The Case of Al Sadat City”

Assessing The Potentials of Multi-functional Urban Agriculture in Egypt Towards Cultivating The New Urban Settlements “The Case of Al Sadat City”

A Thesis submitted in the Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the Degree of Master of Science in Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design

by Dina Mahmoud Abdel Rashid Noseir

Supervised by

Prof. Antje Stokman Dr. Marwa A. Khalifa Dr. Marwa Abdullatif Professor of Landscape Associate Professor of Urban Assistant Professor of Urban Planning Planning Planning and Ecology University of Ain Shams University of Ain Shams University of Stuttgart

July, 2014 Disclaimer

Assessing The Potentials of Multi- functional Urban Agriculture in Egypt: Towards Cultivating The New Urban Settlements “The Case of Al Sadat City”

A Thesis submitted in the Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the Degree of Master of Science in Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design by Dina Mahmoud Abdel Rashid Noseir

Supervised by

Prof. Antje Stokman Dr. Marwa A. Khalifa Dr. Marwa Abdullatif Prof. of Landscape Planning and Ecology Assoc. Prof. of Urban Planning Assis. Prof. of Urban Planning University of Stuttgart University of Ain Shams University of Ain Shams

Examiners Committee Title, Name & Affiliation Signature

Dr. Mohamed Refaat Associate Professor of Urban Landscape Architecture University of Cairo

Prof. Dr. Germin Elgohary Professor of Architecture and Landscape Design University of Ain Shams

Dr. Marwa A. Khalifa Associate Professor of Urban Planning University of Ain Shams

Prof. Antje Stokman Professor of Landscape Planning and Ecology University of Stuttgart

07/21/2014

Disclaimer

This dissertation is submitted to Ain Shams University, Faculty of Engineering and University of Stuttgart, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning for the degree of Integrated Urbanism and Sustainable Design. The work included in this thesis was carried out by the author in the Year 2014

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others.

07/21/2014

Dina Mahmoud Abdel Rashid Noseir

Signature

V acknowledgment

Acknowledgment

First and foremost, I thank Allah Almighty for endowing me with health, patience, and knowledge to complete this work.

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to all those who provided me the possibility to complete this research. A special gratitude is given to my supervisors: Prof. Antje Stkoman, Dr. Marwa Khalifa and Dr. Marwa Abdullatif whose contribution in insightful suggestions, encouragement, valuable time and guidance have been a strong mentor for me.

Furthermore I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of Eng. Ezz El-Din Fraghaly for his motivation, enthusiasm and cooperation throughout the course of this thesis.

A profound gratitude goes to my beloved parents and family; their love, bless- ings, help and guidance shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am about to embark.

I would also like to thank my colleagues and friends for their emotional and moral support throughout my academic career.

Last but not least, I owe my deepest gratitude to my husband for his constant support patience and sacrifices without which I would not have reached this stage.

VII

Abstract

Urban agriculture has multifunctional potentials. Multi-functionality, as a concept, is argued to sustain urban agricultural practices. Multi-functionality supports the establishment of the roots of urban agriculture practice on the three poles of sustainability. This multifunctional uses can contribute to securing food production, providing additional income, and reshaping the development of urban settlements. However, one of the main hindering obstacles against practicing urban agriculture is the scarcity of land in the highly urbanized cities. On the contrary, new urban settlements is still developing, and have more capability to incorporating different typologies and multi-functional urban agriculture. Thus, this thesis assesses the potentials of practicing multifunctional urban agriculture in these new urban settlements: specifically in the case study area, Al Sadat city. The approach adopted in this thesis to assess the potentials of multi- functional urban agriculture: is through the development of an assessment tool. This assessment tool helps identify the level of multi-functionality that could be associated with the different practices of urban agriculture. In addition to identifying the potentials of the local context, in which urban agriculture is to be practices. Three scales of urban agriculture are identified to assess their potentials towards incrorporating multifunctional urban agriculture; (1) City-scale; (2) medium-scale; and (3) small-scale. The analysis proceeds with exploring potential models that could be developed to integrate different typologies of urban agriculture. The thesis demonstrates that there are more potentials to practice multifunctional urban agriculture in areas of where medium-scale rban agriculture could be achieved in Al Sadat City. In addition, this thesis demonstrates that the new settlements have more potentials to be captured by multifunctional urban agriculture, for the benefit of these new settlements.

Keywords Urban agriculture; Multi-functionality; New Settlements; Al Sadat; Egypt.

Table of contents

Table of Contents

Disclaimer ��V

Acknowledgment �� VII

Abstract �� IX

List of Figures �� XI

List of Acronyms... �� XV

1. Introduction..... �� 9 1.1. General Introduction �� 9 1.2. Research Problem �� 11 1.3. Research Objectives and Question ��16 Research Objectives ��16 Research Question ��16 1.4. Research Design and Methodology ��16 Literature Review and Development of an Assessment Tool ��16 Research Case Study Selection ��18 Limitations ��19 1.5. Thesis Outline ��19

2. Literature Review �� 25 2.1. Urban Planning Theories and Agriculture �� 25 2.2. Urban Development, Agriculture and the Uneven Distribution of Food Sources �� 26 2.3. Urban Agriculture: Definition and Background �� 26 2.3.1. Definition �� 26 2.3.2. Typologies and Scales of Urban Agriculture �� 28 2.4. Multi-functional Urban Agriculture �� 30 2.4.1. Multi-functionality: Definition and Significance �� 30 2.4.2. Notion of MF �� 30

3 Table of contents

2.4.3. Multi-functional Urban Agriculture �� 30 2.4.4. Multi-functionality of Urban Agriculture: The Relationship with Markets ��31 2.4.5. Multi-functional Urban Agriculture: Towards Sustainability ��31 2.4.6. Importance of Clarification and Ranking of the Multiple Func tions of Urban Agriculture �� 32 2.5. Assessment Tools for Multi-functional Urban Agriculture in Literature ..... �� 32 2.6. Best Practices �� 33 2.6.1. Extensive Review on International Practices: Exploring the Uses Shaping Multi-functional Urban Agriculture. �� 33 2.6.2. Categorization of the Reviewed Best Practices: Selection of a Best Practice Case Study for In-depth Analysis ��35 2.6.3. In-depth Analysis for Selected International Best Practice Case Studies: The Case of Rosario, Argentina �� 38

3. Case Study: Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis �� 49 3.1. Insight Into Al Sadat City �� 49 3.1.1. The Context: Land Reclamation Area in Egypt's Western Des ert and the Counter-act Against Loss of Agriculture land �� 49 3.1.2. Al Sadat City: A Prototype of New Urban Settlement and Po tentials of Self-sufficient City through UA �� 50 .Location of Al Sadat City ��51 Al Sadat City- Land Suitability Profile ��51 Infrastructure, Agriculture and Investments ��53 3.1.3. Understanding Current Institutional Mechanisms for Practic ing Urban Agriculture in Al Sadat City ��53 3.1.4. Potentials of urban agriculture in Al Sadat City Master Plan ��55 3.2. Case Study Analysis Methodology �� 56 3.3. Al Sadat Case Study Analysis ��61 3.3.1. City-Scale Analysis �� 62 City-scale Typologies Group 1: Reclaimed lands, Farm lands, and Green Belt �� 62

4 Table of contents

City-Scale Typologies Group 2: Potential Productive Axes �� 62 Land suitability and Water supply �� 62 3.3.2. Micro-scale Analysis �� 64 Micro-scale Typologies Group 1: Existing Residential Neighborhoods— Community Gardens and Potential Productive Streets ��67 Micro-scale Typologies Group 2: Agricultural schools, Educational Institution, Industrial Zones and Parks ��67 34.3.3. Small-scale Analysis—Subsistence-scale �� 69 Existing Residential Neighborhood — Rooftops Garden ing �� 69 3..3..43.. Assessing the Potentials of Multi-Functional Urban Agricul ture on the Three Different Scales. �� 71

4. Developing New Models of Multi-functional Urban Agriculture: Towards Supporting Strategy ��77

5. Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations �� 85 Discussion �� 85 Conclusion �� 85 Recommendation �� 86

References �� 89

Appendices �� 93

Abstract in Arabic ��106

List of figures

List of Figures

Fig.1.1— Urban Population Vs. Rural Population 1950 - 2030. �� 9

Fig.1.2— Urban Population Vs. Rural Population 1950 - 2030. �� 9

Fig.1.3— Development of urban settlements in and around the Nile Delta 1954. ��12

Fig.1.4— Development of urban settlements in and around the Nile Delta 1992. ��12

Fig.1.5— Development of urban settlements in and around the Nile Delta 2006. ��12

Fig.1.6— Development of urban settlements in and around the Nile Delta 2006. ��12

Fig.1.7— Map of new settlements, satellite desert cities and land reclamation around Nile Delta. ��13

Fig.1.8— Problem identification diagram...... ��14

Fig.1.9— Egypt‘s map showing reclaimed land, old irrigated land, edited by author...... ��15

Fig.1.10— Research design and methodology...... �� 17

Multi-functionality assessment tool. ��17

Fig.2.1— Scales of urban agriculture and respective typologies...... �� 28

Fig.2.2— Multi-functionality assessment tool overlaid with the continuum of urban agriculture scale. �� 32

Fig.2.3— Types of multifunctional uses of urban agriculture in the extensively reviewed case study...... �� 34

VII List of figures

Fig.2.4— Clustering of the extensively reviewed case studies according to type of ruling system...... �� 36

Fig.2.5— Clustering of the extensively reviewed case studies according to climatic conditions...... ��37

Fig.2.6— Existing green areas in Rosario...... �� 39

Fig.2.8— Rosario city context...... �� 39

Fig.2.7— Types of multifunctional uses of urban agriculture in Rosario city plan. �� 39

Fig.2.9— Existing green areas in Rosario. Source: Rosario Participatory Project. ��40

Fig.2.10— Garden Park plan in Molino Blanco, Rosario...... ��41

Fig.2.11— Garden Park in Molino Blanco, Rosario...... ��41

Fig.2.12— Productive Streets in Molino Blanco, Rosario...... �� 42

Fig.2.13— La Lagunita neighborhood, Rosario...... �� 43

Fig.2.14— La Lagunita plan before practicing urban agriculture, Rosario. �� 43

Fig.2.15— La Lagunita plan after practicing urban agriculture, Rosario. �� 43

Fig.2.16— Assessment of Multifunctional urban agriculture in Rosario.. �� 45

Fig.3.1— Al Sadat City Master Plan...... �� 49

Fig.3.2— Al Sadat City land use map showing types of green infrastructure existing and planned for the city. �� 52

Fig.3.3— Al Sadat City land suitability map for green landscape...... �� 52

Fig.3.4— The investments allocated for the agricultural sector is 58.8. Million Egyptian Pounds, which represents around 3% of the total investments in all

VIII List of figures

other sectors, which is 2267.3 Million Egyptian Pounds. ��53

Fig.3.6— Existing spaces that could be harnessed for the benefit of urban agriculture. (a)& (b) Al Sadat university. (c) & (d) green spaces in neighborhood areas. ��55

Fig.3.5— Mapping potentials of multi-functional urban agriculture on Al Sadat City Scale...... ��55

Fig.3.7— Case Study Methodology...... ��57

Fig.3.8— Location of Selected areas of different densities. �� 58

Fig.3.9— City-scale Potentials: Location of land reclaimation areas, farm lands and green built. �� 63

Fig.3.10— City-scale potentials: Location of proposed urban agriculture green axes. �� 65

Fig.3.11— Mirco-scale Potentials...... ��67

Fig.3.12— Small-scale Potentials: Existing residential neighborhood as a potential rooftop urban agriculture...... �� 69

Fig.3.13— Diagram showing the assessment carried out on the three scale of potential multi-functional urban agriculture in Al Sadat City. Source: Own, 2014 �� 70

Fig.4.1— Prospective Comprehensive plan incorporating various potential typologies on different scales. ��77

Fig.4.2— Supporting Strategies to achieve the comprehensive plan incorporating various potential typologies on different scales...... ��79

Fig.7.3— Analysis of Selected three areas of different urban densities.... �� 101

Fig.7.1— Identifying potentials and problems of the three selected areas of different urban densities...... ��102

List of figures

List of Acronyms

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

MUA Multi-functional Urban Agriculture

NUCA New Urban Communities Authority

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

RUAF Resources Centres On Urban Agriculture and Food Security

UA Urban Agriculture

UPA Urban & Peri-urban Agriculture

Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction

Introduction

1. Introduction

1.1. General Introduction

The world is facing rapid urbanization as a result of the proliferating number of population and the increasing demand for housing. According to The World Bank (2013b), it is expected that 60% of the world population will live in urban areas by 2030. The World Bank (2013b) states that the urban population increases 180,000 people every day (See Fig.1.1). Moreover, over 750 million out of roughly billion poor people live in urban areas without adequate access to basic service (See Fig.1.2). Urban agriculture is considered as an answer to this rapid urbanization, urban poverty, and insufficient food supply in the cities. There are compelling arguments that urban agriculture has a multiple benefits from the economic, environment, social points of view. It is widely discussed that urban agriculture is a pro- Urban 4 Rural spective important component of the urban context. 3 It is argued that it can contribute positively to the 2 1 Year urban ecosystem, environmental services and social Thousands) (in Population 0 1955Urban1970 1985 2000 2015 2030 4 Rural life, which in turn contributes to the quality of life Fig.1.1— Urban Population 3 Rural, All countries Vs. Rural Population 1950 - in cities (FAO 2007, 2010; The World Bank 2013a). 2 Urban, Middle and Low 2030. Source:Income The World Bank 1 Urban, High income However, the development and expansion of urban (2013b) Year

Population (in Thousands) (in Population 0 1955 1970 1985 2000 2015 2030 agriculture is controlled by issues and challenges, 2000 1500 Rural, All countries mainly related to the urban context. 1000 Urban, Middle and Low Income 500 Urban, High income Time

0 Span Total Population Growth (in million) In order to integrate urban agriculture into the ur- 1950-75 1975-2000 2000-2030 2000 ban context, it is essential to consider urban agri- 1500 culture into the planning of cities, and to integrate it 1000 500 Time

0 Span Total Population Growth (in million) into the urban policies. However, urban agriculture 1950-75 1975-2000 2000-2030 is yet not considered as a land use that could be Fig.1.2— Urban Population integrated in city plans. Additionally, there is a high Vs. Rural Population 1950 - 2030. Source: The World Bank competition between urban agriculture as a land (2013b)

15 Chapter 01

use and any other use (i.e. commercial or residential use), specifically with the scarcity of land in the urban contexts. Thus, integrating urban agriculture into city plans and policies is vital for facilitating the process of integrating urban agriculture into the urban context.

The integration of urban agriculture into the urban policies and city plans will facilitate the operationalization process and the legislative issues required to successfully apply urban agriculture. This will further facilitate the process for urban planners to properly integrate urban agriculture into the urban contexts through: identifying proper location for urban agriculture; optimizing the benefits that could be harnessed from urban agriculture; and integrating urban agriculture into the different activities taking place in the urban context. For that matter, it is important to explore the potential dimensions and characteristics of urban agriculture.

The potentials and capacities of urban agriculture is to be unfolded to unleash one of its main edges; its multi-functionality. This will further enable: integrating urban agriculture into the urban context and system; optimizing its benefits and functions; and overcoming the competition against urban agriculture imposed by the urban dynamics and challenges.

The interest in studying the multi-functional character of agriculture and the need to develop new research approaches have been grown in recent years (Gó- mez Sal & González García 2007). One of the main advantages associated to the concept of multi-functionality, when linked with agriculture, is its contribution to the economic aspect. According to the OECD (2001), multi-functionality is a vital characteristic of an economic activity. This implies and emphasizes the importance of multi-functionality as a concept that positively contributes to economic challenges. Albeit, multi-functionality includes contribution to ecological and social aspects, nevertheless the common facet of this contribution to both aspects is the economic facet.

One argument in favor for this previously mentioned claim is that: the high competition imposed on designating scarce land to a specific land use or another, in and around the city. For instance, the management of green open spaces has a high cost, even though integrating multi-functions on the same plot can contribute to cost reduction (Dubbeling et al. 2009). The multi-functionality of combining different functions on the same land such as landscape management,

16 Introduction

conservation of ecological system, and contribution to the socio-economic and economic viability of urban contexts. This widens the role of urban agriculture beyond the concept of food production. This new understanding of multi-functionality stimulates new paradigms towards the understanding of what “urban agriculture” means and could mean.

Recent studies have proposed approaches and tools, in which multiple dimensions and functions could be assessed as first step toward integration. One of these tools, which will be adopted in this thesis, is the multi-functionality assessment tool proposed by Gómez Sal & González García (2007). This assessment tool takes into consideration different dimensions of sustainability used to assess the multi-functionality of agricultural activity. These dimensions are listed as follows: economical, production, environmental, social, and cultural dimensions. This will be discussed in-depth further in this chapter in the assessment tool part, delineating how this tool will used to assess the multi-functional potentials of urban agriculture in Egypt.

The aim of this thesis is to study how multifunctional urban agriculture can contribute to the different dimensions and aspects: environmental; social; economical; and cultural. And furthermore, to explore tools used to assess the potentials of multi-functional urban agriculture, and to deploy it in the selected case study area.

1.2. Research Problem

The world is facing a rapid urbanization that results in densely urbanized agglomerations, and sprawls on the agricultural lands. As a developing country, Egypt is challenged by this problem. A country of a total area of about 1 million km2. In the center of Egypt’s plateau lies the Nile Delta, surrounded by urban agglomerations that is interrupting the agricultural land close to the Nile River banks. The agricultural land total area represents 3.3% of the country’s total area (Alfiky et al. 2012). The area of these agricultural lands have decayed: due to urban challenges and issues.

The rapid urbanization and proliferating number of population in Egypt has led to the loss of the agricultural land in the Nile Valley. In the last two decades, the urbanization percentage in the Nile Delta region increased by roughly the double percentage (See Fig.1.6 ). This rapid urbanization resulted in a loss of

17 Chapter 01

300,000 acres of agricultural land during the period 1952 till 2002 (The World Bank 2007).

The adopted policies in the last decades, from Agricultural Land 1952 till 1991, has shaped Urban Development Water Bodies the development course of the agricultural lands Fig.1.3— Development of urban settlements in and around the in the Nile valley. The Nile Delta 1954. Source: Shalaby (2012) fragmentation of the agricultural land has resulted in loss of agricultural plots: as the land owners built on their own private plots as an answer to housing needs. However, Agricultural Land Urban Development the adopted policies of Water Bodies land reclamation was an Fig.1.4— Development of urban settlements in and around the attempt to compensate Nile Delta 1992. Source: Shalaby (2012) for that loss of agricultural land. This resulted in the current situation of the agriculture in the Nile Valley (See Fig.1.3, Fig.1.4, Fig.1.5)

Agricultural Land Urban Development As an answer to this Water Bodies rapid urbanization, new Fig.1.5— Development of urban settlements in and around the Nile Delta 2006. Source: Shalaby (2012) settlements are being es- 14.00% tablished to conceive the 12.00%

10.00% proliferating number of 8.00% population (See Fig.1.7). 6.00%

4.00% However, the establish- 2.00% ment and development 0.00% 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 of such new develop- Fig.1.6— Development of urban settlements in and around the Nile Delta 2006. Source: Shalaby (2012)

18 Introduction

Fig.1.7— Map of new settlements, satellite desert cities and land reclamation around Nile Delta. Source: M. Sejourne (2006); The World Bank (2007); and Goell et al. (2009). ment does not take into consideration the loss of agriculture. This amplifies the pressure of food scarcity on the poor, and locates food production sources away from their consumption points. In return, this leads to magnifying the problem of increased fuel consumption, losing connection to healthy food production, and food scarcity.

Another attempt to compensate for the loss of the agricultural land: was through the integration of agricultural lands into the planning of the new established urban settlements. The establishment of new satellite cities with agricultural peripheries in the form of reclaimed desert lands was one of these attempts that integrated agriculture into the urbanization of desert lands. Those reclaimed desert lands are in proximity or an extension to existing agricultural lands in the Nile Delta, as in the case of El Obour City and Al Sadat City respec- tively (See Fig.1.7 ).

The planning of the desert satellite cities have potentials that could be harnessed towards the making of productive green spaces. The potentials are resembled in the agricultural lands on its peripheries, and the integration of green spaces into the planning of these cities. Thus, these new urban settlements have

19 Chapter 01

more potential towards integrating different typologies and scales of urban agriculture into their planning. Consequently, the case study city selected for this thesis is one of these potential cities: Al Sadat city.

The prospects of urban agriculture in Greater Cairo and Nile Delta Region is constrained by its morphological pattern, which is characterized by its densely urbanized agglomerations. While the prospects of urban agriculture in the less dense urbanized new cities is privileged with more chances that could be harnessed for the benefit of these cities. For that matter, the main drive for this thesis is the interest in studying and investigating the potentials, possibilities and capacities of these news cities towards integrating urban agriculture into its system.

Rapid Urbanization

roblem Id P ent ific at io n Poor Socio-economic conditions Loss of Agriculture Land Urban Development and New Settlements

Increasing Population Vis-à-vis Food Scarcity

Fig.1.8— Problem identification diagram. Source: Own (2014)

20 Introduction

Fig.1.9— Egypt‘s map showing reclaimed land, old irrigated land, edited by author. Source: Adriansen (2009)

21 Chapter 01

1.3. Research Objectives and Question

Research Objectives

The aim of this thesis is to understand the capacity of the local context in, Al Sadat City, towards multi-functional urban agriculture. To identify potential strategies that would support the integration of multi-functional urban agriculture into planning process, policies and institutional mechanism.

Research Question

The following are the research main questions:

What are the characteristics and criteria of urban contexts which could incorporate multi-functionality in practicing urban agriculture?

Where and in which contexts do urban agricultural activities ensure high level of multi-functional uses in the context of Al Sadat City?

What are the prospective strategies that can foster the capabilities of the institutional entities and legislative regulations to incorporate multi-functional urban agriculture into urban areas and settlement?

1.4. Research Design and Methodology

The research methodology adopted in this research is divided into three main steps: literature review, research case study, and it concludes with the findings of the first two steps (See Fig.1.10).

Literature Review and Development of an Assessment Tool

The research methodology commences with literature review on urban agriculture and related issues. It reviews the different definitions for urban agriculture. In addition to discussing the notion of urban agriculture related to different fields. This in order to have a wider understanding of urban agriculture and multi-functional urban agriculture. The literature review proceeds with reviewing international case studies, through extensive and in-depth analysis.

The importance of reviewing international best practices on two analysis levels

22 Introduction

Research Design and Methodology

Literature Review

Definition of Multifunctional Assessment International Urban Agriculture Urban Agriculture Tools for MFA Best Practices

Typologies Developing Extensive In-depth and An Scales of UA Assessment Analysis Analysis Tool

Develop- ing An Assessment Tool

Large Medium Mirco- Subsistance Scale Scale scale UA

“Principle Economic of maximization” Social

for Case Study Selection Cultural Environmental Research Case Study Productive

Data Case Assessment Study of Collection Analysis Potentials

Interviews Primary FieldVisits Secondary Data Data Journals, City Authority Official Website

Developing New Models of Multi-functional Urban Agriculture

Towards Supporting Strategies for Multi-functional Urban Agriculture

Fig.1.10— Research design and methodology. Source: Own (2014). Multi-functionality assessment tool. Source: Gómez Sal & González García (2007) (Modified)

23 Chapter 01

is to have different understanding and sense of how can multi-functional urban agriculture could be practiced. The extensive analysis provides a wide review for the types of functions achieved in each international case. While the aim of the in-depth review and analysis is to enrich the best practice analysis. The selection of the in-depth analysis was done through the categorization of the extensively reviewed cases through three main categorization process. The categorization was based on the type climate of these country, region in which these countries are located and on the ruling system of these countries. This thesis suggests this system of categorization based on the argument that both climatic conditions, and ruling system are key factors that can shape both the approach and the process of practicing urban agriculture. This will be further discussed in the subsection (2.6.2), in the literature review chapter.

Through the literature review, it was made possible to identify an assessment tool for multi-functional urban agriculture: multi-functionality radar chart. This tool was further developed through integrating this tool with the different scale and typologies identified earlier through literature review on urban agriculture. This tool is used on both the analysis of the in-depth best practice analysis, and it is further used to assess the potential of multi-functionality on the research case study area: Al Sadat City.

Research Case Study Selection

"In selecting a setting, Morse and Field (1996) use the principle of maximization. This means that a location should be determined where the topic of study manifests itself most strongly." (Boeije 2010)

The principle of maximization used by Morse and Field is followed in the selection of the case study. The following criteria was developed in order to ensure maximum manifestation of urban agriculture: through the selection of a settlement of low to medium income families. This settlement includes green spaces including: parks, front yards or back yards on the houses level, and road islands. Thus, Al Sadat City was selected, since it offers a wide range of urban fabrics and densities, incorporates different scales of green spaces, and planned to include a green belt, land reclamation projects, and farm lands.

The data collection for the case study analysis process is done through interviews, field visits, literature review as primary data sources. The secondary data sources are journals, papers, city authority, and Al Sadat city plan report.

24 Introduction

Limitations

This research process has faced some issues concerning literature review and data collection. The literature review on Egypt does not include exhaustive review on urban agriculture practices in Egypt. Additionally, the existing literature review covering the local context when urban agriculture is concerned, is not updated. The data collection phase was met by some minor obstacles: the difficulty to interview more key persons in the official and institutional entities. Another issue concerning data collection is the accessibility to official maps for Al Sadat City. All the maps were drafted through computer aided design programs, in order to proceed with the research analysis phase. Such limitations was a time pressing issues.

1.5. Thesis Outline

This thesis is organized into six chapters.

Chapter one is the introductory chapter which unfolds the research scope, its relevance for the research context, and its significance on the global and local scale. In addition, it delineates the research problem on the context in which this thesis is focusing on: Egypt. This chapter concludes with the research objectives, question, research design and methodology and the outline of the thesis.

Chapter two is dedicated to the literature review on multi-functional urban agriculture. It is intended to reveal significance, concepts, definitions and best practices of urban agriculture. It presents the significance of urban agriculture through linking it with the urban theories and challenges. It explores the typologies and scales of urban agriculture. The concept of Multi-functionality is also delineated through the reviewed literature. Similarly, multi-functionality is widely linked to various factors that shapes its significance. It proceeds with an extensive review of various case studies in multi-functional urban agriculture: to explore the uses that shapes multi-functional urban agriculture in practice. Chapter two ends with an in-depth analysis carried on selected case studies, based on a categorization process done on the extensively reviewed case studies. This chapter is intended to enrich the understanding of the research topic.

Chapter three addresses the main features of Al Sadat city. It provides an insight into Al Sadat city context, in which land reclamation is a main feature. It

25 Chapter 01

proceeds with an analysis for the city carried on different aspects: the city land suitability analysis, infrastructure and services, and institutional mechanism and capacity of the city towards urban agriculture. It concludes with the methodology adopted to achieve the case study part.

Chapter four explains the potentials of multi-functional urban agriculture in Al Sadat city. It articulates these potentials through developing prospective models of multi-functional urban agriculture, and strategies that would support multi-functional urban agriculture.

Chapter five is dedicated to conclusion and recommendations.

Literature Review

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Literature Review

2. Literature Review

2.1. Urban Planning Theories and Agriculture

Early theorist of modern urbanism focused on the integration of agriculture in the urban context. Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City theory dedicate more than 80% of the land to food production. Howard’s generic city planning integrates agriculture into the city. Howard argues that a residential plot of 240 m2 is enough to feed a typical family. Agriculture continued to be a topic of interest to urban theorists till the twentieth century. For instance Patrick Geddes’s, a significant urban theorist. Geddes concept integrated agriculture into the city. As Stated by Gorgolewski et al. (2011):

“… To establish specificities of productive uses connected to location relative to city centers.”

Formerly, the establishment of urban settlements has been associated and connected with the concept of food availability. However, cities now are located away from its food production sources. This happened as result of the development of industrialization, transport system, food preservation technologies and food markets. This in turn have negative impacts on energy consumption due to the transport distance required to deliver food production. In addition to the negative impacts on health issues caused by food preservation. This separation of agriculture from the city development has resulted in non-porous, unpro- ductive, and densely constructed cities. As a result, cities nowadays are: more vulnerable to floods; incapable of satisfying the urban poor’s needs; and lacks a pleasant landscape.

31 Chapter 02

2.2. Urban Development, Agriculture and the Uneven Distribution of Food Sources

The problem of uneven distribution of food is a result of unbalanced urbanization with respect to agriculture development. This is due to the fact that food production is still struggling to be considered a valid land use in city planning. The impact of this uneven food distribution affects the urban poor specifically. It also impacts the health conditions of the consumers. When cities are established away from their food sources, energy consumption becomes of concern. This impacts the embodied energy consumed in transportation and packaging of urban food (Gorgolewski et al. 2011).

In order to overcome such issues, it is argued that urban agriculture is a potential solution. Urban agriculture is a potential to sustain food production sources in accordance with urban development.

2.3. Urban Agriculture: Definition and Background

2.3.1. Definition

According The World Bank (2013), urban agriculture is defined as the process or activity of producing goods which is taking place within or on the periphery of a town, a city, or a metropolis ( The World Bank 2013, Moustier et al. cited in Aubry et al. 2012, and Mougeot 2000b). The process’s nature is dependent on agricultural activity, includes growing, raising, processing and distributing an assortment of agricultural products from plants. Human, land and water resources, products, and services of and around that urban area are all essential resources needed for that agricultural activities, i.e. urban agriculture (The World Bank 2013).

Mougeot (2000b) defines urban agriculture likewise the World Bank defines it, yet he specifies that urban agriculture carried out in an urban area, supplies it in turn with human and material resources, products and services. This means that the revenue and benefits of urban agriculture moves in an iterative cycle in which it is returned to the urban area in which it was developed from. On the contrary, Moustier and Mbaye, cited in (Aubry et al. 2012), state that the products of urban agriculture could be partly returned to the urban area it was developed from.

32 Literature Review

The previously discussed definitions did not define what makes urban agriculture is specifically being characterized by being urban, apart from defining its location as proximity to urban areas. However, location on its own will not distinguish urban agriculture from rural agriculture. This thesis will deploy the compelling argument by (Mougeot 2000b), where he puts forward a specific definition for what distinguish urban agriculture for being characterised by “urban”: is that the whole process of urban agriculture is integrated within the urban system, ecosystem and the city organisms. This could be achieved through developing locally relevant farming systems, as stated by Schiere (cited in FAO 2007).

Smit et al. (2001) delineate different elements included within their definition of urban agriculture, which characterizes urban agriculture when put into practice. Those elements are: location; types of encompassed activities; legality; stages of production; and the scale of urban agriculture. Since the focus of this thesis is on multi-functional urban agriculture, then another element will be deployed for its crucial role: purpose of the activities involved. Additionally, this element will further define the previously mentioned elements. By way of example, not exhaustive enumeration: if the purpose of agricultural activity taking place in urban context is to reach high productivity level of agricultural products, this will influence scale, relative location, and types of potential activities that could be encompassed.

The adopted definition for urban agriculture in this thesis: is the integration of agriculture within the urban context, in a state of continuous growth for both interfaces: agriculture and urban interface. Urban agriculture which includes raising, growing and processing of agricultural plants specifically in gardens, rooftops, empty public land, or field plots by urban residents from various backgrounds. This thesis will focus mainly on short cycle agricultural crops.

Definitions of urban agriculture in the literature has elucidated many of its aspects, elements and characteristics. However, the term itself might have been be regarded dichotomous (by local scientific perception in the Egyptian context): as “agriculture” is mentally associated with “rural” context. While agriculture is an economic activity which is usually taking place in rural context. This paradigm towards urban agriculture might be an obstacle on the road to social ac-

33 Chapter 02

ceptability. For that matter, multi-functionality concept will be useful to shade light on the potentials and benefits of urban agriculture. This will be further discussed in the following subsection 2.5.

2.3.2. Typologies and Scales of Urban Agriculture

The scale of urban agriculture is classified into three main categories: subsistence urban agriculture; micro-scale urban agriculture; and medium to large scale urban agriculture (FAO 2007; Bon et al. 2010; The World Bank 2013), as shown in Fig.2.1 . Subsistence urban agriculture is practiced by the local residents in which they grow their own gardens’ for domestic use or as source of income. Subsistence UA is usually practiced on gardens adjacent to residents’ houses or apartments. Likewise, this could be practiced in cellars, rooftops, kitchen gardens, i.e. it could be practiced on a small plot size. Subsistence UA is the easiest scale of UA that could be practiced by the residents. Many initiatives have been promoting for practicing UA on rooftops, apartment-buildings gardens’; and backyards in Egypt. Moreover, few commercial activities have been practicing UA on the empty plots in front of their commercial units.

Medium to Large Scale UA Multi Cropping Commercial Gardens Agricultural Scale of UA Peri-urban Farms and Small Farms Entrepreneurs

Micro-scale UA Small Scale and Semi- Family Type Livestock commercial Gardens Commerial Keepers Gardens

Subsistence UA Home Garderening

Plot Size Fig.2.1— Scales of urban agriculture and respective typologies. Source: Summe- rized from (FAO 2007; Bon et al. 2010; The World Bank 2013) , 2014

34 Literature Review

Micro-scale UA includes small-scale UA, semi-commercial gardens, family type commercial gardens, community gardens, and livestock keepers. Similarly and according to FAO (2007:19), this scale was alternatively defined as community-based UA according, where communities and institutions practice UA on their own plots: churches, schools, hospitals…etc. As stated in The World Bank (2013), micro-scale urban agriculture is towards a more recreational type of UA. Since they are commercial gardens, thus they could incorporate other recreational functions, i.e. a level of multi-functionality, to maximize their economic benefit. For this scale of UA, micro-scale UA requires a larger plot size to be practiced on: to provide more space for more production, and to accommodate other functions.

The next scale is medium to large scale UA, which takes place on a larger plot size; oriented towards market demand; and requires more technical knowledge and skills. Entrepreneurs and farmers are the main practitioners of the scale of UA. Usually this scale of UA is practiced on field plots, which varies in size, and is owned or leased by the producer (FAO 2007). On the local level, Egypt has more models on that scale, which is resembled in firms which own land, specifically in the desert, and they reclaim these deserts. By way of example, not exhaustive enumeration, commercial farms in the western desert.

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2.4. Multi-functional Urban Agriculture

2.4.1. Multi-functionality: Definition and Significance

The concept of multi-functionality is deployed in this study as it has an influence on changing the paradigm of agriculture, specifically when meant to be in the urban context. According to the local scientific perception in Egypt more than a decade ago, urban agriculture was presumed to be a retrograde step. The term “Urban Agriculture” was either: associated with large scale industries which is dependent on agricultural production; or unknown concept according to the local sphere; or a concept that could not be achieved: due to the lack of needed space as a result of rapid urbanization in the urban areas (Gertel & Samir 1999). Thus, in that case a paradigm shift could help in re-conceptual- izing the understanding of both agriculture, and urban agriculture: through delineate the possible multi-functional uses of urban agriculture.

2.4.2. Notion of MF

The notion of multi-functionality have been used in different fields: scientific forestry, agriculture, and urban planning and land use. It is important at the point to review some of the literature concerning multi-functional agriculture: to explore more roles for agriculture in other fields. Multi-functional agriculture incorporates the following roles: conservation of land, natural resources and biodiversity, maintenance of landscape structure, socio-economic viability and economic vibrancy of rural areas (OECD 2001; Gerowitt et al. 2003; Duchemin et al. 2009; Yang et al. 2010; Kizos et al. 2011, Aubry et al. 2012, 2012, Renting et al. 2013). Correspondingly, reviewing literature on multi-functional urban agriculture, it is found that there are similarities between these two notions. The next paragraphs include further delineation of multi-functional urban agriculture

2.4.3. Multi-functional Urban Agriculture

Multi-functionality as a concept has been associated with urban agriculture (Zasada 2011), as well as rural agriculture in Europe (Gómez Sal & González García 2007; Wilson 2007) as a means to sustain the viability of urban or rural areas, resources and nature conservation. Since land is a valuable resource, especially in urban context, incorporating different land-uses on the same plot

36 Literature Review

could be required to maintain land value. Multi-functionality is one concept to maintain land value. And to plan for agriculture in urban area, i.e. to deduct a valuable urban land for urban agriculture, will require a compensation for that deducted value: to sustain practicing urban agriculture.

Integrating multi-functional uses could be via combining recreational; environmental; economic; and educational uses. Dubbeling and de Zeeuw (cited in The World Bank, 2013) mentions an array of uses and options to be combined with agricultural land use: water management, flood protection, and green spaces. In addition to, offering fiscal incentives to land owners who enables practicing urban agriculture on their private lands. Aubry et al. (2012) lists various functions for urban agriculture that have been recognized by different researchers: crop production, environmental mitigation, waste and waste water recycling.

2.4.4. Multi-functionality of Urban Agriculture: The Relationship with Markets

Through multi-functional urban agriculture, landscape is created as a public good which offers food security, social involvement, employment, and partially or fully satisfied food markets’ supply and demand (Moustier & Danso 2006). Moustier & Danso (2006) also argues that to produce an urban agriculture landscape is less expensive than producing Public Park. Additionally, urban agriculture is highly competitive due to its spatial and relational proximity to market networks, which results in shorter marketing chains (Moustier & Danso 2006; FAO 2007; The World Bank 2013). When spatial proximity to markets is concerned, less energy is consumed during transportation trips. Therefore, not only does the proximity to market ensures short transport distances and chains (Bon et al. 2010), but also it exploits less energy resources. Thus, the concept of sustainability is amplified in that matter.

2.4.5. Multi-functional Urban Agriculture: Towards Sustainability

According to (FAO 2007), urban agriculture is considered to be sustainable when its potentials for multi-functional land use is recognized and fully developed. The more multi-functional urban agriculture establish its roots in eco- nomics, social and environmental aspect of an urban area, the more it contributes to the development of a sustainable city.

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2.4.6. Importance of Clarification and Ranking of the Multiple Func- tions of Urban Agriculture

Elucidation and classification of the multiple functions of urban agriculture are key steps to understand the role of urban agriculture, to know the involved stakeholders, and to achieve a more rational sustainable urban growth (Fle- skens et al. 2009; Aubry et al. 2012). Subsequently, it is essential to assess the multiple functions of urban agriculture, i.e. to qualify, quantify and understand these potential functions (Aubry et al. 2012).

Planning for urban agriculture requires to consider the needs of the city. Since it involves and serves various facets of the city or the local context, i.e. economic facets, social facets, and environmental facets, thus it should adapt to the needs of these facets of the city and the stakeholders (van Veenhuizen 2006). This will lead to the development of new systems, policies, and models that will further enable creating synergies between these multiple functions.

2.5. Assessment Tools for Multi-functional Urban Agriculture in Liter- ature. Large Medium Mirco-scale Subsistance Scale Scale UA

Agricultural Small Scale and Enterpreneurs Semi-scale Commercial Gardens Commercial Home Gardens and Small Farms Family Type Gardening Commercial Gardens Multi- Livestock cropping Peri-urban Keepers Farms

Economic Social

Cultural Environmental Productive Fig.2.2— Multi-functionality assessment tool overlaid with the continuum of urban agriculture scale. Source: Adopted from assessment tool developed by Gómez Sal & González García (2007), and further developed by author.

The literature review revealed that there are assessment tool used to assess the multi-functionality of agricultural landscapes. This thesis adopts the assess-

38 Literature Review

ment tool developed by Gómez Sal & González García (2007). This assessment tool assess the multi-functionality of agriculture land use through assessing its contribution to the three dimensions of sustainability. In addition to the sustainability dimension, it takes into consideration the production and cultural dimension, in order to sustain the agricultural landscape.

This thesis proceeds with developing this assessment tool, in order to be able to assess the different typologies and scale of urban agriculture, which was earlier defined in this chapter (See Fig.2.1). Accordingly, the multi-functionality radar chart is overlaid with the continuum ranging between large scale, micro-scale and small scale urban agriculture, as shown in Fig.2.2.

2.6. Best Practices

2.6.1. Extensive Review on International Practices: Exploring the Uses Shaping Multi-functional Urban Agriculture.

In order to understand the multi-functional uses that could be incorporated in practicing urban agriculture, it was vital to review case studies and international practices on multi-functional urban agriculture (See Fig.2.3 ). Most of the reviewed case studies are in developing countries. Most of the analyzed and drawn uses are oriented towards serving the economical and socio-aspect. The following paragraphs focuses on the diverse uses which have been integrated in the urban agriculture practices of the these case studies.

In the case of Antananarivo, Madagascar, urban agriculture is practiced with multi-functional uses that serves more than one aspect. Urban and Peri-urban agriculture contributes to income generation and job creation for the farmers. Thus it serves the economic and social-economic aspect as well. While from the point of view of environmental aspect, urban agriculture is a function of regulating and managing floods. This was achieved through creating buffer zones in areas vulnerable to floods. Additionally, urban agriculture is used to recycle untreated urban wastewater. Renting et al. (2013), state that urban agriculture has substantial positive impact on the environmental level. According to productivity level and satisfying the demand and consumption of urban areas, urban agriculture in Antananarivo is regarded as a source of food supply. Moreover, urban agriculture in this case has been used as a land use for the areas considered as non-contractible.

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Antananarivo

Antananarivo Economic • Economic Sierra function – UPA Bangalore, Leona Sierra is contributing to income India Leona generation and job creation for the farmers in Antananarivo • Promote urban agriculture production for Cuba Cuba S • Strengthens o job creation c i • In return for providing the land, the grassroots a l Lima, government receives a proportion of the organisation Peru produce – usually about one-fifth of the • A source for Jakarta, Lima, harvest – to use at state-run daycare centers, additional Indonesia income Peru Accra, schools and hospitals Ghana• Income generation • Small scale private farms making profit through selling to super markets • Commercially oriented activities ironmental Env Antananarivo Bangalore, • Regulating Lima, India function/flood Peru management • Land use – Coupled with its flood and storm water retention capacity, Sierra C agriculture is a very suitable use for municipal Leona ult Jakarta, • Football ur land reserve deemed non constructible due to flood Accra, al Indonesia and horse- & risk Ghana R e • Reuse of urban waste – untreated urban wastewater flows racing stadium c Jakarta, r • Mushroom farming e onto agricultural land (urban/peri-urban), and is valorized by a Indonesia

i agricultural activities, provided the level of (industrial) pollution

-medicinal and o

n Accra, environmental value; a is sufficiently low. Ghana relation to profession l • Freetown has zoned all wetlands and low-lying valleys for urban Bangalore, agriculture to increase water infiltration, reduce flooding Lima, India • Keep the flood-zones free from (illegal) construction Peru • Water Retention Area • Cultivating Roadside • Some urban forest and agriculture Accra, Prod • Reuse of treated water Ghana • Food uc ti • Landuse not fit for construction, for example along airport supply – a ve strips Nairobe, main function • Climate optimized development - the city is Kenya when considering Casablanca, investigating the role of local food production the high percentage of Morocco as climate optimized development urban consumption covered • Integrated water resources by urban and peri-urban management production • Promote urban agriculture Antananarivo Casablanca, production for food supply Morocco • Subsistence UA - Food supply - growing crops Sierra • Additional source of Leona food Accra, Bangalore, Ghana India

Fig.2.3— Types of multifunctional uses of urban agriculture in the extensively reviewed case study. Source: Collected and categorized from (Bakkar et al. 2000; Bon et al. 2010; Castro et al. 2010; Renting et al. 2013; and The World Bank 2013) Likewise Antananarivo, urban agriculture has been used in Sierra Leone as a source of job creation, and food supply. Besides, it has been used a land use to mitigate floods as it increases water infiltration, and as a land use to avoid construction of flood zones. However, Sierra Leone has been promoting for urban agriculture (The World Bank 2013). This is essential as urban agriculture prerequisites to be supported by policies and regulatory framework. In Casa- blanca, Morocco is investigating the role of local food production as a strategy for climate optimized development (The World Bank 2013). While in Cuba is a successful illustration. In return for providing the land, the government receives

40 Literature Review

a proportion of the produce – usually about one-fifth of the harvest – to use at state-run daycare centers, schools and hospitals (Bon et al. 2010).

In Lima, urban agriculture is serving the economic, social and environmental aspect similarly to the previously mentioned case studies (See Fig.2.2). While interestingly, it is a strengthening factor for grassroots organization, which serves the social aspect. Additionally, it is used as a land use for areas which is not suitable for construction. For instance, in areas which is a source of risks or pollution: along airport strips. Also, it reuses and treats the wastewater (Castro et al. 2010).

2.6.2. Categorization of the Reviewed Best Practices: Selection of a Best Practice Case Study for In-depth Analysis

In order to select a case study for in-depth analysis, it is important to reach that selection through a proper approach. It is important to note that all the selected best practices are from developing countries or from the global south in general. This is to preliminary ensure that the lessons learned from these cases could be applied on the country of the case study of this thesis (i.e. Egypt). The approach adopted in this thesis to select a best practice case study, is through the categorization of the respective countries into categories. The categories chosen for this process is the type of the ruling system of each country and the climatic region in which these countries are located. Fig.2.4 shows the countries which are ruled by ruling system similar to the case of Egypt, and alternatively the countries which is ruled by different ruling systems. The ruling system has a significant influence on the level of independence of the institutional entities. Ruling systems shapes level of centralization or decentralization which can influence the process towards practicing urban agriculture.

The categorization process proceeds with the classification of the best practice case studies according to the climatic region in which it is located in. The world map of Köppen-Geiger is used for that classification. Fig.2.5 illustrates the countries which are located in similar climatic zones, specifically, climatic zones similar to the case of Egypt. The result of that classification shows a group of similar countries which could be compared to Egypt. First group is Lima, Sierra Leona, Antananarivo, and Jakarta (Similar ruling system). The second group is Rosario, Lima, Casablanca, Nairobi and Bangalore. Although Lima is one of the countries that falls within the same classification in the two categorization pro-

41 Chapter 02

Unitary semi- Egypt presidential constitutional republic

Antananarivo, Madagascar Lima, Sierra Peru Leona Unitary semi- Jakarta, Unitary presidential Presidential presidential Indonesia constitutional constitutional republic Unitary republic republic presidential constitutional republic

Accra, Ghana Unitary presidential Cuba Rosario, constitutional democracy Single-party Argentina Marxist-Leninist Nairobi, socialist republic Federal Kenya parliamentary Presidential constitutional republic republic Casablanca, Bangalore, Morocco India Unitary parliamentary Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy constitutional republic

Fig.2.4— Clustering of the extensively reviewed case studies according to type of ruling system. Source: Own (2014) cess, however, the research proceeded with in-depth analysis with Rosario case. This is due to the availability of in-depth analysis carried on Rosario city, when multi-functional urban agriculture is concerned. In addition, the municipality of Rosario takes into consideration the practice of multi-functional urban agriculture in its plans and strategies.

42 Literature Review

Rosario, Argentina Egypt Bangalore, Casablanca, India Morocco Lima, Peru Nairobi, Kenya

Sierra Leona

Accra, Ghana Antananarivo, Madagascar Jakarta, Cuba Indonesia Map Key

Equatorial Arid Warm Snow Polar Climates Climates Temprature Climates Climates Climates

Fig.2.5— Clustering of the extensively reviewed case studies according to climatic conditions. Source: Edited from World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification (2006)

43 Chapter 02

2.6.3. In-depth Analysis for Selected Inter- national Best Practice Case Studies: The Case of Rosario, Argentina

Rosario, a city located in the northern part in Argentina. A city with a population of around 950,000 inhabitants. According to the UN-Habi- tat (n.d.) and Dubai International Award for Best Practices (2014), Rosario is one of the few large cities in South America to have fully incorporated agriculture in their land use planning and urban development strategies. The analysis of Rosario is carried out on three different scales: Rosario on the city-scale, Molino Blanco (i.e. a neighborhood in Rosario) on the neighborhood scale, La Lagunita (i.e. a neighborhood block in Rosario) on the small scale.

The city launched an Urban Agriculture Pro- gram in 2002 as part of a strategy to address the economic crisis of 2001 which included the de- Rosario city map. velopment of various social economy enterprises. Since then, the practice has evolved in parallel with the economic recovery. Currently, there are about 1,800 citizens who practice horticulture, of which 250 are full-time farmers. The vegetables produced are 100% organic (Municipality of Rosario 2014). Rosario’s urban agriculture program integrates various typologies and scales of multi-functional urban agriculture.

In order to achieve various multi-functional uses, landscape architects and planners defined some typologies of urban agriculture spaces. These typologies includes: Garden Parks as large green public areas which have the capacity to integrate recreational, productive, educational and com-

44 Literature Review

mercial activities; Productive streets as mobility channels that can integrate social interaction, productive, and commercial activities, without hindering the normal traffic; and similarly, Productive squares as neighborhood square of recreational, educational, cultural uses that satisfies the needs of the neighborhood residents (Dubbeling et al. 2009). These typologies will be further analyzed ahead in this section.

Public green spaces resembles 4% of the total area of Rosario (see Fig.2.6), with 8m2 per inhabitant. The most suitable lands for urban agriculture are on flood-

Fig.2.6— Existing green areas in Rosario. Fig.2.7— Types of multifunctional uses of urban Source: Rosario Participatory Project. agriculture in Rosario city plan. Source: Rosario urban agriculture project

Fig.2.8— Rosario city context. Source: Google earth map.

45 Chapter 02

ing zones; rail road zones; and areas designated for green spaces. These lands are private and public lands, in which land plots which is exceeds 2,500 m2 is located in intra-urban areas, and land plots that exceeds 5,000 m2 is located in the Peri-urban areas (RUAF, n.d.). The suitable lands located on the Peri-urban zones were designated for urban agriculture Garden Parks, as a large scale urban agriculture (see Fig.2.9). These Garden Parks are Fig.2.9— Existing green areas in Rosario. Source: Rosario Rosario’s green network’s elements. They are large Participatory Project. landscape green areas of 72 hectares, which is used for multi-functional urban agriculture for cultural, recreational and educational uses (Thomas 2014). Thomas (2014) states that, in these Garden Parks, around 30% of the land incorporate horticulture and urban gardening spaces, which is divided into plots of 900 m2 each. Around 280 commercial gardeners use these plots. These commercial gardens lies in the micro-scale region on the spectrum of urban agriculture’s scales. The smaller plots are used by 400 residents to grow vegetables for subsistence urban agriculture; i.e. subsistence scale (Thomas 2014).

A.Molino Blanco South

Molino Blanco city incorporates an array of elements and components that shapes the productive system associated with the Urban Agriculture in Rosario City. It integrates two different typologies of multi-functional urban agriculture spaces. The first typology is the Garden Park which is a public green area which was developed to accommodate various activities such as recreational and educational activities. The second typology of space is the productive streets: a dynamic public space bordering the Garden Park. The design of these spaces and the integrated multi-functional uses has been developed

46 Literature Review

to be locally relevant: spatial and social-wise.

A.1. Garden Park

On flood-prone fields in Molino Blanco South, a neighborhood of 800 families, a multi-functional garden park was established (Thomas 2014). The Garden Park combines various activities such as recreational, productive, educational and commercial. Recreational uses are achieved through the integration of spaces for playgrounds, leisure and sports (See Fig.2.10). The Garden Park incorporates spaces for community gardens, a football field and a playground for kids. The productive activities are realized through incorporating 5.6 hectares

Fig.2.10— Garden Park plan in Molino Blanco, Rosario. Source: Rosario Participatory Project.

Fig.2.11— Garden Park in Molino Blanco, Rosario. Source: Rosario Participatory Project.

47 Chapter 02

of existing vegetable gardens. The Garden Park also integrates, along one of its sides, an area for small-scale horticulture, organo-ponic1 gardening, and pro- tected woodlands. The products includes an array of vegetables, fruits, medicinal and ornament plants (Dubbeling 2011; Thomas 2014).

A.2. Productive Street

Fig.2.12— Productive Streets in Molino Blanco, Rosario. Source: Rosario Participatory Project.

The productive streets, a dynamic and diverse public space, is inaugurated and adjoining the garden park. The productive street is designed to maintain its conventional function, as well as incorporating a productive aspect to it. The addition of small areas for growing and productive trees: is the main elements shaping the productive edge of the street. As well as, integrating community meeting spaces, processing and marketing areas to enhance the street’s potential when social interaction is concerned (Dubbeling et al. 2009).

B. La Lagunita

La Lagunita settlement is located in the western of Rosario city. The location is flood-prone areas during rainy seasons. Three hundred families inhabit this area, which is a state-owned land (Lattuca et al. 2005; Dubbeling et al. 2009). Roughly over half the population falls below the poverty line. Thus, it was crucial to offer new options to provide job opportunities, income generation and food production sources. An upgrading program was initiated as answer to these issues, which integrates urban agriculture within the settlements to com-

48 Literature Review

Fig.2.13— La Lagunita neighborhood, Rosario. Source: Rosario Participatory Project. pensate for the previously mentioned drawbacks.

The upgrading program approach was through participatory planning. The inhabitants involved in this process were interested to practice urban agriculture near the community center; with proximity to their plots; and on public squares. The vision for this urban agriculture space was developing an educational productive square that could act as a gathering point for the community, a recreational space including playgrounds, and a productive urban green space. The location selected for this educational productive square was an area of dump-sites, discreet patches of trees and pushes, a deteriorated football field (Dubbeling et . 2009). The educational productive square now serves as a space for recreational, productive, educational-cultural, commercial uses.

Fig.2.14— La Lagunita plan before Fig.2.15— La Lagunita plan after practicing practicing urban agriculture, Rosario. urban agriculture, Rosario. Source: Rosario Source: Rosario Participatory Project. Participatory Project.

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Conclusion

The city of Rosario integrates production, environment, and cultural-recreational uses into its agricultural master plan; including the Peri-urban and intra-urban areas. The scale ranges from large scale urban agriculture including Agro-industrial parks, commercial gardens and garden parks ; to medium-scale as in the case of Molino Blanco; and finally to micro-scale as in the case of La lagunita. However, this integration was achieved through the programs and plans set by the city of Rosario. The city was interested in practicing urban agriculture, for that matter it involved the citizens into a participatory project.

The assessment shows that on the larger scale, urban agriculture addressed more multi-functional uses than the other practices on the other scales. This is due to the fact that the scales of these urban agriculture practices covers the production, economic, cultural and environmental dimensions of multi-functionality. While on the medium-scale, the typologies of urban agriculture included have more potentials towards covering the cultural, environmental, economic and social dimensions. While the productive squares on the small scale urban agriculture covers the economic dimension through subsistence urban agriculture, social dimension and productive dimension.

In conclusion, multi-functional urban agriculture have more potential towards large scale urban agriculture. This implies the need for formulating new strategies and policies that supports urban agriculture, as the case of Rosario.

50 Literature Review

Large Scale MediumScale Mirco-scale

Rosario City Productive Garden Productive Square Urban Agriculture Molino Blanco Sure La Lagunita

UA UA ProgramsCity ProgramsCity UA Policies Programs City Inhabitants Policies Architects Inhabitants City- Policies Owned Operational- City- Operational- City- Operational- Land ization Owned ization Owned ization Land Land Land Physical Land Land Ownership Physical Physical Potentials Ownership Ownership Potentials Potentials Parks Large Flood- Parks Dumb- Green prone Agro- site in a Spaces Zone industries Garden Settlement Garden Parks Commercial Productive Productive Parks Gardens Streets Squares Economic Social

Cultural Environmental Productive Fig.2.16— Assessment of Multifunctional urban agriculture in Rosario. Source: Analyzed by author.

Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Chapter 3: Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

3. Case Study: Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Residential Lands Residential and Industrial Lands Trade Area Universities Industrial Region Industrial Extension Utilities Green Belt Farms Green Area Ponds Prison Land Graves Waste Collection Areas Main Roads

Infrastructure Military Land Logistics Area ???? Administrative Areas

2000 m

1000 m 3000 m Fig.3.1— Al Sadat City Master Plan. Source: New Urban Communities Authority Official Website (2014)

3.1. Insight Into Al Sadat City

3.1.1. The Context: Land Reclamation Area in Egypt's Western Desert and the Counter-act Against Loss of Agriculture land

Land reclamation discourse has been shaped since 1952 revolution and continued till post-revolutionary period. The revolutionary government in 1950’s has paid attention to the proliferating number of population to land ratio, and the loss of agricultural land (Meyer 1978; Wolff 1993, cited in Adriansen 2009). This was an attempt to fulfill the demand resulting from the increase in population, which requires a state of stable food supply process. The loss of agricultural land was due to the rapid urbanization taking place in Egypt, and elsewhere specifically in the developing countries and the global south. Thus the government had to focus on these two demands: reclaiming desert land; and establish- ing new settlements.

55 Chapter 03

Reclaiming the desert in Egypt means to transform the desert land to agricultural and arable land, and urban settlements. This transformation takes place through: the establishment of infrastructure required to develop new villages; extend canals for water supply; and to enhance the soil quality.

The location of Al Sadat City is in proximity to the The city is located North-West of Cairo at a distance 93 Km along Cairo/Alexandria land reclamation area located in the western desert desert road. The total area of Al Sadat City 2 is 480 km of which 95 km2 are an urban in Egypt. Thus one of the roles intended for Al Sadat areas. The current population is 155,000 inhabitants City, a new urban settlement, gained its essence from the context in which it exists: to seize the agricultural loss. This makes Al Sadat City, one of the new cities that have more potentials that could be harnessed to practice urban agriculture.

3.1.2. Al Sadat City: A Prototype of New Urban Settlement and Potentials of Self-sufficient City through UA

Al Sadat City was established among the 23 new urban communities which was established in the The total area of Al Sadat City is 480 km2 of which 95 km2 are an urban areas. The last three decades by the New Urban Community current population is 155,000 inhabitants (NUCA, 2014b). Authority (NUCA 2014a). Al Sadat city was found- ed according to the presidential decree 123/1978 (NUCA 2014b, and Mahmoud & El-Sayed 2011). Al Sadat city was intended to play at least three general roles of importance:

"To offer attractive alternative magnets of major urban growth and economic development...; to arrest the further loss of valuable agricultural lands due to urban growth in the Nile Delta; and to achieve the formerly mentioned points through the inhabitation of the

The total area of Al Sadat City is 480 km2 desert and the creation of the conditions re- of which 95 km2 are an urban areas. The quired to exploit the economic resources of the current population is 155,000 inhabitants (NUCA, 2014b). Western Region" (The Planning of Sadat City

56 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Plan 1977)

The second role for the city is what this thesis will focus on and where it attempts to unleash more opportunities, that is to say arresting further loss of valuable agricultural lands.

Location of Al Sadat City

The city is located North-West of Cairo at a distance 93 Km along Cairo/Alexan- dria desert road. The total area of Al Sadat City is 480 km2 of which 95 km2 are an urban areas. The current population is 155,000 inhabitants (NUCA 2014b).

Al Sadat City- Land Suitability Profile

Al Sadat incorporates different types of green infrastructure in the city’s master plan (See Fig.3.2).Recent research on land suitability analysis, carried on Al Sadat City, demonstrates that there are some areas where greening could take place. Mahmoud & El-Sayed (2011) reveal that the majority of the planned green spaces in 2020 Al Sadat City master plan are on suitable sites (See Fig.3.3). Although the majority of these planned green spaces are on residential sites which is not established or developed yet. Additionally, as long as agricultural land use is concerned, the suitable sites lies outside the planned urban area. However, the existing residential areas incorporate green areas. As well as the existence of farming nurseries which are located on low suitability sites (Mahmoud & El-Sayed 2011).

The city plan includes agricultural activities and activities around the in the city (i.e. urban agglomeration). Al Sadat City now include several sites where farming nurseries are located. However, these agricultural activities is not strongly linked to the urban system: they are dependent activities on their own. And likewise all new urban communities and settlements, Al Sadat City’s is not densely urbanized and still privileged with open, green and under-developed areas. This thesis aims at capturing these potentials and formulate it into a new paradigm or a model: which opens up more spaces and possibilities for practicing urban agriculture; to outline the dual track of new urban communities’ development and urban agriculture; and to explore how agriculture activities in the city could be linked with its urban system.

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Legend Green Belt Farms Green Area Main Roads 2000 m 1000 m 3000 m Fig.3.2— Al Sadat City land use map showing types of green infrastructure existing and planned for the city. Source: Draft by author from (NUCA official website, 2014)

Sadat City Landuse Map

Residential Lands Residential and Industrial Lands Trade Area Universities Industrial Region Industrial Extension Utilities Green Belt Farms Green Area Ponds Prison Land Graves Waste Collection Area

Land Suitability Key

Low Suitability Land Moderate Suitablility Land Fig.3.3— Al Sadat City land suitability map for green landscape. Source: DraftHigh Suitablityfrom Mahmoud Land & El Sayed (2011)

58 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Infrastructure, Agriculture and Investments

The city has 2 well plants for potable water with total capacity of 86,000 m3/day, and a purification plant with capacity of 110,000 m3/day. The Agricultural activity taking place in the city are in the form of cultivation of green spaces and forestation of roads (i.e. road islands). In addition to the reclaimed land surrounding Al Sadat city. Al Sadat city depends on ground water to cover the city needs. Most of the supplying wells are established near the residential parts. The average recharge of the groundwater in the green areas is about 0.5 mm/day (Riad et al. n.d.). The investments allocated for the agricultural sector is 58.8. Million Egyptian Pounds, which represents around 3% of the total investments in all other sectors, which is 2267.3 Million Egyptian Pounds (NUCA 2014b), See Fig.3.4.

3.1.3. Understanding Current Institutional Mechanisms for Practicing Urban Agriculture in Al Sadat City

The field survey undertaken to investigate the possibilities of practicing urban agriculture, on the city authority level, revealed some issues concerning the existing mechanism for this process. These issues Housing Sector 22 % are on different levels: institutional level, implemen- Utilities Sector 65 % tation level, and Operational level. Services Sector 9 % There is a lot of complications facing the official pro- Agricultural Sector 3 % cedures for practicing urban agriculture, specifically Others 1 % in the relationship between the government and the Fig.3.4— The investments allocated for the agricultu- city authority. Some of these complications are: (1) ral sector is 58.8. Million Egyptian Pounds, which the city authority does not have a sufficient caliber to represents around 3% of the take the responsibility of this process; (2) the ab- total investments in all other sectors, which is 2267.3 Milli- sence of an administrative unit in the city authority on Egyptian Pounds. Source: NUCA (2014b) that would be delegated for the task of implementing

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urban agriculture; (3) and accordingly the lack of a control system that regulates the process of practicing urban agriculture. The interviews held in the city authority during the site survey revealed more about these complications. This is further discussed in the following paragraphs.

The city authority encounters some issues regarding the official administrative procedures concerning yield production and revenue. If the city authority took the responsibility of farming in either: the public green spaces; the neighborhood green areas; or road islands, they must hand the full official documents about the yield production, the selling process and revenue they gained to the central government. The city authority does not have the capabilities and capacity to go in the process of estimating expected yield, revenue (Mekky, Fathi Sayed Ahmed 6 April, 2014).

Other issues impeding the process on the implementation level: the lack of a control system which regulates this process. In order to achieve the prior point mentioned in the previous paragraph, the city authority should have control over the farming plots, or where urban agriculture is taking place, to protect the yield production. However, the city authority have an experience in which this process seems uncontrollable. As some of the citizens harvest the production before the crops ripen. For example, the city authority already planted Dates’ palm trees on some of the road islands, yet the dates is usually harvested before they ripen.

These issues imposes more pressure on the city authority. If the city authority fails to control the yield production, and the central government demands the handing in of the documents including information about the expected yield production and revenue, then the document will reveal shortage in the harvested yield, which is caused by the community. This imposes more difficulties on the city authority to practice urban agriculture, along with the incapability and incapacity to engage in this process. In support, literature review also reveals the same issue: that there is an absence of administrative and technical entities on the local level. Whereas, the law delegates the local entities with the responsibility of preparing city and town plans (Abou Zaid 2007).

60 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Fig.3.6— Existing spaces that could be harnessed for the benefit of urban agriculture. (a)& (b) Al Sadat university. (c) & (d) green spaces in neighborhood areas. 3.1.4. Potentials of urban agriculture in Al Sadat City Master Plan

Al Sadat city is privileged with lands that could be harnessed for the benefit of urban agriculture, and for multi-functional urban agriculture in specific. As shown in Fig. 3.5 & 3.6., there are different prospective typologies ranging from large scale to small scale typologies. The city plan incorporates land reclamation andMapping commercial Potentials farms, areas designated for green belts to border the city, as City Scale Multifunctional Urban agriculture a large scale potentials. While on the scale ranging from micro to small scale, such as neighborhood gardens and green spaces dispersed into the residential areas. The following section will proceed with an analysis carried on these typologies, followed by an assessment for the potentials of these typologies. Land Reclamation Neigborhood & Commercial Green Belt Gardens Farms Parks Green Belt

Legend Green Belt Farms Green Area

Fig.3.5— Mapping potentials of multi-functional urban agriculture on Al Sadat City Scale. Source: Draft from Al Sadat City Masterplan (NUCA Official website, 2014)

Ponds Prison Land Residential Lands Graves Residential and Industrial Lands Waste Collection Areas Trade Area Main Roads Universities Industrial Region Industrial Extension Infrastructure 2000 m Utilities Military Land 1000 m 3000 m Logistics Area ???? Administrative Areas Chapter 03

3.2. Case Study Analysis Methodology

The case study analysis is carried on two phases. In the first phase, the analysis is carried on the large scale of Al Sadat city. The second phase, the analysis is carried on small scale urban agriculture, which covers mainly three different residential areas. The justification for such in-depth analysis is that the large- scale analysis is intended for future development, since the existing developed urban area represents only about 4% of the total area of Al Sadat city (i.e. large- scale area). The analysis on the small-scale (i.e. second phase) is to assess the potentials for multi-functional urban agriculture for the current state.

The analysis carried on Al Sadat city divides the city into three main scales: city- scale, mi-cro-scale, and macro-scale. The justification for this categorization is that every scale has its own capacity, potentials and infrastructural services. Additionally, every scale is character-ized by its level of biodiversity, density, and legislative and institutional potentials.

As shown in Fig.3.7, the analysis is carried on the larger scale of Al Sadat city: in which different potential typologies are considered, based on the typologies identified in the litera-ture review chapter. These typologies falls in the spectrum of urban agriculture scales: large-scale urban agriculture, micro-scale urban agriculture and small-scale urban agricul-ture. The location of these identified typologies is overlapped with the land suitability map to determine their location. These typologies of urban agriculture are ground-based urban ag-riculture, except for the small-scale (Residential rooftops). The assessment on each scale is done collectively for all typologies existing on same scale.

Categorizing three areas of different typologies, scale and urban densities from case study area

One of the main obstacles to practice urban agriculture with its maximum potential is the high dense urban context. The approach to assessing the case study is to select three different areas, which represents various densities, urban fabric and types of incorporated green areas. In turn, this will reveal different typologies that could be replicated elsewhere in Egypt, especially in new settle-

62 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Case Study Methodology

City-Scale Analysis

City Scale Micro-scale Small Scale

Legislative and Institutional Level

Identifying Problems & Physical Level Potentials Operational Level

Land Suitability

Analysing Potentials Water Supply

Limitations & Investigating Potential Typologies

of Each Selected Scales for Urban Agriculture

Investigating Potential Multifunctional

Uses

Assessment Tool Large Medium Mirco- Subsistance Scale Scale scale UA

Assessing The Three Scales Economic Social

Cultural Environmental Productive

Developing New Models of MUA

Towards Supporting Strategies for Multi-functional Urban Agriculture

Fig.3.7— Case Study Methodology. Source: Own, 2014

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Sadat City Map

Landuse Map

Residential Lands Residential and Industrial Lands Trade Area Universities Industrial Region Industrial Extension Utilities Green Belt Farms Green Area Ponds Prison Land Graves Waste Collection Area

Selected Areas

Fig.3.8— Location of Selected areas of different densities. Source: Draft from Mahmoud & El Sayed (2011) ments. Given the fact that Greater Cairo Region in Egypt is highly populated and densely urbanized, which represents a constraint on practicing urban agriculture. However, the case study analysis methodology discusses and assesses one of the potential of typologies that could be practiced in densely urbanized areas (i.e. Rooftop gardening). The Selecting three areas of different scales, with different typologies, in El Sadat City would enable exploring and comparing the varying potentials of these different urban scales.

Identifying Problems and Potentials of Each Model on three different scales of urban agriculture: Legislative level, operational level and physical level

As mentioned in the case study description section, practicing urban agriculture is encountered by different issues on different levels. For instance, the complications on the legislative and institutional level differs from one area to another depending on the type of ownership of the space where urban agriculture will be practiced. It is also important to note here that these issues are manifested, as

64 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

well, in different cities and settlements in Egypt, since the same administrative system exists. This will further be explained in detail in the case study analysis section, showing the differences between different areas when legislative problems is concerned.

Identifying the potentials and limitations on the operational level, is essential for the sustainability of practicing urban agriculture in the whole process with its different levels and interfaces, i.e. on the legislative and physical level. In order to develop a locally relevant practice of urban agriculture, it is vital to identify the stakeholders, type of producers, and the resources supplier involved in the operationalization of the practice of urban agriculture. As this shapes the prospective typology of the potential urban agriculture.

The other complications for practicing urban agriculture is on the physical level, i.e. physical and spatial conditions of the studied area. The literature review and the developed assessment tool reveals some criteria for practicing urban agriculture, specifically when multi-functional urban agriculture is concerned. The availability of ground-based uses, the possibility of public accessibility, and the accessibility to resources needed for urban agriculture shapes and defines the typology of prospective urban agriculture that could be practice as well.

Analyzing Potentials and Limitations of Each Scale

This step in the methodology is mainly focusing on the physical and spatial features of the selected three scales, in order to identify the incorporate typology in each scale. As previously mentioned, the level of multi-functionality is shaped by some criteria: the availability of ground-based uses; the possibility of public accessibility; and the accessibility to resources needed for urban agriculture. Thus, it was vital to carry on an analysis through categorizing green areas and water consumption of green areas in the status quo. Categorizing the current areas of green areas is essential to later identify the potential typologies of urban agriculture. Which in turn shapes the multi-functional uses which could be incorporated in each urban agriculture typology or model.

The literature review revealed that the availability of water is a strong deter-

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mining factor for practicing urban agriculture. Thus, it was essential to estimate the current water consumption in the status quo in the three selected models. Based on the evidence that: in two of the selected model areas, the green areas is already planted with grass as an urban landscape areas. This indicates the availability water designated for landscape irrigation. This thesis builds on this as premises for the availability of water and to use this water for urban agriculture instead.

Assessing the Three Models: Low, Moderate and High Dense Models

The tool for assessing the multi-functionality of urban agriculture, which is discussed in the introduction section, will be used to assess the multi-functionality in each of the studied scales. The assessment will locate each typology of urban agriculture and identifies where it lies between the five adopted poles of multi-functionality radar chart: economic, cultural, social, environmental and productivity pole. In addition to overlaying these typologies with the land suitability map, as previously mentioned. This is done with overlaying this multi-functionality radar chart with the spectrum of different scales of urban agriculture. As well as, measuring the identified criteria: level of available ground-based spaces and public accessibility as function of the typology features. These criteria is considered as a function of the multi-functionality of each model.

Developing New Models of Multi-functional Urban Agriculture: Ground-Based Urban Agriculture, Discreet Green Patches, and Roof- top Urban Agriculture

The selected methodology will support envisaging the three potential models for urban agriculture, and to incorporate them into a comprehensive plan. The first model of city-scale MUA, shaped by the availability of significant ground- based typologies of urban agriculture: due to its relatively low urban density. The second model shaped by its discreet-green-patches typology: due to its relatively moderate urban density. The third model shaped by the availability of rooftops: due to its high urban density, in addition to the lack of ground-based spaces. The aim of Investigating and envisaging the potentials of each model on the three levels of analysis (Legislative, physical, operational level), is to reach a potential models of urban agriculture that could be replicated elsewhere.

66 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

3.3. Al Sadat Case Study Analysis

The analysis carried on Al Sadat city divides the city into three main scales: city-scale, micro-scale, and macro-scale. The justification for this categorization is that every scale has its own capacity, potentials and infrastructural services. Additionally, every scale is characterized by its level of biodiversity, density, and legislative and institutional potentials.

The city scale includes: developed areas and undeveloped areas; and Large- scale potentials which covers a large area of green infrastructure and potential productive streets on the city scale. This large green infrastructure area has its own services and capacities including water supply, land suitability. Additional- ly, these green infrastructure it is a land use, on its own, in the city plan.

The micro-scale consist of mainly the existing development at the present moment in the city. This includes existing residential areas, agricultural schools and educational institutions, industrial zones, and potential productive streets on the micro-scale level. Similarly to the city-scale level, these elements have potentials and capacities towards urban agriculture. Nevertheless, they are privileged with various facets that can contribute to the multi-functionality of urban agriculture. The analysis will be deliberated in the following subsections.

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3.3.1. City-Scale Analysis

City-scale Typologies Group 1: Reclaimed lands, Farm lands, and Green Belt

The green infrastructure planned for the city is composed of land reclamation, farm lands, and green belt zone (See Fig.3.5 in page 61). The total areas of these components is of about 280 km2, which is roughly representing 50% of the total area of Al Sadat city.

Land suitability and Water supply

The majority of these reclaimed land, farms and green belt is located on high suitability land, while a minor part lies on moderate suitability land (For further delineation for land suitability analysis, see Appendix 1). The water supply for the reclamation land area is mainly dependent on ground water supply. The farm owners establish their own wells to cultivate these reclaimed lands. This thesis assumes that there is no constraints on water supply, since these reclaimed lands were planned to conceive agricultural activities.

Legislative and Institutional Capacity

The legislative and institutional aspect should be of concern when questioning the possibility of practicing multi-functional urban agriculture. These reclaimed lands is owned, and designated to be owned by investors and agriculture entrepreneurs. Thus, there is a possibility that multi-functional urban agriculture might be accepted by these investors, especially when it offers economic incentive and revenue.

City-Scale Typologies Group 2: Potential Productive Axes

Land suitability and Water supply

The analysis on the city scale also shows that a potential lies on the linear elements of the city. They are a potential that could be articulates into Produc- tive Axes. The establishment of these productive Axes, as shown in Fig.3.9, is adopted from the comprehensive green infrastructure plan proposed by Mah- moud & El-Sayed (2011) (See Appendix 2 & Appendix 1 for more delineation of

68 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Land Productive Reclamation Neigborhood Productive & Commercial Green Belt Gardens Streets Farms Parks Green Belt

Land Suitability Layer

Land use Layer

Land use Legend Green Belt Farms Green Area Land Suitability Legend Low Suitability Land Moderate Suitablility Land High Suitablity Land Priority Areas with High Land Suitability Fig.3.9— City-scale Potentials: Location of land reclaimation areas, farm lands and green built. Source: Analyzed and overlayed with land suitability map by Mahmoud & El Sayed (2011)

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land suitability analysis towards agriculture use). Additionally, it is supported by the analysis carried on the in-depth analysis of the international case studies (i.e. Rosario). As the analysis specifically reveals that productive streets have more potential towards multi-functional urban agriculture, specifically towards conceiving commercial activities and empowering social interaction (i.e. economic and social aspects). Nevertheless, the water requirement to establish and practice urban agriculture on these productive axes would exceed the water consumption than the status quo. For that matter, there is a need to formulate strategies that tackles the issue of water supply and management for urban agriculture.

Legislative and Institutional Capacity

The analysis of the current mechanisms in the legislative and institutional entities, which is discussed earlier in this chapter, reveals that there is constraints on practicing urban agriculture on road islands: the growing productive palm trees. However, these green axes has high potential towards linking the different typologies and scales of multi-functional urban agriculture that could be practiced in Al Sadat city. In addition, they have a potential to contribute to the overall viability of multi-functional urban agriculture on the city-scale. This is another supporting potential to formulate new strategies that enables the establishment of such productive axes. In turn, this would serve and support the need for water supply in an iterative process, in which the need for water supply requires formulation of new strategies, and the potential importance of such productive axes requires also formulation of new strategies, that would mutually benefit the water supply issue.

3.3.2. Micro-scale Analysis

The analysis of the micro-scale is carried on the existing development in Al Sadat city. This includes the existing residential neighborhood, agriculture school and educational institutions, existing industrial zones, parks and potential productive streets. These areas are argued to have a potential, since they are already existing in the city as developed and inhabited urban areas.

70 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Productive Axes

Land Suitability Layer

Land use Layer

Land use Legend Green Belt Farms Green Area Productive Axes Land Suitability Legend Low Suitability Land Moderate Suitablility Land High Suitablity Land Priority Areas with High Land Suitability

Fig.3.10— City-scale potentials: Location of proposed urban agriculture green axes. Source: adopted from and overlayed with land suitability map by Mahmoud & El Sayed (2011)

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Micro-scale Typologies Group 1: Existing Residential Neighborhoods— Community Gardens and Potential Productive Streets

The existing residential neighborhoods covers an area of about 8 km2, which represents roughly 8% of the total planned urban area for the city. As previously mentioned in the case study methodology part, the residential areas consists of various neighborhoods of different densities. The typologies of these neighborhoods is composed of an array of private neighborhoods, social housing. This scale is focusing on the neighborhoods which incorporates green areas into its fabric: social housing. These existing residential neighborhoods and social housing are considered as potential on the micro-scale, since they have the capacity to incorporate micro-scale UA typologies, such as community gardening and family type commercial gardens. Further analysis is carried on these existing social housing in the next section.

Land suitability and Water supply

Although these neighborhoods is located on low suitability land, however their potential and strength lies in the very fact that they are already existing and inhabited urban areas, which incorporates significant green areas into their fabric. Additionally, these green areas are planted and irrigated in the status quo (See Fig.3.11). Thus, this thesis puts forward the argument that since these areas are already planted and irrigated, then it is of more benefit to harness these green spaces for urban agriculture. The analysis will proceed with calculations for water requirements, based on some assumptions, needed to be supplied in order to practice urban agriculture on these green areas.

Legislative and Institutional Capacity

The issue of legislative and institutional capacity is an obstacle when this typology is concerned: since the green areas incorporated in these social housing and neighborhoods belongs to the municipality. Thus, there is a need to find suitable mechanisms and incentives in which these areas could be harnessed to practice urban agriculture.

72 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Educational Agricultural School Potential Instition “Mubarak-Kohl” Industrial Sadat Neighborhood Zone University Park Existing Residential Area

Land Suitability Layer

Land use Layer

Land use Legend Industrial Zone Farms Existing Residential Areas Productive Streets Neighborhood Park Land Suitability Legend Low Suitability Land Moderate Suitablility Land High Suitablity Land Priority Areas with High Land Suitability Fig.3.11— Mirco-scale Potentials. Source: Analyzed, adopted and overlayed with land

suitability map by Mahmoud & El Sayed (2011) 2000 m

1000 m 3000 m

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Micro-scale Typologies Group 2: Agricultural schools, Educational Institution, Industrial Zones and Parks

The current urbanized area in Al Sadat city includes various entities and economic activities, which are considered as a potential to foster practicing urban agriculture, and to amplify its multi-functionality. These entities includes: agricultural secondary school such as Mubarak-Kohl1; Sadat University and it park; the existing industrial zone; and recreational parks. They are considered as potentials on the micro-scale, since they have a potential towards incorporating micro-scale UA practices such as small-scale and semi-scale commercial gardens, community gardens managed by educational institutions. In addition, they are privileged with a substantial surface area. However, it is important to note here that Mubarak-Kohl agriculture school is considered to be a potential actor more than a space for practicing urban agriculture. In addition, the industrial zone which is in proximity to areas where urban agriculture could be practiced (i.e. in proximity to land reclamation and farms) is yet undeveloped.

Land suitability and Water supply

The land suitability for these previously mentioned typologies varies from one typology to another (See Fig.3.11). The high potential typologies with high suitability lands are: one of the neighborhood parks, and part of the future planned industrial zone. While the other typologies are located in the areas of low suitability lands. Further in this chapter, a comprehensive plan is proposed to integrate the high potential typologies. The issue of water supply is considered not to be a constraint for the typologies which already incorporate irrigated green spaces (i.e. recreational parks, Sadat University Park). While for the case of the potential industrial zone, further estimations of water supply needs to be made.

Legislative and Institutional Capacity

Similarly to the land suitability and water supply analysis, the legislative and institutional capacity of these typologies differs for each case. For the case of Sadat University and industrial zones, the possibility of taking part in practicing urban agriculture depends on their capacity and capability towards practicing

74 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

Existing Residential Neighborhood urban agriculture. However, incentive systems could be proposed from the “Potential Rooftop Urban governmental institutions to encourage these entities to take part in practicing Agriculture” urban agriculture. For the case of recreational parks, it is under the patronage of the municipal system. However, incorporating urban agriculture practice into these parks have high potential, in contrast with the previously mentioned issue concerning the constraints imposed on the municipality to practice urban agriculture on spaces which is under its patronage and authority.

3.3.3. Small-scale Analysis—Subsistence-scale

Existing Residential Neighborhood — Rooftops Gardening Land Suitability The analysis of the small-scale, or subsistence-scale of urban agriculture, is Layer carried on the existing residential neighborhoods in Al Sadat city, especially in the neighborhoods where subsistence urban agriculture is highly manifested: in privately owned residential buildings. These areas are argued to have a potential on that specific scale, since they have potentials to incorporate urban agriculture on their rooftops (i.e. privately owned rooftops). In addition, they are privately owned properties, and there is more potential to mobilize the owner groups to practice urban agriculture.

Land suitability and Water supply

The land suitability of this typologies varies from one location to another: since not all residential areas are located on same category of land suitability (See Fig.3.12). However, a sample area was selected from the existing residential areas. The selection criteria is focusing on the type of ownership of these resi- Land use Layer dential buildings, and the density of this selected neighborhoods. As mentioned earlier, it is a privately owned residential buildings. The density of the sample N selected neighborhood is relatively high when compared with the social housing neighborhoods. The outcome of this selection is an area which is located on a Land use Legend low suitability land. The land suitability is not a constraint when this typology Farms Existing Residential Areas is concerned: since this specific typology of urban agriculture will be practiced Land Suitability Legend on the rooftops. However, the water supply issue is a constraint: due to the Low Suitability Land Moderate Suitablility Land High Suitablity Land need for a new water system and extra water demand to be integrated within Priority Areas with High Land Suitability the system of these residential buildings. The analysis carried on that typology 2000 m proceeds with water estimation required to plant these rooftops. This analysis is 1000 m 3000 m Fig.3.12— Small-scale Potentials: Existing residential neighbor- based on assuming that the rooftops area designated to be cultivated is similar hood as a potential rooftop urban agriculture. Source: Analyzed, adopted and overlayed with land suitability map by Mahmoud & El Sayed (2011)

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Large-scale Medium-scale Mirco-scale Subsistance UA

Economic Social

Cultural Environmental Productive

Land Productive Reclamation Neigborhood Productive & Commercial Productive Green Belt Gardens Axes Farms Parks Educational Streets Potential Existing Residential Instition Industrial Neighborhood Sadat Neighborhood Zone “Potential Rooftop Urban University Park Agriculture” Existing Residential Area

Land use Land use Layer Layer Land use Layer N N N

Land use Legend Green Belt Farms Green Area Productive Axes Industrial Zone Farms Existing Residential Areas Productive Streets Farms Existing Residential Areas Land Suitability Legend Neighborhood Park Priority Areas with High Land Suitability Fig.3.13— Diagram showing the assessment carried out on the three scale of potential multi-functional urban agriculture in Al Sadat City. Source: Own, 2014

76 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

to the case of cultivating ground based urban agriculture .

Legislative and Institutional Capacity

The legislative and institutional capacity towards practicing this typology or urban agriculture is not a constraints. On the contrary and as earlier mentioned earlier in this chapter, the interview held in the municipality shows that there is a great support towards practicing urban agriculture on privately owned residential rooftops.

3.3.4. Assessing the Potentials of Multi-Functional Urban Agriculture on the Three Different Scales.

The assessment of the potentials of multi-functional urban agriculture is con- ducted using the developed assessment tool in this thesis, which is based on a qualitative assessment. The assessment is carried out on the three scales defined in the previous analysis part: large-scale, micro-scale, and subsistence scale. The prospective findings is a collective assessment on each scale (See Fig.3.13 ).

The assessment on the potentials on the large-scale urban agriculture reveals that there is more potential to achieve the economic, environmental, productive dimensions of multi-functionality. This could be achieved through the green belts, land reclamation and commercial farms. These typologies are privileged with more potential to be production-oriented, environmentally-oriented land use: due to its substantial area and cultivation capacity. In addition, green belts are mainly used to control urban expansion, which in turn serves the environmental dimension. Their contribution to the economic dimensions is manifested through providing job opportunities, and their contribution to the local economic development.

The assessment carried on the micro-scale urban agriculture shows that the included typologies on that scale have more potential to incorporate multi-functional uses. Although, they are on the micro-scale and they do not incorporate a relatively substantial large plot areas, however they cover a wider area on the multi-functionality radar chart. The social and cultural dimensions are the main factors which amplified the potential on the micro-scale to incorporate multi-functional urban agriculture. The typologies included on that scale are:

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existing residential areas “potential community gardens”, neighborhood parks, and Sadat university “educational institution”. These typologies are privileged with their contribution to the social dimension, since existing residential areas have a potential to incorporate community gardens on the green areas existing in the neighborhood. These community gardens can serve as a potential space for community gathering and interaction. Similar to the community gardens, the neighborhood parks can contribute to the social dimension, in addition to the cultural dimension.

The small-scale assessment shows that the typology included on that scale does not cover the majority of the dimensions on the multi-functionality radar chart. The shortcoming of this typology on that scale is due to the nature of the typology itself: that it is subsistence-oriented urban agriculture typology “Rooftop urban agriculture”. Thus, it has a potential on the economic dimension manifested in its capability of producing products for subsistence consumption. Additional- ly, it has a potential to serve the environmental aspect. This is manifested in its potential role in enhancing the climatic conditions.

78 Case Study Insight into Al Sadat City, Methodology and Analysis

— Mubarak-Kohl School The Mubarak-Kohl Initiative Dual System (MKI-DS), which started in 1994 as a Egyptian-German Technical Cooperation Programme, financed by the German Govern- ment and supported via the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ is now a wholly Egyptian owned and managed programme, with governance and in the hands of both the private and public sectors. For three years students in MKI-DS secondary technical education programmes normally attend formal schooling in schools of the Ministry of Education twice a week plus work and learn in the workplace on four days a week.

Developing New Models of Multifunctional Urban Agriculture

Chapter 4: Developing New Models of Multifunctional Urban Agriculture

Developing New Models of Multifunctional Urban Agriculture

4. Developing New Models of Multi-functional Urban Agriculture: Towards Supporting Strategy

Land use Legend Green Belt Farms Green Area Productive Axes

Industrial Zone Existing Residential Areas Productive Streets 2000 m

Neighborhood Park 1000 m 3000 m Fig.4.1— Prospective Comprehensive plan incorporating various potential typologies on different scales. Source: Analyzed by author, in addition to adopted proposals from Mahmoud & El-Sayed (2011) The assessment carried on the three potential scales of urban agriculture in Al Sadat city revels that there is more potential of multi-functional urban agriculture on the micro-scale. However, Al Sadat city is privileged with potential multi-functional typologies on the three scales of urban agriculture that could be collectively included in one comprehensive plan (See Fig.4.1). As the analysed typologies analysed on this scale have more potential to contribute to the social and cultural interfaces, in addition, it fairly contributes to other dimensions. However, in order to practice urban agriculture, it is essential to address the respective strategies that would enable urban agriculture in general, and multi-functional urban agriculture in specific.

83 Chapter 04

Each of the analysed three scales in this thesis is challenged with difficulties and constraints, when the legislative and institutional capacity is concerned. Thus, it is important to address these issues with respect to the nature of each scale, and each typology involved. This chapter will proceed on the strategies required to be formulated or proposed, in order to achieve multi-functional urban agriculture and further amplify its effect.

The assessment of the large-scale shows that it has more potential to significantly cover the economic, environmental, productive dimensions. The contribution of that scale to the economic dimension is that it provides new jobs for the city resident, and improves the local economic through the establishment of land reclamation and commercial farms. The supporting strategy to address this function is to create networks to connect workers, farmers and markets to further sustain these types of activities. While the contribution of that scale to the environmental function is manifested in energy conservation: as result of the reduced embodied energy from transportation distances. The potential strategy that could address the environmental use, is develop transportation systems and to networks to efficiently get food to consumers. Additionally, it has an impact on the level of biodiversity when environmental function is concerned. The establishment of agricultural systems on that scale can contribute to the diversification of species and native plants and crops. The supporting strategy for that matter is to allow and support the growing of different species that can contribute to increasing biodiversity. The productive function on that scales contributes to mass production of food commodities. For that matter, it is important to set strategies that provides suitable, accessible and safe land with good environmental conditions and irrigation systems.

The assessment of the micro-scale reveals that it has more potential to significantly achieve economic, social, cultural and economic functions. This could be achieved through the various discussed typologies: community and neighborhood gardening, Productive streets. These typologies fosters the economic dimension through the creation of additional income sources for the residents. They also foster the social activity and interaction. To support the establishment of such typologies, it is required to formulate strategies that supports the transformation of vacant lands into productive spaces that is accessible by the residents. The cultural dimension on that scale, and specifically in Al Sadat city, have potential to link to the cultural heritage of the residents. This is due to the

84 Developing New Models of Multifunctional Urban Agriculture

Proposed Typologies Supporting Strategies Ownership, Operationalization, and Stakeholders of Diﬀerent Scales

Land Productive Residents Reclamation -Create networks to connect workers, Neigborhood Productive Producer Commercially Oriented Producers & Commercial farmers and markets to further sustain Green Belt Gardens Axes Farms Parks these types of activities Operational Agricultural Entrepreneurs -Develop transportation systems and to networks to eﬃciently get food Level to consumers. City Authoroity -Provide suitable, accessible and safe Stackholders Researchers land with good environmental Commercially Oriented Producers conditions and irrigation systems. Large-scale UA

Problem -Support the transformation of vacant Legislative Identification Educational Potential lands into productive spaces. Land City Instition Industrial -To integrate community garden spaces Neighborhood Institutional & Sadat Zone in areas where population come Ownership Owned - No Regulatroy Framework University Park Existing from diﬀerent cultural backgrounds. Issues - Absence of Caliber Residential -Allow urban agriculture and edible Area plantings to resolve the heat island Proposed eﬀect & unfavourable climatic Strategies

Mirco-scale UA conditions.

Existing Residential Producer Neighborhood -Provide the residents with the “Potential Rooftop Urban technical knowledge that would enable Operational Agriculture” practicing urban agriculture on rooftops. Residents -Establishming networks of suppliers Level for rooftop gardening equipment. Stackholders Small-scale UA Legislative Land Privately Institutional & Ownership Owned Issues

Land use Layer

Land use Legend Green Belt Farms Green Area Productive Axes Industrial Zone Farms Existing Residential Areas Productive Streets Farms Existing Residential Areas Land Suitability Legend Neighborhood Park Priority Areas with High Land Suitability Fig.4.2— Supporting Strategies to achieve the comprehensive plan incorporating various potential typologies on different scales. Source: Own (2014)

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fact that the residents are partially from different governorates. Thus, these urban agriculture typologies can act as a cultural point that links different cultural backgrounds. The supporting strategy for that matter: is to integrate community garden spaces in areas where population come from different cultural backgrounds. Moreover, the micro-scale urban agriculture contributes significantly to the micro-climatic conditions. It has an impact on humidity control, wind protection, and providing shades in urbanized areas. The supporting strategy that could foster the micro-climatic conditions is to allow urban agriculture and edible plantings to resolve the heat island effect and the unfavorable climatic conditions.

The assessment of the small scale urban agriculture model, which is mainly focusing in this thesis on rooftop gardening, is widely covering the social dimension of the multi-functionality radar chart. Rooftop gardening contributes significantly to income generation, subsistence food production for domestic use, and to enhancing the climatic conditions of residential buildings through insulating the buildings with gardening on these rooftops. The proposed supporting strategy is to provide the residents with the technical knowledge that would enable practicing urban agriculture on rooftops. In addition to the establishment of networks of suppliers for rooftop gardening equipment.

In conclusion, there is various strategies which can foster and support the practicing of multi-functional urban agriculture. However, the legislative and institutional entities needs to take into consideration the importance and benefits of multi-functional urban agriculture. This could be achieved through promoting the importance multi-functional urban agriculture, specifically when local economic development is concerned. This is due to the very fact that multi-functional urban agriculture could be fostered to contribute to productive functions of spaces that could act as a fostering factor for the local economic development. This could be only achieved when institutional and legislative entities of cities integrates multi-functional urban agriculture into its systems.

Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations

Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations

Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations

5. Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations

Discussion

This section attempts to cover the questions put forward by this research. In order for multi-functional urban agriculture to take place, it is important to locate suitable contexts that could incorporate this practice. This research reveals that there are more potentials in Al Sadat city to conceive the practice of multi-functional urban agriculture, specifically on micro-scale level. However, there are some obstacles to deliberately achieve and practice different models of multi-functional urban agriculture. This issue could potentially be addressed through proposing the formulation of new strategies that could encourage the legislative and institutional system to take urban agriculture into consideration. Strategies for multi-functional urban agriculture is argued to mobilize the institutional entities to take this potential practice into consideration.

Conclusion

Multi-functional urban agriculture is of critical importance when the issue of balancing the needs of urbanization with sustainable development is concerned. The concept of multi-functionality offers incentives to practice urban agriculture: where the integration of various uses (i.e. economic, productive, environmental, social, and cultural uses) is achieved on the same plot. Furthermore, it offers more potentials to achieve local food production systems that is linked with the urban agglomerations and settlements. Undeniably, the ecological footprint of cities and urban settlements is highly impacted by practicing urban agriculture. Since multi-functional urban agriculture impacts the production prices, transportation distances, food security and health issues. Meanwhile, the concept of multi-functionality compensate the pressure imposed by the economic value of land. This is well manifested as long as the economic aspect of multi-functionality is concerned.

The analysis of the potentials of Al Sadat city reveals some issues that needs to be tackled, in order to increase the viability of multi-functional urban agriculture. Furthermore, to consider multi-functional urban agriculture as an alter-

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native land use in the cities’ plans, and to make it a rival land use against other land uses (eg. Green areas and vacant lands). The main issues delineated is the legislative and institutional capacity towards incorporating urban agriculture as a land use. The absence of administrative cadres, mechanisms and systems to manage the practicing of urban agriculture is one of the main shortcomings on the legislative and institutional level. The root of such shortcomings is the absence of policies and strategies which consider urban agriculture as a land use, and which enable practicing urban agriculture in urban areas. In support, the reviewed international best practices revealed the importance of the adopted supporting policies and strategies in these cases.

The formulation of new policies and strategies is vital, in order to support practicing urban agriculture and to amplify its multi-functionality. These policies and strategies should address all scales and typologies of urban agriculture, since each typology and scale provides different spectrum of multi-functionality and serves different groups. There are various prospective options in which these new policies and strategies could be taken into consideration. One option is to define the characteristics and percentages of areas that could be designated for urban agriculture. Another option is to convey part of the subsidies provided by the government on commodity products, to alternatively support the practicing of urban agriculture. In addition to, offering incentives to capture more investments that integrates urban agriculture and industrial entities.

In conclusion, urban agriculture on its own is not clearly foreseen as an answer to the complex issues of urban areas and ecosystem. Yet, when multi-functionality of urban agriculture is considered, urban agriculture becomes a compelling and competitive option which can address the complexity of urban ecosystems.

Recommendation

Further recommendation for this thesis is to estimate the revenue and profit for different typologies of multi-functional urban agriculture on different scales. Another recommendation, is to initiate participatory projects where the opinion and preference of the residents should be taken into consideration. This would help to gain more insight into the acceptancy of the residents towards practicing urban agriculture, and whether they would support this practice from the aes- thetic point of view and cultural paradigm. Furthermore, research is needed to be carried on to further develop methodologies that assess the land suitability,

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water consumption and soil suitability of land towards practicing urban agriculture. More importantly, it is recommended to initiate and approach the potential entities, educational institutions and organizations to establish networks to foster the knowledge and awareness about the significance of multi-functional urban agriculture. Further recommendation is to initiate communication plat- forms with governmental and official entities to discuss and assess the feasibili- ty of practicing multi-functional urban agriculture in various new settlements.

References

Abou Zaid, R. (2007) Egyptian Urbanism: Observing The Development of Urbanism In Late Twentieth Century In Egypt and Exploring Its Future العمران في مصر: رصد التطورات فى عمران أرض مصر فى أواخر .Pathway till 2020 , 1st edn. The Academالقرن العشرين و استطالع مساراته المستقبلية حتى عام ٢٠٢٠ ic Library. Adriansen, H. K. (2009) Land reclamation in Egypt: A study of life in the new lands. Geoforum 40 (4), 664–674. Alfiky, A., Kaule, G. & Salheen, M. (2012) Agricultural Fragmentation of the Nile Delta; A Modeling Approach to Measuring Agricultural Land Dete rioration in Egyptian Nile Delta. Procedia Environmental Sciences 14, 79–97. Aubry, C., Ramamonjisoa, J., Dabat, M.-H., Rakotoarisoa, J., Rakotondraibe, J. & Rabeharisoa, L. (2012) Urban agriculture and land use in cities: An approach with the multi-functionality and sustainability concepts in the case of Antananarivo (Madagascar). Land Use Policy 29 (2), 429–439. Boeije, H. (2010) Analysis in qualitative research: Research Design. http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/28285_02_Boeije_Ch_02.pdf. Accessed 3/18/2014. Bon, H., Parrot, L. & Moustier, P. (2010) Sustainable urban agriculture in developing countries. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 30 (1), 21–32. Castro, C., Merzthal, G. & van Veenhuizen, R. (2010) Integrated Urban Water Management in Lima, Perut: Building Capacity for Treatment and Reuse of Wastewater for Green Spaces and Urban Agriculture. A review of the SWITch Lima Project. Dubbeling, M., Bracalenti, L. & Lagorio, L. (2009) Participatory Design of Pub lic Spaces For Urban Agriculture, Rosario, Argentina. Open House Inter national 34 (2), 36–49. Duchemin, E., Wegmuller, F. & Legault, A.-M. (2009) Urban agriculture: Mul ti-dimensional Tools for Social Development in poor neighbourhoods. Institut Veolia Environnement. FAO (2007) Profitability and Sustainability of Urban and Peri-urban Agricul ture. FAO.

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en/About.aspx. Accessed March, 2014. OECD (2001) Multifunctionality: Towards an Analytical Framework. Agricul ture and Food. Renting, H., Naneix, C. & Dubbeling, M. (2013) Thematic paper 3: Innovative experiences with multifunctional urban and peri-urban agriculture in city regions in the global South. Riad, P. H., Billib, M. H., Boochs, P.-W., Hassan, A. A., Eldin, M. N. & Omar, M. A. (eds.) (n.d.) Vadose Zone Wells and Surface Spreading Basins Modeling to Augment the Groundwater Resources in a Semi Arid Area in Egypt. Smit, J., Nasr, J. & Ratta, A. (2001) Urban Agriculture: Food, Jobs and Sustain able Cities. The Urban Agriculture Network, Inc. The Planning of Sadat City Plan (1977) Final Report: The Plan, Arab Republic of Egypt. The World Bank (2007) Tackling the Shelter Challenge of Cities: Thinking it Through Together. Cairo, Egypt. The World Bank (2013a) Urban Agriculture: Findings from Four City Case Studies. The World Bank (2013b) Urbanization and Cities: Facts & Figures. http://web. worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,, contentMDK:20149913~menuPK:34457~pagePK:64003015~piP K:64003012~theSitePK:4607,00.html. van Veenhuizen, R. (ed.) (2006) Cities Farming for the Future: Urban Agri culture for Green and Productive Cities. RUAF Foundation, IDRC and IIRR, Ottawa. Wilson, G. A. (2007) Multifunctional Agriculture: A Transition Theory Perspec tive. Cromwell Press, Oxfordshire, UK and Cambridge, USA. Yang, Z., Cai, J. & Sliuzas, R. (2010) Agro-tourism enterprises as a form of mul ti-functional urban agriculture for peri-urban development in China. Habitat International 34 (4), 374–385. Zasada, I. (2011) Multifunctional peri-urban agriculture—A review of societal demands and the provision of goods and services by farming. Land Use Policy 28 (4), 639–648.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Classification of the factors governing land suitability of green spaces used for GIS input. (Mahmoud & El-Sayed 2011) The study carried out by Mahmoud & El-Sayed (2011) analyses the land suitability of Al Sadat city towards conceiving green spaces using GIS and ecological threshold methods. The land suitability ranking is divided into high suitability, medium suitability, and low suitability. The study depends on some factors that shapes and defines these levels of suitability. Table ….shows the classification of factors governing land suitability of green spaces. The classes and weights of these factors shown in the table are used in this study: to develop the input data of the maps used in the GIS analysis. The results are used to evaluate the ecological suitability of green areas in Al Sadat City.

Table 7.1— Classification of the factors governing land suitability of green spaces used for GIS input. Source: Mahmoud & El-sayed (2011)

According to the ecological threshold method, the medium suitability scores is designated to the real existing green spaces of evergreen spaces in the land use map. These real green spaces includes parks, green public spaces, riverside green spaces, roadside green spaces (Mahmoud & El-Sayed 2011). The lowest score of suitability is designated to spaces where industrial and commercial uses are located. While the highest suitability scores are designated to open green spaces and road buffers which includes agricultural land and cultivated alluvial lands as a vegetation coverage. It is important to note here that the position of

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this study differs than the position of this thesis, when land suitability is concerned. However, the study of Mahmoud & El-Sayed (2011) does not show any contradictions about land suitability for agricultural uses.

The study designates areas with agricultural lands, as vegetation coverage, a high suitability ranking with suitable factors needed for practicing agriculture. The lands with high suitability is partially covering: the planned agricultural lands surrounding the city, the planned future expansion of the residential area, and the industrial zone located north-east of the city. The factors shaping the suitability of these lands are: the silty and sandy soil type; ground water extraction is 10–30 millionm3/year; total dissolved solids (TDS) less than 1000ppm (i.e., fresh water). According to FAO (1992), the potential agricultural irrigation problems with TDS levels less ranges from 450- 2000 ppm is moderate. Additionally, according Shaban et al. (cited in Mahmoud & El-Sayed (2011)), TDS of less than 1000 pm, is fresh water that could be used for plants irrigation. Chemical groundwater classification is mainly sodium chloride (NaCl) or mainly sodium hydro carbonite (NaHCO3), as they are considered types of chemical ground water category of the soil that affects the likelihood of cultivation of vegetation. Regarding the climatic factors, the air temperature should be between 17 and 23 ◦C, humidity not more than 60%, wind speed 4m/s, and serviced by a road buffer. (Mahmoud & El-Sayed 2011: 161)

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Appendix 2: Comprehensive Green Structure for Al Sadat City. (Mahmoud & El-Sayed 2011)

Green Belt Reclaimed area Water bodies Built up area Green wedges Green belt Green ways

The map shown above shows the prosoective areas for developed green areas based on the study by Mahmoud & El-sayed (2011). The comprehensive plan proposes the development of green wedges (i.e. green axes), green streets (i.e. productive streets), and green built areas. These potentials are adopted in this thesis for further development of the analysis.

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Appendix 3: Case Study Analysis Table

This table shows the analysis of the best practices collected from different sources. It illustrates how the analysis was carried out. Each Case was analyzed seperately, then the multi-functional uses of urban agriculture was categorized into economical, social, envrionmental, cultural, and productive dimensions. In the case of Antananarivo, Madagascar, urban agriculture is practiced with multi-functional uses that serves more than one aspect. Urban and Peri-urban agriculture contributes to income generation and job creation for the farmers. Thus it serves the economic and social-economic aspect as well. While from the point of view of environmental aspect, urban agriculture is a function of regulating and managing floods. This was achieved through creating buffer zones in areas vulnerable to floods. Additionally, urban agriculture is used to recycle untreated urban wastewater. Renting et al. (2013), state that urban agriculture has substantial positive impact on the environmental level. According to productivity level and satisfying the demand and consumption of urban areas, urban agriculture in Antananarivo is regarded as a source of food supply.

Likewise Antananarivo, urban agriculture has been used in Sierra Leone as a source of job creation, and food supply. Besides, it has been used a land use to mitigate floods as it increases water infiltration, and as a land use to avoid construction of flood zones. However, Sierra Leone has been promoting for urban agriculture (The World Bank 2013). This is essential as urban agriculture prerequisites to be supported by policies and regulatory framework. In Casa- blanca, Morocco is investigating the role of local food production as a strategy for climate optimized development (The World Bank 2013). While in Cuba is a successful illustration. In return for providing the land, the government receives a proportion of the produce, usually about one-fifth of the harvest, to use at state-run daycare centers, schools and hospitals (Bon et al. 2010).

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Appendix 4: Drawing and Developing Criteria of MFUA from the Reviewed Case Studies and Best Practices

This table shows the analysis of the best practices collected from different sources. It illustrates how the analysis was carried out. The thesis methodology has developed through categorizing the uses of multi-functional urban agriculture and analyzing the features and criteria required to reach a multi-functional model. This analysis is based on defining what are the attribute required most for each multi-funtional dimension. The attributes are listed as follows:physical Attributes, ownership of land, and operational attribute. The physical attribute includes: requirement for ground based urban agriculture, rooftop, level of accessibility of the public. The ownership attribute based on type of land ownership: public land, private land. The operational attribute based on whether it depends on individual or grass-root initiaties.

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Appendix 5: Analysing Potentials on three selected areas of different densities.

The assessment of the these three selected models is carried on the findings based on water consumption and requirements for growing urban agricultural crops, and the potential of multi-functionality level. The assessment will be carried on the calculations of water consumption, as well as water requirement for selected suitable example crops. Using FAO methodology to calculate the water consumption for crops: the relative method using grass as a reference. This thesis is not adopting the local method to calculate the crop water need, since the argument is based on the principle that the green areas was already planted with grass, thus using grass as a reference plant only, with its indicative or approximate values.

The tool for assessing the multi-functionality of urban agriculture, which is discussed in the introduction section, will be used to assess the multi-functionality in each of the studied models. The assessment will locate each typology of urban agriculture and identifies where it lies between the five adopted poles of multi-functionality radar chart: economic, cultural, social, environmental and productivity pole. This is done with overlaying this multi-functionality radar chart with the spectrum of different scales of urban agriculture. As well as, measuring the identified criteria: level of available ground-based spaces and public accessibility. These criteria is considered as a function of the multi-functionality of each model.

The assessment will be carried on the calculations of water consumption, as well as water requirement for selected suitable example crops. Using FAO methodology to calculate the water consumption for crops: the relative method using grass as a reference. This thesis is not adopting the local method to calculate the crop water need, since the argument is based on the principle that the green areas was already planted with grass, thus using grass as a reference plant only, with its indicative or approximate values.

The selected methodology will support envisaging the three potential models for urban agriculture. The first model shaped by the availability of significant ground-based areas for urban agriculture: due to its relatively low urban density. The second model shaped by its discreet green patches: due to its relatively moderate urban density. The third model shaped by the availability of rooftops:

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AREA 1 AREA 2: Green Areas are not all drawn due to its high urban den- AREA 2

sity, however by the lack of Population Density Population Density Population Density ground-based spaces. The

aim of Investigating and Urban Density = 0.1 Urban Density = 0.00 Urban Density = 0.2 (Total Built-up Area/Total (Total Built-up Area/Total (Total Built-up Area/Total Neighborhood Area) Neighborhood Area) envisaging the potentials Neighborhood Area) Green Areas Density = 0.7 Green Areas Density = 0.1 of each model on the three Green Areas Density = (Total Existing Green (Total Existing Green 0.00 Areas/Total Neighborhood Areas/Total Neighborhood (Total Existing Green levels of analysis (Legisla- Area) Area) Areas/Total Neighborhood tive, physical, operational Area) Proposed Green Areas level), is to reach a potential Density = 0.2 (Roughly Equals to Exisitng Roof Areas) models of urban agriculture Potential Urban Potential Urban Potential Urban Agricultural Type:?? Agricultural Type:?? Agricultural Type: that could be replicated Community Garderning Allotment Gardening?? Rooftop UA UA in CPUL elsewhere. Water Consumption Water Consumption Water Consumption Estimated to Plant Existing Estimated to Plant Existing Estimated to Plant Proposed Green Area With Grass Green Area With Grass Green Area With Grass (Existing Case)= (Existing Case)= (Existing Case)= 195Gallon/year 44 Gallon/year 33 Gallon/year

1 Hectare with Green 1 Hectare Density = 0.1 1 Hectare with Green Density = 0.7 (Building Footprint/Total Density = 0.2 (Existing Green Area/Total Neighborhood Area) (Proposed Areas for Neighborhood Area) UA/Total Neighborhood Area) Grass Water Grass Water Grass Water Requirement/Hectare Requirement/Hectare Requirement/Hectare (Based on Density?) = (Based on Density) = (Based on Density) =

Proposed Crops' Proposed Crops' Proposed Crops' Proportion for 1 Hectare= Proportion for 1 Hectare= Proportion for 1 Hectare= Scale 1:25

xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx xxxxxxxx Type of Multi-functionalType of UA uses xxxxxxxx Literature Review Multifunctional uses Best Practices Review Water requirement based on existing situ- Water requirements based on Field Survey ation Extra waterexisting requirements phase than exisiting Site Visits situation Physical Extra Water requirements Analysis based on Status Quo Maps LevelProspectivethan Area the of existing Spaces phase designated for

CAPMAS urban agriculture (Population) Area of Spaces Assigned Reviewing City's for UA Strategic Plan Fig.7.3—Potentials Analysis of CPUL of Selected three areas of different urban densities. I.V's: City Source: Own (2014) Authority Reviewing City Legislative Legislative and Regulatory Authority Power Act Documents Level Framework Interviews Approximity to 107 Field Surveys Networks/ Interested Operational Stakeholders ??? Surveys Level Who/ Stakeholders

Crop Production Chapter title

Residents C.O.P Producer City Authority Operational Level Researchers Stakeholders Problem Identiﬁed C.O.P Low -No Regulatory Framework Urban Density - Absence of Caliber Legislative, Institutional City Land Ownership and Regulatory Owned Area Proposed Mechanism Framework In return from providing the land, the government or city authority recieves a proportion from the producers. Water Availibility Mucipal Landscape Irrigation Water Resouces Soil Physical Level Type of Spaces Available Ground-based Green Areas

Residents C.O.P Producer City Authority Operational Level Researchers Stakeholders Moderate Problem Identiﬁed C.O.P Urban -No Regulatory Framework - Absence of Caliber Legislative, Institutional City Land Ownership Density Area and Regulatory Owned Proposed Mechanism Framework

In return from providing the land, the government or city authority recieves a proportion from the producers. Resources Supplier Water Availibility Mucipal Landscape Irrigation Water Resouces Soil Physical Level Type of Spaces Available Ground-based Discrete Geen Patches

Residents Producer High Operational Level Residents Stakeholders Urban Problem Identiﬁcation

Density Area Legislative, Institutional Privately Land Ownership and Regulatory Owned Proposed Mechanism Framework

Water Availibility Domestic Water Resouces Soil Not Available Physical Level Type of Spaces Available Rooftops Fig.7.1— Identifying potentials and problems of the three selected areas of different urban densities. Source: Own (2014)

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Appendix 6: Analysing Potentials on three selected areas of different densities.

The research process went through identifying the different potentials for three selected areas of different densities. The analysis proceeded witb analyzing the potentials on the opreational layer, land ownership layer. and physical layer. The analysis revealed that the large green spaces in Al Sadat City is under the ownership of the municipality. Thus, the low dense model have different potentials than the more dense models. The different potentials are on the operational and physical layer. Further recommendations is suggested for the physical layer for each model.

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Appendix 7: Interviews.

The interviews held in Al Sadat City was unstructured interviews. The aim of these interviews was to explore more about the potentials existing on the institutional level including different entities. The interviews held with represen- tative from different institutional backgrounds. The research proceeded with interviews in the municipality of Al Sadat City, Research Desert Centre (Amer- ican University in Cairo) in Al Sadat City, and the association of Al Sadat City investors (Industrial Inverstors).

List of Interviewees

Interviewee 1

Eng. Ezz El Din Farghaly

Position: Senior Coordinator

Institution: Research Institute for a Sustainbale Environmnt (RISE)

Interviewee 2

Mr. Fathy Sayed Ahmed Mekky

Position: Associate Chief

Institution: City Development Authority

Interviewee 3

Eng. Sherif Khalifa

Position: Public Relation Manager

Institution: Association of Al Sadat City’s Investors

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Disclaimer

ملخص الرسالة

الزراعة الحضرية لديها إمكانات متعددة الوظائف. »الوظائف المتعددة« بشكل عام مرتبطة بمفهوم إستدامة الزراعية الحضرية . كما تقوم »الوظائف المتعددة« للزراعة الحضرية على ترسيخ جذور »الزراعة الحضرية« فى األقطاب الثالثة لمبادئ اإلستدامة. ويمكن أن يساهم تعدد الوظائف للزراعة الحضارية فى تأمين إنتاج الغذاء، وتوفير دخل إضافي، وإعادة تشكيل تطوير المدن السكنية الحضرية. ومع ذلك، واحدة من أهم العقبات في مواجهة تطبيق الزراعة الحضرية هو ندرة األراضي في المدن األكثر تحضرا.َ على العكس من ذلك، ال تزال المدن السكنية الحضرية الجديدة لديها القدرة على دمج األنماط المختلفة للزراعة الحضرية متعددة الوظائف. وبالتالي، هذه الدراسة تقوم بتقييم إمكانية تطبيق الزراعة الحضرية متعددة الوظائف في هذه المدن السكنية الحضرية الجديدة: وتحديدا في المنطقة محل الدراسة، مدينة السادات. النهج المعتمد في تقييم إمكانات الزراعة الحضرية متعددة الوظائف فى هذه الدراسة تم من خالل تطوير أداة تقييم. تساعد أداة التقييم على تحديد مستوى الوظائف المتعددة التي يمكن أن تتسق مع مختلف ممارسات الزراعة الحضرية. باإلضافة إلى تحديد إمكانات السياق المحلي لتطبيق الزراعة الحضرية . تم اختيار ثالثة مستويات من الزراعة الحضرية لتحديد وتقييم إمكانيتها إلدماج الزراعة الحضرية بها على ) (1 النطاق األرحب; )2( النطاق المتوسط; و ) (3 و النطاق األصغر. يتم بعد ذلك استكشاف النماذج المحتملة التي يمكن تطويرها لدمج مختلف نماذج الزراعة الحضرية. وتوضح هذه الدراسة أن هناك إمكانية أكبر لتطبيق الزراعة الحضرية متعددة الوظائف في المناطق الحضرية ذات النطاق المتوسط. حيث يمكن تطبيق الزراعة الحضرية في مناطق مثل: مدينة السادات. عالوة علي ذلك، تبين هذه الدراسة أن المدن السكنية الجديدة أكثر قدرة على إستيعاب مفهوم الزراعة الحضرية متعددة الوظائف ، وذلك لصالح هذه المدن.

الكلمات الرئيسية الزراعة الحضرية؛ متعددة الوظائف؛ المدن الجديدة؛ مدينة السادات؛ مصر.

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إقرار

هذه الرسالة مقدمة في جامعة عين شمس وجامعة شوتجارت للحصول على درجة العمران المتكامل والتصميم المستدام. إن العمل الذي تحويه هذه الرسالة قد تم إنجازه بمعرفة الباحث سنة 2014

هذا ويقر الباحث أن العمل المقدم هو خالصة بحثه الشخصي وأنه قد اتبع اإلسلوب العلمي السليم في اإلشارة إلى المواد المؤخوذه من المراجع العلمية ٌكل في مكانه في مختلف أجزاء الرسالة..

وهذا إقرار مني بذلك،،،

التوقيع:

الباحث: دينا محمود عبد الرشيد نصير

التاريخ: 2014/07/21

تقييم إمكانية تطبيق الزراعة الحضرية متعددة الوظائف فى مصر نحو زراعة التجمعات العمرانية الجديدة - مدينة السادات كحالة دراسة

مقدمة للحصول على درجة الماجستير في العمران المتكامل والتصميم المستدام

إعداد: دينا محمود عبد الرشيد نصير

لجنة اإلشراف

أ.د. أنتيا شتوكمان أ.م.د. مروة ابو الفتوح خليفة د. مروة عبد اللطيف أستاذ التنسيق الحضري والبيئي أستاذ مساعد التخطيط العمراني مدرس التخطيط العمراني جامعة شتوتجارت جامعة عين شمس جامعة عين شمس

لجنة الحكم التوقيع أ.م.د.محمد رفعت أستاذ مساعد تصميم وتنسيق المواقع جامعة القاهرة

أ.د.جيرمين الجوهري أستاذ العمارة والتخطيط العمراني جامعة عين شمس

أ.م.د.مروة ابو الفتوح خليفة تاريخ المناقشة:...... أستاذ مساعد التخطيط العمراني جامعة عين شمس

أ.د. أنتيا شتوكمان أجيزت الرسالة بتاريخ:...... أستاذ التنسيق الحضرى والبيئى موافقة مجلس الجامعة .../.../... جامعة شتوتجارت

الدراسات العليا جامعة عين شـــــــمس

ختم اإلجازة جامعة شتوتجارت موافقة مجلس الكلية .../.../...

07/21/2014

جامعة عين شـــــــمس جامعة شتوتجارت

تقييم إمكانية تطبيق الزراعة الحضرية متعددة الوظائف فى مصر نحو زراعة التجمعات العمرانية الجديدة “مدينة السادات كحالة دراسة”

رسالة مقدمة للحصول على درجة الماجستير في العمران المتكامل والتصميم المستدام

إعداد دينا محمود عبد الرشيد نصير

المشرفون

أ.د. أنتيا شتوكمان أ.م.د. مروة خليفة د. مروة عبد اللطيف أستاذ التنسيق الحضرى والبيئى أستاذ التخطيط العمراني أستاذ التخطيط و التصميم الحضري جامعة شتوتجارت جامعة عين شمس جامعة عين شمس

يوليو، 2014