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BUYING SKINS: Cultural Intermediaries, Value, and the Localisation of Australian Digital Games in China

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BUYING SKINS: Cultural Intermediaries, Value, and the Localisation of Australian Digital Games in China University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection 2017+ University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2020 BUYING SKINS: Cultural intermediaries, value, and the localisation of Australian digital games in China James Keogh Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses1 University of Wollongong Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorise you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process, nor may any other exclusive right be exercised, without the permission of the author. Copyright owners are entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. A reproduction of material that is protected by copyright may be a copyright infringement. A court may impose penalties and award damages in relation to offences and infringements relating to copyright material. Higher penalties may apply, and higher damages may be awarded, for offences and infringements involving the conversion of material into digital or electronic form. Unless otherwise indicated, the views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the University of Wollongong. Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] BUYING SKINS Cultural intermediaries, value, and the localisation of Australian digital games in China Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts Media & Communications Master of Philosophy (Arts) Supervisor: Dr. Brian Yecies Co-Supervisor: Dr. Gao Xiaoping James Keogh 4499992 Abstract Keogh, J 2020. Buying Skins: Cultural Intermediaries, value, and the localisation of Australian digital games in China, Master’s Thesis, University of Wollongong. This thesis investigates the emergence of China’s bourgeoning cultural sectors and some of the key processes by which audio-visual content is transformed through contributions from a range of national and transnational actors. Specifically, it explores how digital game ‘localisers’ are intersecting economic and cultural fields in unprecedented ways, mediating between well-established cultural policy demands and a bevy of new commercial industry opportunities and networks of stakeholders. Through the lens of Bourdieusian field theory, particularly from Distinction (1984) – which remains highly relevant today, this research analyses how such ‘cultural intermediaries’ are contributing to the transformation of economic capital and evolving consumer tastes and needs. At once, the expertise of these localisers lies outside of the skillset and capabilities of the local Australian digital game labour market, while also providing knowledge in the field of cultural production, circulation, and consumption of Australian games for the lucrative Chinese market. Utilising field observations and secondary data analysis, this thesis analyses the range of localisation practices and network relationships sought by Australian gaming developers to penetrate China’s gaming market and to navigate the State’s censorship procedures. Gaining new understandings of these professionals and their practices will provide original insights into both the field of cultural production and how Australian content is adapted and geared for both Chinese and transnational audiences. Not only will this assist to elucidate the relevant power institutions at play and how they are transforming, but it will also reveal the dynamic relationships involving a network of actors that are facilitating transnational media and cultural flows. How then does a Western-gaming developer bring a game to the Chinese market? As previously addressed by Dong and Mangiron (2018), language translations are just only a single tool in a localiser’s arsenal. Taste-makers must also consider specific cultural tastes, nuances, and mechanisms of the target consumer - all whilst navigating a complex and volatile censorship procedure. A decade ago, Brisbane studio Halfbrick saw over 200 million downloads and unprecedented success in China with its mobile hit Fruit Ninja (2010) after partnering with a | Page a Chinese publisher. The publisher, iDreamSky Technology, was a cheat code to unlock unparalleled potential in the Chinese market. Now, Austrade offers direct opportunities for Australian studios through the China Joy Bootcamp to establish relationships with Chinese publishing partners. Such partners offer their expertise in localisation services, local knowledge of China’s strict censorship protocol, and foreign distribution channels. They are what French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu describes as cultural intermediaries – actors within a complex network who frame cultural products for the always-trending tastes of consumers. To understand the potential for Australian independent games within this phenomenal consumer domain, we must determine how Chinese consumers come to like and purchase such media and cultural products. The key to investigating the ‘how’ is through these intermediaries, situated at the intersection of the cultural and economic fields. This project examines the multiple processes undertaken by game localisers to adapt and distribute digital gaming content in China through the lens of Bourdieu’s cultural intermediaries and cultural production. This discourse builds upon recent studies in Australia game production and cultural fields (Keogh 2019) by focusing upon the target consumer market, relevant power institutions and networks of actors in cultural production. This research will be of use to stakeholders in the Australian independent gaming industry by highlighting the process taken in adapting a cultural product and framing it towards a market for commercial and critical success. Keywords Game studies, cultural intermediaries, localisation, independent games, field theory. b | Page Acknowledgements I would like to extend my deepest thanks and gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Associate Professor Brian Yecies. You have shown great patience, and shared so much knowledge and advice, for which I am most grateful an appreciative. How fortuitous we connected in Beijing 6 years ago! I consider you a dear friend and am excited to start the next project together. I would also like to thank the University of Wollongong, and the many scholars who have imparted their expertise along this journey. It has been 8 long years since I began this saga, and am very grateful I selected this institution to further my education. To the VIPs in my life, thanks Mum and Dad for all your support and encouragement. Now that my life’s work is printed before you, please help me explain all this to Nanna. Lastly, thank you to my loving partner Tess. Now this is over, we can finally enjoy our weeknights and weekends. You have been so very supportive over the last few years, and I promise to return the favour once you begin post-grad. c | Page Thesis Certification I, James Keogh, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Master of Philosophy (Arts), in the faculty of Law, Humanities, and the Arts, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. James Keogh 28/03/2020 d | Page List of Special Names and Abbreviations Application Program Interface (API) Artificial Intelligence (AI) Augmented Reality (AR) Australian Classification Board (ACB) Australian Communication and Media Authority (ACMA) Australian Interactive Games Fund (AIGF) Brazil, Russia, India, China (BRIC) Chief Executive Officer (CEO) China Audio Visual and Digital Publishing Association (CAVPA) China Communist Party (CCP) China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC) Civilisation 4 (Civ 4) Communist Party of China (CPC) Cost-Per-Acquisition (CPA) Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) Design Innovate Communicate Entertainment (DICE) Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA) Electronic Arts (EA) Entertainment Software Rating board (ESRB) Experience (XP) Export Market Development Grant (EMDG) Extended Reality (XR) First-Person-Shooter (FPS) Game Connect Asia Pacific (GCAP) Game Developers' Association of Australia (GDAA) General Administration of Press and Publication (GAPP) Global Financial Crisis (GFC) In-App Purchases (IAP) Independent Gaming (Indie) Intellectual Property (IP) e | Page Interactive Games & Entertainment Association (IGEA) International Game Developers Association (IGDA) Mainstream Productions (AAA) Ministry of Culture (MOC) Mixed Reality (MR) National Science and Innovation Agenda (NISA) Pan European Game Information (PEGI) Penny Arcade Exhibitions (PAX) Personal Computer (PC) Player Unknown Battleground (PUBG) PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC) Renminbi (RMB) Research and Development (R&D) Role-Playing Games (RPG) State Administration of Press and Publication (SAPP) Technical and Further Education (TAFE) Trademark (TM) University of Technology Sydney (UTS) User Experience (UX) Virtual Reality (VR) f | Page Contents Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1.
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