray Hole Spring. have been washed into a crevice and This submerged karat feature is become trapped. The crevice was located approximately 88.5 kilometers approximately 15 ems in width and ran southeast of Tallahassee, Florida, in a southwesterly direction towards and about 38.6 kilometers from the the rim of the sinkhole. Waterjet nearest Florida landfall. The Spring excavation approximately 15 to 20 ems is a typical karat feature probably into the crevice recovered several formed during the Pleistocene as a p oar quality limestone or chert result of the surface limestone flakes. This material was collapsing because of either in:mediately returned to the surface solutional or mechanical action for examination. Continued waterjet caused by underground drainage. excavation of the crevice yielded a lens of articulated whole oyster A 1976 Florida Bureau of Geology shell at the 75 cm level; at the one­ bulletin, titled "Springs of meter depth, waterlogged wood was Florida," describes Ray Hole Spring encountered. Samples of the shell as an occasional flowing spring lying and wood were collected, returned to in 11. 6 meters of water, measuring the surface, and stabilized for 7.6 meters in diameter. The north future analysis. Below where the side of the sink slopes southeast wood samples were recovered, the with the southeast side of the sink crevice narrowed and bottomed out. having a nearly vertical limestone Excavation was terminated as was the wall to a depth of 18 meters. A cave initial archaeological testing.

393 In April 1987, analysis was conducted of the sink hole, coring of the on the oyster and wood samples to sediment cone to gather paleo­ identify the species and to obtain a environmental data, more organic radiocarbon date of this organic sample collecting for radiocarbon material. The wood species was analysis, and the recovery of i d en t i f i e d a s 1 i v e oak , an d diagnostic lithic artifacts. radiocarbon dates for the oyster shell and wood dated 7,390 + 60 years The final speaker of our session was B. P. and 8, 22 o ±. 8 o years B. P., Mr. J a.mes Dunbar, archaeological respectively. The wood sample, field supervisor with the Florida dating approximately 800 years older Bureau of Archaeological Research, than the oyster shell and being Department of State. Mr. Dunbar recovered in a lower stratigraphic began his coI11D.ents by stating that level than the oyster shell, suggests prehistoric archaeological sites that these materials were deposited inundated by the sea are the most in~· elusive sites to locate. The sites may be deeply buried and inaccessible Preliminary analysis of the data in some regions of the continental collected at Ray Hole Spring suggests shelf and shallow, but difficult to that this sinkhole may be a identify in other areas. The karstic prehistoric archaeological site. area of the Florida Gulf Coast Several factors (environmental and represents a unique archaeological possibly cultural) tend to support area where Paleo-Indian remains are this initial contention. The highly concentrated and sedimentation radiocarbon dates obtained at Ray has been minimal. Hole Spring in combination with the regional sea level curve indicate Given the difficulties associated that for approximately 8 ,200 years with locating offshore sites, a model B. P • the sinkhole was a freshwater based on the type and distribution of site supporting freshwater flora. sites on the adjacent coast was Some time after 8,200 B.P., sea level developed for the Apalachee Bay began to rise, and by 7,400 B.P., the region of the Gulf of Mexico. Ray Hole Spring area was supporting a Offshore survey work (report by shellfish population in a brackish Faught and Anuskiewicz this session) water environment. incorporated the assistance of fisherman and sport divers familiar In addition, a cultural manifestation with the project areas. In three may exist at Ray Hole Spring. The days, Mike Faught 's survey located two large limestone/chert flakes four archaeological sites from one to collected were examined by five four miles offshore. Rik Anuskiewicz archaeologists. They all seem to and others surveyed Ray Hole Spring agree that the way the flakes were some 24 miles offshore and discovered removed from the lithic core suggests evidence of what may prove to be a that they could have been made by drowned archaeological site. prehistoric man. However, they also agree that two flakes usually do not Mr. Dunbar found from his research make an archaeological site. that prehistoric site distributions in Florida occurred in changing Obviously, there is more work to be patterns not only linked to evolving done to fully verify if Ray Hole technologies but to fluctuations in Spring is an authentic archaeological the regional surface water systems. site. An intensive testing program The availability of potable water in includes remote sensing studies to relation to other needed resources determine the true depth and profile helped dictate possible site

394 locations through time. Ninety position at MMS, Gulf of Mexico OCS percent of the Paleo-Indian sites Region. containing Clovis, Suwannee, or Simpson projectiles are located near karst depressions that penetrate the Inundated .Archaeological Tertiary limestones of Florida. Some Sites of the Florida Coastal sites are located around isolated Region: A Regional overview sinkholes and solution depressions, but most occur in areas where Ms. Melanie J. Stright multiple karst features occur Minerals Management Service together and dominate the topography. Gulf of Mexico OCS Region The largest site clusters are located in and around mature karst river channels with smaller but significant At least seventeen archaeological clusters centered around karstified sites, inundated as a result of late lakes, bays, and prairies. Wisconsinan and early Holocene glacio-eustatic and glacio-isostatic 1. At given points in time, from adjustments, have been documented 15,000 to 5,000 years B.P., can within the coastal area of Florida absolute sea level stands be (Figure 12.1). The distribution of identified to allow reported sites is more reflective of chronologically evolving site shallow-water activities, such as predictive models? dredging and sport diving, which have resulted in the discovery of the 2. Do archaeological sites exist sites, rather than the true in the eastern Gulf of Mexico distribution of sites. that have stratigraphic integrity despite Holocene sea Three of the reported sites--the level transgression and marine Saxon-Holland Site, Warm Mineral erosive conditions? Springs and Little Salt Springs--lie inland of the present coastline 3. Wha. t is the functional variety within the karst area of central of archaeological sites Florida. During periods of lower sea encountered? level, the karstic topography was better drained, resulting in lower 4. Once prehistoric offshore sites water levels at these inland lake and are located, can remote sensing sinkhole sites. instruments provide diagnostic signatures of the known sites? SAXON-HOLLAND SITE (SITE NO. 1)

Mr. Richard J. Jnuald..ewicz obtained The Saxon-Holland Site is located in his B.A. in 1972 and his M.A. in 1974 Blue Cypress Lake in Indian River from California State University at County, Florida (see Figure 12.1). Hayward. He was employed with the Archaeological materials and human U.S. Army Corps of Engineers from remains ranging in age from 11,000 to 1974 to 1984 as a terrestrial and 500 B.P. occur between 2 and 3 meters underwater archaeologist. In 1982 below present lake level (W.A. Mr. Anuskiewicz completed all Cockre 11, pers anal communi cation requirements for his Ph.D., except 1987). There is a direct for his dissertation, at the relationship between the depth of the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. material and its age, with the oldest In 1984, he accepted a his current material being found in the deeper portions of the lake. 395 WARM MINERAL SPRINGS sinkhole include giant ground sloth, (SITE NO. 2) giant land tortoise, and bison (C. Clausen, unpublished report, 1979). Warm Mineral Springs is a sinkhole approximately 19.3 kilometers A burned log dating 10,000 '!. 200 B.P. southeast of Venice, Florida, in was located in a cave at the Sarasota County. Paleoenvironmental springhead, 24 meters below the data indicate that the spring would present surface of the sinkhole have been an important fresh water (Lazarus 1965). Although the remains source during the late Pleistocene of seven humans also have been found and early Holocene when the climate in the cave, direct association with was more arid and local water tables the burned log has not been were lower. The excellent demonstrated. No artifacts have been preservation of organic materials in removed from the cave. the anaerobic waters of the spring offer a unique opportunity to study Like Warm Mineral Springs, Little the late Pleistocene environment and, Salt Springs would have provided an also, early man. A detailed important fresh water source during discussion of this site is provided the late Pleistocene and early in Mr. Wilburn A. Cockrell 's paper, Holocene when the climate was more included in these proceedings. arid and local water tables were lower. LITI'LE SALT SPRINGS (SITE NO. 3) THE DOUGLAS BEACH SITE (SITE NO. 4) Little Salt Springs, a water-filled collapse limestone sinkhole, lies 4.8 The Douglas Beach Site extends from kilometers northeast of Warm Mineral the beach to approximately 600 meters Springs in Sarasota County, Florida. offshore in the vicinity of Ft. The site is an Archaic village and Pierce, Florida in water depths of 3 cemetery (ca. 7,000 to 5,000 B.P.) to 12 meters. The base of the site which extends into the sinkhole to a is formed by coquina of the Anastasia depth of 10 meters below the present Formation. Sediment-filled water level (Cockrell, 1980). depressions occur within the coquina. Sand forms the lowest sediment layer A wooden mortar, two firepits (one within these depressions across part near the mortar), food remains, and of the site. The sand layer, or unidentified carved wooden implements where it is absent, the coquina rock, were discovered within the sinkhole is overlain by a dark gray-green at a depth of about 10 meters below clay, which is capped by a dark gray present water level. At a depth of peat. Organics within this peat 27 meters, the shell of a giant land layer gave an average radiocarbon tortoise with two wodden stakes stuck date of 5,000 B.P. (J. Dunbar, between the plates of the shell was personal communication 1987). found. A radiocarbon date of 13,000 B.P. was obtained from one of the In 1979, a human maxilla with six stakes (C. Clausen, unpublished teeth, a portion of the palate, and report, 1979). part of the sinus cavity was recovered from a pocket of shell hash Human remains from a total of 50 in the coquina. The find had no individuals, dating approximately provenience. Newnan age projectile 1,000 to 5,000 B.P., have been points were found out of context, recovered from the site. Pleistocene but, due to their known time range, faunal remains recovered from the probably came from the clay layer

396 which lies beneath the 5,000 year-old recovered from the underwater midden; peat layer. Wooden stakes, possibly however, the pollen from the beach sharpened at one end, were found midden indicated a marsh environment, within the peat layer. Glades Plain while the pollen from the offshore ceramics have been found at the midden reflected a predominance of surface of the site. This material arboreal species such as pine and oak is apparently eroding from a nearby (Ruppe', 1980). It is assumed that land site and being redeposited some change in eustatic sea level o ff s hor e ( J • n·un bar , personal within the last 2, 000 years has communication 1987). caused inundation of this site.

Although remains of extinct TERRA CEIA BAY SITE Pleistocene fauna have been found at (SITE NO. 6) the site, and artifacts of stone, shell, and bone (bone pins) and human Clay dredge material from Terra Ceia remains have been recovered, direct bay in Manatee County, Florida, was association between the two used to build a beach on the components presently cannot be northeastern side of the bay. demonstrated. This site is important Subsequently, archaeological material in demonstrating that intact and Pleistocene faunal material was Pleistocene deposits and associated discovered eroding from the clay archaeological deposits can be beach. preserved offshore of high-energy coastline. The archaeological material includes projectile points; plano-convex THE VENICE BEACH SITE turtle back scrapers; a hammerstone; (SITE NO. 5) chert flakes; and plain, sand­ tempered, black pot shreds. Six of This site extends from the present the ten projectile points recovered beach at Venice, Florida, out into represent types similar to an the Gulf of Mexico. The site Alabama Dalton Complex dating consists of a complex of shell approximately 9 , 300 B.P. (Warr en and middens, with at least two on the Bullen, 1965). Three of the points beach and one offshore. The top of are Greenbrier points, a Florida the offshore midden lies at 2. 23 variation of the Dalton point. meters below present mean sea level. The offshore midden produced large The projectile points recovered from quantities of shell, Perico Islands this site suggest a late Paleo-Indian Period potsherds, burned and unburned to early Archaic site; while the fishbones, land mammal bones, and pottery suggests a Woodland charcoal. The matrix of the midden component. was clayey sand. An in-situ sample of charcoal from 20 to3..,.--Cm below Well-mineralized Pleistocene faunal the top of the midden gave a remains recovered from the site radiocarbon date of 1981 + 85 B.P. include bison horn cores, fragments (Ruppe', 1980). Approximately 100 of mammoth teeth, turtle shell, meters seaward of the offshore manatee rigs, fragments of mastadon midden, in 5.5m of water, a number of teeth, and shark teeth (Warren and Middle Archaic stone tools have been Bullen, 1965). found lying on the seafloor. No information on the paleogeography A test pit in one of the beach or stratigraphy of the bay at the middens revealed the same types and dredge site was provided in the frequencies of materials as those literature.

397 APOLLO BEACH SITE The stratigraphy of the dredge spoil (SITE NO. 7) pile matches the original geologic stratigraphy, indicating that the Dredge material from Tampa Bay, dredge first encountered the clay, Florida, used as fill for a real then the overlying sand. This was estate development at Apollo Beach on explained by the fact that the dredge the east side of the bay, has had intersected the clay deposit in produced artifactual and some the sloping valley wall of an ancient Pleistocene faunal materials. The river channel, then, moving laterally dredge material came from a zone and upward, had contacted the ranging between 1 meter below mean overlying sand deposit. ·­ high tide (bay bottom), to 5.5 meters below mean high tide (the maximum The Early Archaic material included depth of dredging). four Bolen Beveled Point, Two Clear­ Fork Gouges, a hafted spokeshave with ·­ Lithi c material recovered from the graver spurs, flake scrapers, and dredge fill site includes projectile three denticulates. A bifacially points, scrapers, knives, bifacial flaked adze was found that is similar core choppers, unifacial core planes, to Early Archaic Dalton adzes. one drill, flakes, worked flakes, and cores. Thirty-four of the 37 The Middle to Late Archaic material projectile points recovered were included one Marrow Mountain Point, angle-notched and bifacially worked one Newnan Point, and two Florida with little secondary retouching. stemmed Archaic points. Two Pot sherds representing the Orange columella shell gouges and the distal (fiber-tempered), Transitional, portion of a dagger-shaped tool made Deptford and Perico Island Periods from a deer metapodial were also were also found at the Site (Warren, assigned to this late Archaic 1968 (a)). The artifactual material occupation. The shell gouges were suggests that the original radiocarbon dated to approximately archaeological deposits in the bay is 4,400 B.P. (A.C. Goodyear, personal late Archaic to Woodland. communication, 1987).

TURTLECRAWL POINT SITE Most of the lithic material is not of (SITE NO. 8) the local Hawthorn chert but of a chert foreign to the site. None of Channel dredging to a depth of the lithics were water-worn, approximately 3 meters in Boca Ciega indicating that they had been dredged Bay, near St • Petersburg, Florida, from in-~ archaeological deposits. produced Early Archaic and Middle to Late Archaic artifacts from Shell material, mainly mercenaria, apparently in-site archaeological was present in the spoil pile. A deposits within the bay (Goodyear, subbottom profiler run just offshore et. al., 1980). of the point produced a low­ amplitude, domed reflector -- The base of the site, at imnediately above the clay reflectors approximately 3 meters below present (S.B. Upchurch, personal mean sea level, is marked by the communication, 1987). This was middle Miocene Hawthorn Formation, interpreted as a possible midden which locally contains abundant deposit and the probable source of chert. A blue-green clay overlies the mercenaria found in the spoil the Hawthorn Formation and contains pile. residual chert from that formation. Quartz sand overlies the clay layer.

398 Regional sea level curves indicate silicified limestone, and three test that sea level was 12 to 22 meters pits dug into the fill material lower than present during the Early showed the lithic debitage to be Archaic o ccupa ti on, making this extremely dense. Artifacts included component an inland site hammerstones and crude, percussion­ approximately 13 to 28 km east of the flaked knives (Warren 1968(b)). The coastline. The Early Archaic site is only diagnostic artifact was the base interpreted to have been a lithic of a crude, percussion-flaked procurement and tool manufacture Suwannee Point. Two other projectile area. points could not be precisely identified. One was made of The Middle to Late Archaic component mineralized bone, and the other (ca. 7,000 to 4,000 B.P.) was resembled a Bolen Beveled Point, but probably coastal. If the domed also had characteristics of a reflector, observed_ on the subbottom stemned Archaic point. profiler data, does represent a shell midden, the site function may have The crude percussion flaking of the been shellfish procurement and art ifacts an d the bas e o f the processing. Suwannee Point suggest that the site represents a Paleo-Indian to Early TAMPA BAY SHELL DEPOSITS Archaic Workshop. Like the (SITE NO. 9) Turtlecrawl Point Site, with sea level at 12 to 22 meters lower than Shell dredging in Tampa Bay has present, this site would have been produced Pl eist ocene vertebrate well inland of the coast at the ti.me fossils, artifacts, and one well­ of occupation. mineralized midsection of a human femur (Warren, 1972(b)). A survey of STORM HARBOR MARINA SITE public and private roads constructed (SITE NO. 11) from the Tampa Bay shell resulted in an inventory of artifacts including Just north of the Caladesi Causeway f l a k e s , s c rap e rs , kn ives , an d Site, and approximately 3 miles south projectile points. Two of the of Tarpon Springs, Florida, another projectile points, a side-notched channel dredging operation produced Bolen point and a Beveled Bolen point artifactual material. The channel are diagnostic of the Paleo-Indian was dredged to a depth of 5.5 meters, Period in Florida. The shell itself and the fill was used as land fill is probably derived from prehistory adjacent to the dredge site. The shell middens in the bay. surface of the fill material was littered with flakes and artifacts. CALADESI CAUSEWAY SITE (SITE NO. 10) Artifacts recovered from the site include small bifacially worked tools Draglines, dredging to a depth of 5.5 (probable scrapers), a small drill, a meters below mean high tide in St. thin, plane-convex knife or scraper, Joseph's Sound near Clearwater, a high-crowned plane-convex scraper, Florida, brought up artifactual two non-diagnostic stemmed points, material suggestive of a Paleo-Indian an d t w o s ma 11 ha mm er s t ones • of Early Archaic lithic workshop. Diagnostic artifacts include Hernando The dredge material was used to Points, a Clear Fork Gouge, and two construct a causeway. non-beveled Bolen Points, or Greenbrier Points (Warren, 1972(a)). The ground surface of the causeway was covered with flakes and cores of

399 The original stratigraphy of this Artifacts recovered from the site site has not been studied; therefore, include Middle Archaic through Late the elevation of the stratum from Archaic projectile points, and which the artifactual material was ceramics dating approximately 1, 400 derived is uncertain. The few to 1,100 B.P. (R.J. Ruppe', personal diagnostic artifacts found in the communication, 1987) dredge fill material range from P a 1 e o - I n d i an t o Lat e Arch a i c ; Results of the research on this site therefore, the original will be published in an upcoming archaeological deposit may be issue of the Florida Anthropologist. multicomponent. The debitage ·­ suggests a workshop area; however, a OFFSHORE CHERT OUTCROPS broader function of the site is not (SITE NO • 14-17 ) precluded. Archaeological investigations of ONE FATHOM SITE chert rock outcrops within the (SITE NO. 12) coastal marsh and shallow offshore areas of the Apalachee Bay Region, The One Fathom Site is a shell midden Florida, identified ten prehistoric that lies approximately 0 .5 miles quarry sites. Six of the sites occur seaward of the present beach near New on the edge of the coastal marsh, but Port Richey, Florida. extend below the low tide line. Of the four offshore sites, three are Archaic lithic material and Deptform partially exposed at low tide, and Period shreds have been recovered the fourth, the Econfina Channel Site from the midden deposit. This midden (8TA531), occurs 5.5 kilometers would have been subaerial until offshore in the relict channel of the approximately 2,600 B.P. A minor sea Econfina River. A detailed level reversal would have re-exposed discussion of this site is provided the midden deposit between 2,050 B.P. in Mr. Michael Faught' s paper, and 1,650 B.P. (Lazarus, 1965). The included in this proceedings. dates derived from the sea level curve are completely compatible with Numerous coastal rivers in Florida the diagnostic artifacts recovered have produced Pleistocene faunal from the midden deposit, and indicate material and Paleo-Indian artifacts. that the site was probably abandoned The best documented of these drowned due to rising sea level at river sites are the Page-Ladson Site approximately 2,600 B.P. in the Aucilla River whose basal levels are at 8.5 meters below CHASSAHOWITZKA RIVER SITE present river level (J. Dunbar, (SITE NO. 13) personal communication, 1987); the Piney-Island Site in the Oklawaha This site is situated on the drowned River at 0.5 to 1 meter below present bank of the Chassahowitzka River, river level; and the Tarpon Point Citrus County, Florida, at its Site in the Mayakka River reported to confluence with a former tributary. lie at mean sea level, but which is '!be site has been severely deflated inundated at high tide (L. Murphy, by tidal currents. All that remains personal communication, 1987). are concentrations of archaeological mater i a 1 within pocke ts in the Like Warm Mineral Springs and Little limestone bedrock at elevations of Salt Springs, many other inundated 0.5 meters to 2.5 meters below Florida sinkholes have produced present mean sea level (R.J. Ruppe', P leistoe ene faunal material and personal comnunication, 1987). archaeological material. Among these

400 are Wakulla Springs, Silver Springs, Ruppe', R.J. 1980. The archaeology Horns by Springs, Devils Den, and of drowned terrestrial sites, A Jughole Springs of the Ichetuclrnee preliminary report. In: Bureau of River. With the possible exception Historic Sites and Properties, of the Silver Springs Site (Hoffman, Bulletin No. 6. Tallahassee, 1983), the association of faunal and Florida: Division of Archives, archaeological material has not been History, and Records Management. demonstrated (Cockrell and Murphy, Florida Dept. of State. 1978(b)). Warren, L.O. and R.P. Bullen. 1965. The sites discovered thus far suggest A Dalton complex from Florida. that there will be an abundance of Florida Anthropologist, 18(1):29-31. archaeological material found off the coast of Florida and that these Warren, L.O. 1968 (a). The Apollo materials (including organics) will Beach Site, Hillsborough County. often be well preserved. The sites Florida Anthropologist, 21:83-88. will probably concentrate in the vicinities of sinkholes, relict Warren, L.O. 1968(b). Caladesi fluvial channels, relict estuarine Causeway: A possible inundated Paleo­ deposits, and outcrops of I n di an workshop. Florida cryptocrystalline rock. Information Anthropologist, 21:92-94. contained in these sites may provide important information on prehistoric Warren, L.O. 1972(a). A Clear Fork human migrations, settlements Gouge and Greenbrier Point from the patterns, subsistence strategies, and Gulf of Mexico, Pinellas County, cultural contacts across now­ Florida. Florida Anthropologist, submerged landmasses. 25 ( 3).

REFERENCES Warren, L.O. 1972(b). Commercial oyster shell of Tampa Bay: 1966 Cockrell, W.A. 1980. Structures progress report. Florida under water. In: Archaeology under Anthropologist, 25(2, pt. 1):49-51. water: an atlas of the world's submerged sites. K. Muckelroy (ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Ha. Melanie J. Stright earned a B.A. in anthropology at Ohio State Goodyear, A. C., S. B. Upchurch and University in 1976. From 1976 to M.J. Brooks. 1980. Turtlecrawl 1978, she was district archaeologist Point: an inundated Early Holocene for the Rawlins District of the archaeological site on the west coast Bureau of Land Management in Rawlins, of Florida. In: Holocene geology WY. In 1978, she became the staff and man in Pinellas and Hillsborough archaeologist for the Gulf of Mexico Counties, Florida: Southeastern Outer Continental Shelf Office, where Geological Society Guidebook 22. she has worked on developing the S. B. Upchurch (ed.). Tallahassee, marine archaeology program and Florida. geophysical survey requirements for oil and gas related high-resolution Lazarus, W.C. 1965. Effects of land surveys. Her current research subsidence and sea level changes on interests are the archaeological elevation of archaeological sites on a pp lications of remote-sensing the Florida Gulf Coast. Florida methods, paleoenvironmental Anthropologist, 18(1). reconstruction, and Holocene sea level change.

401 A Consideration of (Cushing, 1987; Gilliland, 1975; Archaeological Wetsites Beriault et al., 1981; Sears, 1982; Purdy, 1979, 1981, 1987; MacDonald and Dr. Glen H. Doran Purdy , 1982) • Florida State University Department of Anthropology Preservation of soft tissue, in the form of the bog bodies of Europe, is characteristic of acidic bogs where a INTRODUCTION natural tanning process takes place. Stomach contents, leather, fabric, Archaeological "wetsites" are by and other materials may survive definition locations where remnants (Fischer, 1980; Glob, 1969). of past human activities are Although such acidic bogs exist in preserved in saturated or nearly the New World, chemical dif'ferences, saturated settings. The biggest per haps related to the plan ts contrast to the typical terrestrial comprising the bog habitat itself, site is in the often excellent have not produced tanned bodies. preservation of organic materials, Efforts to extract DNA from an difference in excavation techniques, English bog body failed and indicate and the necessity of careful acid bog settings are not conducive conservation (chemical treatment) of to some of the kinds of research that virtually all recovered materials. are possible with New World materials (Hughs et al., 1986). Archaeological materials can enter saturated settings in several ways. Virtually the only New World Materials can be intentionally placed parallels in the preservation of so~t in saturated settings such as tissue in wetsites are in the apparently occurred at Windover, a preservation of brain tissue in a burial area in east central Florida. number of Florida locations-­ Materials can be accidentally Windover, with over 90 individuals; discarded or lost in wet settings. Warm Mineral Springs (Royal and In some cases, originally dry sites Clark, 1960); Bay West (Beriault et can be covered with water or organic al., 1981); Republic Groves (Wharton or other soils that effectively seal et al. , 1 981 ) ; and the historic St. the moisture in and limit decay. Marks Cemetery (Dailey et al., 1972.)

PRESERVATION IN WETSITES Plant materials (stems, seeds, leaves, pollen, etc.) are common in Preservation of organic materials, in wetsites and can provide excellent particular, is what provides much of archaeological, climatological, and the scientific potential of many environmental data (Alexanaer, 1986; wetsites. The nature of materials Brooks et al., 1979; DePratter and recovered in wetsites is dependent Howard, 1981; Levathes, 1987; Watts, upon both what materials are 1971,1975,1986; Spackman, 1987; deposited and what materials survive. Stout, 1986). Preservation of bone, In many terrestrial sites, organic antler, and shell generally requires materials do not survive unless they pH conditions approximating are carbonized. neutrality (Nabergall, 1987).

Wooden artifacts, stakes, grinding Stone and ceramic artifacts survive tools, awls, canoes, nets, carvings, in most wet or dry settings with very baskets, fabrics, etc., appear to be little if' any deterioration. pre served in acidic, basic, and chemicallJ" neutral saturated soils

402 WHERE ARE WETSITES FOUND? The dynamics of water and/or soil chemistry are also critical in Wetsitea are more abundant in areas preservation. At Windover and Warm where human activity concentrated, Mineral Springs, Florida, very hard, and they can be found in river highly mineralized waters promote channels, particularly large, preservation. Highly acidic relatively slow moving streams with saturated peats have already been sand or muddy bottoms that may mentioned with respect to soft tissue provide some physical protection to preservation, but at the same time, any deposited materials (Cockrell, very acidic conditions can "dissolve" 1980; Dunbar and Waller, 1983; the underlying bone as well as the Waller, 1969). Within the floodplain molecular integrity of some molecules of water courses, the lower levels of such as DNA (Hughs et al., 1986). some terrestrial sites may be -· saturated and can also be classified Low oxygen levels (reducing as wetsites (Purdy, 1987; Jahn and environments) also enhance Bullen, 1978). preservation by limiting the biological activity of decomposing Some coastal sites are saturated as a bacterial and fungal organisms. result of inundation after deposition (Ruppe', 1980) while others represent The physical stability and integrity events and activities that took place of the matrix (soil) in which such in coastal waters (Cockrell and materials are deposited is also Murphy, 1978) • Shipwrecks are important. Increased movement of clearly not the only type of coastal materials downslope or across coarse wetsites, though they have received surfaces increases destruction, as the bulk of the attention will water movement and wave action. (Marmelstein, 1975; Marx, 1969). At Windover, no fabrics and relatively few articulated skeletal Wetsites can also be found within segments were recovered from sloping lakes, ponds, and springs (Cockrell, pond areas. In these locations 1973; Clausen et al., 1975; Clausen materials were slowly but inexorably et a 1 • , 1 9 7 9 ) • The Windover sliding downslope. Where the pond materials were approximately 10 ft. bottom was flatter, approximately 100 below pond bottom in a small 1/4 acre articulated burials were recovered, freshwater pond on the east central and 37 burials contained had woven coast of Florida (Brevard County­ fabrics. Doran, 1986; Doran and Dickel, 1986). Other factors, such as temperature, Saturated, but not necessarily may also be important. Decay submerged, organic soils (peats in processes of fungi and microbes are particular) are characteristic of reduced at lower temperatures, and wetlands, and the past bogs of Europe this may partially explain the are also we 11 known for their preservation of bog bodies in Europe. archaeological productivity. Some materials, such as stone artifacts and pottery, are relatively At the simplest level, the presence stable, but organic materials are of moisture reduces the physical subject to the interplay of changes stress on materials (particularly in moisture levels, temperature, organic materials) by limiting the water, and soil chemistry. frequent hydration/dehydration cycle, which promotes deterioration by Some chemical changes, referred to as expansion and contraction (Stone et digenetic changes, can be precurs ors al., 1986). to fossilization and involve

403 absorption or depletion of compounds sites, simply because they are less and elements from the soil matrix visible and less accessible. (Walker and DeNiro , 198 6) • If the mineralogical component is depleted In addition to accidental discovery, (demineralization), rapid many dry sites are found during deterioration can occur. Mineral archaeological surveys that are compounds can also replace organic designed to identify sites prior to compounds, and this mineralization, construction or development, as part while promoting physical survival, of cultural resource management may preclude some chemical and programs. Archaeological assessments elemental analysis (Buikstra and or surveys are legally required in Mielke, 1985). cases where state or federal property is involved (Tesar, 1986). Survey At Windover, preliminary analysis of programs are less e ffec tive in preserved brain tissue indicates a wetland and underwater settings. -- replacement process elevated sulphur levels. Microscopic and macroscopic A large problem in locating wetsites features are still preserved, as is lies in their almost invisible nature some molecular structure (Doran et and the frequent necessity of al • , 1 986) • Elemental analysis of entering a "hostile" environment to bone samples (Hancock, 1987) locate them. Wetsites are either indicates an abnormal absorption of underwater, thus creating problems of strontium, obviating some dietary simple access, or they are difficult inferences baaed on trace element to identify because of the water analysis (element reference). At the saturated conditions existing in bog, same time, some bone proteins appear marsh and lake settings. Literally well preserved enough for researchers millions of dryland acres have been to attempt to develop a biological surveyed by archaeologists, but only profile of this 7, 000 year old a fraction of the areas with population (Turoaa, 1987). potential wetsites have been effectively studied. In some wooden artifacts the long fibers providing structural integrity CONSERVATION NECESSITIES breakdown and conservation becomes OF WETSITE INVESTIGATION difficult. Warping, splitting, checking, and deterioration became Wetsite investigation is often more problematic. Materials leas than di ffi cult and involved than the 2,000 years old seem to exhibit investigation of a typical relative stability while the terrestrial site. Different materials from Windover are more excavation strategies may be needed, di ffi cult to preserve (Gardner, and the waterlogged condition that 1986). preserves materials necessitates special conservation techniques. WETSITE DISCOVERY Some of the Windover procedures will be presented as examples of the Archaeological sites (both wet and conservation requirements dry) are often accidentally necessitated by analytical goals as discovered as a result of well as the nature of the materials. construction or other ground disturbing activities. It could be Saturated faunal and human bone was argued that proportionately greater removed from the field in plastic numbers of wetsites escape the bags and, as rapidly as possible, attention of archaeologists than dry treated with bulking agents that replaced the water. Initially,

404 polyethylene glycol (PEG) was future research (Purdy, 1974; Stone utilized, but an acrylic emulsion, et al. , 1986) • Rhoplex AC-33 (Conservation Materials, Sparks, Nev.), proved more ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF WET satisfactory. Small samples of human SITE INVESTIGATION--WINDOVER bone were also removed and frozen for AS AN EXAMPLE specialized chemical and protein analysis. Concern that molecular Some have estimated that over 80 changes were continuing to take place percent of most societies' even after conservation prompted "artifacts" are organic and may not removal of larger bone samples, which survive in normal archaeological were frozen at -70 centigrade settings. The opportunity to study (Tuross, 1987). materials from wetsite settings can provide a much greater understanding Floral materials (seeds, leaves, of earlier populations and are wooden artifacts, etc.) involved a illustrated by the multidisciplinary variety of conservation procedures research efforts of the Windover inc1 ud ing refrigeration; alcohol Archaeological Research Project. saturation; and treatments with PEG, Damar, and other compounds (Stone et Excavation at Windover required al., 1986). Refrigeration (in sealed installation of an extensive containers) reduces the possibility well point system (approximately 160 of bacterial or fungi decay and wellpoints between 11-21 ft. in minimizes dehydration. Woven fabrics length) which pumped 700 gallons of (made from plant materials) and water per minute 24 hours a day for wooden artifacts undergo a multistep the first several months of procedure similar to that applied to excavation. This demonstrates that -· wooden artifacts. This procedure dewatering of some wetsites is involves refrigeration, removal of possible and practical. mineral salts by soakings in deionized water, and replacement of The collection, representing a water with alcohol/ethulose/PEG minimum of 155 adults and subadults, solutions. None of the fabric is one of the largest samples of materials has completely passed human skeletal material of this through the conservation sequence as antiquity in the New World (Taylor et of December 1987, even though some al., 1985; Smith, 1976; Protsch, began treatment over a year ago 1978) • The collection dates from (Adovasio, 1986). between 7, 000 and 8, 000 years B.P. (before present - A.D. 1950) and Brain tissue was rapidly removed, represents an Archaic hunting­ placed in plastic bags, flooded with gathering population (Milanich and nitrogen gas, sealed, refrigerated Fairbanks, 1980; Smith, 1986; for transport and frozen at -70 Steponaitis, 1986; Ford, 1985). Data centigrade within 24 hours to on health, diet, disease, demography, minimize possible degradation and etc., in some ways, represents "base maximize future analysis line data" useful in looking not only possibilities. at human adaptation in this early time, but also as a valuable Clearly, one of the most profound comparative reference point for obligations wetsite investigation understanding later populations' entails is a willingness to ensure adaptation (Dickel, 1987). that the materials recovered are conserved properly, not only for The fabrics from Windover, current research needs, but also for exhibiting seven different twining

405 and manufacturing techniques, are the (Newsom, 1987; Nabergall, 1987; oldest fabrics in the southeastern Holloway, 1985a, 1985b; Stout, 1986; United States and are regarded by Spackman, 1987; Flowers, 1985; some as the largest, most complex set Frazee, 1986). of fabrics of this time period in the New World (Adovasio, 1986). Analysis THREATS TO WETSITE SURVIVAL of the fabrics, bone, antler, stone and wooden artifacts will provide new Wets i tes, like all archaeological insights to early craft sites, are consistently being sophistication. destroyed by both natural and human agencies. Natural changes in Pl ant remains identified as the hydrology and water and matrix semidomesticated bottle gourd chemistry, as well as natural (Lagenaria siceraria; Newsom, 1987) exposure of wetsites by wave action, are the oldest known bottle gourd erosion, etc., can destroy materials in North America (Smith, archaeological sites. Some of these 1986; Conrad et al., 1984; destructive agents are beyond normal Richardson, 1972; Kay et al., 1980). human control. Sane destruction is, These findings support the however, avoidable, if the importance proposition that the earliest North of the unwritten saga of human American domesticates are tropical experience is recognized, and steps plants, and, even at this early date, to protect and study such sites are relations between populations may taken. have been more complex than realized (Ford, 1985). Urbanization, pipeline construction, dredging, and other coastal and Identification of preserved human wetland modification are increasingly mitochondrial DNA from Windover brain involving areas containing ·­ tissue yielded the oldest identified archaeological materials. If sites human genetic materials indicating can be recognized and activities that in some situations molecular shifted to avoid sites, such analysis of archaeological materials construction may be beneficial in may be possible (Doran et al., 1986). that wetsite locations may be better understood. Furthermore, if such Study of the preserved bone proteins accidentally discovered sites can be and amino acids, including (but not investigated, we all benefit. limited to), osteonection, transferrin, albumin, IGG, IGN, IGA, An invisible threat exists when large methionine, and cystine, provide a scale hydrological patterns are unique opportunity to develop a new changed for farming, ranching, and type of biological profile of an other land use needs, and previously archaeological population. Further saturated areas are dehydrated studies of these materials should (Coles, 1984). Archaeological expand our understanding of materials below the surface begin to prehistoric human biology and undergo an inexorable dehydration population relationships ( Tuross, that can eventually lead to total 1987). destruction. The loss of these invisible resources is in some ways Detailed analysis of faunal and the most frightening prospect of all. floral materials are providing data In some areas of the world, such land critical to understanding use changes are associated with peat hydrological, climatological, and mining for electrical energy environmental changes in east central production. Coles has noted that Florida for the last 11,000 years most of the archaeological materials

406 in the Irish National Museum were ARE SOME AREAS MORE LIKELY recovered from wetsite settings TO PRODUCE WETSITES (Coles, 1986). As peat is mined THAN OTHERS? without a consideration of the archaeological loss the prospects for While reliable models capable of understanding many aspects of predicting wetsite locations are Ireland's past become increasingly relatively crude, some difficult. Coles fears that by the generalizations about possible turn of the century the wetsites locations of wetsites may be helpful. heritage of Ireland will be irrevocably lost. In North America, wetsites discovery would seem most likely in areas that Regrettably, intentional relic have been submerged in the last collecting, without a consideration 12, 000 years and are, or were, in of the archaeological significance, relatively low energy settings where site integrity, or the patential conditions for preservation may be contribution to our body of better. Areas that are rich in knowledge, continues in many areas. organic soils (peats and related In some states, legally sanctioned soils) may contain significant salvage of archaeologically archaeological materials. When such significant coastal wrecks amounts to areas were frequently inhabited or little more than pot hunting when visited by prehistoric and historic insufficient consideration of the peoples, the possibility of wetsite sci en ti f i c imp a r tan c e a f the occurrence increases. Submerged materials exists. This is especially peatlands, stream channels, estuary graphic when materials are auctioned and bay margins would be likely to off to the highest bidder or the contain saturated archaeological "booty" divided up among investors. materials. Some states, such as Florida, have virtually assured continued pillage During the course of construction, by treasure hunters. Other states, dredging, etc., the following kinds like Texas, deem the scientific value of materials might be discovered: of coastal materials sufficiently important to restrict such activities o large wooden artifacts (stakes, within their coastal waters. canoes, etc.) o human skeletal material (bones Archaeological sites on state and of the leg and skull are the federal property are protected by largest and probably the most state and federal antiquity statutes. noticeable) Literally millions of dollars are o pot sherds, charred bone, annually spent on seeing that this fabrics, and small wooden priceless heritage is not wantonly artifacts (these would be very destroyed. By and large, sites on difficult to casually identify private property are afforded in dark peaty soils) virtually no protection. a stone artifacts (although Regrettably, even when owners are small, if they are a light cooperative, investigations are color they could be distinct severely impeded by the lack of funds against a dark peaty soil) for proper scientific treatment of these important legacies of human Any observed materials should be experience. collected and resubmerged in water; further impact to the site should be minimized if at all possible; the location or •general area they came

407 from recorded, and an archaeologist Pittsburgh, Department of contacted as rapidly as possible. Anthropology.

Pragmatic observers have shrewdly Alexander, M. 1986. Report on noted the media attention that can macrofloral remains from the Windover result from such discoveries and peat deposits. Report submitted to subsequent investigations can create the Windover Archaeological Research a very positive public image for a Project. company or industry. Local business may also benefit from the increased Beriault, J., R. Carr, J. Stipp, R. tourism such sites may generate. Johnson, and J. Meider. 1981. The Careful planning can also incorporate archaeological salvage of the Bay tours of the site by local West Site, Collier County, Florida. dignitaries, school groups, civic Florida Anthropologist 34(2):39-58. organizations enhancing education about archaeological resources. We Brooks, M. J., D.J. Colquhoun, R.R. estimate in the three years of Pardi, W. Newman, and W.H. Abbott. excavation (August - Jan.) between 1979. Preliminary archaeological and 10,000 and 15,000 people visited geological evidence for Holocene sea Windover. On the Open House Weekend level fluctuations in the lower at Windover over 4,000 people visited Cooper River Valley, South Carolina. the site. Needless to say, such Florida Anthropologist, 32(3):85­ public interest requires forethought 103. and planning. Buikstra, J.E. and J.H. Mielke. 1985. This is almost the exact scenario Demography, diet and health. In: that began in 1982 when the Windover Gilbert, R.I. and J.H. Mielke, site was discovered. The accidental (editors). The Analysis 9..£ discovery, shifts in construction Prehistoric Diets. New York: routes, involvement of Academic Press. archaeologists, and the discoveries of the last three years have been Carr, R.C. 1981. Florida reported worldwide. As a result, Anthropologist Interview with Calvin thousands of central Florida citizens Jones, Part II. Excavations of an are better informed and more aware of Archaic Cemetery in Cocoa Beach, the rich Florida archaeological Florida. Florida Anthropologist heritage. 34(2):81-89.

Recognition of the significance of Clausen, C.J., H.K. Brooks, and A.B. archaeological resources is no Wesolowsky. 1975. The early man site guarantee that they will be safe, but at Warm Mineral Springs, Florida. it is the first step. Only through Journal 9.f Field Archaeology 2: 191­ enlightened management and 213. understanding of the potential of wetsites to vividly and uniquely Clausen, C.J., A.D. Cohen, C. reveal the saga of human existence Emiliani, J .A. Holman, and J .J. will our prehistoric heritage be Stipp. 1979. Little Salt Spring, safe. Florida: a unique underwater site. Science 203(4381):609-614. REFERENCES Cockrell, W.A. 1973. Remains of Adovasio, J.M. 1986. Personal early man recovered from spring cave. communication. University of Archives~ History~ 4(2):3.

408 Cockrell, W.A. 1980. Drowned s-ites saturated archaeological materials. in North America. In: Archaeology Paper presented at the 1986 Annual Under Water: an Atlas of the World's Meeting of the American Association Submerged""'Sites, edited""bylftickelroy. of Physical Anthropology, New York: McGraw-Hill. Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Cockrell, W.A. and L. Murphy. 1978. Dickel, D.N. 1987. A case of neural Pleistocene man in Florida. tube defects and associated skeletal Archaeology of Eastern North America pathologies from Windover. Paper 6 (Summer):1-13. presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical Coles, B. 1987. Archaeology follows Anthropology, New York. a wet track. New Scientist No. 1582­ 42-46. Doran, G.H. 1986. The Windover Site-physical anthropology from Coles, J.M. 1986. Irish Wetlands: saturated archaeological materials. the last chance. Paper presented at Paper presented at the 1986 Annual the Inte rnati onal conference on Meeting of the American Association Wet Site Archaeology. Dec. 13-14, of Physical Anthropology, Gainesville, Florida. (symposium Albuquerque, New Mexico. proceedings in press). Doran, G.H. and D.N. Dickel. 1986. Conrad, N., D.L. Asch, N.B. Asch, D. Multidisciplinary investigations at Elmore, H. Gove, M. Rubins, A. the Windover archaeological site. Brown, A.S. Wiant, K.B. Farnsworth, Paper presented at the International and T.G. Cook. 1984. Accelerator Conference on WetSite Archaeology. Radiocarbon Dating of Evidence for Dec 13-14, Gainesville, Florida Prehistoric Horticulture in Illinois. (symposium proceedings in press). Nature 308:443-446. Doran, G.H., D.N. Dickel, W.E. Cushing, F.H. 1987. A preliminary Ballinger, Jr., O. F. Agee, P.J. report on the explorations of ancient Laipis, and W.W. Hauswirth. 1986. key dwellers' remains on the Gulf Anatomical, cellular and molecular Coast of Florida. Proceedings: analysis of 8,000-yr-old human brain American Philosophical Society tissue from the Windover 35: 329-448. Reprinted 1973, archaeological site. Nature 323:803­ Antiquities of the ~ World, Vol. 806. 13. New York: AMS Press. Dunbar, J.S. and B.I. Waller. 1983. Dailey, R.C., L.R. Morrell, and W.A. A distribution analysis of the Cockrell. 1972. The St. Marks Clovis/Suwannee Paleo Indian sites of Cemetery (8Wa108). Bureau of Florida-a geographic approach. Historic Sites and Properties Florida Anthropologist 36(1/2):18-30. Bulletin 2:1-24. Fischer, C. 1980. Bog bodies of DePratter, c. and J.D. Howard. 1981. Denmark. In: Mummies, Disease and Evidence for a sea level lowstand Ancient Cultures , A. C. Coe kburn and between 4,500 and 2,400 years B.P. on E. Cockburn (eds.). London and New the southeast coast of the United York: Cambridge University Press, pp States. Journal of Sedimentary 177-193. Petrology 91(4):1287-1295. Flowers, J. 1985. Water analysis of Dickel, D.N. 1986. The Windover samples from the Windover pond and Site-physical an thro pology from adjacent ponds. Report submitted to

409 Windover Archaeological Research presented at the 18th Annual meeting Project, by Flowers Chemical Lab, of the American Association of Altamont Springs, Florida. Stratigraphic Palynologists, Orlando, Florida. Ford, R.I., ed. 1985. Prehistoric Food Production In North America. Hughs, M.H., D.S. Jones and R.C. Museum of Anthropology, University of Connolly. 1986. Body in the bog but Michigan, No. 75. no DNA. Nature 323:208.

Frazee, J. 1 9 8 6. Personal Jahn, O.L. and R. Bullen. 1978. communication. The Tick Island site, St. Johns River, Florida. Edited by Adelaide Gardner, J. 1986. Personal K. Bullen and Jerald T Milanich. The communication. Carnegie Institute. Florida Anthropologist 31,4,part 2:1­ 25. Gilliland, M.S. 1975. The Material Culture of ~ Marco Florida. Kay, M., F.B. King, and C.K. Gainesville, Florida: University Robinson. 1980. Cucurbits from Presses of Florida. Phillips Spring: new evidence and interpretations. American Antiquity, Gleason, P.J., A.D. Cohen, W.G. 45(4):806-822. Smith, H.K. Brooks, P.A. Stone, R.L. Goodrick, and w. Spackman, Jr. 1974. Levathes, L.E. 1987. Mysteries of The environmental significance of the bog, National Geographic Holocene sediments from the 171(3):397-420. Everglades and saline tidal plain. Memoir 2: Miami Geological Society­ MacDonald, G.F. and B.A. Purdy. Envi ronm en ts of South Florida; 1982. Florida's wetsites. Early Present and Past. Edited by Patrick ~' Winter, 5-12. J. Gleason. Marmels tein, A. D. 1975. Remote Glob, P. V. 1969. The Bog People: sensing support for historic Iron-age ~ preserved. London: shipwreck surveys. Washington: Faber and Faber. Earth Satellite Corporation.

Hancock, R. 1987. Report to the Marx, R.E. 1969. Shipwrecks in Win dover Archaeological Research Florida Waters. Eau Gallie, Florida: Project on neutron activation Scott Publishing. analysis of human bone. Slowpoke Reactor, Dept. of Physics, University Milanich, J.T. and c.w. Fairbanks. of Toronto. 1980. Florida Archaeology. Academic Press, Inc. Holloway, R. 1985a. Palynological analysis of sediments from the Nabergall, L. 1986. Faunal material Windover archaeological site. Report from the Windover archaeological submitted to the Windover site. Paper presented at the 1986 Archaeological Research Project. Society for American Archaeology Palyno logy Laboratory, Dept. of Meeting, New Orleans, La. Anthropology, Texas A&M University. Nabergall, L. 1987. The Holloway, R. 1985b. Holocene archaeological evidence of a faunal vegetational history of east central community during the Early Florida: Pollen evidence for the Holocene I Archaic Period. Paper Windover archaeological site. Paper presented to the Society for

410 Ethnobiology, 10th Annual Conference, Gourd (Langenaria siceraria): A Re­ Gainesville, Florida. evaluation. Economic Botany, Vol. 26. Newsom, L. 1986. Personal communication. University of Royal, w. and E.Clark. 1960. Florida, Department of Anthropology, Natural preservation of human brain, Gainesville, Florida. Warm Mineral Springs, Florida. American Antiquity 26(2):285-187. Newsom, L. 1987. Personal communication. University of Rupee', R. 1980. The archaeology of Florida, Department of Anthropology, drowned terrestrial sites: a Gainesville, Florida. preliminary report. Bureau of Historic Sites and Properties Paabo, S. 1985. Molecular cloning Bulletin 6:35-45. of ancient Egyptian mummy DNA. Nature 312:644-645. Sears, w. 1982. Fort Center an archaeological site !Jl ~ ~ Protsch, R.R. 1978. Catalogue of Okeechobee Basin. Ripley P. Bullen Fossil Hominids of North America. Monographs in Anthropology and New York: Gustav Fisher. History, Number 4. Gainesville, Florida: Florida State Museum, The Purdy, B. 1974. The Key Marco, University Presses of Florida. Florida, collection: experiment and reflection. American Antiquity Sillen, A. and M. Kavanaugh. 1982. 39:105-109. Strontium and paleodietary research: a review. Yearbook of Physical Purdy, B. 1979. An evaluation of Anthropology 25:67-90. wetsite resources of Florida. Florida Anthropologist 32:104-113. Smith, B.R. 198 6. The archaeology of the southeastern United States: Purdy, B. 1980. An Evaluation of from Dalton to DeSoto 1O,500 - 5 00 Wetsite Resources of Florida. In B. P. In Advance in World Conference on Florida's Maritime Archaeology, Vol 5, p. 1-92. Edited Heritage, edited by B.A. Purdy pp. 1­ by Fred Wendorf and Angela E. Close. 5. Gainesville, Florida: Florida Orlando, Florida: Academic Press. State Museum. Smith, F.H. 1976. The skeletal Purdy, B. 1 981 • Cultural resources remains of the earliest Americans: a at wetland sites in Florida: survey. Tennessee Anthropologist investigations of sites and 1:116-147. preservation of artifacts. Report submitted to Division of Archives, Spackman, W., Jr. 1985. Personal History, and Records Management, communication. Pennsylvania State Tallahassee, Florida. University, Dept. of Geology, Coal Research Section. Purdy, B. 1987. Investigations at Hontoon Island (8-V0-202), an Spackman, W., Jr. 1987. Personal archaeological wetsite in Volusia communication. Pennsylvania State County, Florida: an overview and University, Dept. of Geology, Coal chronology. Florida Anthropologist Research Section. 40(1:4-12). Steponaitis, V.P. 1986. Prehistoric Richardson, J.B. 1972. The Pre­ archaeology in the Southeastern Colombian Distribution of the Bottle United States, 1970-1985. In:

411 Bernard, J., B.R. Beals, and S.A. bed. Florida Anthropologist 22: 37­ Tyler (eds) Ann. Rev. of 39. Anthropology, 15: 363-404-;-J\nnual Review, Inc. Watts, W.A. 1971. Postglacial and interglacial vegetation history of Stone, T.T., D.N. Dickel, and G.H. southern Georgia and central Florida. Doran. 1986. The Excavation and Ecology 52:676-690. Conservation of Waterlogged Bone fran the Windover Archaeological Site, Watts, W.A. 1975. A late Quaternary Titusville, Fla. Paper presented at record of vegetation from Lake Annie, the 51st Society of American south-central Florida. Geology Archaeology Meeting, New Orleans, La. 3: 344-346.

Stout, s. 1986. Petrographic Watts, W.A. 1986. Environments of studies of Windover peats. Report Florida in the Late Wisconsin and submitted to Windover Archaeological Holocene. Paper presented at the Research Project. Coal Research International Conference on Wetsite Division, Dept. of Geology, Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania State University. F 1 ori d a IF 1 ori d a State Museum, Gainesville, Florida. Taylor, R.E., L.A. Payen, C.A. Prior, P.J. Slota, Jr., R. Gillespie, J.A. Wharton, B.R., G.R. Ballo, and M.E. Gowlett, R.E.M. Hedges, A.J.T. Jull, Hope. 1981. The Republic Groves T.H. Zabel, D.J. Donahue, and R. Site, Hardee County, Florida. Berger. 1985. Major revisions in Florida Anthropologist 34(2):59-80. the Pleistocene age assignments for North American human skeletons by C14 accelerator mass spectrometry: none Dr. Glen Doran is an Associate older than 11,000 C14 years B.P. Professor of anthropology at Florida American Antiquity 50(1):136-140. State University at Tallahassee. He received his B.A. and M.A. from the Tesar, L.D. 1986. Historic University of Texas at Austin and his preservation and Florida's local Ph.D. from the University of government comprehensive planning California at Davis. His primary process. Florida Anthropologist, research interests are in prehistoric 39(4):257-280. human adaptation and paleodemography. His secondary research interests are Tuross, N. 1987. Personal in elemental analysis of communication. Carnegie Institute of archaeological materials. Dr. Doran Washington, Geophysical Section, has been the director of the Windover Washington, D.C. Archaeological Research since 1984 and has been studying a prehistoric Walker, P.L. and M.J. DeNiro. 1986. cemetery dating between 7 ,ooo and Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope 8,ooo years B.P. ratios in bone collagen as indices of prehistoric dietary dependence on marine and terrestrial resources in southern California. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 71:51-61.

Waller, B.I. 1969. Paleo-Indian and other artifacts from a Florida stream

412 Resul.ts and Illp1ications of the initial opening of the cavity the ~tidisciplinary during a time of lowered sea level. Archaeological Research Project at Warm Mineral Springs, F1orida Curr en t research is principally conducted on the 13-meter ledge and Mr. Wilburn A. Cockrell on the debris cone 50 meters below Florida State University surface. Both SCUBA and surface­ Department of Anthropology s up plied air have been used. Technology consists of time-honored archaeological techniques coupled Warm Mineral Springs is a 70-meter­ with innovations, when need dictates. d e e p, spring-fed sinkhole 16 Mixed gas diving with surface kilometers inland from the Gulf of decompression on oxygen is planned Mexico in Sarasota County, Florida. for the upcoming dive season in order Saline, anerobic water, originating to increase bottom time and diver in the Floridian Aquifer some 1 ,ooo safety. meters below surface, enters the cenote at a depth of 70 meters below Warm Mineral Springs and related water surface at a temperature of 32­ sites have long been seen by the 34 degrees C. The principal hot principal investigator as furnishing water spring provides some 19.4 primary critical data for predictive million gallons per day. modelling for site location on the Outer Continental Shelf. 1 In 1973 The cenote' s limestone walls are the Bureau of Land Management was draped intermittently with dripstone first informed of the research value formation zones from 4 to 30 meters of this type site, and subsequent below surface; additionally, the papers have continued to emphasize underwater sediments have been the technical and scientific producing exotic tufa specimens. The applications of the Warm Mineral limestone matrix is of the Hawthorne Springs research. Formation of the Miocene. Phase I of the writer's research as There are three archaeological principal investigator was conducted components: 1) the remains located on as Florida State Underwater land, 2) dry-laid deposits on the 13­ Archaeologist from 1972-1983; Phase meter-below surface ledge, and 3) II began in 1983 and continues, deposits in the debris cone on the funded by the Florida State bottom below 40 meters. Legislature currently through Florida State University's Department of Recovered archaeological deposits Anthropology. range from Formative Stage artifacts (ethnographic present back to approximately 2,500 B.P.) artifacts Mr. Wilburn A. Cockrell is the from the Archaic Stage (2,500 B.P. to Director of the Warm Mineral Springs approximately 8-9, 000 B. P.), and Archaeological Research Project, Paleo-Indian Stage materials dating Florida State University. He holds a back thus far to 11,000 radiocarbon­ B.A. in anthropology (University of years B.P.. The oldest human remains Alabama, 1963), an M.A. in stratigraphically and chronologically anthropology (Florida State coexist with ground sloth, saber cat, University, 1970) and has completed horse, camel, and extant species. all but dissertation for his Ph.D. in Well-preserved botanical remains anthropology at Arizona State provide a continuous record extending University. He began Phase I back an estimated 30,000 years from research at the 12,000-year-old

413 prehistoric site at Warm Mineral stratigraphies. Two other sites (JE Springs as Florida State Underwater 652, 653) have been added since our Archaeologist in 1972; Phase II of initial survey, and we expect to find his res earch began in 1983 and many more. continues, funded by the Florida State Legislature. He has published Many anthropologists who are extensively on early man studies and concerned with reconstructing the submerged terrestrial sites, as well transition from Paleo - Indian to as shipwreck archaeology and related Archaic adaptations are in the same legal issues. boat with Quaternary geologists who are interested in the transition from Pleistocene to Holocene time: both some Archaeological Sites are acutely aware of the reality of in the Apalaohee Bay of Florida sea level rise and the need for more data from now inundated continental Mr. Michael Faught she1 ves. Missing data include University of Arizona information about relict Department of Anthropology geomorphology, past human settlement patterns, and the timing and effects of sea level rise on them. While The results of our survey showed much work has been published about relevant lithic artifactual materials the extent, character, and timing of in 4 of 5 outcrops located. Of sea level change (Bloom, 1977, 1983; these, 3 are found close to shore, in Morner, 1971; Ruddiman and Duplessey, more than 6 feet of water (WA 275, 1 985, for samplers), the 267, JE654). More significantly, a archaeological literature is relict channel of the Econfina River virtually empty of reports of the was identified in 12 feet of water inundated shelf sites, particularly 2. 5 miles offshore, and significant from late Pleistocene early Holocene numbers of art ifacts, including con text (see Flemming, 1983 for bifacially trimmed cores and numerous survey). This paper reports the flakes were found at its margins. In findings of mid-Holocene relict no cases were overlying neritic geomorphology and archaeological sediments more than 15 cm, and the sites in the Apalachee Bay of relict channel was easily identified Florida, and suggests the high by its depression and the lack of paten tial of finding many more, plant material in it. Associated including terminal Pleistocene ones. with the lithic debris were pieces of cypress wood which dated to 5,160 + To suggest that continental shelves 100 bp (A-4696 University of Arizona represent a missing and potential and NSF grant BNS 8505083). data set is not to understress the difficulty of finding either relict The results of thi'S survey have topographic, geologic features, or substantiated our ideas of the ease archaeological sites. Wave of identity of relict features in destruction, and Holocene alluvial, inundated karat geomorphology, the and nertic sedimentation are technique of finding outcrops as significant processes in the lithic procurement areas, and the obs curing of Pleistocene details potential of finding other kinds of (Flemming, 1983; Emery and Edwards, prehistoric settlements. The goals 1966; Coastal Environments, 1977). of our next season are to continue These facts, in combination with the identification of relict channels, logistics of working underwater, can search for sea level standstills, and be offset by locating research in obtain core samples of river areas with minimal alteration since

414 the Pleistocene, by relevant Corr elation Program. Project 61, stratigraphic data, and by adequate Dept. Geo. Sciences, Cornell archaeologic potential (i.e. high University. density sites of relevant time periods), thus ensuring cost­ Bloom, A. 198 3. Sea Level and effective, multidisciplinary research Coastal Morphology of the United activities. The Apalachee Bay of States through the Late wisconsin northwestern Florida is just such an G l a c i a l Max i mum • In : Late ­ area (Figure 12.2). · Quaternary Environments of the United States: The Late Pleistocene. s.c. A pilot survey by J.S. Dunbar Porter (ed.). Minneapolis: (Florida Department of State), M.K. University of Minnesota Press. Faught (University of Arizona), and PART of Florida (a competent amateur Coastal Environments, Inc. 1977. organization) was undertaken in July Cultural Resources evaluation of the of 1986 to assess the potential of Northern Gulf of Mexico Continental finding offshore archaeology and Shelf. Interagency Archeological geomorphology. Our survey area Services, Office of Archeology and included the nearshore regions of the Historic Preservation. National Park St. Marks, Aucilla, and Econfina Service. Washington: U.S. Rivers of the Apalachee Bay. The Department of the Interior. associated onshore region, the Ocala Uplift, is a raised karst feature Dunbar, J .s., S.D. Webb, D. Cring. with the Floridian aquifer at the In Press. Culturally and Naturally surface. High density extinct faunal Modified Bones from a Paleo Indian remains and Paleolithic to Archaic Site in the Aucill River, North lithic artifacts are well known in Florida. In: Bone Modification the region (Neil, 1964; Dunbar and Center for the Study of Early Man, Waller, 1983) , and are currently University of Maine, Orono. u n de r pro fess i onal u n de rwater excavation (Dunbar, et al., In Dunbar, J.S. and Waller, B.I. 1983. Press). Alluvial sedimentation in A Distribution Analysis of the these rivers is rare because of the Clovis/Suwannee Paleo-Indian Sites of solution characteristics of karat Florida--A Geographic Approach drainage, and sinkholes within the Florida Anthropologist 36(1-2):18-30. onshore rivers collect quiet water peat and marl sediments, with a high Emery, K.O. and R.L. Edwards. 1966. degree of organic preservation. Most Ar chaeo logical potential of the terrestrial rock outcrops are the Atlantic continental shelf. American loci of dense chert, and are likely Antiquity 31:733-737. spots for prehistoric lithic procurement. Our survey procedure Flermning, N. c. 1983. Survival of was to locate inundated wreck submerged Lithia and Bronze Age outcrops and hand fan the neritic artifacts sites: A review of case sediments while looking for histories. Masters and Flemming, artifacts. This kind of research was eds. London: Quaternary Coastlines. predicted, if not actuated, by the work of Ruppe' (1980), farther south Merner, N.A. 1971. Eustatic changes in Venice, Florida. during the last 20, 000 years and a method of separating the isostatic REFERENCES and eustatic factors in an uplifted area. Paleogeography, Bloom, A. 1977. Atlas of sea-level Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology, curves: International Geological 9: 153-181.

415 Neil, W.T. 1964. The Association of Florida and FBAR with mutual research Suwanee Points and Extinct Animals. interests in locating the prehistoric Florida Anthropologist, 16(4):99-104. archaeological potential of Ray Hole Spring. The two agencies put Ruddiman, W. F. and J.C. Duplessy. together a low-budget, cooperative 198 5. Conference on the last research effort to conduct a Deglaciation: Timing and Mechanism. preliminary archaeological Quaternary Research 23:1-17. investigation.

Ruppe', R.J. 1980. The Archaeology Ray Hole Spring is a submerged karst of Drowned Terrestrial Sites: A feature located on the OCS preliminary report. Bureau of approximately 88.5 kilometers Historic Sites and Properties southeast of Tallahassee, Florida, Bulletin 6. Tallahassee, Florida: and about 38. 6 kilometers from the Florida Department of State. nearest Florida landfall. The spring is a typical karst feature probably formed during the Pleistocene as a Mr. Michael Faught is a graduate result of the surface limestone student currently pursuing his collapsing or solutional or doctoral degree at the University of mechanical action caused by Arizona. His research interests underground drainage (Glossary of include problems of the peopling of Geology, 1974) • the New World, Quaternary geology, and underwater archaeology. He is A 1976 Florida Bureau of Geology currently involved in the location bulletin titled "Springs of Florida" and excavation of inundated des eribes Ray Hole Spring as an archaeological sites in the Apalachee occasionally flowing spring lying in Bay area of Florida. 11 • 6 meters of water and measuring 7.6 meters in diameter. The north side of the sink slopes southeast and Preliminary Archaeological the southeast side of the sink has a Investigations at Bay nearly vertical limestone wall to a Bole Spring depth of 18 meters. A cave strikes down and southeast from the 18 meter Mr. Richard J. Anuskiewicz depth to approximately 30 meters Minerals Management Service (Figure 12.3). Gulf of Mexico OCS Region The October 1986 investigation of the In early October 1986, the Minerals spring by MMS and FBAR revealed a Man a g e men t S er v i c e ( MM S ) , in totally different environmental cooperation with the Florida Bureau setting at the site. The diving of Archaeological Research (FBAR), reconnaissance indicated that the conducted a preliminary underwater spring has almost completely filled archaeological investigation and in with recent (since 1976) marine testing program at Ray Hole Spring. shell detritus. Only about 3 meters FBAR first became interested in Ray of relief exist in the southeastern Hole Spring through interactions with end of the sink. The archaeological the sport diving comn.unity from the investigation of the site included Tallahassee area. Several sport diver swimming reconnaissance, divers contacted Mr. James Dunbar of mapping, attempts at coring, and FBAR, suggested that the spring may waterjet excavation of selected test be an archaeological site, and uni ts. Coring was discontinued offered to take him to the spring. because the coring tool made very The MMS was working with the State of 1 i ttle penetration in the shell

416 matrix as a result of the small core the oyster shell and was recovered in diameter and the large size matrix of a lower stratigraphic level than the the marine shell detritus. oyster shell, which suggests that thes e organi c materials were After negative results from Test deposited in situ. Units 1 and 2 and Core Tests 1 and 2, testing was moved to the outer rim of Preliminary analysis of the data the sink. The rim of the sink has a collected at Ray Hole Spring suggests thin layer of carbonate sand that this sinkhole may be a underlain by limestone rock. The M1S prehistoric archaeological site. and FBAR dive team began excavating Several factors' (environmental and with the waterjet at a large crevice. possibly cultural) tend to support Our initial theory was that if this this initial contention·. The was an archaeological site that some radiocarbon dates obtained at Ray cultural material may have fallen or Hole Spring in combination with the may have been washed into one of the regional sea level curve (Figure many crevices around the edge of the 12.4, CEI, 1983 and 1986) indicate sink and become trapped. The crevice that approximately 8 ,200 years ago we selected measured approximately 15 B. P. the sinkhole was a freshwater centimeters in width and was oriented site supporting freshwater flora. in a southwesterly direction towards Some time after 8,200 B.P., the sea the rim of the sinkhole. Waterjet level began to rise, and by excavation, approximately 15-20 approximately 7,400 B.P., the Ray centimeters into the crevice, Hole Spring area was supporting a recovered several probable, shellfish population in a brackish culturally-modified limestone or water environment. chert flakes. This material was returned to the surface for In addition, a cultural manifestation examination. Continued waterjet may exist at Ray Hole Spring. The excavation of the crevice yielded a two large limestone/chert flakes that lens of articulated whole oyster were collected were examined by five shell at the 75 centimeters level; at archaeologists. They all seem to 1-meter depth, waterlogged wood was agree that the way the nakes were encountered. Samples of the shell removed from the lithic core suggests and wood were collected, returned to that these flakes could have been the surface, and stabilized for produced by prehistoric man. future analysis. Below the point However, they also agree that just where the wood samples were two flakes alone usually do not recovered, the crevice narrowed and constitute an archaeological site bottomed out. Excavation was (Figure 12.5, depicts one of the terminated as was the initial potential decortication flakes). archaeological testing. Obviously, there is more work to be In April 1987, analysis was conducted done to verify Ray Hole Spring as an on the oyster and wood samples to authentic archaeological site. This identify the species and to obtain a includes a proper level of funding to radiocarbon date of this organic conduct an intensive testing program, material. The wood species was remote sensing studies to determine identified as live oak, and the true depth and profile of the radiocarbon dates for the oyster sinkhole, coring of the sediment cone shell and wood were dated 7,390 + 60 to gather paleoenvironmental data, years B.P. and 8,220 + 80 years s:-P., more organic sample collecting for respectively. The wood sample dated radiocarbon analysis, and, hopefully, approximately 1 ,OOO years older than

417 the recovery of diagnostic lithic terrestrial and underwater artifacts. archaeologist. In 1982 Mr. Anuskiewicz completed all REFERENCES requirements for his Ph.D., except for his dissertation, at the Bureau of Geology. 1977. Springs of University of Tennessee at Knoxville. Florida. Bulletin No. 13. In 1984, he accepted a his current Tallahassee, Florida: State of position at MMS, Gulf of Mexico OCS Florida, Department of Natural Region. Resources, Division of Resource Management. Archaeological Sites in the Coastal Environments, Inc. 1983. Drowned Tertiary Karst Regions Sedimentary Studies of Prehistoric of the Eastern Gu1f of Mexico Archaeological Sites. Prepared for the Division of State Plans, National Mr. James s. Dunbar Park Service, Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Florida Department of State U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Archaeological Research Coastal Environments, Inc. 1986. Archaeological Investigations on the Outer Continental Shelf: Within the INTRODUCTION Sabine River Valley, Offshore Louisiana and Texas. Prepared for Prehistoric archaeological sites the U.S. Department of the Interior, inundated by the sea are the most Minerals Management Service, Reston, elusive sites to locate. They may be Virginia. deeply buried and inaccessible in some regions of the continental shelf Dunbar, J.S. 1987. The Resource of and may be shallow but difficult to Clovis and Suwannee Age Paleo-Indian identify in others. The karstic area Sites in Florida. Paper presented at of the Florida Gulf Coast represents XII Congress of the International a unique archaeological area where Union for Quaternary Research. Paper Paleo Indian remains are highly for publication to the proceedings concentrated and sedimentation has chairman and to be published by been minimal. The number of Paleo Canadian Journal of Archaeolog;y. Indian sites located in inland freshwater and terrestrial locations Dunbar, J.S. and B.I. Waller. 1983. is substantial, but few offshore Distribution Analysis of the sites have been located because Clovis/Suwannee Paleo-Indian Sites of marine growth and weathering have Flor ida--A Geographic Approach. tended to conceal site locations. Florida Anthropologist 36(1):18-30. Given the difficulties associated Gary, M., R. McAFee and C.L. Wolf, with locating offshore sites, a model eds. 1984. Glossary of Geology. based on the type and distribution of Washington: American Geological sites on the adjacent coast was Institute. employed in the Apalachee Bay region of the Gulf of Mexico offshore survey work (reports by Faught and Mr. Bi.chard J. Anusld.ewicz obtained Anuskiewicz this session), his B.A. in 1972 and his M.A. in 1974 incorporating the assistance of from California State University at fishermen and sport divers familiar Hayward. He was employed with the with the project area. In three U.S. Army COE from 1974 to 1984 as a days, Mike Faught's survey located

418 four archaeological sites from one to interglacial phases of the four miles offshore. Rik Anuskiewicz Pleistocene (Webb, 1974). Glacial and Melanie Stright surveyed Ray Hole stage water tables as low as 48 Spring some 20 miles offshore and meters below present occurred prior discovered evidence of what may prove to the human habitation of Florida to be a drowned archaeological site. (Brooks, 1967). Investigations of the inundated Devils Den and Little ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND Salt Springs sites revealed that the GEOHYDROLOGICAL BACKGROUND aquifer was greater than 25 meters below present water level, when human As early as the late 1930s, unusual activity was taking place (Webb, 1974 underwater discoveries, including and Clausen et.al., 1979). Parched partially articulated mastodon water systems were greatly reduced remains associated with stone tools, during dry climatic phases, and as a were being investigated in Florida result, site distributions were (Jenks and Simpson, 1941 ) • Almost restricted to areas with persistent thirty years later, Wilfred Neill supplies--mainly aquifer locations (1964) introduced the "Oasis (Dunbar and Waller, 1983). Hypothesis," proposing that some underwater artifact concentrations Prehistoric site distributions in rep resented drowned terrestrial Florida occurred in changing patterns sites. Geologist Kelly Brooks (1973a not only linked to evolving & b) believed that the availability technologies but to fluctuations in of surface water for drinking regional surface water systems. The fluctuated so radically over the last availability of potable water in 15,000 years that it impacted relation to other needed resources prehistoric populations. He proposed helped dictate possible site that potable water existed as locations through time (Dunbar and climate-dependent, parched systems Waller, 1983). There are three major (intermittent ponds, lakes, etc.) or geohydraulic regions in Florida as exposures of the drought-tolerant (Bush, 1982) where potable water Tertiary limestone aquifer system-­ supplies varied with climatic the Floridian aquifer. changes:

Perched water tables occur as 1. The OUTLYING REGION, where the localized systems in some areas of Tertiary limestones are buried Florida, but quickly shrink if by more than 35 meters of extended droughts starve modern water younger sediment. A region budgets. In geologic time, long term rarely breached by sinkholes, trends have shifted from arid to wet, potable surface water occurs in and vice versa; thus perched systems local, climate dependent, have been intermittently turned on perched systems. Lithic and off. When perched water systems resources for tool production existed, the abundance of surface are rare to non-existent. water increased; therefore, 2. The MARGINAL REGION, where the sett 1 em en t options and site Tertiary limestones are buried distributions became more widespread up to 35 meters deep. This (Dunbar and Waller, 1983). region is breached by open sinkholes that penetrate the Even though the massive Floridian overlying sediment to expose Aquifer is drought tolerant, it has the limestone. Limestone fluctuated with sea level, having low exposures may occur above but stands during glacial phases and near more often below present water present or higher stands during the tables. Lithic resources

419 '-­

include chert bearing Tertiary conditions create_d natural limestones and opalized resource accumulations that inclusions in the Hawthorne complemented technology and Formation. Lithi c resources subsistence behavior. Stable are not abundant. ha bitats in the karst regions 3. The TERTIARY KARST REGION, supported grazing animals but where the limestone occurs near drought intervals confined game or at the ground surface. The herds to oasis locals. During Tertiary limestones of Florida droughts, oases in·the karat river hold one of the nation's bottoms offered water, food, bone, largest grown water systems­ and lithic resources for Paleo the Floridian Aquifer. The Indian exploitation. As a result, Tertiary limestones also major site clusters in Florida contain the best and only major became centered around rivers like chert rock resource in Florida. the Santa Fe and Aucilla because multiple resources were available, Ninety percent of the Paleo Indian and repeated exploitation could be sites containing Clovis, Suwannee or supported. During wet periods Simpson projectiles are located near when intermittent water sources karat depressions that penetrate the existed above the river valleys, Tertiary limestones of Florida ( 155 game herds dispersed, and with of a total of 172 sites). The them mobile hunting groups. Thus Tertiary Karst Region has 71 percent a semi-sedentary Paleo Indian life of the sites, the Marginal Region 17 way may have existed with percent of the sites, and the prolonged river camp occupations Outlying Region 12 percent of the and less frequent periods of high­ sites (Figure 12.6). Some sites are hunter/gatherer mobility" (Dunbar, located around isolated sinkholes and 1987). solution depressions {9 percent), but most occur in areas where multiple The geohydraulic history of the karat features occur together and Tertiary Karst Region has been dominate the topography (81 percent). dynamic, including the Holocene (ca. The largest site clusters are located 10,000 years ago to present) n and around mature karst river inundation of many former land areas channels ( 60 percent) with smaller by transgressing seas or inland water but significant clusters centered table rises. The Inundation of sites around karstified lakes, bays, and in karstic terrain has promoted good prairies (23 percent). In Florida, organic preservation and, as a the distribution of Clovis/Suwannee result, promises to yield some of the sites indicates settlement patterns most informative archaeological were centered where natural resources remains in the eastern United States. were most abundant, particularly The potential for major drinking water and lithic supplies archaeological discoveries seems as (Dunbar, 1987). For example, natural great offshore as those that have resource availability in karst river been made inland in sinkholes, systems has been expressed as a springs, and in karat rivers like the hypothesis for archaeological Aucilla. testing: THE AUCILLA RIVER AREA "The river basins in the (two) AS A MODEL TO LOCATE Tertiary karat regions of Florida OFF SHORE SITES have the greatest concentration of Clovis/Suwannee Paleo Indian sites The Aucilla River is a limestone because• unique environmental entrenched river system that nows

420 into the central area of Apalachee features attracts fish and other Bay. The mouth of the river is marine life which, in turn, attract located about 50 miles southeast of fishermen and sport divers. Many Tallahassee, Florida. Since 1983, potential site locations have already several research expeditions have been pinpointed. In Apalachee Bay been conducted in the Aucilla River, and along the Gulf Coast to Tampa including its tributary, the Wacissa Bay, there are hundreds, probably River. Numerous land and underwater thousands, of topographic targets to sites have been recorded. Maj or inspect. research has been conducted on the Page/Ladson site (8Je591) located in The need to conduct offshore the Half Mile Rise section of the archaeological research is overdue. Aucilla River. The underwater Other than our cursory survey (which component of the Page/Ladson site has did demonstrate numerous sites reveled a stratified sequence some 4 exist), no meaningful work has been meters thick with in-situ cultural attempted in the Tertiary Karst levels 9, 500 to 12, 000 years old Region of the Florida shelf. Much of (Dunbar, et.al., In Press). the karst area is environmentally sensitive with numerous sea grass In the Aucilla River area, Paleo beds and rock outcrops representing Indi an site locations occur in breeding areas for marine life. The predictable patterns. Large sites knowledge we have gained about the are located adjacent to and in river marine environment, in all its subtle channel segments that are breached by detail, has been gathered by sinkholes. Small or infrequently extensive scientific investigation. used sites occur in, around, and away Conversely, the archaeological from the river, sometimes around resource has been ignored and is isolated sinkholes. Flint (chert) rarely acknowledged and almost never quarry areas are located in a number studied. of locations, including in the river channel, around sinkholes, and in the If we are to fully understand the surrounding karstic terrain, where archaeological pot ential in the erosion resistant chert boulders Tertiary Karst Region of the eastern protrude above the flat coastal Gulf of Mexico, basic archaeological terrain. research questions must be answered. Not only are these research questions Prehistoric sites in the f1.at terrain important to archaeology in general near the Aucilla River are difficult but also to resource managers who to locate. Fortunately, any of the need information to properly manage most interesting sites are located offshore resources. Therefore, around obvious features such as chert future. research on the karstic rock outcrops, sinkholes, and in the Florida shelf should consider the river basin. following questions:

THE PREDICTABILITY 1. At given points in time from OF OFFSHORE SITES 15,000 to 5,000 years before IN APALACHEE BAY present, can absolute sea level stands be identified to allow The search for offshore sites becomes chronologically evolving site much easier if one can locate predictive models? Coring inundated sinkholes, river channels, sinkholes to obtain dateable and chert rock outcrops as convenient freshwater and saltwater guide posts. The irregular sediments should provide an topography associated with these absolute sea level curve and

421 paleo-environmental data to Peninsular Florida. Paper, answer this research question. University of Florida. 2. Do archaeological sites exist in the eastern Gulf of Mexico Brooks, H.K. 1973b. Holocene that have stratigraphic Climatic Changes in Peninsular integrity despite Holocene sea Florida, Geological Society of level transgressions and marine America Annual Meeting Abstracts U.S. erosive conditions? This n. question is of particular importance to the limestone Bush, P.W. 1982. Predevelopment Flow sediment starved study area. in the Tertiary Limestone Aquifer, Conducting limited test Southeastern United States: A excavations to determine site Regional Analysis from Digital integrity should answer this Modeling; U.S. Geological Survey research question. Water Resource Investigations, 82­ 3. What is the variety of 905, 41 p. 8 sheets. archaeological sites encountered ?--For example, Clausen, C.J., A.D. Cohen, c. resource procurement vs. Emiliani, A.J. Holman and J.J. Stipp. habitation sites, coastal 1979. Little Salt Springs, Florida: oriented vs. inland, major base A Unique Underwater Site. Science, camp vs. small habitation 203(4381):609-614. areas? This questions may also be answered by limited test Dunbar, J.S. 1987. The Resource excava·tion. Orientation of Clovis and Suwannee 4. Once prehistoric offshore sites Age Paleo Indian Sites in Florida. are located, can remote sensing Paper presented at the XII Congress instruments provide diagnostic of the International Union for signatures of the known sites? Quaternary Research. Paper submitted Can prehistoric sites be for publication to proceedings located with remote sensing chairman and to be published by equipment once known sites have Canadian Journal of Archaeology. been scanned? Can it locate several sites in a variety of Dunbar, J .s. 1981. The Effect of marine settings and conduct Geohydrology and Natural Resource remote sensing surveys to Availability on Site Utilization of determine if diagnostic the Fowl er Bridge Mastodon Site signatures are obtainable? If (8Hi393c/us) in Hillsborough County, so utilize, this data in an Florida. In: Interstate 75 Highway attempt to locate sites with Phase II Archaeological Report 115, remote sensing equipment. Florida Division of Archives, History and Records Management, pp. 63-106. REFERENCES Dunbar, J.S. and B.I. Waller. 1983. A Distribution Analysis of the Brooks, H.K. 1967. The rate of Clovis/Suwannee Paleo-Indian Sites of limestone solution in the near­ Florida--A Geographic Approach. surface Tertiary Karst regions of Florida Anthropologist 36( 1 & 2): 18­ Northern Florida. In: Miscellaneous 30. reports. Bureau of Water Quality Coastal. North Florida Region. Dunbar, J.S., S.D. Webb and D. Cring. In Press. Culturally and Naturally Brooks, H.K. 1973a. Late Pleistocene Modified Bones from a Paleo Indian and Holocene Climatic Change in Site in the Aucilla River, North Florida. In: Bone Modification, ed.

422 Rob Bonni ch sen. Orono, Maine: University of Maine.

Jenks, A.E. and H.H. Simpson, Sr. 1941. Beveled Artifacts in Florida of the Same Type as Artifacts Found Near Clovis, New Mexico. American Antiquity, 6:314-319.

Neill, W.T. 1964. Points and Extinct Animals in Florida. Florida Anthropologist 17(Mar.):17-32.

Webb, S. David. 1974. Pleistocene Mammals of Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Presses of Florida.

Mr. James Dunbar is the underwater archaeological field supervisor for the Florida Department of State, Bureau of Archaeological Research. He has acted in this capacity since 1976. Mr. Dunbar is a graduate of the University of Florida, at Gainesville, and prior to attending college, was an oil field comnercial diver. His res earch interests include the study of Paleo-Indians in Florida and the effects of paleohydrology and sea level change on prehistoric sites.

423 FLORIDA

Nori h

" 0 15 u-\.,.,JKm

0 100 ~.,,,..

Figure 12.1.--Inundated archaeological sites of coastal Florida.

424 a

•GREY MARE ROCKS I WA267 OCEAN • PETERS ROCK JE65Z I

• CHILDERS I JE653 ol C vr::-1------1---• ECONflNA ·CHl\NNEL .. (' v TA531 ~ p. G p. \.­ p. p

---1--N'

• RAY HOLE SPRING 01234:!16 NAUTICAL MILCS

Figur 12.2.--Archaeological sites in Apalachee Bay. RAY HOLE SPRING t A N

LEGEND

~ CARBONATE SANO @] 1987 MARINE 9-tEU. OETRITl.JS

~ UMEST~E ~ 1978 MARINE 9-tBJ.. OETRITUS

Figure 12.3.--Cross-section drawing of Ray Hole Spring.

426 (/) o ll:: -20 ~ -40 :::::i: -60 ~ -BO :t: I­a.. -100 LiJ 0 -120 ll:: -140 ~ 3 o 10 20 THOUSAND YEARS BEFORE PRESENT

Figure 12.4.--Sea leveJ ~urv~ for the Gulf of Mexico .

•

Figure 12.5.--Possible decortication flake associated with Ray Hole Spring.

427 Gulf Of 0 <"> "'., ~ Gulf Coast Karst

••. Clovis/Suwannee Artifact Density

(one dot equals one artifact)

@Tertiary Karst Region

~ Marginal Reg ion Nori h

Q Out lying Region

0 100 ~Miles

Figure 12.6.--Distribution pattern of diagnostic Clovis, Suwannee, and Simpson artifacts in the Outlying, Marginal, and Tertiary Karst Regions of Florida.

428