BRAIN INJURY ELECTRONIC RESOURCE MANUAL VOLUME I A: Traumatic Brain Injury Chrystyna Rakoczy, O.D. Committee Chair and Author Kara Gagnon O.D. Past Committee Chair and Author Maria Santullo Richman, O.D. VRS Chair and Committee Member Allen Cohen, O.D. Candice Elam, O.D. Author and committee Author member Brenda Heinke Mon- Michael Peterson, O.D. tecalvo, O.D. Author Author and committee member Matthew Rhodes, O.D. Mitchell Scheiman, O.D. Author Author and committee member ©2013 American Optometric Association. This manual was developed through the efforts of the AOA Vision Rehabilitation Section. Please acknowledge the VRS when quoting from this manual. Table of contents Preface 7 I. Introduction 9 II. Evaluation and Assessment A. Assumptions/Intent 15 B. Equipment list 16 C. Examination approach 17 1. Approach 2. Considerations for TBI patient/Tips for better evaluation 3. Pre-history observation D. TBI History 19 1. TBI narrative 2. Review of visual symptoms 3. Review of vestibular TBI symptoms E. Examination of afferent pathways 26 1. Acuity 2. Contrast sensitivity 3. Color 4. Amsler grid 5. Confrontation visual field 6. Photo stress test 7. Pupil testing and the near reflex F. Examination of efferent pathways 32 1. Lids 2 2. CN VII evaluation (distinguish between supra and infra nuclear) 3. CN V 1 evaluation 4. Ocular stability, position, binocular alignment, and motility: Free Space 5. Accommodation in Free Space 6. Sensory status 7. Retinoscopy/Refraction 8. Phorometry G. Examination of cortical visual function 48 1. Reflex blink to visual threat 2. OKN/ iPad Application 3. Neglect/Inattention testing 4. Agnosias: testing 5. Abnormal spatial sense H. Examination of vestibular function 56 1. Dynamic acuity 2. Oculocephalic maneuver 3. Gaze stabilization/VOR cancellation 4. Sharpened Romberg 5. Fakuda stepping test 6. Tandem gait I. Examination of visual processing and perceptual function 60 1. Chair-side optometric visual perceptual skill screening 2. Visual processing or perceptual skills and tests J. Ocular health examination/Ocular signs of TBI 67 1. Anterior segment 2. Posterior Segment 3 III. Review of Assessment and Diagnosis A. Assumptions/Intent 70 B. Refractive errors 71 C. Oculomotor and accommodative dysfunction 72 1. Eye movement disorders 2. Binocular disorders 3. Accommodative disorders D. Other visual disorders associated with TBI 79 1. Photosensitivity 2. Visual fields deficits 3. Cerebral disorders of vision 4. Illusions and hallucinations 5. Visual disorders associated with vestibular dysfunction IV. Inter-professional Team for the Brain Injured Population 93 V. Glossary 96 VI. Bibliography 112 VII. Appendices 124 A. TBI Vision Symptom Survey B. mTBI specific vision screening C. Glasgow Coma scale D. Rancho los Amigos scale 4 E. Gaze disturbance differential F. Piaget test G. Convergence Insufficiency Symptom Survey Disclaimer Recommendations made in this manual do not represent a standard of care. Instead, the recommendations are intended to assist the clinician in the decision‐making process. Patient care and treatment should always be based on a clinician’s independent professional judgment, given the individual’s circumstances, state laws and regulations. 5 Preface Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a subsection of acquired brain injury (ABI). Volumes Ia and Ib cover visual dysfunction secondary only to trauma of the brain from external forces. Subsequent volumes planned will cover visual dysfunctions secondary to acquired brain injury due vasculopathic, mass-effect, infectious, inflammatory and neuro-degenerative diseases, and congenital brain malformations. The idea for the Brain Injury Electronic Resource Manual (BIERM) came about with the general population’s recent increased awareness of brain injury and associated visual dysfunctions. In 2007, much attention was brought to this matter when doctors at the Veterans Affairs (VA) Polytrauma Rehabilitation Center in Palo Alto, Calif., published two manuscripts, one titled “Eye and Visual Dysfunction in Traumatic Brain Injury” and the other titled “Visual Impairment and Dysfunction in Combat-Injured Sevicemembers with Traumatic Brain Injury.” These articles played a significant role in the implementation of a VA directive mandating every service member diagnosed with a TBI and treated at any VA Polytrauma Rehabilitation Center to have a very specific and detailed eye exam to rule out ocular trauma and visual dysfunction. The signature injury of the recent and current conflicts in the Middle East was and is TBI, resulting in a huge population base needing to be evaluated. The VA had to set and implement standards for examination and establish VA rehabilitation centers for management of these unique visual dysfunctions. At about the same time, the media brought to the attention of the general population the importance of identifying and managing TBI secondary to sports injuries. Boxing, football, soccer and any other contact sports were analyzed. Some athletes with concussive syndrome were followed for mild cognitive impairment or even neurodegenerative disease as a result of their head injury. Ocular motility dysfunction was noted to be a major sequela. Physical and occupational therapists, and optometrists (OD) had long noted visual dysfunction in their stroke patients. A 2008 “Scope of Practice” survey by the AOA found 85.5 percent of ODs saw one or more patients who suffered a neurological insult, a more than 7 percent increase over the previous year’s results. One-third of those ODs noted that most of the referrals came from occupational or physical therapists. Interprofessional referrals continued at the same rate in 2011. Patient examination by neuro-ophthalmologists recognized some of these dysfunctions but failed to support rehabilitation other than the use of prismatic glasses. For many patients, that was all that was needed. Others were left to cope with their visual dysfunctions. Enter optometry: with the unique ability to diagnose AND rehabilitate dysfunctions of the entire visual system. The Vision Rehabilitation Section (VRS) of the American Optometric Association (AOA) decided a resource manual was needed. Members to the committee for brain injury, vision assessment and rehabilitation were co-opted and work on the manual began. As work progressed, committee members realized the field of brain injury related visual dysfunction assessment and rehabilitation is very well established, but its evidence-based rehabilitative techniques and outcome measures were not readily available. “Evidence-based research” was coined in 1988 when the Journal of Clinical Epidemiology first promoted the concept of evidence-based medicine. The term “evidence-based medicine” evolved from that research and in 1996 was officially defined by the Institute of Medicine as “the conscientious and judicious use of current best evidence from clinical care research in the management of individual patients.” I stress “clinical care research.” As early as 1988, Optometry: Journal of the AOA published “The Efficacy of Optometric Vision Therapy,” which provided a comprehensive review of “evidence-based research” on all binocular dysfunctions – including oculomotor dysfunction. This was just the beginning of “evidence-based” research on rehabilitation of oculomotor dysfunction, common in the general population as well as the most common sequela of TBI. Much of the literature to date describes assessment and diagnosis, recognition and categorization of visual dysfunction. A 6 limiting component to all of this research is that patients with TBI often have multiple compounding issues including cognitive deficits and the use of multiple vision affective medications. Consistent with all professions involved with the management of patients with brain injury is the emergence of new or expanded definitions and terminology. Archaic terms are being replaced with newer, less confusing terms found to better describe clinical findings. Within the profession of optometry, “neuro-optometric rehabilitation,” also known as “Brain Injury Vision Assessment and Rehabilitation,” is an emerging sub-specialty. As rehabilitation professionals become more aware of this optometric service and its positive impact on the success of overall rehabilitation for the complex and undeserved TBI population, these terms will become more widely used and understood. In this consensus-based manual, every attempt is made to provide best practices. Some strategies are not verified by sound research, and they are so acknowledged. Some terms are less recognized than others and are noted along with their associated synonyms. All of this points to a discipline that indeed is still young and trying to find its footing to prove that it is sound. Even though research is difficult with this population base, evidenced-based research provides best care information and for the sake of our patients we must all do our part to promote evidence-based research in the area of visual rehabilitation and ultimately provide the best sound care available. Chrystyna Rakoczy, O.D. Chair, Brain Injury Committee Vision Rehabilitation Section American Optometric Association 7 SECTION 1: Introduction Mitchell Scheiman, OD Vision Problems Associated with Traumatic Brain Injury The treatment of vision disorders related to traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the more challenging aspects of optometric practice. Patients who survive TBI generally experience multiple problems, including physical, cognitive, behavioral, motor, and sensory anomalies1.