DOI: 10.46909/cerce-2020-040 Review Article Available online: www.uaiasi.ro/CERCET_AGROMOLD/ Print ISSN 0379-5837; Electronic ISSN 2067-1865 Cercetări Agronomice în Moldova Vol. LIII , No. 4 (184) / 2020: 473-501

SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY

Muhammad KHAN1,*, Niaz AHMED1

*E-mail: [email protected]

Received: Aug. 17, 2020. Revised: Oct. 29, 2020. Accepted: Nov. 06, 2020. Published online: Jan 29, 2021

ABSTRACT. Optimum supply of macro micronutrients to improve the yield and and micronutrients is of critical quality of mango fruits. To understand the importance in improving the yield and effective use of macro and micronutrients, quality of horticultural crops. Alike, the the positive and negative impacts of the quality and yield of mango plants nutrients are explained. It is suggested significantly increase by balanced that analyzing the soil, mango fruits, and application and uptake of macro and mango plant leaves for their nutrient micronutrients. However, soil type and status can be useful to formulate characteristics are important factors that fertilization strategies for higher fruit directly influence the bio-availability of production and quality. Research and these nutrients to the plants. In addition, development, along with agricultural variability in climate has an impact on extension, should focus more on mango yield in the current scenario. Many introducing genetically effective mango scientists have found that mango varieties to improve nutrient and water cultivation in saline soils is a major utilization efficiency. obstacle to achieving the desired yield and Keywords: nutrient management; fruit improving quality. Overdose of quality; mango production; yield. fertilization is the major factor for the development of saline soils, furthermore, rise in climate temperatures is also a INTRODUCTION major factor. Therefore, to overcome this problem, nutrient management and the Mango ( indica L.), use of balanced fertilizer are the important most cultivated fruit in tropical factors to be controlled. Thus, this review region, and it is categorized in the plant focuses on the performance and family named as “Anacardiaceae” and importance of essential macro and it is found to be of South East Asia

1 Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan

473 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED origin (Douthett, 2000). Mango is the stratagems, which are being discussed second major fruit after citrus in in this review. Pakistan and is widely known as ‘king of fruits’ (Usman et al., 2003). Soil type To determine the quality of mango Soil characteristics directly fruit, the size, total sugar contents, influence the mango cultivation. acidity and β-carotene, total soluble Plants use soil as inert medium for solids (TSS), ascorbic acid, sugar-acid growth. Nutrients availability is ratio and golden yellow color must be regulated in soil through root growth observed. and soil effects the functional Owed to disease, insufficient activities of the plants. Several types nutrients and improper management of soil, as of low fertility and low- of fertilizer, mango fruits produce low growing soils to well-fertile deeper yields and quality that are soils (Red Cross Nosium), can be unsatisfactory for export or to be sold used for mango growth (Dirou, 2004). locally (Gurjar et al., 2015). Further, Though, cultivation and growth of higher physical damages and mango is influenced by the physical deteriorated quality have been and chemical characteristics of the observed in mango farms. Imbalanced soil. Soil of less fertility, light and of fertilization, including micronutrients, good drainage properties are improper cultural practices and deliberated as good soils for mango inadequate handling of trees result in production because mango fruit reduced quality farms. In accordance cannot produce good fruit color in with horticultural experts, it is highly fertile soils (Madonsela, 2019) necessary to use basic nutrients along and such soils can also have with micronutrients to get the best nutritional problems (Paul and Duarte, quality of mango fruit. The 2011). The soil which are sandy clay, micronutrients are often used as foliar flat and deep, with sufficient organic application to reduce nutritional matter, is considered suitable for deficiencies and to improve the mango plantation (Magalhaes and quality of mangoes (Sankar et al., Borges, 2000). In addition, sandy 2013). Although, owing to the type of loam, sandy, lateritic and alluvial soils soil and climate, Pakistan is are appropriate for the cultivation of considered suitable for good quality mango trees. Moreover, soils with a and production of mango fruit; considerable depth of 2-2.5 m, having however, yet, the country is far behind a pH range from neutral to alkaline, achieving the potential yield. There with specific value point as 5.5-7.5 are many factors which influence the (Bally, 2006), are ideal for growing sustainability of mango farms and and cultivating good amounts of affect the quality and production of organic manganese (Chowdhury and mangoes, such as soil characteristics, Mehta, 2010). It was reported that climate circumstances and fertilization cultivation of mango trees on sandy

474 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY loam and loam soils advantages to cultivation and production of mango improve the skin color of mango fruit has been reported by Madonsela during the period of ripening and (2019), in calcareous soil type (> 38% reduces the rate of mass thawing of CaCO3), according to pH 9 in Israel. the fruit, cf. soft nose or jelly seeds According to Usman et al. (2003), pH (Bitange et al., 2020). In addition, ranges from 5.5 to 8.7 has been mango trees have also been reported reported for mango production in to be sensitive to sodic and saline Pakistan. Soil having characteristics conditions (Madonsela, 2019). The of stickiness, waterlogging conditions hardpan of the soil under the subsoil and hardpan below subsurface should surface layer or sometimes known as be avoided to obtain higher mango plow layer should be broken as it production. Likewise, the pH of the reduces the mango tree root soil helps in selecting criteria for infiltration into the soil (Paull and establishing mango plantation. Duarte, 2011). Therefore, for the high yield and quality of mango fruit, the Soil salinity selection of suitable soil is a main Owing to the moderate tolerance factor to consider. of mango plants against saline conditions, soil salinity is the major Soil pH concern for reduced mango fruit Trees of mango can withstand a production (Elsheery et al., 2020). pH range from 5.5 to 7.5 because they Leaves tip and edge burning and leave can tolerate alkaline conditions (Bally, curling of mango plants occur in 2006). It has been reported that at high severe saline conditions, subsequently pH, the growth and quality of mango leading to plant death. The effect of reduces because of the unavailability salinity in growth and development of trace elements, which adversely cycle of mango trees is the same and affects the quality of the mango fruit. their symptoms are same as appear in Low soil pH reduces the availability plants other than mango trees of nutrients for trees. When this (Elsheery et al., 2020). The rate of happens, it is not advantageous to transpiration in mango trees dropped apply more fertilizer to the trees, sharply when the salinity period because it often leads to leaching and increases maximum (Schmutz and fixation of the nutrients. To reduce Ludders, 1993). Photo assimilation this problem, it is necessary to add process in mango plants has been lime to the soil of fruit plants to lower found to susceptible for higher salinity the pH of the soil. Therefore, soil levels (Schmutz, 2000). However, the sample for the analysis of basic extent of salinity tolerance in mango parameters including soil pH in the rootstock and fruit production has not laboratory is important. So that we been studied well (Maas and Grattan, may know the requirement for the 1999). Therefore, a diversity in the establishment of garden. Regular mango varieties should be induced to

475 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED develop salt tolerant rootstock disease in the mangoes (Madonsela, (Dinesh, 2003). Nevertheless, a 2109; Davenport, 2006). Ideal calculated data is required containing temperature range, which is required critical values of salinity in soil and during growth season is 24-30oC, with water, for obtaining the required 890 to 1015 mm rainfall and maximum quality and production of mango fruit. humidity. The areas receiving inadequate (254 mm) to heavy rainfall Climatic conditions (2540 mm) are also recognized Temperature and available water appropriate for mango plantation. are considering as important factors During flowering, rainfall is dangerous that influence the mango production owing to reduced pollinating activities by affecting the vegetative growth, (Choudhary and Mehta, 2010). initial flowering and occurrence of

Figure 1 - Data of several countries with different seasons (Information source: Saúco, 2004; Siddiq et al., 2017)

Mango trees have the capability initiation of flowering and fruits but it to withstand flooding conditions. is not possible to initiate flowering Nonetheless, rain is needed for the without dry span. Internal osmotic

476 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY pressure of the plant helps to keep the soil or it should be applied to the plant leaves and lactiferous cells turgid rows through broad casting method of (Fisher et al., 2012). Due to the deep fertilizer application (Andrade, 2004; root system, by which plants absorbs Sousa et al., 2004). The fertilization nutrients and water from deep into the with macronutrients should be soil, makes the mango trees drought proceeded to the plants at plantation tolerant (Paul and Duarte, 2011). Dry stage or should be applied on various periods are necessary to increase growth stages depending on the flowering in the mango plant (Paul analyses of the soil and mango leaves. and Duarte, 2011). The climatic The fertilizer impacts on the condition in different countries varies plants varies with many factors, due to different time zone; the Fig. 1 including method and time of justifies the mango plantation. application, source of fertilizer, climatic conditions, variety of Fertilization of mango plants cultivar, moisture conditions of soil trees and growth rate and linear condition A pit size of 60 × 60 × 60 cm is of tree. Stassen et al. (1999) stated recommended for the mango plantation. that a plant of 6 years of age contains Fertilizer dosage recommendation for 29.6% of P in the dry matter of plant the aforementioned pits varies from leaves. Similarly, 16.6% of P was area to area. The fertilizers dose found in new branches, 14.9% P was required in these pits depends upon investigated in fruit, 11.7% P in the qualitative analysis of the soil and wood, 9.3% P inside the bark and the volume of soil existing in the pits. 17.9% P was inside the roots. It was Mango plants can grow in the soil of discovered that a large portion of P low fertility, but a sufficient amount was found within leaves of the plants, of fertilizer added to the soil and while 70.4% of P was found in the uptake nutrients helps the better plant rest of the vegetative plant parts. In growth and mango fruit. To maintain the South Pacific areas, young mango the plant health and proper growth of plants were supplied with NPK plant canopy, the fertilizer is applied dosage of 0.4-0.2-0.2 kg-1 tree-1 year-1 in the initial stages of plant growth. during the age of 1st to 5th years, The first application of fertilizer is whereas, 0.7-0.7-0.7 kg-1 tree-1 year-1 generally applied according to the soil was applied later on. The recommended analysis. Table 1 shows that a small NPK dosage for plants of 1-4 years’ dose of fertilizer is applied to young age was 0.4-0.2-0.2 kg-1 tree-1 year-1 mango plants. The nitrogen (N), and for 5-10 years’ age was 1.3-0.55- phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are 0.85 kg-1 tree-1 year-1 in the North applied twice a year. However, P and Pacific region. In Taiwan, the amount K are used only if they are insufficient. of fertilizer is applied in two equal The recommended dosage of these splits, i.e., in marble and after harvest. fertilizers should incorporate into the The fertilizers are applied though

477 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED broadcasting, side coating, banding P, and K fertilizers increases with and hole application. The dose of N, increasing age of the plants.

Table 1 - Fertilization of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) to young mango trees in various countries Amounts of nutrients Tree age -1 -1 Country (g plant year ) Reference (year) N P K Brazil 2-3 210 160 120 Silva et al. (1996) China 7-9 400 125 320 Xiuchong et al. (2001) India 7-9 700 500 700 Choudhary and Mehta (2010) Queensland, 2 400 500 360 Sanewski (1991) Australia Mexico 1-4 200 100 100 Crane et al. (2009) Southern Pacific 1-5 400 200 200 Crane et al. (2009) region Northern Pacific 1-4 400 200 200 Crane et al. (2009) region Taiwan 1-2 150 20 120 Crane et al. (2009)

Bearing trees (2009) reported that 86% mango Mango fertilizer is essential for farms are fertilized in South Pacific the suitable health of trees, the regions, whereas, 56.7% are supplied initiation of flowers, the onset and once a year, and 39.5% are supplied avoidance of alternative effects. with fertilizers twice a year. The Excessive use of fertilizers can lead to mango orchards, where fertilizers are continuous vegetative growth of used regularly, there has been a bearing mango trees and can cause noteworthy difference in time, content, reduction in flowers and lower fruit quantity and source of fertilizers. In production and also the incidence of Central Pacific regions, an NPK dose physical damages in mango fruit may of 1.1-0.4-0.9 kg-1 tree-1 year-1 is be increased (Nguyen et al., 2004). applied to the and Similarly, improper application verieties. Whereas, an NPK of fertilizers in mango plants can doses of 0.4-0.2 - 0.2.2 kg-1 tree-1 year-1 induce deficiencies and toxicities of are recommended for plants aged from nutrient and can result in stunted 10 - 15 years of age in North Pacific growth. Thus, fertilization strategies regions (Chávez-Contreras et al., must be managed according to the 2001). need of the plants in order to obtain Table 2 shows the fertilizers higher production of mango fruits dosage recommendation for bearing (Crane et al., 2009). mango trees in various parts of the Less than 30% of the mango world where mangoes grow. farms in the Central Pacific regions are supplied with fertilizers. Crane et al.

478 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY

Table 2 - Fertilization of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) to fruit bearing trees in various countries Amounts of nutrients (g plant-1 Tree age -1 Country year ) Reference (years) N P K Pakistan 20-25 1000 750 750 Anees et al. (2011) Northern 10-15 2800 900 1800 Crane et al. (2009) Pacific region India >10 1000 500 1000 Negi (2000) Mexico >20 1000 500 1000 Crane et al. (2009) Queensland, 10 1750 880 1650 Sanewski (1991) Australia Taiwan >11 360 240 540 Crane et al. (2009) Brazil - 1200 1500 2500 Crane et al. (2009)

Soil and mango leaf analyses depending upon soil type and age of Soil chemical analysis of mango the tree, form the already established farm and mango leaves analysis is a mango garden. In the soil with sandy useful step in determining and texture and deep sampling is handling the nutrients status of the recommended (1-1.5 m) because mango garden. Analysis of soil nutrient may leach down, and deep samples provides information of the sampling is required to analysis the necessary minerals and nutrients accommodated nutrients and to essential for the mango plant growth prevent the over fertilization (Bally, and development plants within 2009). appropriate limits (Anonymous, 2007). The leaf of mango plant should Soil chemical analysis helps to be analyzed in order to monitor and determine the phyisochemical manage the nutrient requirements of properties of soil, including soil pH, the plants. Nutrient deficiency and electrical conductivity, organic matter abundance can be determined by content, and clay content. Cell tissue visual leaves symptoms. The nutrient analysis of mango plant, with index status is often displayed by the chemical analysis of soil from a leaves at different time for different mango orchard, is a helpful tool for minerals. When the mango plants measuring the variations in soil have reached the full phenolic stage mineral properties and can influence (the nutrient level of the leaves is very fertilization use (Bally, 2009). stable), the leaves sampling should be Samples from depths and proceeded. The leaves from the plants locations should be collected to of age of 6-8 months be plucked from examine the nutrients status of soil different sides and canopy to avoid before the establishment of mango the variations in the analysis of results orchard. Whereas, the sampling depth (Bally, 2009). The leaf samples should and sampling points will be different be collected from different cultivars,

479 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED soil types and cultural practices quickly available to the plants via individually. Further, the mango trees leaves (Silberbush, 2002). receiving nutrients and fungicides, such as follicle application, are Yield and nutrient contents prevented should be avoided from leaf Studies have been performed sample collection. It is also suggested between nutrient concentrations and to wash the leaf samples with water to yields for several crops (Cotrim et al., get rid of spray residues (Bally, 2009). 2019); nevertheless, the nutritional Young and Koo (1969) examined status of mango trees and its statistical the nutritional status of the leaf relationship to the soil is complicated samples of mango grown on calcareous to determine owing to the higher and sandy soils. Significant differences buildup of minerals in trees and due to in mineral content were found due to dispersal of minerals in the soil sampling of the presence or absence (Lobo et al., 2019). A system describing of fruit, soil type, cultivator and fruit. the diagnosis the leaf mineral analysis Leaf analysis shows that Table 3 called Diagnosis and Recommendation reveals the sufficiency and deficiency Integrated System (DRIS) is used for of various mineral-related nutrients. this purpose. In DRIS, a ratio is In Brazil, mango orchards are often needed for mineral concentrations, in deficient boron (B) and zinc (Zn). spite of the full mineral contents to Zinc sulfate and borax are used to recognize the deficient mineral treat deficiencies; however, leaf concentration. However, the DRIS has analysis decides the rate of fertilizers been used in mango orchards with a application (Silva et al., 2002). varying degree of success. Pakistan's soils are basically alkaline, Raghupathi et al. (2004) with repeated use of phosphatic suggested that the deficiencies of source of fertilizers, which eventually nutrients could not be identified by enhances the phosphorus levels of the DRIS in separation, whereas, some of soil. These kinds of circumstances can the researchers efficiency utilized this alter the solubility and movement of system. Wadt et al. (2007) and Raj micronutrients within the soil system and Rao (2006) used the DRIS system and decreases the uptake of these to identify the minerals which result nutrients by plants (Iorio et al., 1996) in reduced yields of mango fruits in and can lead to deficiencies of Brazil and India, respectively. micronutrient in Pakistani soil Xiuchong et al. (2001) examined (Anees et al., 2011). Basal and foliar the relationship between fruit methods of fertilizer applications are production and nutrients status in leaf used to apply the micronutrients to tissues of mango tree. They performed plants; however, in comparison to soil two studies at different locations in application, the foliar application is China, i.e., Shenzhen and Sunshui. considered to be 6-20 times more They reported that with the effective, as micronutrients are appropriate application of N, P, K, S,

480 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY and Mg, the nutrient contents in the elements decreases as the fruit grows leaves of mango plants were in order till ripening. The contents of nutrients of: N> Ca> K> P>S>Mg. After using significantly change at fruit terminals 300 and 400 g N plant-1 in mango with exception of P and Mg orchard, no significant difference was (Oosthuyse, 2000). Moreover, it was found in N concentrations in leaf suggested that the preference of tissues. The contents of P in nutrient removal by mango tree was: -1 soil reached to 4.8 - 19.4 mg kg K2O > N > P2O5 > Ca > Mg > S with the application of 0 and (Xiuchong et al., 2001). Moreover, it -1 125 g P2O5 plant of P, whereas there was reported that the nutrient removal was no significant difference in leaf capability of the mango tree varies P concentrations. Likewise, application with the obtained yield. -1 of 320 g K2O plant resulted in an increase of 0.166 - 0.18% K in plant Impact of various fertilizers -1 leaf then control. Akin, 40 g Mg plant on production and quality -1 and 80 g S plant increased the of mango fruit contents of Mg and S by 0.04% - Role of nitrogen 0.09% and 0.03% - 0.04%, Nitrogen is one of the most respectively, as compared to control. critical yield-reducing nutrients of all They concluded that increasing the the plant's essential nutrients. application of nutrients directly Nitrogen is the basic constituent of increases the mango production, as a amino acid, which are considered as result of improved nutrient use building blocks of proteins and are efficiency. Further, Oosthuyse (1997) used in formation of protoplasms suggested that the application of N, K, (Uchida, 2000). N is required by the phosphorus P, Zn and Mg in mango plants to accomplished various orchards improves the size and fruits functions in plant growth, as stated retaining ability of mango plants. below: 1. Enzymes are very important

for the growth and development of Nutrients removal plant. Enzymes are comprising of It has been established that the proteins, which in turn are made up of concentration of mobile nutrients (N, amino acids. N is the building blocks P, K and Mg) decreases, whereas the for amino acid production; 2. Much of concentration of immobile nutrients chlorophyll consists of N. Therefore, (calcium (Ca), boron (B), manganese the process of photosynthesis in plants (Mn) and sulfur (S)) increase with the cannot be accomplished without N; age of mango leaf (Medeiros et al., 3. N is an important constituent for 2004). Mango leaf taken from fruiting the quantity and quality of dry matter branches of tree generally contain the production in plant; 4. Different higher concentration nutrients, such as vitamins within plants are composed N, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ca, and Cu, whereas of N; 5. N is necessary for the the content of aforementioned mineralization of carbohydrates;

481 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED

6. N plays a dynamic role in the (Uchida, 2000). The deficiency of N development and functioning of roots; in mango plants in turn results in 7. N plays a significant role in uptake stunted growth, subsequently resulting of other essential plant nutrients. in decline the quality and mango fruit Mango plants require an production (Reshmi et al., 2018). adequate supply of N fertilizer to On contrary, the sufficiency of N in accomplish various growth stages. mango trees can lead to excessive The N from soil solution is absorbed vegetative growth, inappropriate by mango plant through roots in two flower differentiation, and reduced + ionic forms, i.e., ammonium (NH4 ) fruit yield with lower quality. – and nitrate (NO3 ). The effects of the Furthermore, N sufficiency in mango N supply are more obvious at plant plants develops lush green leaves, stage, the growth of floral buds, and subsequently attracting pests and the formation of fruit. A constant increasing the risk of disease supply of N results in the development development. Magwaza and Kruger of shoots regularly, that effectively (2005) concluded that the unnecessary starts producing fruit at maturity stage N fertilization may damage the (Silva, 1997). It has been reported that canopy of mango tree in the post- the application of 960 g N plant-1 harvest period. Njuguna (2017) stated increased the yield of mango fruits by that >1.2% N in mango leaf results in 86% (Nasreen et al., 2014). In another the development of greenish spots on study, Sarker and Rahim (2012) used mango fruits. Hence, the balanced urea and cow manure (1125 g and utilization of N fertilizer is of 37.5 kg, respectively) together and significant importance for achieving achieved almost 6-fold higher fruit higher fruit production with improved production than the control. Abbas et quality. al. (2002) observed that N fertilization resulted in higher amounts of soluble Role of phosphorus solids, whereas reduced the acidity in Phosphorus possesses a much mango fruits than that of the fruits greater effect on the natural and obtained from non-fertilized orchards. agroecosystem than the other plant The impacts of N fertilizer on mango minerals (Brady and Wile, 2002). It fruit quality are given in Table 4. has been estimated that the Adequate amount, time and application of P in crop production method of N fertilization are of critical has resulted in 30-50% increment in importance in acquiring the higher global food production, as compared plant and fruit production, as well as to the food production in 1950 (Higgs, improving the fruit quality. In general, 2000). P is considered an integral part reduced growth, chlorosis on older of several plant molecules, which are leaves, lack of flowers, and early responsible for photosynthesis and maturity are the indications for respiration, cell division, and growth. N deficiency in mango plants

482 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY

483 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED

Moreover, the functioning of plant uptake. The speciation of P ionic phospholipids, nucleotides, as well as forms in the soil solution is largely other metabolic molecules need the dependent on soil pH. It has been presence of P (Salisbury and Ross, established that the level of pH above 2– 1992). An important role of 7 favor the occurrence of HPO4 , P application has been identified in whereas the soil pH below 7 favor the – fruit maturing, leaf elongation, and presence of H2OP4 . The extremely root development (Bally, 2009). Two higher as well as lower soil pH levels ionic forms of P, i.e., primary are usually considered undesired, as – orthophosphate ion (H2OP4 ) and they result in result in reduce P 2– secondary orthophosphate (HPO4 ), availability to the plants. are available in the soil solution for

Table 4 - Variations in quality of mango fruits under the application of nitrogen fertilizer Sr. Reported Reported Parameters No effect no. positive effect negative effect Total soluble Nguyen et al. 1 - - solids (2004) Nguyen et al. 2 Titratable acidity - - (2004) Anthracnose Nguyen et al. 3 - - incidence (2004) Internal Assis et al. 4 - - disorders (2004) Magwaza and 5 Lenticel damage - - Kruger (2005) Young et al. 6 Mango fruit color (1962)

At higher soil pH levels, P may phosphate. It has been reported that combine with Ca and produce calcium phosphate ions are mobile can easily phosphate, whereas at lower soil pH be translocated from older tissues to levels, P may bound with Al, Mn and growth points in mango trees (Bally, Fe, consequently making P 2009). That is the reason that the unavailable to plants. Therefore, an deficiency symptoms of P are seen on optimum P availability occurs at pH old leaves. Singh and Saxena (1994) of 6-7. Generally, the P bounded onto suggested that these symptoms clay dissolved into the water, where include browning of the leaves plants roots can absorb it. In addition, accompanied with mild necrosis, tip 2– HPO4 is more easily absorbed by the necrosis and stem death. However, – plant roots than H2OP4 . The P is P deficiency is uncommon in mango translocated from roots to other parts plants. Moreover, bark and roots of of plants in form of organic mango plants contain more P than its

484 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY leaves (Vuuren and Stassen, 1997). sites. Besides, various other factors Medeiros et al. (2004) observed higher are also responsible for the P contents in plants during vegetative availability of K to plants. K is stage, than that of fruiting stage. transported through diffusion process Stassen et al. (1999) reported that from soil to the roots; however, the inadequate supply of P to mango diffusion process is influenced by plants may results in shorter roots, various aspects, such as moisture reduced growth and lower fruit content, temperature, path tortuosity, production. In general, P is positively and K+ diffusion coefficient. It has correlated with the other been reported that K+ is usually macronutrients, such as N, K, and Mg translocated towards younger leaves (Fageria, 2009). Therefore, an from old leaves and, therefore, roots, integrated application of fertilizers bark, leaves, and fruits of mango may result in higher plant growth and plants contain higher amounts of K fruit production. (Vuuren and Stassen, 1997). Moreover, K usually remains higher Role of potassium mango plants during vegetative Potassium it plays a major role in flushing time, as compared to time of enzyme activation, photosynthesis, flowering and fruiting (Medeiros et al., respiration and starch formation 2004). However, the higher (Marshner, 1995). The K is required concentration of K by the mango for cell growth and epidermal cell plants may interfere with the other walls thickness, which enabling them nutrients, resulting in lower fruit to resist against insects/pests and production (Gourley, 1999). pathogens attack. K regulates the The most commonly used water levels inside the plants via K fertilizers for optimum mango controlling stomatal activities production include muriate of (Salisbury and Ross, 1992). It has potassium nitrate (KNO3), potash been estimated that about 90-98% of (MOP), and potassium sulfate K is present in the form of insoluble (K2SO4). Among these fertilizers, crystalline minerals, and is not K2SO4 is the widely accepted available to plants. The ionic form of K fertilizer due to neutral pH effect, K which is K+ occurs in soil solution as mango plants are very susceptible and becomes available to plants to higher chloride (Bally, 2009). (Gourley, 1999). However, due to Owing to the mobile nature of K+ competition with other cations, the ions, symptoms of its deficiency are availability of K varies with soil obvious in older leaves. It has been conditions. For instance, Madonsela reported that the application of KNO3 (2019) stated that higher amounts of at flowering stage improves Ca and Mg in soil resulted in reduced flowering, as well as fruit setting and K+ availability to plants, owing to retention (Shinde et al., 2006; Saleh higher competition for the exchange and El-Monem, 2003). There are

485 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED fewer studies for exploring the effects observed that growing points of plants of K fertilization on fruit quality require higher amounts of Ca (Mengel (Marschner, 1995). Shinde et al. and Kirkby, 1987; Marschner, 1995). (2006) observed higher contents of Mass flow and root pressure are the fruit weight and ascorbic acid (5.15% means of transportation for the Ca and 26.99%, respectively), as well as from soil to roots. Nevertheless, the color, taste and durability, whereas a mechanism of root pressure to reduction in spongy tissues and transport Ca in mango is not studied weight loss with K fertilization. K has well (Bally, 2009). Moreover, indole also been reported for disease control acetic acid, that is produced in root in mango plants. For instance, apex, helps in Ca translocation within Reuveni et al. (1998) and the plant (Ho and Adams, 1989; Oosthuyse (2000a) observed positive Banuelos et al., 1987). effects of K application for Calcium deficiency is manifested controlling. in young and growing leaves first owing to its mobile nature within the Role of calcium plants. Therefore, the symptoms of Ca Calcium is abundantly found in deficiency are obvious as membrane alkaline and neutral soils as divalent degeneration associated with fruit cation (Fageria, 2009). Despite of its ripening (Fallahi et al., 1977; Bangerth, category of secondary nutrients, Ca is 1979). Further, the deficiency of Ca in thought to be very crucial for proper plants directly results in cell-wall plant growth (Fageria and Gheyi, deterioration, and cell disruption (Van 1999). Ca can be found in soil as Eeden, 1992). The durability of exchangeable, soluble and non- mango fruits and resistance against exchangeable forms. About 65-85% diseases in mango plant is directly of the exchange capacity of a soil is associated with Ca availability to composed of loosely bounded plants. Various researchers have exchangeable Ca (Mengel and Kirkby, reported an improved quality of 1987). Moreover, amphiboles, mango fruits, when Ca was applied feldspar, carbonates, and phosphates through foliar spray (Hojo et al., 2009; minerals are bounded to the Ca within Wahdan et al., 2011). However, the the soil, making it non-exchangeable. excessive amount of Ca contents in Generally, the contents of Ca are soil may replace the other nutrients in 10-folder higher than that of Mg2+ and soil owing to competitive effects. K+ ions. Therefore, an integrated application of Lower Ca fertilization, reduced all the essential nutrients to mango uptake by plants, as well as decline plant would result in enhanced translocation results in the production and quality of mango development of Ca deficiency. The fruits. mango fruit setting is influences more The Ca accumulation within the with Ca deficiency as it has been leaves of mango plants increases with

486 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY the age of the plant (Reuter and (Shorter and Joyce, 1998). For Robinson, 1997). There is always instance, Bally (2007) concluded that ambiguousness in estimating the the Ca concentrations varied within content of Ca in the leaves and the the mango fruits from fruit fruits of mango plants, as it varies developmental stage to ripening. The from one fruit to another (Bally, 2007). variations in mango fruit quality with This could be due to variations in the Ca applications are demonstrated in location of vascular tissues and Table 5. translocation of Ca in the tissues

Table 5 - The variations in mango fruit quality with calcium applications Reported Sr. Reported positive Parameters negative No effect no. effects effect Total soluble Hojo et al. (2009); Rani 1 - - solids and Brahmachari (2003) 2 Fruit colour - - - Titratable Wahdan et al. (2011); 3 - - acidity Assis et al. (2004) Wahdan et al. (2011); 4 Fruit mass - - Hojo et al. (2009) Wahdan et al. (2011); Rani and Brahmachari Silva and Menezes 5 Fruit firmness (2003); Evangelista et al. - (2001); Sampaio et al. (2000, 2002); Hojo et al. (1999) (2009) External Freire-Junior and Chitarra 6 appearance of - - (1999) the fruit Hojo et al. (2009); Silva and Menezes Internal Van Eeden 7 Assis et al. (2004) (2001); Freire-Junior disorders (1992) and Chitarra (1999); Sampaio et al. (1999)

Role of magnesium of Mg for higher fruit production. Magnesium is the second most Similar to the Ca deficiency, the dominant cation in the soil and is an deficiency of Mg is generally seen in essential macronutrient for a acidic soils (Fageria and Souza, successful growth of plant. Mg2+ is an 1991). The contents of Mg2+ in the important component of enzymes soil varies greatly according to involved in transport of P, it activates weathering of the soil and the parent various enzymes, produces green material. The Mg2+ requirements for color, and is involved in carbohydrate optimum growth are lower than Ca metabolism (Yan and Ho, 2018). and varies with varieties, species, type Mango plants require adequate supply of soil, and crop type (Fageria et al.,

487 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED

1997). Various factors are responsible It has been seen that Mg2+ is a for affecting the Mg2+ availability to mobile nutrient and it is translocated mango plants such as, concentration within the plant body in the form of of Mg2+, the Mg2+ saturation, soil Mg2+ ion. Hence, the deficiency of physiochemical properties, soil Mg2+ appears in older leaves initially. texture and type, and mango variety. The symptoms of Mg2+ deficiency can Furthermore, the concentrations of Na be recognized as yellowish leaves and and K ions in the soil reduces the necrosis in leaf lamina. The yellow availability of Mg2+ ions to mango leaves round and color, while the leaf plants owing to competitive effect veins remain green. The deficiency (Aitken and Scott, 1999). Alike, Mg2+ has widely been seen in sandy higher amounts of other ions such as soils, where leaching is more. Further, + 2+ 2+ + NH4 , Mn , Ca and Al3 in the soil, the soil with lower cation exchange compete with Mg2+ as well (Yan and capacities, and higher K fertilization Ho, 2018). Various studies have are prone to Mg2+ deficiency demonstrated that the application of (Stassen et al., 1999). Therefore, Mg2+ to mango plants resulted in appropriate use of integrated enhanced plant growth, fruit yield, fertilization schemes including Mg2+ and quality (Xiuchong et al., 2001). along with weed, diseases and pest The impacts of Mg2+ fertilization for control measures could result in improving mango fruit quality is enhances mango fruit production with presented in Table 6. enhanced quality.

Table 6 - The impacts of magnesium fertilization for improving mango fruit quality Sr. Reported positive Reported negative No Parameters no. effect effect effect Total soluble 1 - - - solids 2 Titratable acidity - - - 3 Fruit mass Xiuchong et al. (2001) - - 4 Internal disorders - Assis et al. (2004) -

Role of boron as well as transport of sugar in mango Boron (B) is among the essential plants is controlled by B (Hansch and micronutrients for plant development Mendel, 2009; Gupta et al., 1985). and growth. However, the excessive B Hence, a continuous supply of B is supply could develop toxicity. The essential for successful fruit setting in function of B in plant physiology is mango plants (Raja et al., 2005). If not studies well, nonetheless, its role not supplied in appropriate amount, in cell wall formation is well inner and outer cork of mango plants established (Zia et al., 2006; Hu and may hinder and mango fruit may get Brown, 1994). The formation of pollen, cracks due to inadequate supply of B retention of flowers, protein synthesis, (Zia et al., 2006). According to an

488 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY estimate, the soils of more than 2013). Likewise, Anees et al. (2011), 80 countries, including Pakistan, Barbosa et al. (2016), Baiea et al. Thailand, India, Brazil, Africa, South (2015) and Ali et al. (2017) observed and Central America, and Australia an enhanced quality and production of are suffering from B deficiency mango under B fertilization. Moreover, (Singh et al., 2005; Naik and Bhatt, Raja et al. (2005) suggested that 2017; Zia et al., 2006; Fageria et al., application of B with foliar spray was 2002; Oldoni et al., 2018). Zia et al. more effective than soil application. (2006) reported the deficiency of B Thus, integrated application of foliar soil of Pakistan, whereas Xu et al. B in the form of H3BO3, FeSO4 and (2001) reported 33 million hectares of ZnSO4 could significantly improve arable land in China are B deficient. the mango yield and production with The main reason for widespread B enhanced fruit quality (Anees et al., deficiency could be to the insoluble 2011; Bhatt et al., 2012). mineral source of B (tourmaline) The deficiency of B in mango (Gupta et al., 1985). The overall plants can be recognized by less effects of B application to mango fruit flowering, less pollination and fewer quality are presented in Table 7. fruit setting. This could be due to The preferable forms of B for irregular cell division resulting in plants uptake are identified as boric curved leaves, fruit pitting, as well as acid (H3BO3 or B(OH)3 (Marshner, bent margins and lumina (Siddiq et al., 1995). It has been reported that B 2017; Crane et al., 2009). As a result, moves within soil via mass flow; the stems start to black losing apical however, the involvement of active dominance, consequently resulting in and passive method of B stunted growth. Moreover, the higher transportation in soil has not been levels of N and Ca contents in soil studied well (Mattiello et al., 2009.). result in B deficiency as well (Raja et al., Soil physicochemical characteristics 2005; Ram et al., 1989). Marshner (pH), B concentration is soil, type and (1995) stated that here is a marginal texture of soil, specie, and soil difference between B deficiency and moistures contents significantly affect toxicity. Excessive application of B the B availability to mango plants fertilizer may develop a B toxicity in (Welch et al., 1991). In addition, B soils. Black spots on the edges of the retention in coarse soil is lower due to leaves and necrosis on the margins of higher leaching. It is worth mentioning leaves are the indications of B toxicity that, unlike other nutrients, the (Crane et al., 2009). Therefore, in B uptake from soil to mango plants case of the appearance of B toxicity increases with rise in temperature. symptoms, the surplus B must be The application of B to mango leached down from root zone for orchard has been seen to improve the persistent mango plant growth. Alike, fruit production and quality for a deficiency of B can also be various cultivars of mango (Galli et al., compensated with appropriate

489 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED application of B fertilizer in order to production and quality (Saran and achieve optimum mango fruit Ratan, 2011; Sharma and Singh 2009).

Table 7 - The effects of boron fertilization on production and quality of mango fruit Sr. Reported a No Parameters Reported positive effect no. negative effect effect Total soluble Oldoni et al. (2018); Anees et 1 - - solids al. (2011); Bhatt et al. (2012) Titratable Oldoni et al. (2018); Anees et 2 - - acidity al. (2011); Bhatt et al. (2012) Bhatt et al. (2012); 3 Fruit mass Raja and Kumar (2003); Oldoni - - et al. (2018) Internal Saran and Ratan (2011); 4 - - disorders Sharma and Singh (2009) 5 Total sugar Bhatt et al. (2012) - - Ascorbic Baiea et al. (2015); Anees et al. 6 - - acid (2011); Oldoni et al. (2018)

Role of zinc Exogenous Zn application to mango Zinc is an essential micronutrient plants improves the quality and for the successful growth and production of mango fruits (Table 8). production of the plant owing to its The deficiency of Zn in various significant contribution in the soils have been reported globally. The synthesis of chlorophyll, proteins, development of leaflets and shortening hormones and in conducting the of internode spacing on mango plants process of photosynthesis (Weir and could be a sign of Zn deficiency Chresswell, 1995). Plants absorb Zn (Dilly et al., 1997; Agarwala et al., from the soil solution in in ionic form 1988; Marshner, 1995). The Zn (Zn2+), and then translocate it to other availability to plants is directly linked parts of the plant. However, the with pH of the soil. Further, the translocated Zn does not become higher calcite (CaCO3) contents in soil available easily to other tissues of the reduces the availability of Zn to plants plant. In addition, due to deep rooting owing to higher pH levels (Trehan system of mango, it is harder to apply and Sekhon, 1977). Similar, it was Zn in root zone. However, the reported that Zn availability to plants chelating agents produced from roots is significantly influenced by the soil of mango plants may help in Zn pH ( and Christensen, translocation (Stevenson, 1986). 1988). Therefore, widespread Zn Therefore, foliar application of Zn deficiency is reported in the soils of because it is considered as more Pakistan and India owing to alkaline efficient, as plant can absorb Zn soils with higher calcite contents through leaves as well. Further, foliar (Naik and Bhatt, 2017; Zia et al., Zn application is preferred as Zn is 2006). Besides, the availability of Zn immobile in soil (Tisdale et al., 1985). to plant is also influenced by the

490 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY contents of clay, organic matter, seen with the application of Zn by calcite contents, iron oxide, and various researchers. For instance, aluminum oxide. Moreover, higher Singh and Rajput (1977) reported that concentrations of P in the soil may the application of ZnSO4 application also reduce the availability of Zn to resulted in higher ascorbic, fruit the soil (Robson and Pitman, 1983). sugar, and production of mango fruit. Fageria and Gheyi (1999) observed Likewise, an improvement in fruit Zn deficiency in soil exhibiting quality and setting was reported by P toxicity and vice versa. The improved Daulta et al. (1981) with foliar fruit production and quality has been application of Zn fertilization.

Table 8 - Exogenous zinc application on fruit quality and production of mango fruits Sr. Reported No Parameters Reported positive effect no. negative effect effect Total Panwar et al. (2007); Singh and 1 soluble Rajput (1977); Inees et al. (2011); - - solids Bhatt et al. (2012) Titratable Inees et al. (2011); Singh and Rajput 2 - - acidity (1977); Bhatt et al. (2012) Raja and Kumar (2003); Singh and 3 Fruit mass Rajput (1977); Bhatt et al. (2012); - - Inees et al. (2011) 4 Total sugar Panwar et al. (2007) - -

In another study, it has been The reduction of sulfates and observed that 1% foliar application of nitrates, process of photosynthesis and ZnSO4 resulted in enhanced vitamin A assimilation of N2 is linked with Fe; and sugars with lower acidity (Kumar therefore, Fe management in mango and Kumar, 1989). Likewise, it was plants is of critical importance. reported that 1% foliar spray of ZnSO4 However, Fe deficiency in soils is was sufficient to prevent optimum widespread globally in mango plant growth (Littlemore et al., 1991). orchards, despite of its abundance in most of the soils (Zia et al., 2006; Role of other micronutrients Schmidt, 1999). It is due to the fact that Beside afore mentioned Fe availability is directly influenced micronutrient, Fe, Cu and Mn are also by the soil pH. One unit increment in essential for optimum plant growth. soil pH results in 1000 times Therefore, appropriate application of reduction in Fe solubility (Lindsay, all these nutrients is necessary for 1979). Hence, proper Fe fertilizer higher mango fruit production and management is complicated in deficiency of either one or more than calcareous soils. Due to higher pH of one micronutrient would lead to calcareous soils (7.5-8.5), only a small reduced plant growth and fruit proportion of the applied Fe becomes production (Schaefer et al., 1988). available to the plants (Lindsay,

491 M.M.H. KHAN, N. AHMED

1991). Plants can absorb Fe either in can be evidenced through the the form of Fe2+ and/or Fe3+; development of necrosis at leaf tips nevertheless, Fe2+ has been shown to (Mohamed, 2017). The possible be more soluble than Fe3+. Moreover, impacts of Mn application on the in aerobic condition, Fe2+ can be mango fruits quality have not been oxidized to produce Fe3+, which is not investigated well (Bally, 2009). accessible to plants, whereas, through Therefore, appropriate quantities of reduction process Fe3+, can be micronutrients must be applied on transformed to Fe2+ enhancing the right time using right application availability of Fe to plants (Salisbury method to achieve the optimum and Ross, 1992). However, the mango fruit production with improved process of reducing Fe3+ to Fe2+is quality and nutrition. controlled by the soil pH. Ligands obtained from plants can be develop Future directions chelates Fe3+ making them available In order to understand the factors for plants. Furthermore, the efficiency responsible for reducing the quality, of Fe can be enhanced substantially growth and production of mangoes, it through foliar application of Fe than is necessary to constantly research that of soil application (Bhatt et al., and examine different factors in 2012; Anees et al., 2011). several different ecological zones. The crucial role of Mn in the Modern and smart technologies can redox reaction, enzyme activation, recognize the factors that decrease the decarboxylation and hydrolytic and mango production, including mineral reactions has been established (Bally, nutrients, specifically micronutrients, 2009). Additionally, the photosynthetic which are not only responsible to process, as well as formation of lipids, reduce the quality of mango fruit, but proteins and carbohydrates is linked also to reduce productivity. Steps are with adequate levels of Mn in plants needed to be taken to make better (Marchner, 1995). Plants can uptake mango production and quality of Mn in the form of Mn2+, which is fruits through the integrated and generally bounded to the organic balanced nutrient management. matter and soil colloids (Bally, 2009). Mango producers, scientists, 2+ The MnO2 is transformed to Mn horticulture specialist and extension through reduction in aerobic workforces should work in joint conditions, under lower pH, while the ventures to share the knowledge. To microbial oxidation may occur in predict and diagnose phenological higher pH. Therefore, both oxidation needs at different ecological regions and reduction processes take place and times, there is a need to combine simultaneously in the soil system biotic and abiotic factors to increase controlling the availability of Mn to productivity. Increasing research and the plants (Peverill et al., 1999). horticulture requires the incorporation The deficiency of Mn in mango plants of new models, software and friendly

492 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MANGO NUTRITION FOR BETTER YIELD AND QUALITY programs into the light production and plant growth phases. The importance REFERENCES of supporting organic farming Abbas, H.R.A.S.G., Hafiz, I.A., Ahmad, techniques in conjunction with nature S. & Khan, M. (2002). Nitrogen and science cannot be deprived. concentration at various growth Finally, there is an urgent need to stages of mango and effect of sustain and build a resilient bridge calcium carbide on fruit quality. Asian J. Plant Sci., 1(2): 164-166, between mango producers, DOI: 10.3923/ajps.2002.164.166 technologists and researchers in order Agarwala, S.C., Nautiyal, B.D., to increase mango production and Chatterjee, C. & Sharma, C.P. ensure quality production. (1988). Manganese, zinc and boron deficiency in mango. Sci.Hortic., 35(1-2): 99-107, DOI: 10.1016/0304- CONCLUSIONS 4238(88)90041-6 Aitken, R.L. & Scott, B.J. (1999). Due to nutritional values with a Magnesium. In: Peverill, K.I., nice aroma, taste, flavor and health, Sparrow, L.A., Reuter, D.J. (Eds), mango is recognized as “king of Soil analysis: an interpretation fruits” in South Asia. Although, manual. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization mango trees can be cultivated on a (CSIRO), Melbourne, Australia, pp. vast range of soil characteristics 255-262. nonetheless, tree mineral status should Ali, M.S., Elhamahmy, M.A. & El-Shiekh, be measured by repeating leaf and soil A.F. (2017). Mango trees chemical analysis. True understanding productivity and quality as affected by boron and putrescine. Sci.Hortic., was gained from the nutritional 216: 248-255, DOI: 10.1016/j.scien effects of the explanations rather than ta.2017.01.026 from the results on the qualitative Anderson, P.R. & Christensen, T.H. parameters of the mango fruit. The (1988). Distribution coefficient of Cd, Co, Ni, and Zn in soils. J. Soil Sci., yield and quality of the mango fruit 39(1): 15-22, DOI: 10.1111/j.1365- can be improved to a great extent in 2389.1988.tb01190.x result of the applied mineral nutrients Andrade, L.R.M. de (2004). Corretivos e by describing their role in phenology. fertilizantes para culturas perenes e Continuous monitoring of the mango semiperenes. In: Sousa, D.M.G. and Lobato, E. (Eds.), Cerrado, Correcao tree helps to plan a nutritional do Solo e Adubacao. Embrapa program for mangoes. It is essential to Informação Tecnológica, Brasilia, monitor the mineral status at different Brazil, pp. 317-366. growth stages. The growth and Anees, M., Tahir, F.M., Shahzad, J. & Mahmood, N (2011). Effect of foliar development of the mango industry application of micronutrients on the requires the development and quality of mango () commitment of a fast, economical, Cv. Dusehri Fruit. Mycopath, 9(1): easily accessible and ecological 25-28. mineral nutrition program. Anonymous (2007). A guide to soil sampling. spectrum analytic. Available at: http://www.spectruma nalytic.com/support/library/ff/soil_sa

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