The impact of tagline on brand image: A consumer experiment with a handmade locally brand
Author: Thi Do Supervisor: Pia Polsa
Department of Marketing
Hanken School of Economics
Helsinki
2018
HANKEN SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS
Department of: Marketing Type of work: Thesis
Author: Thi Do Date: 31.12.2018
Title of thesis:
The impact of tagline on brand image: A consumer experiment with a handmade locally brand
Abstract:
Purpose: The objective of the research is to assess the contribution of tagline itself to brand image associations and estimated product price, respectively, as determiners of brand image and brand value perceived by consumers for handmade and local foods. Design/methodology/approach: The study collected data in a between-subject experiment where all the participants’ five sense were engaged. Informants were divided into a control group and test group. The experiment started with product investigation, product tasting and ended with in-depth interviews. Findings: The paper presents two sets of results. The first set shows that with a handmade locally tagline, brand image associations are adequately more positive than without a tagline, i.e.: product quality is assumed higher with such a tagline. The effect of tagline on brand image associations is idiosyncratic, varying by associations, usage behavior of the panelist. This reveals the role of consumptionscape, where consumers harness the possibilities and resources towards their goals. The meaningfulness of a brand and product is determined in the context of their lifestyle and social interactions. The second set of results shows that local handmade brand is far more valuable monetarily (i.e.: consumer’s product price estimation and willingness to pay) than non-local handmade brand. However, the interplay with social groups will be sought more strongly when the brand is without a tagline. Originality/value: This is one of the first studies investigating consumers' perceptions of brand image and value, using the attributes of being local and handmade in an emerging market setting. It illuminates the unique impact of handmade locally tagline on brand while contributes to the conversation on branding for more ecologically and socially sustainable brand by directing a new attention to consumptionscape. It suggests that by being close, practical and meaningful to the setting of consumer consumption, local and handmade brand would get a greater reception in food system/collectives.
Keywords: handmade, local, brand, tagline, image, value, consumptionscape
CONTENTS
1 Introduction ...... 6 1.1 Research problem ...... 7 1.2 Research aim ...... 10 1.3 Delimitations ...... 10 1.4 Core concepts ...... 11 1.5 Structure ...... 12 2 Theoretical framework ...... 13 2.1 The nature of taglines ...... 13 2.1.1 Definition of tagline ...... 13 2.1.2 The role of tagline ...... 14 2.1.3 Current situation of handmade locally tagline ...... 17 2.2 Taglines and brands ...... 17 2.2.1 General tagline practices ...... 17 2.2.2 Interrelation of tagline and brand ...... 19 a. Tagline in packaging ...... 19 b. Handmade locally tagline and brand ...... 20 2.2.3 An effective tagline for branding ...... 21 2.3 Consumer perceptions ...... 23 2.3.1 Brand value ...... 26 2.4 Theoretical summary framework ...... 26 3 Methods...... 29 3.1 Research philosophy ...... 29 3.2 Research design ...... 29 3.3 Interview ...... 31 3.4 Samples ...... 37 3.5 Practicalities of data collection ...... 40 3.6 Analysis ...... 41 3.6.1 Coding/Categorisation ...... 41 3.6.2 Abstraction ...... 46 3.6.3 Comparison ...... 46 4
3.6.4 Dimensionalization ...... 47 3.6.5 Integration ...... 47 3.6.6 Iteration ...... 47 3.6.7 Refutation ...... 47 3.7 Trustworthiness of data ...... 48 4 Empirical findings ...... 50 4.1 Brand image ...... 50 4.1.1 Associations related to the packaging ...... 50 4.1.2 Other brand image associations ...... 52 4.2 Brand experience - Consumptionscape ...... 54 4.3 Brand value ...... 57 4.4 Findings summary framework ...... 59 5 Dicussion and implication ...... 61 5.1 Discussion ...... 61 5.1.1 Brand image ...... 61 5.1.2 Brand experience and Consumptionscape ...... 62 5.1.3 Brand value ...... 65 5.1.4 Discussion summary ...... 65 5.2 Theoretical contributions ...... 66 5.3 Practical implications ...... 67 5.4 Limitations and suggestions for future researches ...... 68 6 References ...... 70 7 Appendices ...... 82 7.1 Appendix 1: Article topics ...... 82 7.2 Appendix 2: Other reasons for price estimation and willingness to pay...... 83
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TABLES
Table 1 Searches among literature and results, June 2018 ...... 8 Table 2 The communication approaches of taglines ...... 15 Table 3 Interview questions corresponding to brand image and experience elements ...... 34 Table 4 Respondent samples ...... 38 Table 5 Evaluation of trustworthiness, adapted from Wallendorf & Belk (1989) .... 48 Table 6 Associations related to the packaging ...... 50 Table 7 Other brand associations ...... 52 Table 8 Brand experience - Consumptionscape ...... 54 Table 9 Brand value and willingness to pay ...... 57 Table 10 Average price estimate ...... 58 Table 11 Packaging associations summary ...... 61 Table 12 Other brand associations summary ...... 62 Table 13 Brand experience – Consumptionscape summary ...... 63 Table 14 Other reasons for price estimation and willingness to pay ...... 83
FIGURES
Figure 1 Goodwood brand and tagline (Gatrell et al. 2018) ...... 9 Figure 2 Brand image and value perceived through tagline ...... 28 Figure 3 The filtering effect of tagline on brand (adapted from Lundqvist et al., 2013) ...... 31 Figure 4 Product range (Baba, 2018) ...... 39 Figure 5 Analysis processes, adapted from Silverman (2005), Spiggle (1994) and Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton (2013) ...... 41 Figure 6 Categorization, abstraction, and aggregate dimensions ...... 42 Figure 7 Dimensionalization of Craftmanship ...... 47 Figure 8 Impact of handmade locally tagline on brand image and value ...... 60
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1 INTRODUCTION
As consumers become more aware of the influence of their consumption on the ecosystem (Diamantopoulos et al., 2003; Strong, 1996; Shaw & Clark, 1999; Barnett et al., 2005), more and more consumers direct their choices to local and handmade products, following the mega-trendy sustainability (Dewulf, Meester & Alvarenga, 2016; Kotler, 2011; Papaoikonomou et al., 2011; Polsa, 2016; Steingard & Fitzgibbons, 1995). In an overcrowded marketplace, numerous producers take the locality and product craftmanship as a core philosophy for their business and marketing communication (Crowley, 2018; Fatlizard, 2018; Jymy, 2018; K-Supermarket, 2018; Lush, 2018). In competition, it is essential for brands to define the competitive sets, i.e.: the reference that consumers use in thinking about where the product fits in the larger context (Mcdivitt, 2003). The struggle is that everyday consumers are presented with an increasing amount of commercialization, an overflow and omnipresence of meaningless market offers (Boyle, 2004). To overcome this meaninglessness, consumers look for brands that are relevant, original, and genuine: they increasingly search for authenticity in brands (Arnould & Price, 2000; Beverland, 2005; Brown, Kozinets, & Sherry, 2003). As a unique tool in the making of a brand’s legacy and evolving image (Kohli et al., 2007:416), taglines for handmade and local products are highly popular in the context of grocery retailing. Product taglines make a primary reference point for consumers here (Mcdivitt, 2003).
Taglines such as “Finnish Organic” (Jymy, 2018), “Brewing Co. Espoo” (Fatlizard, 2018), “Porokylän Bakery” (K-Supermarket, 2018), “Itsetehtyä, Valmistettu Kangasalla” or Selfmade in Kangasala (Saarioinen, 2018), Lush’s “Handmade” (Lush, 2018), Brooklyn’s “The Beer that Brooklyn built” (Crowley, 2018) are devoted to describing how the product is made by hand and/or locally. In other words, these taglines leverage their place-based and method-based identity to grow sales and develop a local market and supplies.
In general, being handmade locally may create a positive element that motivates shoppers to project a sense of positive feeling or even trust toward the brand. It brings a certain assumption of product uniqueness and a specific set of skills and experience are added to the offerings (Capps 2015; Franklin 2015). However, there have been customers’ views where being handmade locally does not necessarily make a desirable element for the brand image: some associate this with being overly expensive (Janery, 2015; Lex, 2011; Sellers, 2016; Tigrezno, 2016; Verspagen, 2017) or a “sticker shock” at 7
handmade prices (Janery, 2015). This is due to factors such as materials cost, higher labour cost than mass production machinery, work experience or resource shortage and seasonality (Capps, 2015; Ferreira, 2015; Franklin, 2018; Janery, 2015; Sellers, 2016; Verspagen, 2017). Food hygiene is another possible concern when looking at handmade products. Overall, how does a ‘handmade locally’ tagline really influence brand evaluation?
As brand taglines are open for interpretation, they become a subject for discussion, be it for or against the brand itself (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996; Warren, 2006:8-10). This applies to taglines for handmade locally products with the influences on the brand image and value. In this light, this study aims to address the influences further via a literature review and consumer experiments in this topic.
1.1 Research problem
Theoretically, much has been written about taglining and branding in general, yet their relationship to local and handmade products is clearly missing insights. In other words, little is known about how taglining a brand as handmade and local influences the brand image.
Tagline and branding researches dated back in the 1980s with Macklin’s (1985) research on how to create a simple enough tagline. Since then, a plethora of research has been devoted to designing, changing and optimising taglines to support branding. This include taglines for local products (local taglines) and handmade products (handmade taglines).
Yet a large amount of research on taglines local subjects has been for place branding relating to tourism (Foroudi et al., 2016; Fulong, 2000; Strom & Kertein, 2015; Yeoh & Lam, 2016) rather than for local products (Gatrell et al., 2018; Ranasinghe et al., 2017). For handmade tagline, research is rare and discuss on other industries such as paper (Biggs & Messerschmidt, 2005), textile (Keith & Silies, 2015), and raw materials (García- Rodríguez et al., 2013). The relationships between handmade locally tagline and brand, however, have been explicitly examined by a very limited number of researchers. Databases from Hanken Finna which includes but not limited to Emerald, SAGE Premier 2013, Elsevier SD Freedom Collection were used for the searches among literature. The search terms were created based on the key elements of the topic: brand, tagline, local, and handmade. Slogan was also included due to the interchangeable use of this term for tagline among the literature. Different search terms were then combined to implement the search. Table 1 below details the results of literature coverage for each combination. 8
Table 1 Searches among literature and results, June 2018
Search results Level of literature coverage Combined search terms tagline slogan brand 534 3312 high brand local 277 1962 medium -high brand handmade 5 27 low brand handcraft 0 3 extremely low handmade local 3 47 low handcraft local 0 11 extremely low brand handmade local 1 18 extremely low brand handcraft local 0 2 extremely low
The numbers indicate a clear gap for using the handmade locally tagline in branding. Among the search results, 22 of the articles were repeated on average 3 times across the searches with low or extremely low literature coverage. The irrelevance of these articles is detailed in Appendix 1 with their topics. Duplicated articles also occurred within one search outcome or across the outcomes, while other articles maybe irrelevant to the topic. This leaves us with a scarcity of relevant literature and raises a pressing need for more research for academia.
Among the literature, two relatively relevant studies are Ranasinghe et al. (2017) and Gatrell et al. (2018). a. Ranasinghe et al. (2017) study on the applicability of the strategic place brand- management model for Ceylon Tea. It includes a common idea with this study which relates to Product-place co-branding at the city level, the attempts to market a physical product by associating it with a place that is assumed to have attributes beneficial to the product image. For example, “Swiss watches” to associate the watches with the characteristics of Swiss people or the country Switzerland: reliability, meticulousness and perfectionism. Even though the aim was to articulate purely Sri Lankan origin tea, and exclude mixed- blend teas, the tagline in this study, “symbol of quality”, does not (Ranasinghe et al., 2017) reflect the origin or handmade method for the brand, thus it is irrelevant. Additionally, while the study considers the tagline as a part of the brand articulation for the local representing product, Ceylon tea, it essentially lacks the consideration of tagline’s influence on the brand image and value from the customer perspective. 9
Therefore, while it is interesting to see Ranasinghe et al. (2017) findings provide reassurance on applying strategic place branding models in product-place co-branding, the relationship between the tagline and brand image from the consumers perspective was not covered. b. Gatrell et al. (2018) study has a closer relation to this study due to its higher weight distributed to the locality and inclusion of taglines for handmade, local brands. Similarities are observable in the article’s discussion on deploying traditional production processes (as opposed to the industrial practices of macros), an emphasize on quality, flavor, and diversity, and produce limited quantities (Gomez- Corona et al., 2016; Hieronymous, 2015 as in Gatrell et al., 2018). Figure 1 shows one of the studied brands and its tagline.
Figure 1 Goodwood brand and tagline (Gatrell et al. 2018)
However, the study focuses heavily on authenticity of the brands, including taglines, from a neo-localism viewpoint and misses the presence of the tagline’s influences on brand image and value. The handmade method was not explicitly present in the taglines. Additionally, the focal category of American craft beer as an overheated economic sector that may be experiencing a bubble (Morris 2015, as in Gatrell et al., 2018) might pose a distinction that diminishes the transferability of this study.
Having said that, Gatrell et al. (2018) proposes a solid point on how a place, i.e.: a city name, is also linked to local human-environment interactions, natural resources, and broader regional contexts (Mittag, 2014; Yool & Comrie,2014 as in Gatrell et al., 2018). In turn, the article sees this complex as a reason why the deployment of a shared sense of place or identity may not be sufficient to sustain growth and ensure firm survival. Yet, this reasoning needs to be further tested as the elements shift. 10
All in all, there is a lack of a reflection of consumer perspective of the locality or handmade method on brand image, especially when these elements are put into a tagline. In other words, no previous article has investigated the influence of handmade locally taglines on brand image and value. This scarcity and irrelevance urge for more discovery into consumer perspectives of taglines for handmade locally brand. From here, knowledge would be created to assist in actions from brand managers and future studies. The study aims to contribute to taglining and handmade locally product branding research and practice by investigating the influence of handmade locally taglines on brand image and value.
1.2 Research aim
Since brand image is made up of numerous brand associations in the consumer’s mind, the study endeavours to explore these associations. The associations can come from brand packaging and other sources, i.e.: product, experience, price. The main focus is to extend the current knowledge on tagline in branding by examining existing literature and contributing a new discussion and evidences. In turn, this may assist the actions of local and handmade brand owner. This thesis aims to answer two research questions (RQ) as following:
RQ1: How does a handmade locally tagline influence the brand image? RQ2: Are consumers willing to pay more for a product with a handmade locally tagline?
1.3 Delimitations
The focus of the study will be directed to food products in the relation with handmade locally taglines. Therefore, this excludes: i. Other product categories when such taglines are neither valid nor imply the similar values in consumer minds. These could be products from other industries. ii. Other types of taglines where place-based identity is absent; or the fact of a product being handmade is not explicit in the tagline.
As for level of locality, a city level is used for this study. Due to the scope of this study, levels such as country or culture would be challenging to grasp due to a higher amount of time and resources required, i.e.: for travelling between/among countries, or cultural expertise required to measure the influences. Therefore, references for this study would not include, for example, studies that test how the country of origin affects brand or product perceptions and brand image (Balabanis & Diamantopoulos, 2008; Basfirinci, 11
2013; Katsumata & Song, 2016; Prendergast et al., 2010; Rios et al., 2014; Thanasuta et al., 2009; Zhang & Merunka, 2015 as discussed in Ranasinghe et al., 2017)
For brand value, this study focuses on consumer perception of price and willingness to pay as a value indicator. It is viewed as a variable to be explained rather than a priori constraint (Zafirovski, 2000). This helps keep the scale of this research while at the same time, reveal the links between price and other value elements. The relationship between price category and willingness to pay is not the main study focus but employed as a reference point to understand brand value perception of consumers.
1.4 Core concepts
A tagline is a slogan, clarifier, mantra, company statement, or guiding principle that describes, synopsizes, or helps create an interest (Kohli et al., 2007, p. 416; Mitchell et al., 2007; Traverso as quoted in Wheeler 2017, p.29).
A brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, or design or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or seller group and to differentiate them from others (Kotler & Keller, 2008).
A handmade locally tagline expresses a manual craftmanship and an origin or place- based identity of a product.
Brand image is a mental picture of a brand in consumer mind, made up of numerous brand associations and memories (Rindell & Iglesias 2014). These can come from packaging or other sources, i.e.: product, experience, price.
Brand value is a vast topic, within which, price has been a proxy and a main driver (Sheth et al., 1991). Consumer choice is driven by price due to its reflection on how they value a product or brand. Therefore, as stated in the Delimitation section, this study focuses on price as a brand value indicator, a variable to be explained.
Sustainability means “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, p. 8). In this study, environmental and social sustainability are the key focus. 12
1.5 Structure
This thesis is divided into five chapters starting from becoming acquaintance with the key literature elements and gap, mapping out the theoretical framework to experiment design and outcomes. The chapters follow a logical sequential flow. The first chapter opens up by describing the broad context, core research matters and set the stage for the problems to show. These are then linked to the research aims and shape the research questions that start the search for the answers.
Chapter two provides a knowledge basis by combining relevance ideas in literature into a narrative of past work for the sake of understanding. In turn, sub-chapters 2.2 and 2.3 seek evidences to design an empirical study in the following chapter three, especially sub- chapters from 3.1 to 3.4. A theoretical framework summarizes the key concepts relevant to the study and shows how the literature supports the research design.
The third chapter details how the findings in literature support the research design (sub- chapters 3.1 to 3.4) and the practicality and fashion in which the empirical study was carried out (sub-chapters 3.4 to 3.7). This covers the data collection methods and analysis techniques used to make sense of the raw data.
Chapter four entails findings on brand image, brand experience – consumptionscape and brand value via sub-chapters 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3, respectively. At the end of this chapter, a summary of findings presents the most significant effects of the handmade locally tagline while illuminates elements from the literature that were agreed by this research outcomes.
By the end, chapter five of discussions present the rationale harvested from the study results (sub-chapter 5.1), the contributions to academia (sub-chapter 5.2) and practice (sub-chapter 5.3). The chapter closes up by informing and inviting new researches to join in this new research avenue (sub-chapter 5.4). 13
2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A product being handmade locally may fascinate people and can be thought to contribute to a positive image about a brand. When studying the elements of a brand, tagline or slogan is not a new concept, with its first study in 1980s by Macklin’s (1985). Much has been written about the power of taglines in branding, yet the literature offers little insight to the effects of handmade locally taglines on brands.
The content of this chapter starts by defining tagline, its nature in theory and practice. The chapter then continues by describing the interrelation of tagline and brand, particularly for handmade locally tagline and brand, and what makes an effective tagline in this regard. At the end, the focus shifts to consumer expectations from tagline and their constructs of brand value, before the chapter closes up with a theoretical framework summarizing the most central ideas.
2.1 The nature of taglines
In this section, the basis of research is introduced from the definition of tagline, the role of tagline to the current situation of handmade locally tagline.
2.1.1 Definition of tagline
A tagline is a slogan, clarifier, mantra, company statement, or guiding principle that describes, synopsizes, or helps create an interest (Kohli et al., 2007, p.416; Mitchell et al., 2007; Traverso as quoted in Wheeler 2017, p.29). Verbally, a tagline is short statement linked with the brand name (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.64; Slade-Brooking, 2016) and logo (Miletsky & Smith, 2009). The length of a tagline is often between three and five words (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.64).
Alongside the brand icon or logo, it is one of the most memorable elements – also known as a strapline or slogan. The word ‘slogan’ comes from the Gaelic sluagh-ghairm, the war cry of Scottish clans (Aboulian & McBride, 2007:359; Kohli, Leuthesser & Suri, 2007:415; Wheeler, 2017). A tagline is frequently made up of few words, repeated in promotional media including online branding (Allagui & Breslow, 2016) to reinforce a brand’s unique qualities in the minds of the public. (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.64; Slade-Brooking 2016) Deceptively simple, taglines are not chosen by random. They are the product of intensive strategies and creative processes to make a company stand out. (Macklin, 1985, p.32-34; Wheeler, 2017) 14
Despite the often interchangeable use of the two terms, tagline and slogan are not absolutely the same. A tagline is a part of a company signature that stays with the company all the time. It only changes with a total redefining of the company. In many cases the tagline becomes so well known that it is instantly identifiable (Miletsky & Smith, 2009; Wong, 2012), i.e.: Disneyland’s “The happiest place on Earth” (Wong, 2012).Differently, slogans are often used only for a certain product or campaign. This means slogans are intended to be less long-lasting than taglines. A slogan may be refreshed regularly, while a company tagline remains consistent for a company as a whole. Some marketers mention slogans as product taglines, as opposed to company taglines. Yet both tagline and slogan are a short, powerful phrase about the business (Wong, 2012). Due to this interchangeable use of two terms, this study will include both of them for a broader understanding from the literature.
2.1.2 The role of tagline
Taglines send a brief claim about the brand promise, essence (Miletsky & Smith, 2009; Wheeler, 2017), positioning (Lautenslager, 2014; Slade-Brooking, 2016), personality and distinguishes the company from its competitors (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.63; Wheeler, 2017). It highlights unique elements of a product or promises the brand wishes to make to the consumer (Slade-Brooking, 2016). A tagline can add values (Kladou et al., 2016; Nonprofit Communications Report, 2016; Woo & Lee, 2007). It may take the product to some high ground (Sullivan, 2016) and build an emotional link with consumers (Hall, 2004 as discussed in Ranasinghe et al., 2017).
Thereby, a tagline could make the brand relevant to customers by exposing the brand value, identity and personality. Taglines are usually memorable and help tie together the components of a brand (Lautenslager, 2014). It needs to say a lot with a little (ibid) and fits into ten different communication approaches: descriptive, superlative, links to the logo, imperative, provocative, specific, purpose driven, make a promise, rent the image of a region, and points out the risk of not using the brand (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996:65; Keohane, 2014; Miletsky & Smith, 2009; Slade-Brooking, 2016; Wheeler, 2017).
As seen in Table 2 below, a tagline could be implicit, explicit, polysemous (having more than one meaning), humorous, generic or somewhere in between (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.65). Either way, each tagline is open for interpretation and effective that way. This serves to the role and purpose of taglines as becoming a subject for discussion, be it for or against the tagline itself (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996; Warren, 2006, p.8-10). 15
Table 2 The communication approaches of taglines
Tagline types Implicit Explicit Polysemous Humorous Generic
Descriptive Lush’s ”Fresh Innocent’s TED’s “Ideas handmade “Nothing but worth Describes the product service or promise cosmetics” fruit” spreading.”
(Miletsky and Smith, 2009; Slade-Brooking, 2016; Wheeler, 2017)
Superlative - A comparative approach BMW’s “The Bubweiser’s Defines the market position as top of its category or ultimate “King of best in class. driving beers” (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.65; Slade-Brooking, machine” 2016; Wheeler, 2017)
Links to the logo or brand name Allstate’s Pilgrims (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996:65; Miletsky & Smith, “You’re in Choice’s 2009; Theocharous, 2015) Good Hands “Good Choice with Allstate” Pilgrim”
Imperative American Coca Cola’s Adidas’ ”Never A command or direction for action, can starts with a Express’ ” “Open Follow.” verb. Don’t Leave happiness” (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.65; Miletsky & Smith, Home
2009; Slade-Brooking, 2016; Wheeler, 2017) Without It.” Communication approaches Communication 16
Provocative Microsoft’s Dairy Yahoo’s ” Do Legend’s A thought-provoking question, or irony. “Where are Council’s “Got you Yahoo!?” “What is the (Ille, 2009; Slade-Brooking, 2016; Wheeler, 2017) you going Milk?” world going to today?” be if we stop dreaming?” Specific eBay’s DeBeers’ “A Skittles’ Defines the brand’s product, or category. “Happy diamond Is “Taste the (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.65; Slade-Brooking, Hunting” forever” rainbow” 2016; Wheeler, 2017)
Purpose driven Siemens’ EY’s “Building Lenovo’s Related to society’s concerns, these taglines mean “Committed a better “New World, what they do can be far-reaching and important. to the working New (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.65; Keohane, 2014; future” world. Thinking” Kotler & Pfoertsh, 2007)
Make a promise Lexus’ The Sum’s ” (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996:65) “Without We’re good. compromise” Just ask our moms.” Rent the image of a region Rolex’s “Of Brooklyn’s ”The (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.65) Geneva” Beer that Brooklyn built” Points out the risk of not using the brand Ireland’s 2008 Onida’s ” (Miletsky & Smith, 2009) “Can You Neighbor’s Afford Not To Envy. Go?” Owner’s Pride.”
17
2.1.3 Current situation of handmade locally tagline
A local tagline creates a distinct place-based identity for a brand. It rents the image of a region (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.65) and implies the brand’s involvement in local grassroots resources and activities. Diversely, it communicates a vision that may or may not be shared by the audience who associate the tagline with the specific product. Brand value wise, it is one of the creative assets, a brand identity element (Wheeler, 2017).
Most often the big idea becomes the tagline (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996; Wheeler, 2017). Currently, sustainability including consumptional, environmental and social issues (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996; Baltador, 2015; Devine-Wright, 2013; Perey, 2014; Polsa, 2016; Seht, 2001) are one of the key considerations for consumers and have therefore become a driver for many brands. For example, IBM, who have rearticulated their marketing to address this, highlighting their green credentials with the strapline ‘A smarter planet’ – a simple but motivating idea (Wheeler, 2017).
The similar goes for handmade locally tagline. It may come from the business philosophy of being local and supporting locals. To that end, firms, brands, and product lines that explicitly combine place with themes of sustainability and region may be more likely to survive (Gatrell et al., 2018). As handmade products may get more personal attention and care during crafting, they can last longer and thus, become more sustainable via minimising waste (García-Rodríguez et al., 2013). General speaking, a handmade locally tagline implies that the brand takes sustainability (Biggs & Messerschmidt, 2005; García-Rodríguez et al., 2013; Keith & Silies, 2015) as one of its core values.
2.2 Taglines and brands
Brand-building should involve all the company assets to create unique entities that certain consumers really want. These entities are desired to have a lasting personality, unique and have a competitive advantage in at least one area of marketing (King, 2003 as discussed in Balmer & Greyser, 2003). The relationship between taglines and brands are discussed in this section, which examines general tagline practices, the interrelation of a handmade locally tagline and brand, as well as tactics to make a tagline affective.
2.2.1 General tagline practices
Some authors see taglines as completely optional additions to the brand expression (Smith, 2009 in Miletsky & Smith, 2009) yet argued that it is the case unless a tagline 18
becomes such an iconic part of the brand that it serves as a shortcut for consumers to identify the brand directly, i.e.: Nike’s “Just Do It”. In some remarks, taglines are critically considered as taking up space (Trout, 2008, p.47-48) and not adding any value to the company (Warren, 2006, p.8-10). In advertising, Xie, Madrigal and Boush (2015) see taglines as a part of deceptive advertisement and allocate great weight to it in the study. Authors have accused taglines of being overrated and unmemorable, thus irrelevant in many cases (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.64; Warren, 2006, p.8-10).
Yet taglines keep up with popularity in not only business but also social context (Cole & Fieselman, 2013; Diamond et al., 2009; Quinn et al., 2007), i.e.: anti-drug advertising (Terry-Mcelrath et al., 2011), education (Salem Khalifa, 2009), religion (Einstein, 2011), healthcare (Hatfield et al., 2017; Struthers & Wang, 2016), and cultural studies (Lazar, 2009). Examples can be observed via the use of taglines for drug prevention campaigns where taglines with tested cultural saliency and persuasiveness were fused into visual projections and posters against drug use (Diamond et al., 2009); in media production, i.e.: Black Hawk Down film’s “Leave No Man Behind” (Samet, 2005); or campaign to promote physical activity to children (Huhman et al., 2008). The significance of taglines has been written about across brands from different cultures: USA and Korea (Woo and Lee, 2007), India (Harish, 2010), Nepal (Biggs & Messerschmidt, 2005); brand positions: national and private (Kladou et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2018), company ranking: countries’ top 100 (Woo & Lee, 2007) and so on. In Finland, the number of registered taglines is substantially higher in the past decades (Iskulauserekisteri, 2018).
In practice, taglines often include the terms that imply a brand’s superior attributes, such as being outperforming, the best, the leader. Adslogan (2001) study identifies the most commonly used terms: you, your, we, world, new, more, good, better and best. However, Hampf and Lindberg-Repo (2011, p.5) advise against using such comparative terms for differentiation as “first”, “best” and “the most beautiful” are not appealing to consumers anymore.
As a matter of fact, the more original a tagline is, the more likely it becomes successful (Lundqvist et al., 2013) in the market competition (Cone, 2008, p.142). When integrated into the brand design and communication (Hampt & Lindberg-Repo, 2011, p.15), taglines can bridge between “a brand’s legacy and its evolving image” (Kohli et al., 2007, p.416). This is done via integrating the tagline in product design and marketing communication to express the brand essence and what makes the legacy to the audience (ibid). 19
2.2.2 Interrelation of tagline and brand
A successful brand identity is made up of a series of interlinked elements that all aim to communicate brand values (Slade-Brooking, 2016). Thus, it is worth seeing a brand for its details and how they team up to propose a brand impression in consumer mind.
a. Tagline in packaging
Packaging is a part of brand image. Among other packaging elements, a tagline is a medium for brand communication. It is expected that perceived quality may change with branding (Moskowitz, Krieger & Barash, 1997; Silva, Bioto, Efraim & Queiroz, 2017). Next to the brand name, the tagline is one of the multiple extrinsic cues used as indicators of quality (Sharma & Garg, 2016). Therefore, it is a part of the packaging context that incorporates colour, logo, text and image that allocated onto the packaging container and label (Favier, Celhay & Pantin-Sohier, 2019). Tangible cues exhibiting quality, i.e.: packaging material, labelling, brand statement (Silva et al., 2017) require profound attention (Beneke, Flynn, Greig, & Mukaiwa, 2013).
Otterbring, Shams, Wästlund & Gustafsson (2013) recommend that for a package to get the most attention, texts should be on the left-hand side of a package, while pictures should be on the right-hand side. To create brand excitement, Bajaj & Bond (2018) suggest an asymmetry in visual brand elements that include the tagline. The degree of elaborateness is proved significant on brand perception, with simplicity being associated with modernity, reliability, authenticity, success and sobriety (Favier et al, 2019). Overall, the package design can be up to the brand designer. Yet its effectiveness depends on how consumers make sense out of the whole packaging and thus, has a strong impact on the point-of-purchase decision (ibid).
Particularly, in the case of food products, packaging design influences taste evaluation (van Rompay, Deterink & Fenko 2016). Decontamination during packaging gives a sense of cleanliness and reliability to consumers (Demirci & Ngadi, 2012). Given that risk plays an important part in the consumer decision process (Beneke et al., 2013), this makes a hygiene factor that brings safety to consumers to assess other brand elements, i.e.: tagline. Dewulf et al. (2016) discuss a significant role of renewable energy and products in the market today; which applies to packaging material. It is preferred that a brand have its sustainability assessment methods for all brand elements (ibid). 20
b. Handmade locally tagline and brand
The same goes for handmade locally brands, a tagline is a part of the brand’s top-level identification, the structured relationship between a logo, brand name, and tagline (Wheeler, 2017). To an extent, a good tagline is a natural by-product of a focused business model (Lautenslager, 2014; Siegel, 2013). This means it helps customers understand, i.e.: the work put into the production and how the quality is created. When consumer prefers a product being handmade, a handmade locally tagline may mean a sense of comfort and simplicity that Edwards and Day (2005) see as essential qualities for creating a brand. Authors also relate these qualities to brand authenticity, integrity and timelessness (Edwards & Day, 2005).
The handmade locally tagline belongs to the Descriptive type (where the tagline describes the product, service or promise) and Rent the image of a region type (where a place name is included in the tagline). It is a communication approach. It explains plainly to customers the origin and crafting method of the products in a non-comparative way, as observed in Table 2. Jain et al. (2000) suggest that ads containing noncomparative statements, such as a description of handmade locally products, are more believable than comparative ads. This matches Hampf and Lindberg-Repo’s (2011, p.5) suggestion against using comparative terms (such as better, outperform, best, ultimate) for taglines. Morhart et al. (2015) detail the idea further via a systematic scale for measuring perceived brand authenticity (PBA) which involves four dimensions: credibility, integrity, symbolism, and continuity which are reliable across different brands and cultural contexts. Non-comparative claim such as the handmade locally tagline moderates the consumers’ level of marketing scepticism and hence boosts authenticity of a brand. In other words, it brings the brand up in the sincerity dimension of brand personality (Aaker, 1997), which incorporates traits such as being honest and sincere.
Furthermore, a handmade locally tagline conveys a degree of humanisation and personification of a brand and captures the extent to which consumers can imagine the brand as a person (Aaker & Fournier, 1995). This agrees with the anthropomorphism, the attributing of human or human-like characteristics to non-human entities, which Triantos, Plakoyiannaki, Outra, & Petridis (2016) found popular in the packaging of grocery brands. Such tagline can inspire a sense of community connection, and is easy to talk about, whether you are the CEO, an employee, or a customer (Wheeler, 2017). The fact that a brand is local and handmade could in fact inspire emotion and story, which is highly relevant as marketing is a discipline that is a lot about senses and feeling (Gabriel 21
& Lang, 1995; Lautenslager, 2014). As a form of storytelling, a handmade locally tagline could alter a brand value in customer perception (Lundqvist et al., 2013). Such a tagline is also specific, which is a quality Lautenslager (2014) sees as desirable. At the same time, a handmade locally tagline can be as Lautenslager (2014) recommended: functional, communicating a competitive advantage and true.
In terms of brand value, on one hand, a product being taglined as handmade can be seen as more valuable, precise and resource intensive than being not handmade. It may also mean that the product may illuminate the local potential of nature, labor, and native spirit in the brand.
On the other hand, if someone does not appreciate a product being handmade, the “handmade” taglining would mean a lessening of brand evaluation. This could be reasoned by, for example, a less consistent product outcomes, a sense of hurry when making the product, excessive flexibility in craftsmanship that may lead to defects, or the production being more resource-intensive than non-handmade items. The same subjective evaluation applies to a product being made in a certain place, i.e.: Helsinki. The perception depends greatly on individual views and values on the place. Due to this variance in preferences, it could become difficult for brand manager to see clearly whether collectively, the ‘handmade locally’ is a favourable choice to attach to the brand. Literature in this topic is very limited and more insights are desirable.
2.2.3 An effective tagline for branding
The best brands speak with one distinctive voice (Wheeler, 2017) where the tagline makes a key message. A tagline should not be general or abstract (Mittal, 2002) but tell an emotional and sensory story (Lautenslager, 2014). Lundqvist et al. (2013) proved a filtering effect of storytelling to customers’ perception and evaluation of a brand, where a brand with a story is more favourable and valuable to consumers. Thus, as a part of branding, the tagline is suggested to be unique as uniqueness is an important factor in authenticity (Kovacs et al. 2014).
Visually, Mantonakis (2012) suggests a brief pause between a tagline and brand to increase brand name recognition and preference. It is about creating a temporal delay, or pause, between meaningful cues in the sentence and a key word. This is another way to enhance recognition of brand names that is not due to a pure generation effect but rather by increasing attention, which increases processing fluency of the audience. 22
Timewise, authors have mixed opinions on how often taglines are changed, i.e.: “unless you happen to land on one that becomes such an iconic part of the brand that it serves as a shortcut for consumers to identify what the brand stands for” (Miletsky & Smith, 2009). Sullivan (2016) gave an example of KitKat’s “Have a break, have a KitKat” as an old-timer which has been around since 1958 yet remains affective today.
Contrarily, Lautenslager (2014) advises to have taglines evolve with the company’s marketing. In other words, taglines are to be changed slightly more frequently to keep pace with changing times, market environments, and core competencies to maintain a fresh, young feeling about the brand. (Miletsky & Smith, 2009). Indeed, time is another element that makes the value contribution change. Negrin (2015) informs an example on the shift in consumer preference: whereas in the past, superior social status was often indicated through brazen dress, now a ‘humbler’ style is preferred in an era marked by financial, political and environmental issues.
Accordingly, brand managers are expected to recognize locational and cultural differences when using taglining and branding in unique market conditions (Allio & Allio, 2002; Şahin & Kalyoncuoğlu, 2014; Vignali, 2001). They are suggested to adjust to local market (Johansson & Thelander, 2009) and invent in marketing to solve environmental issues (Kotler 2011). It is thus desirable for managers to combine both consumer culture and identity and organisational resources in their activities (Forno & Graziano, 2014; Johansson & Thelander, 2009).
The relationship between a brand and its effective tagline has the power to reach out to the brand’s consumers. For example, a handmade locally tagline is able to open a conversation between a brand and the customer. It makes a specific comfortable setting for the consumptionscape of the brand. Consumptionscape (Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008) is how and where the “possibilities and resources are harnessed by consumers towards their goals” (Arnould & Price, 1993; Aubert-Gamet, 1997; Ger & Belk, 1996; Schmitt, 2003; Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008 as discussed in Pizam & Tasci, 2018). For instance, by seeing “Handmade in Helsinki”, the customers, especially those who live in this city, can get engaged with certain interest and curiosity on the whereabouts and the people of the product making. This is because consumers responses are decided by “the holistic configuration of all stimuli in the environment” (Bitner, 1992; Bell et al., 1978; Carmer & Rouzer, 1974; Holahan, 1982; Ittelson et al., 1974; & Schiffman, 2001 as discussed in Pizam & Tasci, 2018) including the tagline, and the city name is highly potential to be a topic of interest, a conversation starter. With time, this may create a 23
pattern of social interaction and relation on the platform of the brand, a consumptionscape (Pizam & Tasci, 2018). There are both deep-seated norms and current affairs being shared by the brand and its audience on this platform. Thereby, the tagline itself illuminates the brands’ communications strategy which naturalizes and reinforces a particular market friendliness (Porter, 2016).
Having said that, it is important to note that if a brand is aimed to be meaningful, the brand manager is to see that brand authenticity is ultimately not about facts, i.e.: from company’s statements including the tagline, but consumers interpretations of them (Kovacs et al., 2014). In other words, an effective tagline alone is not enough for building a positive brand image and value. It is but a piece of information that consumers interpret while seeking to confirm their beliefs (Cowan & Spielmann, 2018). Branding is a challenge that demand relevance and meaningfulness from the brand behaviour and program (Lefebvre, 2011).
2.3 Consumer perceptions
This section brings out the perceptions that consumers have on taglines including the studied local handmade tagline. These are linked to their construction of brand image, value and elements surrounding these topics.
A tagline is desired by consumers to be genuine, tell a true story and an attention getter. A tagline that appeals to the local would get the brand noticed, remembered, and talked about. (Lautenslager, 2014) As a part of perceived brand authenticity, a tagline is desirable when it offers an emotional brand attachment and word-of-mouth for consumers and people in their network. In other words, a tagline is expected to be a relevant part in consumers’ personally meaningful experiences, roles, and identities. This is how taglines help brands become meaningful in consumer’s consumptionscape (Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008). Thus, a tagline is able to motivate brand choice likelihood through self-congruence for consumers, especially those with high self- authenticity (Mohart et al., 2015).
Consumers expect to find the tagline close to the brand or company name in an easy to notice and remember manner (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.64). It has to be in clear font and takes a central location in product packaging or ads (Fuertes-Olivera et al., 2001, p.1297), i.e.: in the headline by the brand name (Dowling & Kabanoff, 1996, p.64). Essentially, it should be neither too long, common nor complicated in order to keep the audience interest (Lautenslager, 2014; Mitchell et al., 2007). When a brand is displayed 24
outside, the ad and tagline can be “outrageous” to create enough attention that gets talked about (Sullivan, 2016). Visibility and memorability of the tagline helps emphasize the brand outdoor.
In the long run, customers expect the tagline to be a part of the whole branding package. It is advised to think about branding as more than just labelling or advertising. Meade & Robles (2017) demonstrate by showing how Australian corporations use practices of campaigning including tagline use and exemplifying to build a common identity with citizens and synchronize their interests. Building a good relationship requires time, authenticity, and consistency in words and actions over time. (Wheeler, 2017; Mcdivitt, 2003; Slade-Brooking, 2016). Consumers expect the tagline to contain honesty (Boyle, 2004). This is to build brand credibility and trustworthiness in consumers’ perceptions on a brand’s willingness to honour its promises (Erdem & Swait, 2004). This also implies to consumers a certain level of commitment to the tagline of the company employees (Kapferer, 2008). (Mohart et al., 2015)
On a psychological aspect, it is not a new idea that consumers count on brands including their taglines to express themselves, self-enhance, or self-verify (Aaker, 1999). Authors agree that these needs drive individuals in their preferences for goods and how they obtain them (ibid; Ferreira & Scaraboto, 2016; Fox, 2018; Mohart et al., 2015). It is not a coincidence that all the ads in the consumer study was designed with the same tagline “Confident Self, Confident Choice” (Gao et al., 2013), to speak to consumer self-identity. Indeed, modern-day brands are more than just cultural designs, they support consumers to develop their identity (Holt, 2002). Ferreira & Scaraboto (2016) study on plastic shoes consumers demonstrate an object-consumer relation where individuals relate to consumption objects as a way to develop, reinforce, transform, or align their individual identities.
In terms of value creation, consumers expect to use the brand and its elements, including the tagline, as resources to create meaningful experiences that suit their life and culture, thus forming a consumptionscape (Pizam & Tasci, 2018; Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008, p. 1010). This means the local handmade brand image and value will be put into the context of consumers’ life processes and viewed in both everyday setting and special occasion, if deemed fit. Li & Bernoff (2011, p. 78) articulate:
“Your brand is whatever your customers say it is.” (Li & Bernoff, 2011, p. 78) 25
In the era of mega-trendy sustainability (Polsa, 2016), consumer attention is argued to be driven by an attention to a collective consumption of more ecological products (Diamantopoulos et al., 2003; Gabriel &Lang, 2005; Strong, 1996; Shaw & Clark, 1999; Barnett et al., 2005), i.e.: the local handmade ones. Handmade products are perceived as more natural than machine-made ones, due to the perceived human contact (Abouab & Gomez, 2015). Handmade products are often preferred by consumers over more processed products (Fuchs, Schreier, & Van Osselaer, 2015). This is due to the perception that food processing is detrimental to naturalness (Bredahl, 1999 & Rozin, 2005 as discussed in Abouab & Gomez, 2015). Certain handmade product industries are associated with social, natural and economic sustainability (Biggs & Messerschmidt, 2005).
In terms of the local element, many consumers prefer to buy local (Hacioğlu et al., 2016). The Stanton, Wiley & Wirth (2012) quantitative survey of 1,218 residents in the U. S. confirms the existence of "locavores", a section of a population that buys locally grown produces. The authors even found that the attribute "local" was explicitly more impactful in changing product preference than "organic" (Stanton et al., 2012). In Finland, local products are cherished by members of food collectives, whose practices challenge the dominance of markets as they take the product distribution from farms directly to the consumers without a conventional food system in the middle (Kallio, 2018; Nousiainen et al. 2009). Thus, these locavores would appreciate the information when a tagline signals the product locality.
On a system level, Forno & Graziano (2014) and Kallio (2018) see the consumer preference for local products as an ‘alternative’ form of consumption as means to re- embed the economic system within social exchanges, starting from the local level. These localized food systems are a way of promoting economic and social benefits to communities (Nousiainen et al. 2009). They are presented as socially sustainable due to benefit the local economy (Feenstra, 1997), and provide prospects to accomplish greater rural sustainability (Tovey, 2002). Forno & Graziano (2014) describe Sustainable Community Movement as relating to social movements and political consumerism. Via the product adoption, consumer identities are shaped and feedback into consumer culture (Ferreira & Scaraboto, 2016; Forno & Graziano, 2014).
“If anyone can build a brand, it is the customer. Marketers cannot do that. They can only create favourable conditions for a brand image to develop in customers’ minds.” (Grönroos, 2007, p. 329) 26
2.3.1 Brand value
Establishing a value perception is critical in the buying process (Beneke et al., 2013). Simple wording in a tagline helps in this establishment by implying the values of a product, i.e.: created local with a specific handmade method. Consumers would either consciously or subconsciously assign a value to the product during encounter and investigation. In other words, they have a certain price estimation for the product at hand. The estimation may be as quick and happen at first sight but sophisticated. Khan & Mohsin (2017) charted the overall product value formation into the elements of functional value (price and quality), social value, conditional value, epistemic value, and emotional value and environmental value when studying the consumer choice behaviors. Stanton et al. (2012) find three segments of consumers: those that most valued (1) quality, (2) price, and (3) health and/or life style traits such as being local and organic. These agree with this paper’s speculation on the chief but little discussed role of consumptionscape, where product value is given different forms and levels when translated by consumers into their context.
Among the vastness of the value topic, price has been the main driver of consumer choice (Sheth et al., 1991). Overall price changes were found to have more effect on intention to purchase than brand logos and labels (Hoek, Pearson, James, Lawrence & Friel, 2017). Therefore, as stated in the Delimitation section, this study focuses on price and willingness to pay as an example for value indicator of products and brand.
Commonly, it is expected that if the retail price is higher than consumer’s own price estimation, the purchasing of these products is hindered. In other words, the price category in which consumers located the product reflects how the perceived product value was constructed (Munnukka & Järvi, 2012). However, the Araque-Padilla, Montero-Simó, Rivera-Torres & Aragón-Gutiérrez (2015) study shows that while a price discount could be desirable, pricing’s effects could be decreased by acting on other aspects such as ethics, quality and healthiness around a brand. Research effort has been put to find how flexible could a price range be for ecological products. Among the examples, Kotler (2003) finds that 42% of shoppers are ready to pay premium price for green products. Yet, Peattie & Charter (2003) debate that it is generally difficult to separate green products from others, since every shopper prioritises different attributes of a green product. Therefore, it remains to be seen if the existing arguments would hold for consumer perceptions of handmade locally products in an emerging market setting. 27
Regarding product locality, the Stanton et al. (2012) study finds a large variance between locavores and non-locavores on price sensitivity. Yet, Barber, Bishop & Goodman (2012) caution marketing from potential price changes when assessing the environmentally friendly consumer group. All in all, literature calls for more evidence on the consumer’s perception of price as an illuminator of brand value for sustainable products. This study hopefully will add in the discussion along this line.
2.4 Theoretical summary framework
Due to the role of the tagline in branding, the research design takes into account its filtering effect to customers’ perception and evaluation with reference to Lundqvist et al. (2013) findings. The theoretical framework is depicted in Figure 2 on the next page.
As observed, the backbone of this figure demonstrates the influences of a local handmade tagline on the brand image and value. It starts with the filtering effect of the tagline on consumer perception after seeing the packaging. Along the line, numerous associations become the moving parts within brand image. The role of consumptionscape (Pizam & Tasci, 2018; Venkatraman & Nelson, 2008) that gives relevance and meaning to both the consumers and the brand is also depicted.
Following the figure flow, brand image determines brand value after consumers have had brand experience in consumptionscape. It is worth keeping in mind that brand value and brand image may interplay. For example, a positive brand image may directly determine the brand value and vice versa.
In foresight, the knowledge from this chapter informs the design and production of the empirical study. From the major blocks in Figure 2 below, research methods are designed so that all their detail elements are covered and examined. Then, results are reported for those elements being impacted by the present tagline. These are delivered in chapters three and four.
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Visibility Seek meaning Readability Individual identity Handmade A pattern of social interaction Local
Brand experience - Packaging Tagline Brand image Brand value Consumptionscape
Colour Recognition Price estimate Label Comfort Price reasoning
Brand name Simplicity Logo Craftmanship Image Company’s commitment
Professionalism Authenticity Material Humanisation Convenience Personalisation Quality Sense of community
Figure 2 Brand image and value perceived through tagline 29
3 METHODS
3.1 Research philosophy
A subjectivist approach is adopted in the way that each consumer is studied as a subject, not an object. The consumer is seen as an active constructor of messages and meanings – not a passive receiver of, or reactor to messages. Interpretive in nature, the study would look at the brand from the individual stance to gather true personal and meaningful data towards answering the research questions (Arnould & Wallendorf, 1994). The interpretivist paradigm emphasizes that no single reality exists, but multiple realities that are personally formed (Ponterotto, 2005) and socially constructed (Hudson & Ozanne, 1988). Hence, in interpretivism, individual experiences and observations change reality (Ponterotto, 2005). In this sense, realities are diverse and made from personal experiences which are fundamental in this study. It is assumed that they are varied from each respondent to another, which is essential in ontology (Hudson & Ozanne, 1988; Ponterotto, 2005).
3.2 Research design
The study was done in cooperation with the company who owns the brand in Helsinki. For the experiment, the chosen brand for the study is Baba, a Finnish business that is passionate about making delicious food. The brand has been growing rapidly in both retail and hotel restaurant catering (Horeca) market (Asiakastieto, 2018; Vainu, 2018; Finder, 2018). Its products are inspired by Middle Eastern ancient vegetarian culture and the flavors have been developed for decades. Baba food products are available throughout Finland. Most of the brand products are taglined “Handmade in Helsinki”, which will be used in the consumer experiment of the empirical study. As the tagline indicates, Baba delicacies are made by hand, from “the best ingredients and as far as possible without additives”. (Baba, 2018)
The study collected data in a between-subject experiment, which is a commonly used method in past studies (Lundqvist et al., 2013). Consumer experiments are a growingly popular method, particularly, in food and drink studies. Consumers hope that a brand, i.e.: food or drink brand, will offer an experience that appeals to the senses (Bonterre, as quoted in Wheeler, 2017); they remember what they touch, hear, see, taste and smell (Slade-Brooking, 2016). This finding supports the study design where a close brand investigation with all the five senses is in play. For this product category, it is also naturally more accommodating to create such a brand experience. The experiment 30
started by inviting the participant to brand investigation, product tasting and ended with an individual thematic interview, all made up to about 30 to 50 minutes. The experiments were held in Hanken school’s facilities.
The experiments include product introduction and investigation, product tasting and interviews. The design and stages of interview simulates a product encounter from introduction to spending decision. This aligns with the research philosophy discussed previously: subjectivist and interpretively, the design helps the interviews become fitter to the purpose of an in-depth interview, which is to understand opinions, feelings, experiences and knowledge of others (Patton, 2002).
Half of the participants (the test group) were introduced to the normal product packaging with the “Handmade in Helsinki” tagline. The other half of the participants were exposed to the same product but without this tagline (control group). The difference (or similarities) between the two groups is how the results are measured. For all participants, the experiments were carried out in a neutral manner that causes no discomfort or harm to the participants. Anonymity was offered as an option to the respondents and all the fields in the respondent’s personal information are optional to fill in. Interviews were kept in a casual and open atmosphere.
The experiment begins as each participant was presented with a selection of 10 products of the brand for investigating. After this, the person was invited to test the products and answer the interview questions on his/her thoughts and feeling on the brand image (Part A) and the monetary value for the products (Part B). Part B investigates if the tagline stimulates or tempers the consumers' appetite for spending. Six cost ranges were available to cover various price levels of different brands on the market, from the most affordable brands to gourmet ones: <1€ to >5€.
The study compares the brand images and value of two groups of consumers with and without the influence of the tagline. As the studied tagline is a claim about the product, a brief form of storytelling, the experiment refers to the Lundqvist et al. (2013) findings as depicted in Figure 3.
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No tagline: The brand is evaluated based on the name and other packaging elements
Brand Package Brand image Brand value experience
Tagline: The brand is evaluated through a handmade locally statement
Brand Package Tagline Brand image Brand value experience
Figure 3 The filtering effect of tagline on brand (adapted from Lundqvist et al., 2013)
The comparisons are made between the two groups. The study seeks to identify the changes in the perceived the brand image and any raising or lowering in the perceived brand value. The analysis identifies both the positive and negative terms consumers use to describe the brand when they were exposed vs. not exposed to the tagline.
3.3 Interview
An interview guide was used to keep the focus of the semi-structure interviews. Flexibility was given depending on how each interview evolves (Patton, 2002). The unstructured interview type was not chosen due to its loose focus and high degree spontaneity. Despite its strength of informality and higher room for topic deepening, the response can wander and become out of focus easily. This makes data collection less relevant and more time consuming. (Dundon & Ryan, 2010; Patton, 2002). Response from unstructured interviews may be harder to analyse than that of semi-structure ones.
During the interviews, all respondents were asked the same questions due to their same roles as consumers. The questions were designed to be easy to understand so that the answers could come right after the respondents had encountered and hands-on experience the brand. The immediate responses allowed for more intuitive reactions from participants as their memories were freshly made. In other words, the resulted impressions were recorded when all the senses were still relatively active and engaged with the elements of the brands. Thus, it is effective as the actual products are available to taste and inspect (Stanton, Wiley & Wirth, 2012). This would make a distinct valuable quality of the experiment method, i.e.: when compared to paper or online survey with exposure merely to questions or verbal stimulation and only retrospectives were used. For this, the collected data from the consumer experiments promises to be wholesome 32
and fresh, in order to showcase current thoughts, feelings and sensations of the experimentees.
Interview Guide
A - Brand image perception
After investigating the products, the questions were asked:
1) What are your first thoughts on the products? (Probing, if needed, on their first impression, feelings and thoughts on the content, colour, form, presumed tastiness, and so on.) 2) What experience would you connect with the brand? 3) What occasions would you connect with the brand? 4) How you feel about the brand? (Probing, if needed) 5) What do you like about the products? 6) What do you not like about the products? 7) What is your overall impressions? (Probing, if needed) 8) Please describe the brand with three adjectives.
B – Brand value perception and preparedness to pay
The interviewer picked out the products, hummus and falafel, invited the participant to taste the product and asked: 9) How much do you think this Hummus would cost in retail? a) <1€ b) 1-2€ c) 2-3€ d) 3-4€ e) 4-5€ f) >5€ The price of the Hummus (3.49€) was then be revealed and the interviewer asked: 10) How much are you willing to pay for this Hummus?
11) How much do you think this Falafel would cost in retail? a) <1€ b) 1-2€ c) 2-3€ d) 3-4€ e) 4-5€ f) >5€ The price of the Falafel (4.99€) was then be revealed and the interviewer asked: 12) How much are you willing to pay for this Falafel?
13) Anything else you would like to add about the brand?
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While the element of sustainability was discussed in the theoretical framework, an interview question for this was intentionally not created in the interview guide. This is due to the common occurrence that participants would almost always say that they are in favour of ecological practices or agree that they value it. By not asking the question, the experiment allows for a self-initiation of those who feel the need to express their interpretation of the brand regarding sustainability naturally, instead of forcing a artificial answer, i.e.: ‘Yes’ to an interview question on sustainability topic. This deliberate exclusion informs how consumers actively make sense from brand elements including the tagline and the fashion they put it into the consumptionscape.
The interview questions aim to generate reliable data towards answering the research questions. With respect to the theoretical framework and experiment design, each interview question (Q) is an attempt to capture the moving parts of brand elements as demonstrated in Table 3.
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Table 3 Interview questions corresponding to brand image and experience elements
Brand experience Seek meaning Develop, A pattern of (Lefebvre 2011; reinforce, social Pizam & Tasci transform and interaction 2018; align individual (Pizam & Tasci Venkatraman identity (Mohart 2018; & Nelson et al. 2015) Venkatraman & 2008) Nelson 2008)
Brand image - Recognition Q1, Q7 Q2, 5, 8 Q2, 5 - Brand preference Q1, 4 Q4, 6, 7 Q8 (Mantonakis 2012) - Comfort (Edwards and Q5, 6, 7 Q2, 4, 8 Q2 Day 2005) - Simplicity (Edwards and Q1, 2, 5 Q4, 7 Q3 Day 2005) - Craftmanship (Gatrell et Q1, 5, 7 Q6, 7, 8 Q8 al. 2018) - Company’s commitment Q1, 4, 7, 8 (Kapferer 2008:104; Mohart et al. 2015) - Authenticity (Edwards & Q1, 4, 5, 7, 8 Q3, 5, 7, 8 Q2, 5, 7, 8 Day 2005; Erdem and Swait, 2004; Kovacs et al. 2014; Morhart et al. 2015; Sullivan 2016) - Humanisation (Aaker & Q4, 5 Q4, 7 Fournier 1995) - Personalisation (Aaker & Q6 Q6 Q5, 6, 8 Fournier, 1995) - Sense of community Q2, 3, 8 Q2, 8 Q2, 3, 8 (Wheeler 2017) 35
In generating questions and implementing interviews, techniques used are detailed below. These include but not limited to using an order of questions, singular questions, open-ended question, think-aloud protocol, probing, clarity, multiple takes on one topic, rapport, listening and neutrality.
Order of questions: Start with an easy question, a request or challenge. Patton (2002) advises to warm up with noncontroversial questions, with present experiences, and then move on to opinions and feelings. Sensitive and complicated questions come last; so do background questions that should be kept at minimum. For example, the first question of my interview: “What are your first thoughts on the products?” is a warm up question.
The order also follows a time sequence: present acute thoughts come first and then future envision, i.e. on willingness to pay, comes last.
Singular question: Each question contains only a single idea. The interviewer determines the one thing to find out before forming a question, and only asks for information unavailable from other sources. For example, in my interview question 5: “What do you like about the products?”. This way, both the interviewer and respondent can be focus on the topic at hand and the talk is less likely to wander.
Open-ended versus Dichotomous questions: Open-ended questions get the respondents to talk and start with Why, Who, When, Where, How, and What. A better way to ask about specific things that have happened (Kennedy 2006). My interview used entirely open-ended questions with the help of interview guide and probing when relevant. Dichotomous questions (with answers Yes or No) are generally unadvised, unless when used to introduce a follow-up question.
Think-aloud protocol interviewing: A scaling/ ranking question type to help the respondent prioritize, i.e. price levels. As the person went through his answer, he used these criteria as hints to think aloud (Wallendorf and Brucks 1993) and elaboration. For example: questions 8 and 9 in the interview: “How much do you think this Hummus would cost in retail? a. <1€ b. 1-2€ c. 2-3€ d. 3-4€ e. 4-5€ f. >5€” and “How much are you willing to pay for this Hummus?”. These are related to each other and suggestive for self-explanation from respondents.
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Clarity: Lexical meaning, experiential meaning or grammar and syntax need to made clear to the respondent (Saunders 2009). It is advised to use the language or dialect that the informants are familiar with. In the interviews, theoretical terms were put into an understandable language, even when the interview guide was based on theory.
Multiple takes on one topic: To confirm or ensure that a response is solid, the interviewer asked the same question more than once but rephrase it and do not pose them right after each other (Patton 2002). In other words, the interviewer can try to get multiple "takes" on the same topic (Kennedy 2006), such as question 1, “What are your first thoughts on the products?” and question 4, “How you feel about the brand?”.
Rapport: A close, responsive and comfortable relationship in which the people get on well with other's ideas and feeling. Communication and mutual trust were adequate during the experiments, thus encouraged useful responses from conversations.
In research, rapport building goes through different stages, at each of which the relationship can be assessed (Dundon and Ryan 2010) and made helpful to the research. Rapport building techniques include calibration and matching. Calibration means reading the other’s state by reading non-verbal signals other than only the content of speech: breathing, skin colour, gestures, body movements, eyebrows and so on. Matching means mirroring the communication of body language, voice quality, and verbal hints of the other person. Matching is a effective way to attain rapport with people.
Neutrality: A stance vis-à-vis the content of what that person says. For example, during my interview I tried to stay as neutral as possible. Even when the ideas expressed did not always match mine, I let the interviewee freely express own thoughts without interrupting. The interviewee focused on answering the question in hand and not distracted by the surrounding.
Probing: Follow up questions (Patton, 2002) that come from what to look for in the interview. It is done by listening carefully to what is said or not said and pose the appropriate feedback. It can be silence, communication control, repeating the response or asking for clarification. This technique was done for questions 1, 2 and 4.
Interview technique of using video film the interview to add visual raw data instead of audio recording was not used since it may interfere with the flow of the conversation. I also wanted to avoid another possible drawbacks of the method where the participant may feel not entirely comfortable being filmed with a camera (Belk and Kozinets 2005). 37
3.4 Samples
Respondents: The study was conducted in cooperation with the brand owning company, Baba Foods Oy. According to the marketing manager, typical customers are from young to middle age, many are health-conscious consumers, vegetarians or vegans. Through them the customer base expands.
The samples were recruited purposefully, and criteria based (Patton, 2002) from the members of the public based in Helsinki, which included 22 respondents for between- subject experimenting. Interested people responded shortly after the announcement of recruitment on multiple Facebook pages of Helsinki neighbourhood groups and via word-of-mouth. The criteria to be recruited for interviews were to represent fairly the brand’s customer base: the person must be at least 16 years old; work, study or live in Helsinki, and have never heard of the brand before. They were informed that it was a brand research on food and were rewarded for participation. The balance between gender, age and profession were kept in mind when choosing respondents for the study. Respondents were then divided equally into a control group and a test group at random.
Respondent ages ranged between 21 and 52 with a mean of 30.6 years. There were 10 males and 12 females, divided equally into a control group (respondents 12-22) and a test group (respondents 1 to 11). The participants represented a wide range of professions, for example, life coach, media manager, chef, entrepreneur, customer manager, service attendant, scientist, school vice-principle, medical secretary, etcetera. The description of the sample is detailed in Table 4 on the following page. 38
Table 4 Respondent samples
Respondent (R) Age Gender Female (F) Male (M) Occupation Diet R1 Arthur 25 M Personal trainer Healthy eating, a protein emphasis R2 Maria 27 F Service attendant, student Vegan R3 Jenni 39 F Vice principal Vegetarian R4 Lê 27 F Chef Healthy eating R5 Lynn 29 F Entrepreneur Healthy eating R6 Thu 26 F Business graduate No R7 Adriane 28 F Media producer Vegan R8 Thuy 23 F Student NA R9 Joonas 30 M DNA researcher Pesco-vegatarian R10 Trí 29 M Entrepreneur No R11 Antti 34 M Customer manager Lactose intolerant R12 Simon 37 M Coach, entrepreneur No R13 Ali 27 M Chef, technical engineer No R14 Maya 27 F Shift manager Healthy eating R15 Pasi 30 M Personal assistant NA R16 Aleksei 22 M Chef Healthy eating R17 Theresa 24 F Event planner, head chef No R18 Jaakko 38 M Customer advisor Vegatarian R19 Jani-Petteri 40 M Fitness group trainer Healthy eating R20 Ulla 52 F Medical secretary Omnivorous R21 Annika 21 F Student Pesco-vegetarian R22 Nea 40 F Media manager No 39
Products: Baba products with the tagline “Handmade in Helsinki” are used for the experiments. Among the most popular offers are the Baba hummus, Baba baba ganoush, Baba falafel, olive sauce, the chili peppers, as seen in Figure 4.
For part B of the experiment, two products were chosen Baba Hummus and Baba Falafel for they are the flagship products of the brand and have a stronger representation for the brand image. The recommended retail prices of these two products also vary considerably (3.49€ for the hummus and 4.99€ for the falafel), allowing the brand value to be tested for different consumer budget sizes.
Figure 4 Product range (Baba, 2018)
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3.5 Practicalities of data collection
Due to the nonsensitive topic and product type, the aspects of recruiting and working with informants were rather easy. Experiments were held in Hanken facility in Helsinki. The interview questions were straightforward to answer with probing when needed. However, since the hummus lasted only 2 weeks, all the 22 interviews had to be organised to fit into this 2-week window before the product expired. While this was not easy since all the informants had their own schedules, the holiday month helped relax these schedules well.
All the data has been collected as planned. All 22 interviews were transcribed. Naturally, some informants were more talkative than others. The collection of data was not difficult but rather the trying to get some respondents speak more of their feelings. Most interview times range between 20 and 40 minutes. This could be due to the respondents’ focus on the products themselves, rather than on expressing themselves to generate richer data. This could also be because of the little experience of the interviewer who was a beginner in the field. For this, probing was helpful in solving this problem to an extent, for example, by giving hints on the first impressions and brand image in interview questions 1, 2 and 4. Flexibility was also given depending on how each interview evolves (Patton, 2002).
In general, the research participants seemed interested in the study and free to express their minds. All of them gave the oral consent to inform their names and quote their answers in the study. Some have also registered their interest to receive the study results after the manuscript is ready. Several respondents suggested straightforward ideas from their perspectives for the brand to improve. From the company owning the brand, consent to publish their names and information were also given. Suggestions from consumers are more than welcome. These aspects make the study welcoming, transparent and constructive for the study respondents, business owner and researcher as well.
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3.6 Analysis
A sequence of analysis methods adapted from Silverman (2005), Spiggle (1994) and Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton (2013) suggestions were used for the study as illustrated in Figure 5 below. In the data processing, the presence of handmade locally tagline and its impacts on brand image are the central elements.
2. Abstraction 1. Coding into 4.Dimensionaliza from the 3. Comparison categories tion categories
5. Integration 6. Iteration 7. Refutation
Figure 5 Analysis processes, adapted from Silverman (2005), Spiggle (1994) and Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton (2013)
From breaking down the elements of data, interesting phenomenon can be found in a basic thing (Arnould & Wallendorf, 1994). The analysis revolves around these elements in order to answer the research questions. A description of how the analysis was proceeded is as following:
3.6.1 Coding/Categorisation
The key terms relevant to the study topics or from literature were put into codes. These are equivalent to terms from Figure 2 at the end of chapter 2. The raw data from transcription was then labelled with these codes, line by line, where the content and the code match. The idea of coding was to put the respondents’ words into scientific terms and ideas. As seen in Figure 6, both deductive coding (from theoretical content) and inductive coding (from data gathered) (Gioia et al., 2013) were employed, i.e.: finding, labelling most important categories. Coding was done for all data parts. The codes were then organised and assigned into categories/construct, such as: Product design, Fresh natural ingredients and Organic codes were organised into the Simplicity category. All categories were labelled dissimilarly from others with respect to external heterogeneity.
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Figure 6 Categorization, abstraction, and aggregate dimensions
LEVEL 3 Aggregate LEVEL 1 Code LEVEL 2 Category dimension
Colour Label Logo Text Image Eye-catchiness Neat/clean See through Elegance Design Homemade/artisan look Robust container Quality projected Convenience Professionalism PACKAGING Ecologicality - subcodes: 1. Non-ecological 2. Cost saving 3. Prevent food waste
Product consistency Product colour
Exoticness Craftmanship Presumed tastiness Texture and shape Product clean look
Visibility Handmade Tagline Locality
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LEVEL 3 Aggregate LEVEL 1 Code LEVEL 2 Category dimension Brand name Logo Product display in store Recognition Compare to other brands Food safety Taste Look Comfort Smell Familiarity Product design Fresh natural ingredients Simplicity Organic Handmade Homemade Local feeling Artistic creation Taste Maker’s commitment Quality test OTHER About producer info/story BRAND IMAGE Authentic ASSOCIATIONS Reliability Honesty Authenticity Product diversity Intention for loyalty Effort Reliability Prudent approach Inspires curiosity Humanisation Modern Familiarity Exoticness Versatile use Differentiation / boldness Personalisation Create memories Locality For sharing Sense of community Brand popularity locally
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LEVEL 3 Aggregate dimension LEVEL 4 Aggregate dimension
PACKAGING BRAND IMAGE
OTHER BRAND IMAGE ASSOCIATIONS
LEVEL 3 Aggregate LEVEL 1 Code LEVEL 2 Category dimension Craftmanship Healthiness Personal taste preference Allergy mindfulness Disagreeable associations Individual identity Daily life Elegance Newness Seek excitement Nutritional benefit Life practicality, subcodes: BRAND EXPERIENCE/ 1. Product size CONSUMPTIONSCAPE 2. Meal making 3. Convenience Environmental unfriendliness Seek meaning Product brings back memories Innovation Smart product choice Ethic Brand story Social interaction
Social trend Social associations
Social group 45
LEVEL 3 LEVEL 4 LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 Category Aggregate Aggregate Code dimension dimension
Organic Ingredient quality Freshness Price estimate Handmade Homemade Labour input Locality
Student Consumption Personal lifestyle habit
Taste BRAND VALUE unsatified Satisfaction Taste satisfied
Meal creation Value for money Price Product reasoning amount
Family Social occasion occasion Couple
Veganism
Healthy eating Social trend Product pricing
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LEVEL 1 Code LEVEL 2 Category LEVEL 3 Aggregate dimension
Price comparison Competition Brand comparison PURCHASE DECISION
Matches lifestyle Brand meaningfulness Brand statement
3.6.2 Abstraction
The abstraction of the categories was done via identifying concepts within categories. The essence method was to find common traits and picturing of representative cases. Abstraction helps to comprehensively decrease data volume as the categories were combined into more general themes (abstraction) to illuminate the concepts involved.
Figure 6 above presents this technique, i.e.: how Individual identity, Seek Meaning and Social associations were combined into Brand experience/Consumptionscape theme. Categories under the dimensions of Packaging, Price estimate and Price reasoning were formed with less abstract terms, while categories within the dimensions of Other brand image associations and Brand experience - Consumptionscape were form with more abstract ones.
3.6.3 Comparison
Differences and similarities between pieces of data or categories were carried out. a. Comparison within a single element within the interview (assigning different codes). b. Comparison between the categories and abstraction (to see the common patterns, and assure a logically correct handling or analysis) c. Comparison of interviews between different informants to indicate fluctuation in brand perception and its drives. d. Comparison between the test group and control group to produce the answers to research questions and beyond. For example: The experiment set out to examine price as an element of brand value. The comparison was made between non-tagline and tagline groups to identify the effect of tagline on price. This yielded a new finding set which informs the study discussion, contribution and suggestions for future researches. 47
3.6.4 Integration
Integration involves understanding how the abstract concepts are related to each other and how strongly, i.e.: based on dimenzionalization. Beyond data classification, integration examines the constructs more deeply and makes sense out of the data to serve theory building. Spiggle (1994) advise theory building via two techniques, axial coding and selective coding. Axial coding integrates categories and concepts by identifying different settings or consequences from categories. While selective coding help specify relationships between concepts or categories.
3.6.5 Iteration
Iteration involved re-reading the transcripts, re-analysing and repeating the works several times. This also applies to the analysis processes. These were done while keeping the research aims in mind. The final interpretation was made after all interviews and other materials had been considered and analysed in this manner.
3.6.6 Dimensionalization
For dimensionalization, the concepts and the relationships between categories were used to develop scientific model and theory. The model and theory contain ideas on not only the causal relationships among the elements of categories but also illuminate the environment in which they grow. Figure 7 below gives an example with Craftmanship.
Construct Properties Craftmanship Personal lifestyle Dimensional Range Consistent product Doubt of being factory made Vibrant product colour Implied over spiciness Exotic product Alien to everyday menu Presumed high tastiness Taste disappointment Attractive texture and shape No interest raised Cleanliness Food safety concern
Figure 7 Dimensionalization of Craftmanship
3.6.7 Refutation
Negative cases or pieces of data that do not support the final results were also looked for and reported in the analysis as well as result interpretation. This can be observed in several outlining responses reported in the findings and discussion chapters. 48
3.7 Trustworthiness of data
The data trustworthiness is evaluated in this section according to Wallendorf & Belk (1989) guidelines as seen in Table 5 below.
Table 5 Evaluation of trustworthiness, adapted from Wallendorf & Belk (1989)
Elements of trustworthiness Data Justification (Wallendorf & Belk, 1989) 1. Credibility Medium The physical product experience engaged all the respondents’ five senses “Adequate and believable representations of the during the experiment. Brand image was free for investigation. However, constructions of reality studied” the pace of the interview may not resemble the same pace of everyday grocery shopping for some respondents’ time is numbered.
2. Transferability Medium Due to the nature of the brand category, i.e.: food brand, the exact “Extent to which working hypotheses can also be elements may not match other product industries. However, the principles employed in other contexts, based on an still apply to other similar products including foods and drinks. assessment of similarity between the two contexts”
3. Dependability Food and brands have been around since we know them. There are few High “Extent to which interpretation was constructed moving parts in the topic when it comes to food brand perception and in a way which avoids instability other than the consumption.
inherent instability of a social phenomenon” 49
4. Confirmability Medium The products, brand owners, transcription and analysis records are “Ability to trace a researcher's construction of an accessible. interpretation by following the data and other records kept”
5. Integrity High The data was analysed as they were without the researchers’ tampering. “Extent to which the interpretation was The informants were rather transparent about aspects involved in the unimpaired by lies, evasions, misinformation, or experiments and contribute honestly. misrepresentations by informants.”
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4 EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
This chapter presents the results from the empirical study by visualising meaningful information extracted from the raw data. Analysis techniques including but not limited to coding, abstraction, comparison and dimensionalization, as described in 3.6, helped well in the arrival of findings. The quantity and quality of the data collected pursued the research aims by portraying the consumers’ perspectives in brand image (4.1.1 from packaging and 4.1.2 from other brand associations) and brand values (4.3 brand values and willingness to pay).
4.1 Brand image
4.1.1 Associations related to the packaging
There were numerous clear differences in the perceptions of the brand from packaging between the non-tagline and tagline group. Though the variance was not significant in all associations, a major part of these reveals an outperformance of the brand when the handmade locally tagline was present. The findings are presented in Table 6 below, with examples of quotes for each category.
Table 6 Associations related to the packaging (respondent identification in parenthesis)
Non-tagline group Tagline group
Colour Colour I would change the colours of The very first thing that comes to my mind is packaging. Now they are not really that the packaging is quite eye-catching with bright. (R16) all the colours. (R8) The colour’s how it is supposed to be The colour of the products are not as vibrant I guess. (R19) as those of other brands. (R4) There is not really loads of color. I’d Very mellow, natural colour and down-to- add color to the brand packaging or earth. (R7) names. They are very dry and These products are colourful, great images to tedious. (R22) represent what’s inside the boxes. The orange colour in the packaging’s tempting. (R10) 51
Label Label Usually I'd like branding to be more All the needed info is presented on the front modern, but I guess the labels are ok of the box, which is handy. (R1) as they are. (R21) Well I like the fact that they label everything The final product is well made, quite well. They are being quite honest (R7) labelled and listed. (R19) It has clear names and points out in the The labelling is really light and does picture what is in there and it’s handmade in not pump up... Like the designer has Helsinki. It seems to be very straightforward been in a hurry. (R22) of what you get, nice vegetarian dishes. (R9) Unattractive Design Neat Elegant Design not premium but enough to be sold The packaging looked neat and the container in the shop. (R16) seemed sturdy. The presentation is simple Not really pumping up and all yet classy and informative. (R4) elements are really light… Something the packaging looks clean and neat. (R6) in the labelling and how the products The brand itself is quite eye-catchy, friendly, looks, which is not appealing. (R22) like customer-oriented. (R8) Confusion Tagline enhanced image There’s something about the brand Handmade on the packaging makes it looks that doesn’t immediately grasp the more authentic. I like that it emphasises the impression of a high quality product handmade part. (R2) or high standards. Yeah, it’s funny, These impressions, together with the claim maybe it just comes from “handmade in Helsinki”, created a sense of subconscious impression. I don’t good quality and superior taste. (R4) know. (R12) The fact that it’s handmade in Helsinki is It’s from a factory, not handmade I quite credible. It rings a bell in people’s mind think because all these final products about product quality, and people can be look so consistent. (R19) sure about the origin of the ingredients and Wouldn't know it was made in the hygiene, of course. (R10) Finland even though I think they I like that they are clear on the packaging are? Given how people appreciate that it was handmade in Helsinki, so it’s local domestic products these days, it so I know if I put money to it, I know where would be a great aspect to use in it’s legitimately going. (R9) marketing. (R21) The important thing to me was to see that the product is handmade in Helsinki. The brand itself made me trust the product. (R11) 52
4.1.2 Other brand image associations
After the initial investigation and comments on the packaging, intuitive responses were gathered promptly on the topics of concerns in the informants’ minds. There found common patterns from the data, which are revealed in Table 7 and discussed below.
Table 7 Other brand associations (respondent identification in parenthesis)
Non-tagline group Tagline group
Comfort Comfort and trust Simple fresh ingredients seem to be The brand makes me feel comfortable. (R1) used and they’re pretty natural and Good flavour and texture of the hummus and not artificial… On the other hand, is falafel. (R2) the food like not safe, or ok to eat? It made me feel “safe” to try out the products. Like I won’t get food poisoning from (R4) kitchen facilities. (R12) I like that you can see through them, so you The regular falafels are a bit too dry don’t have to guess. And it feels tastier if you for my taste. (R14) can actually see what is happening in there. I prefer that food has more flavours. (R9) (R17) Baba Harissa is nice, looks like chilli paste It could be with a little bit more which can be useful in many dishes, flavour. (R18) especially for the spiciness, which I like The chilli looks like I would die from myself. (R10) it… (R19) I like the fact that it’s locally made and that kind of stuff. So, I like it. (T7) Craftmanship Craftmanship I was not happy about the flavor I like that it emphasises the handmade part. after all, but I believe there’s been a (R2) lot of effort spent to make, create with no preservatives. (R5) these products. (R17) They’ve really made them handmade. I like the Because it’s a mixture of something I fact that it’s locally made. (R7) would really think carefully of the The “Handmade in Helsinki” makes a huge allergy. I don’t know how it is made. impression on customers because they will (R19) notice that … it’s kind of like food art. (R8) The stuff inside the boxes is quite colourful, which attracts me to it. (R10) 53
Authentic Authentic and intriguing About experience, not Finnish food Modern, bold, innovative. (R9) but from Middle East. (R19) New, youthful, modern (R11) I think they are different and exotic. Vegetarian-friendly, Middle Eastern, and very (R22) snackable (R7) I wonder what these taste like… I’m definitely interested. (R9) Personalisation Personalisation The Hummus was missing garlic in I like the fact that it’s easy to consume these the ingredients, because in my mind products. You can use them almost any way if there's no garlic it will make gas in you want with your food or on its own. (R1) the stomach. (R13) I feel like there would be good experience of To add to your dinner or enjoying mixing all of these, like putting these falafels with some good bread. (R14) into hummus and nom nom nom. And I like that there are options with other foods. (R9) Sense of local community People feel that it’s credible with this “Handmade in Helsinki” label. (R10) The plus is that they are handmade, with no preservatives, gluten and vegan, which suits the current trend among Finnish. (R5) Is it on the shelf already? How do people like it? (R10) I like that they’re clear that it was handmade in Helsinki, so it’s local. I know if I put money to it, I know where it’s legitimately going. (R9)
Without the tagline, some respondents tried and got a sense of handmade locally products from the packaging and other brand cues. One third of the non-tagline group commented on the handmade artisan look from the packaging. The same number reacted positively on the brand product design. More than half of this group believed that the packaging looked professional and the ingredients used were pure, fresh and natural. Also, more than half of this group see the brand as reliable; some mentioned a quality test in their response. A third of this group saw the products as authentic. This indicates how without a tagline, consumers look for other brand clues to determine quality. 54
4.2 Brand experience - Consumptionscape
The results in this section cover the aspects of brand experience and consumptionscape. Table 8 reveals how the respondents picture their experiences with the brand and what these experiences mean in their perception. As described in literature, this is organised in the way meanings are sought in order to develop their individual identity and social interaction. Individual identity entails healthiness and taste preference, design certainty or elegance, material concern, and practicality; while Social interaction entails social occasion, social trend, and social group.
Table 8 Brand experience - Consumptionscape (respondent identification in parenthesis)
Non-tagline group Tagline group Healthiness and taste preference Healthiness and taste preference Good products for diet, a sense of being I would probably get it if were in rush and healthy. (R15) needed a fast snack or needed some extra Some products which were tested are not fiber. (R1) so tasty as expected. (R15) The plus is that they are handmade, with Not for my menu, not a big fan (R16) no preservatives and vegan (R5) The taste is quite nice and interesting in Healthy, colourful, reliable. (R10) the beginning, but I wouldn’t choose them The hummus smells nice, it’s also creamy. for my daily meal. They’re nice in a way of (R6) food tasting. I prefer that food for my daily All the products that I have tasted here meal has more flavors than this. (R17) they are all delicious. (R7) Can be useful in many dishes, especially for spiciness. (R10) I think the experience is going to be great. Tasty… and I want to eat these. (R9) Uncertainty from design Simple elegance There’s something about the brand that The brand makes me feel comfortable. doesn’t immediately grasp the impression Doesn’t make an impression of a cheap of a high quality product or high product. (R1) standards. Yeah, it’s funny, maybe it just A sense of good quality and superior comes from subconscious impression. taste. The presentation is simple yet classy and informative… I would probably choose these products when 55
looking for vegan products or healthy snack options. (R4)
Material concern Material concern I prefer if it would be nature friendly. The container is presumably not (R13) environmental-friendly. (R4) I did not like the plastic packaging. The packaging plastic itself, I’m not a Especially the plastic container of the biggest fan of it. (R7) hummus felt bad. (R20) I don’t like that it’s not eco-friendly … but I'm kind of sad about how much though. These are plastics, not plastic goes to these little portions. The biodegradable. (R8) plastic waste concerns me. (R21) I don’t like that they are plastic, but I like The package is light and plastic (the that you can see through them. Others are hummus) so the colour looks faded... not in plastic and this one is in glass. Glass is really delicious. (R22) better. (R9) Practicality Practicality The Hummus was missing garlic in the I would probably get it if were in rush (R1) ingredients, because in my mind if there's One package offers just a right amount of no garlic it will make gas in the stomach. I product. (R4) think they can make different sizes. (R13) Maybe some lunch, normal lunch. I I like that they are easy to grab with you if normally like to make everything myself, you don’t have the time and effort to make so I don’t like when somebody has pastes yourself. (R14) already done everything. I need to read A nice part in vegan meals, supporting what is in there. (R3) other vegan food. (R17) Very snackable. It’s something that I can Not for any kind of festive but everyday easily takes for a picnic. (R7) food. (R19) Takeaways occasions like picnics or Snack-time food… The package sizes are barbeques, or all the outdoor activities clearly aimed for single or paired people. mostly. Because it’s quite convenient to Families need family sizes. (R20) take away. (R8) I wouldn't probably buy the quinoa salad Everyday occasion. (R9) just for myself if i'm making lunch at I’ll say they are for daily use, like having home. (R21) some vegan food at home. They're kind of an easy way to introduce new types of foods into one's diet. (R10) 56
Social occasions Social occasions A barbeque or home party with friends It could be used for picnic or casual get- and family, or like informal summer together. (R2) dinners and lunches, picnic. (R12) … Maybe some party. (R3) I would like to have bigger sizes for I can see that with the hummus, it’s like sharing with my family or friends. (R13) for party as well. (R7) For most parts, these are for shared I would use in everyday casual eating. experiences. (R21) (R9) For Friday or Saturday evening, or I think parties where finger food is summer cottage, picnic. (R22) needed. (R11) Social trend Social trend Vegan-friendly products (R17) They suit the current trend among Product was interesting and made me feel Finnish nowadays. (R5) urban, trendy, knowledgeable. (R20) popular and easy to eat. (R6) I'm excited to see these unusual, A good point for the packaging is to interesting flavours in Finnish markets. become ecofriendly because people care (R21) about the environment a lot, so it’s why. (R8) Local, new and vegan. Very trendy (R11) Social group With friends and family. (R12) I think the brand’s for vegans, or for busy people. (R17) On a picnic with friends. (R21) Missing relevance Relevance What is the story of these products? I like that they are clear on the packaging Where are the flavors born? Where are the that it was handmade in Helsinki, so it’s raw materials? Who prepares? Why? local so I know if I put money to it, I know (R22) where it’s legitimately going. (R9) 57
4.3 Brand value
To establish if seeing the tagline would add to the perceived value of the brand, the respondents were asked for their monetary brand valuation. After inspecting and tasting, the respondents were asked to make own retail price estimate for the two flagship products, hummus and falafel.
In turn, they were enquired how much they would be willing to pay for the product. The real suggested retail prices (3.49€ for the hummus and 4.99€ for the falafel) were then revealed to the participants. Willingness to pay (Yes or No) is decided by comparing the prices respondents are willing to pay with the real suggested retail prices. The results are summarized in Table 9 below.
Table 9 Brand value and willingness to pay
Non-tagline Tagline - Hummus (3.49€): Own price estimation <1€ (1) <1€ (1) 1.1-2€ (2) 1.1-2€ 2.1-3€ (4) 2.1-3€ (1) 3.1-4€ (3) 3.1-4€ (7) 4.1-5€ (1) 4.1-5€ (1) >5€ >5€ (1) Willingness to pay Yes (2) Yes (5) No (9) No (6) - Falafel (4.99€): Own price estimation <1€ <1€ 1.1-2€ (1) 1.1-2€ (1) 2.1-3€ (2) 2.1-3€ (1) 3.1-4€ (4) 3.1-4€ (1) 4.1-5€ (4) 4.1-5€ (6) >5€ >5€ (2) Willingness to pay Yes (1) Yes (5) No (10) No (6)
As observed from Table 9, for both the products, only 4 respondents in the no-tagline group guessed the price to be equal or higher than the retail price, while there were as many as 8 respondents estimated the correct retail price or higher with the presence of 58
the tagline. In other words, with the tagline "Handmade in Helsinki", it is apparently easier for respondents to estimate the correct retail price (between 3.1 and 4e), while without a tagline, the guesses are scattered among different price ranges. The same pattern applies to the falafel product, where the tagline group spot easily the correct retail price, while the no tagline group scattered their guesses wildly to various price ranges.
In term of willingness to pay, the level among consumers who saw the tagline "Handmade in Helsinki" is about 50% willing to pay (5 Yes and 6 No), while for non- tagline group, the willingness to pay is vastly lower at 20% (only 2 Yes and 9 No).
The willingness to pay for the falafel among consumers who see the tagline "Handmade in Helsinki" is adequate (around 5 Yes and 6 No), while for non-tagline group, it is extremely lower at under 10% willing to pay (only 1 Yes and 10 No).
In term of price estimation, on average, the results show that the respondents in the tagline group estimated the price to be higher than that of the no tagline group. As Table 10 illustrates, the variance is 0.82€ for hummus and 0.64€ for falafel.
Table 10 Average price estimate
Product Average price estimate Variance Non tagline Tagline
Hummus (3.49€) 2.6€ 3.5€ 0.82€ Falafel (4.99€) 3.5€ 4.1€ 0.64€
The result also reveals that the tagline clearly motivates for higher brand value projection from consumers. From the tagline group, the brand being handmade and local appears to be a strong reason for the consumers to favour the brand.
For being handmade: “I like that it emphasises the handmade part.” (R2) “…but I know it’s handmade so of course it’s more expensive than normal meatballs or something like that.” (R3) “I like that they are handmade, without preservatives… I see that in Helsinki market, there are not that many handmade products.” (R5) “I think they are being quite honest what’s in it, and also, they’ve really made them handmade… And I understand that if it’s handmade you could obviously ask for more as well. (R7) 59
and locally made: “They really put an emphasis on the localness. I like the fact that it’s locally made.” (R7) “I like that they are clear on the packaging that it was handmade in Helsinki, so it’s local so I know if I put money to it, I know where it’s legitimately going.” (R9).
In contrast, from the non-tagline group, a missing brand statement and story inhibit the consumer from truly understand and appreciate the brand: “What is the story of these products? Where are the flavors born? Where are the raw materials? Who prepares? Why?” Apart from these two motives, other reasons for price estimation and willingness to pay are available in Table 14, Appendix 2.
4.4 Findings summary
As observed earlier in this chapter, the impact of handmade locally tagline on brand found in this study is found on some specific brand elements. When compared with the theoretical summary framework, the results indicate that not all brand elements are affected by the studied tagline as the literature suggests. Referring to Figure 2 on the theoretical framework, the elements that were found no impact are: brand name and image of the packaging; and recognition, company’s commitment, and humanisation in the brand image.
All the elements from consumptionscape and brand value were impacted by the tagline as expected from the literature. More intriguingly, the elements of consumptionscape elements were enormously explained. The data not only confirms but also adds rich details into the description of consumptionscape. There are various ways that respondents form their own unique consumptionscape and brand meaningfulness. This apply to how they seek meanings (in elegance, certainty and sustainability), develop individual identity (via healthiness, preference and practicality) and a pattern of social interaction (via social occasion, trend and group). Through this, consumptionscape role is given a prominent standing in all respondents’ perceptions.
To synthesise and visualise the results, the findings are integrated with theoretical elements from Figure 2 of chapter 2. The outcome is presented in a summary model in Figure 8 on the following page.
After this chapter, the meanings of the findings are delivered and reflected. The Discussion chapter will present these interpretations. 60
Visibility Seek meaning: elegance, certainty, sustainability Readability Individual identity: healthiness, preference, practicality Handmade A pattern of social interaction: occasion, trend, group Local
Brand experience - Packaging Tagline Brand image Brand value Consumptionscape
Colour Comfort Price estimate Label Simplicity Price reasoning
Logo Craftmanship
Professionalism Authenticity Material Personalisation Convenience Sense of community Quality
Figure 8 Impact of handmade locally tagline on brand image and value 61
5 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATION
5.1 Discussion
This section presents an interpretation of the experiment results and their meanings. The structure is organised similarly to the previous chapter of findings, so as to help the reader understand the structure of this section more easily. Thus, the discussion is in the order of brand image, brand experience - consuptionscape, and brand value.
5.1.1 Brand image
The findings hinted at an observable variance between the two study groups. Overall, respondents from the tagline group have a more positive brand image than those from the non-tagline group. The number of associations and favourability expressed by the tagline group outdraws those of the non-tagline group, as summarised in word clouds for each aspect in the tables 11 and 12 below.
Table 11 Packaging associations summary
Non-tagline group Tagline group
Colour Colour not really bright, dull packaging or eye-catching, colourful but not too vibrant, brand names, very dry and tedious. natural colour and down-to-earth, great images, tempting. Label Label ok, could be more modern, handy info, label everything well, shows Very well made label, still really light, honesty, clear names and pictures, does not catch attention, hurry design. straightforward, nice.
Unattractive Design Neat Elegant Design not premium neat, sturdy, simple yet classy, informative, not pumping up clean, eye-catchy, friendly, customer- not appealing oriented Confusion Tagline enhanced image confused quality and standards. authentic, handmade, production method mistaken for good quality, superior taste, being factory made, credible brand, reliable ingredients origin, wonder if it was made in Finland. hygiene, support local community, trust.
62
Table 12 Other brand associations summary
Non-tagline group Tagline group
Comfort Comfort and trust Simple fresh ingredients, natural, Comfortable, good flavour and texture, but unsafety, food poisoning, Safe, tasty, nice, useful, locally made, like too dry, need flavours, too spicy. Craftmanship Craftmanship not happy with flavour, like that it’s handmade, no preservatives, allergy. honesty, locally made, good impression, like food art, colourful, attractive. Authentic Authentic and intriguing not Finnish food, Middle East, modern, bold, innovative, different, exotic new, youthful, vegetarian-friendly, Middle Eastern, very snackable, definitely interested. Personalisation Personalisation missing ingredient, easy to consume, versatile, add to dinner, enjoy with bread. good experience, mixable, tasty Sense of local community Credible, trendy, store availability and others’ feedback local, social support
This illustrates the filtering effect of the tagline on brand as visualized in the findings summary framework in Figure 8. During the experiment, one informant actively suggested for the brand to tell a story behind the product creation for higher relevance, which matches effortlessly with Lundqvist et al. (2013) findings and suggestion on story telling as a brand enhancer. This also adds to Gabriel and Lang (1995) discussion on the many forms of storytelling that include a claim on the packaging about the brand, i.e.: a tagline, and illustrates the consumer need for finding a sense from the brand elements.
5.1.2 Brand experience and Consumptionscape
The results show how effortlessly respondents incorporate brand associations into their expression of individual identity as well as personal and social life contexts. This is where they decide whether the brand is relevant and in which way, when it comes to real usage and evaluation. The main takeaways for this aspect are reflected in Table 13 below. 63
Table 13 Brand experience – Consumptionscape summary
Non-tagline group Tagline group Healthiness and taste preference Healthiness and taste preference Diet, healthy fast snack, extra fiber, handmade, no not tasty as expected. preservatives, vegan, healthy, colourful, not a big fan reliable, tasty, smells nice, creamy, delicious, need more flavors vegan, versatile use, tempting.
Uncertain quality Simple elegance not an impression of high quality or Comfortable, classy standards, subconscious impression. good quality, superior taste simple, elegant, informative Material concern Material concern not nature friendly, plastic, not environmental-friendly, feel bad, sad, plastic waste, plastic, not a biggest fan, not biodegradable, faded colour, not really delicious. harm to the environment, glass is better. Practicality Practicality missing garlic, gas in the stomach, Good for a rush, right portion size, need different sizes, lunch, very snackable, easy, picnic, easy to grab, nice, vegan takeaways, barbeques, all outdoor activities, everyday food, snack time. convenient, everyday occasion, dinner, vegan, at home, introduce new foods. Social occasions Social occasions Barbeque, home party, informal Picnic, casual get-together, party, summer dinners and lunches, picnic, parties with finger food. evenings, summer cottage.
Social trend Social trend Vegan, urban, trendy, nowledgeable, Very trendy, popular, easy unusual, interesting in markets. eco-friendliness. local, new, vegan. Social group Friends, family, vegans, busy people. Missing relevance Relevance Missing story, flavors and raw clear statement, “handmade in Helsinki”, materials origin, who, why? local, put money to it, legitimately going. 64
From this summary, it is easily observed that the brand with the tagline is more relevant and practical to respondents’ life processes in terms of healthiness and taste preference, design and quality projection, practicality and overall relevance. This is in line with the findings from brand image and value, which show an outperformance of the brand taglined handmade locally. However, little differences are observed between two study groups on the aspect of packaging material, social occasion, and social trend. This implies that regardless of the handmade locally tagline presence, consumers would use and treat the brand in the same way in these senses.
An intriguing hint on what consumers pictured as ideal and wished for the brand stood out from the result. A shared concern was expressed explicitly by both study groups for the brand’s packaging material. Especially, without being asked, the respondents self- initiated and expressed a common concern of the brand’s using plastic as the material for their product packaging. The material was perceived as convenient but, obviously, environmental unfriendly and “cheap”. This matches effortlessly with the discussions on the desire for a brand to be ecologically sustainable in the first chapters of the thesis, the idea of mega-trend sustainability (Kotler, 2011; Papaoikonomou et al., 2011; Polsa, 2016). Plastic being used by the brand means a negative brand association, i.e.: environmental unfriendliness. Some hope for a change in the material choice and suggested the brand owner to switch to glass. This result further proves Dewulf, et al. (2016) point where renewability of product elements takes a significant role in the market today; so do sustainability assessment methods. i.e.: material assessment.
For social occasions when the brand is present, consumers’ own associations might be more effective communicators of brand benefits and values than a firm-originated values. As the results on Table 8 dedicate, consumers have a remarkably strong ability to seek connectivity to others via social occasions. The brand is seen as more relevant to respondents from both tagline and non-tagline group when and where other people and other views are present. This shows that consumers do put themselves in others’ point of view when it comes to the social meaningfulness of a brand, regardless of a tagline existence or absence.
A particularly curious finding is the associations to social groups, which existed solely among the non-tagline respondents. This linking of the brand to a social group (i.e.: friends, family, vegan, vegetarian, urban) did not occur to the tagline group at all. Would this mean that the respondents see the brand as less relevant to their own social group when it is not signalled by the tagline to be handmade locally? This finding on social 65
group relation is either contradict to other associations, or open to future researches on consumer psychology to study.
Having said that, the total number and positivity of brand associations by the non-tagline group are still minor compared to this of the tagline group.
5.1.3 Brand value
The handmade locally tagline clearly makes it easier for consumers to estimate the correct retail price, while in contrast, without a tagline, the guesses are scattered around different price ranges. This means a more favourable condition for the brand with handmade locally tagline when it comes to pricing. Fewer consumers would be surprised by the prices set if there is such a tagline there to signal the value of the brand.
This advantage for the brand is also found in term of willingness to pay. Consumers are more willing to pay the retail price when the handmade locally tagline is present. As addressed in the results, willing to pay for non-tagline group is as low as 20%. Additionally, the result also reveals that the tagline makes the brand more valuable, i.e.: higher prices estimated than that in the tagline absence.
5.1.4 Discussion summary
The results make a consistent sense among themselves and align with suggestions from the brand image analysis results. Not only do a missing brand statement and story inhibit the consumer from truly understanding and appreciating the brand, but also damage the brand image and value.
Compared to literature, the results also suggest that a handmade locally tagline does not impact on brand in all the ways as literature suggests. Its uniqueness help enhance brand image and value in many ways, as summarised in Figure 8 (page 80), and detailed extensively by respondents in chapter four. This unique impact is furthered discussed and applied in sub-chapters 5.2 and 5.3, respectively on theoretical and practical contributions of this study.
All in all, it is concluded that a handmade locally tagline embraces the core image and value of a brand in ways that other brand elements cannot. Therefore, this tagline deserves a more prominent place in the marketing practice and literature. 66
5.2 Theoretical contributions
The results of this study seek to offer new speculations to the topic of local product and handmade product branding. The newly contributed insight is the pragmatic influences of a tagline on a brand image and value in the noteworthy context of consumptionscape. This adds to brand and branding conversations among academia and business practitioners.
In academia, this study adds a realistic demonstration to the point being made on how stories and storytelling have been interpreted in several different ways (Gabriel & Lang, 1995). In similar manner to previous studies (Gabriel & Lang, 1995; Lundqvist et al., 2013) this thesis confirms that tagline is an effective type of storytelling for brands. While Lundqvist et al. (2013)found that making comparisons in between studies is extremely difficult, this study suggests that making comparison between studies may not be so necessary after all due to the variance of consumers’ consumptionscapes where the brand either does or does not make sense. In contrary to the traditional view where the brand image is considered the main projection of brand meaningfulness and consumer is the passive receiver of brand communication, this thesis demonstrates that consumers are active agents who take the sense-making and brand image formation in their own hands. This confirms the views from Grönroos (2007); Li & Bernoff (2011); Rindell (2013) and Rindell and Iglesias (2014) studies. The significance of unique consumptionscapes extends the findings from Pizam & Tasci (2018) and Venkatraman & Nelson (2008) on the topic of consumptionscape and brand meaningfulness. This thesis also agrees and extends evidence for the interplays of elements in the study by Stanton et al.(2012), i.e.: product quality, price, and health or lifestyle traits.
The present study results show the power of handmade locally tagline to enhance brand image and value. In similar manner to the Munnukka & Järvi’s (2012) study, this thesis confirms that the perceived brand value corresponds to the price category attribution.
Results from this thesis also confirm the consumers’ attention to the consumption of more ecological products as depicted in previous studies (Barnett et al. 2005; Diamantopoulos et al., 2003; Gabriel & Lang, 2005; Nousiainen et al., 2009; Shaw & Clark, 1999; Strong, 1996), i.e. the eh handmade ones. The thesis results agree with Abouab & Gomez’s (2015) view that handmade products are perceived as more natural than machine-made ones, due to the human contact. Relating to the research by Ferreira & Scaraboto (2016) on material in fashion consumerism, the results of this thesis reveals 67
that consumers do have a different preference of material when it comes to food packaging, i.e. an environmentally friendly material rather than plastic. This may pave way for research, perhaps on the consumer psychology and comparisons on material use, given that both food and fashion are products that have a direct contact with consumers.
In terms of the local element, this study confirms that consumers prefer to buy local, as also found in the study by Hacioğlu et al. (2016). Corresponding to Kallio’s research (2018) on exchange as social practice and food collective in action, this study unfolds the relevance of using a tagline in marketing as a mechanism useful for organising food collective. By simply stating that a product is handmade locally, the food collective has promoted the desirable value of a product being local and handmade. Marketing can encourage a more ecological food system to emerge. The current food system has been and will be a powerful framework for delivering local and handmade food supplied by local farmers and producers. As Figure 8 on page 60 summarises and suggests, the brand elements enhanced by the tagline are most significant to consumers. They create a great starting point for development ideas and implementation for the stakeholders of the food system. This form of initiative has been carried out increasingly in Finland (Fatlizard, 2018; Jymy, 2018; K-Supermarket, 2018; Saarioinen, 2018). The readily built systems can provide infrastructural support for local food collectives. In the long run, this may save costs for establishing future alternative food collectives, given that the incentives are clear for a more sustainable development of food system/collective. Therefore, food cooperatives are able to nurture and organise exchanges around ecologically and socially sustainable practices.
5.3 Practical implications
In business, managers may have not been informed how a handmade locally tagline can be used to create and reinforce brand associations. By referring to this thesis’ results, they could adjust their communication more effectively, for example, in product packaging, tagline formation and brand design to suit target consumers’ consumptionscapes. As a result, a handmade locally emphasise may form and maintain a discussion about the brand factors that consumers see as meaningful in their everyday processes. This is when consumptionscape comes about to support and strengthen the characters of a brand.
Specifically, for customers, knowing how these types of taglines influence their perception of brand image allows for a more relevant and informed purchase decision. 68
For example, one customer could find out why he or she keeps opting for handmade locally products despite the possible higher price. Reversely, customers may find out how seeing the products taglined as handmade and local does not change his or her consistent shuffling between a product repertoire that includes more affordable brands. In other words, it is an increase in consumptional autonomy and self-determination.
For sustainability managers, this study informs how using a handmade locally tagline on brands may influence the logistics of and impacts of resources (Forno & Graziano, 2014) such as suppliers, staff, distributor more efficiently. From the rationales behind consumers’ choices, the decisions on organising resources would be more sensible. For instance, if such taglines project a better brand image with less carbon footprint, the managers could consider reallocating facilities to cater this promising arrangement. An increase of economic options and autonomy. The new arrangement may be able to not only maintain a lower environmental impact, but also stimulate the local market growth via a better perceived image of the brand. This may eventually become a drop of water that deepens the sea where hierarchies and priorities are being moved toward a future sustainability (Mauerhofer, 2008).
It would be fair to caution brand managers against relying solely on tagline in their marketing efforts. It is a part of the desirably harmonious and wholesome brand signature and product design. A too sudden or optimistic change in a brand tagline would alert consumers and pose enquiries among other stakeholders. Thus, it would be more prudent approach if stakeholders are more prepared both mentally and logistically before such an event.
5.4 Limitations and suggestions for future researches
As discussed in the previous chapters, this study has some limitations, some of which suggest a direction for further research. One limitation is that the experiment is cross- sectional study. It measured the consumer perspectives at a certain point in time and could be extended to observe how time may transform the perception of brand image and value, i.e.: via multiple tagline ad brand exposures. Thus, this creates a possible direction for future research.
The measurement of price differences in the latter part of the experiment, though benefits the understanding of tagline impact, is at a very basic level of brand value measurement. This is due to the vastness and variety in the topic of brand value. The sample size is also small, when considering its quantitative approach. In this way, future 69
research could test the findings further by trying with other brand value aspects. Running the study on a larger quantitative scale also helps investigate consumers more generally. Other quantity focuses studies can also focus on measuring the gap between willingness-to-pay and the actual price paid for local handmade products, and suggestions to minimise such gap.
While this present study recruited only Helsinki Metropolitan residents, future studies can adopt a different viewpoint, i.e.: gender, national, cultural. Besides, could a handmade locally tagline add value to brand of different nature, such as a business-to- business brand?
In our study, the consumptionscape appeared to be decisive in the formation of brand associations and value. Future researches could take this further by testing the consumers in an even closer to reality consumption context, such as in their social occasions or gatherings when the brand takes part. In other words, this is a new avenue for future researches to venture on how brand elements are translated into different meaningful images in consumer minds and their social groups. As in many research settings, the researcher may choose a qualitative, quantitative or mix method by weighting the strengths and limitations of each and all.
Future works could also study the dynamics between brand value and consumptionscape. Topics of interest may go about the wonderous consumer psychology, whether their own estimation of brand value comes first, or the consumtionscape takes the lead in projecting brand value and filter brands for decision.
Finally, research can be taken onto a higher scale than consumer perspective. Among the key interests are how companies and suppliers may view and support the livelihood of local and handmade products in branding and local food system building. A possibility maybe studying to develop a model that combines the local food collectives (Kallina, 2018) and current food cooperatives into a hybrid system. It may also be studied whether this will format more business and/or pleasure for those who involve. Promising research questions may be “How does the adoption of local and handmade brand fluctuate in different consumptionscape settings?” or “How to build a hybrid food system based on local produces for the local market?”. 70
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7 APPENDICES
7.1 Appendix 1: Article topics
From search outcomes, article topics and contents show an irrelevance. Exampled below are topics from two closet search outcomes to the present topic.
Search term combination: Slogan brand handmade local resulted in 18 articles. Only the 8th and 11th articles are remotely related to the topic of this study, yet their slogans are irrelevant. The article topics were: 1. Place area 2. Place country 3. Cultural media 4. Bamboo production 5. Facebook infrastructure 6. Mail art network 7. Protest camps and marketing practices 8. Terroirist social movement in wine production in Spain The slogan Manifiesto Matador does not contain local or handmade elements 9. Anti-nuclear protest in Tokyo 10. Art/History of Resistance 11. Materiality and the shaping of consumer identities The slogan “Always the same, always different” does not contain local or handmade elements 12. Place Redevelopment in Asheville, North Carolina 13. Accounting in the mirror of popular music 14. Open Source Urbanism 15. The Stockholm riots – a moment for social justice 16. Blood Donation and the Scenography of `National Integration' in India 17. Advancing tobacco control in Indonesia 18. Artistic prosumption
Search term combination: Brand handcraft local resulted in 2 articles. The article topics were: 1. Resale prices in franchising: insights from franchisee perspectives 2. Sleep Deprivation Impairs and Caffeine impact on Performance
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7.2 Appendix 2: Other reasons for price estimation and willingness to pay
Table 14 Other reasons for price estimation and willingness to pay
Non-tagline group Tagline group
Lifestyle Lifestyle Student budget Vegan, Vegetarian, Unmatched lifestyle, Consumption habit. Unsatisfied sensations Intrigued sensations Missing garlic, Doesn’t make an impression of a cheap product, Very dry and tedious colours. Well spiced, smells nice, creamy, Just a bit salty, smells interesting, I expected some more texture in it, All the products tasted are delicious. Portion size Portion size Need to add quite a lot of other This can’t be all eaten in one go. supplies to make a nice meal, Need larger packaging. Social trend Vegan foods are usually more expensive. Competition Competition Price comparison Not the worst brand out there in the market. If I have the ability to buy the It is quite expensive, and I understand that if it’s cheaper one, I will rather buy it. The handmade you could obviously ask for more. brand is reliable, but not enough to Even though they can be pricier, I would still stand out in the food market. buy them.