Romanian Christianity dominant culture of the newly emergent Eastern European churches such as Bulgaria and Russia, John Anthony McGuckin were important elements in decisively bonding Romania to the eastern ecclesiastical world. And this orientation was not fundamentally shifted Christianity in Romania today, one of the despite Dominican missionary activity from the most flourishing Christian populations from west in the 14th century and extensive pressure the old Soviet satellite countries, is represented from the Catholic Austro-Hungarian empire predominantly by the Romanian Orthodox from the 17th century onward. For a long time Church, with a smaller representation of Roman in its early existence the Bulgarian church exer- Catholics, Byzantine rite Catholics, and a small cised a strong influence over Christianity in the minority of a few Protestant groups (the largest region. of them being the Baptists). Modern Romanian In the 10th century the territory was organized Christianity is the heir of the ancient church that into Wallachia, which became an independent was rooted in the imperial Roman province of princely state in 1290. Its Voivodes, or princely Dacia. This was a province of the Empire estab- rulers, would become great patrons of eastern lished by Trajan for his veterans, in the 2nd cen- Christianity both before and after the fall of tury. The Romanian language and culture, to this Byzantium. A second state, Moldavia, was day, are marked by a deep basis in Latin, though established to the north in 1363. Both territories with many later Slavic elements added, making had their own Metropolitan Archbishops. Daniel, it, arguably, the only Latin Orthodox culture in the Metropolitan of Moldavia in the 15th century, the world. There are archaeological remains of was one of Orthodox hierarchs at the Council 2nd century Christian settlements, especially in of Florence, who signed the Decree of Union. the Black Sea region, where proto-Christian But it was rejected by his faithful at home and martyr shrines have been discovered; all of both he and his successor were forced into exile which give testimony to the great antiquity of in Rome. The establishment of the province of Christianity in these lands. Church tradition Transylvania, to the west, followed in 1526. At looks to the planting of the gospel here by the mis- the same period the Ottoman Turkish armies were sionary efforts of the apostle Andrew around the extending outward to increase their hold over Black Sea shores. By the 3rd century Christians Europe. During this time of expansion and were so strong in the region that they attracted settlement of the Orthodox, against a backdrop the attention of the Emperor Diocletian, and of bitter military struggles against the invading several were victims of the Great Persecution Turks, magnificent monasteries in the Eastern which he initiated at the dawn of the 4th century. Gothic style were established in Moldavia and One of the Romanian (or then “Dacian”) Bucovina particularly. Several of them have church’s great patristic theologians was John functioned uninterruptedly, and many more Cassian, who traveled throughout the ancient are now undergoing extensive renewal. Under church, settling in the west after years spent the Turkish domination, the leaders of the among the Egyptian ascetics. He became a foun- Romanian Orthodox hierarchy were Phanariot dational figure in ascetical theology: having an Greek clergy appointed from Constantinople, equally marked influence on the eastern as well and the political rulers of the country were also as the western Christian monastic culture. appointed from the Phanar, all under the super- The Romanian church’s Latin basis has vision of the sultans. always remained part of the special character of After Transylvania’s capture by the Austrian Romanian Orthodoxy, whose geographical posi- and Hapsburg armies in 1688 there was exten- tion is, as it were, still a bridge point between sive proselytism conducted, under the aegis of the the Latin and Greek ecclesiastical worlds. The Jesuit order, and in 1698 a great number of the mission of Cyril and Methodios, and their estab- local Orthodox churches seceded to Roman com- lishment of the Slavic liturgy which became the munion as what used to be known as “Uniate”

The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization, First Edition. Edited by George Thomas Kurian. © 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2011 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2 Romanian Christianity

(or less partisanly Byzantine rite) Catholic com- as “His Beatitude the Patriarch of Romania, munities. By 1733 the Transylvanian clergy Locum-Tenens of Caesarea in Cappadocia, numbered 2,294 Greek Catholic priests com- Metropolitan of Ungaro-Wallachia and Arch- pared to 458 Orthodox. The 19th century witnessed bishop of Bucharest.” The first patriarch was the great national struggle for independence Miron Cristea, who has since been followed by from Turkish control to the east, and for the a succession of skilled and energetic leaders. reclamation of control over Transylvania to the After the end of World War II Romania fell under west. The rule of Phanariots, under the supervi- heavy Soviet control. During the communist sion of the Sublime Porte, came to an end in regime, the Greek Catholic communities were 1829 when the treaty of Adrianople conceded suppressed and ordered to rejoin the Orthodox. autonomous political status to Wallachia and Since the post-Ceaucescu liberation several of Moldavia. In 1856 at the Congress of Paris, them, though not representing the pre-commu- Moldavia and Wallachia reasserted their ecclesi- nist total, have returned to Roman communion. astical autonomy. There was, afterward, some lively tension over In 1862 the Romanian Orthodox church the rightful attribution of church properties, signaled its desire to end the long period of which is now being resolved in a collaborative Phanariot domination, by the replacement of inter-church dialogue. Greek liturgical usage with the Romanian During the communist years following language, which had already been used in the World War II, the condition of the Romanian country regions of Transylvania, to encourage the Orthodox church was among the best in all the local congregations to know and value their faith zone of Soviet satellites, though it was far from in the face of the appearance and spread of happy. Soon after the communist takeover 200 Calvinism in those areas. The Romanian Orthodox priests were imprisoned, and six bishops were Church has worshipped in this elegant romance forcibly retired. Patriarch Justinian (1948–1977) language ever since, and a distinctive form of often annoyed many of the free exiles by stating liturgical music has also evolved alongside the the self-evident truth that many of the principles classical Byzantine musical styles. In 1864 the of Marxism were in harmony with the evangeli- country won its complete formal independence cal spirit of dispossession and communion. He and under the rule of Prince Alexander Cuza. In 1865 his successors worked out a modus vivendi with the Romanian hierarchy declared the church the authorities that, in a sense, continued the prior to be autocephalous, with the primate being Romanian tradition of close political collaboration the Wallachian Metropolitan, with his see at (in the 1930s, for example, the patriarch was the Bucharest, and the Metropolitan of Moldavia prime minister of the state and another bishop second in honor. In 1881 Charles von headed its State Department of Religion). The Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was crowned as the practice of the faith flourished, and was deeply King of Romania (the monarchy lasted until rooted in the personal lives of millions of ordin- World War II), and four years afterwards, in 1885, ary Romanians. Church activity was officially the de facto situation of Romanian ecclesiastical hampered, but one third of the salaries of the autocephaly was eventually recognized by the clergy was paid by the state. In 1955 when the Patriarch of Constantinople, Joachim IV. church of Romania celebrated its 70th anni- After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian versary of independence, the government made empire in the wake of World War I the “Greater much fuss about it as a symbol of national pride. Romanian territories” were once more reorgan- At the same time, however, 13 bishops and hun- ized, bringing together three separate church dreds of priests languished in Romanian jails. groups: Transylvania, Bukovina, and Bessarabia. From time to time the flourishing condition The negotiation of union took six years from 1918 of the church in Romania drew disapproving to 1924, and culminated in the declaration of remarks from the central Soviet leaders (especially the Romanian church as a patriarchate in 1925, Kruschev), resulting in periods of church demo- which was immediately recognized by the lition and visibly heavier oppression. Protestant Patriarchate of Constantinople and the other groups were always a regular target of suppres- Orthodox churches. The patriarch is known sion, and state hostility. The Romanian state Romanian Christianity 3 secret police, the Securitate, were especially began the issuing of a modern Romanian brutal in communist Romania, and there have Philokalia (a new edition of the patristic writ- been many examples of the brutal oppression of ings from critical editions) and the new version individual religious dissidents, pastors, monks, and ran to many volumes more than the original, priests, which have amounted to many bloodless presided over by Sts. Macarius of Corinth and (as well as bloody) martyrdoms in the course of Nicodemos the Hagiorite in the 18th century, with the past two generations. In 1958 there was a new commentaries and critical notes that were a sustained crackdown against the church, the testimony to how well the intellectual life of the government taking some fright at the program of Romanian church was flourishing under such renewal Patriarch Justinian was presiding over. difficult circumstances. In Romania today there Five hundred priests and leading monks were are several nationally regarded monastic elders arrested and subjected to the infamous com- (startsi), many of whom endured years of per- munist show-trials. Two mass trials were held, secution for the faith. inflicting sentences of between 8 and 25 years After the fall of communism the incumbent in jails and labor camps. The aspirants of the Patriarch Theoctist offered his resignation to women’s monastery at Agapia were taken from the holy synod (acknowledging student protests their college, and sent en masse to a labour over the past conformity of the church to com- camp. Legislation subsequently demanded that munist policy) and retired to monastic life. The no aspirant to the monastic life should be under loss of his skills and acumen were soon felt, 60 years of age. Approximately 1,200 monks and and his return was requested by the church at nuns were expelled from their religious houses large. He subsequently presided with a skill and and many monasteries were forcibly closed. energy remarkable for his years over the import- From 1948 onward the authorities had gener- ant transition of the church to post-communist ally made it immensely difficult to recruit new freedom. His role passed in 2007 to another monastics, recognizing the importance of the vigorous churchman, Patriarch Daniel Cibotea, monastic life in Romanian church affairs, but after an internationally recognized theologian. Roma- the fall of the communist regime, there was a nian Orthodoxy has traditionally boasted a lively rapid increase. Monasticism in Romania has intellectual life. Its theologians are today re- generally been closely bonded to the diocesan life, building the devastation of their libraries and under the care of the local bishops. The monas- schools, and can be expected to offer a substantial, teries of Agapia and Varatec contain several and vital, contribution to the character of inter- thousand nuns following a range of lifestyles, from national Christianity in the years ahead. The the cenobitic to the eremitical, in extremely national census taken after the fall of communism beautiful surroundings. In other houses of men, showed 20 million people declaring themselves such as at the historic center of Sihastria, or the to be Orthodox Christians, worshiping in about Transylvanian community at Rohia near Satu 8,300 active parishes; which makes the Romanians Mare, the hesychastic life is followed with the second largest of all the eastern Christian dedication. Romanian monastic architecture is a churches, and arguably the one with the most fascinating and distinctive hybrid of styles, and open and outward-looking mentality, and with the painted monasteries of the north of the vigorous and educated bishops. country are part of the world’s highest examples Politically and ecclesiastically, Romania is one of Christian cultural achievement; now all of the liveliest members of the European family, rightly listed as UNESCO sites of world heritage. with a desire to engage. The current social-ethical The spiritual and mystical life of the Romanian problems in Romania (chief among them the issue monasteries was inspired by the hesychastic of street children, a legacy of the appalling com- movement, and in the 18th century St. Paisy munist orphanages) face the Romanian church Velichkovsky widely disseminated copies of the as a pressing agenda which it is beginning to Philokalia (a large collection of Orthodox asceti- address, and will surely focus on more directly cal and mystical writings from the Fathers) from when it has reestablished the immediate infra- his base at Neamts. One of the great modern structure of its churches, monasteries, and schools. Romanian theologians, Fr. Dimitru Staniloae, The rebuilding of the ecclesiastical life and struc- 4 Romanian Christianity tures is proceeding with extraordinary rapidity REFERENCES AND and vigor, which is a testament to the love and SUGGESTED READINGS respect in which the church is generally held by the ordinary people. The country is rich in natural Joanta, S. (1992). Romania: Its hesychast tradition resources, as well as in the resources of the native and culture. Wildwood, CA: St. Xenia Skete intelligence of its people and clergy. The church Press. enjoys much good will in the country at large, and Parry, K. (ed.) (2001). The Blackwell dictionary is regarded as a hopeful force for the rebuilding of Eastern Christianity. Oxford: Blackwell, of Romanian pride and national self-direction. pp. 406–413. Stebbing, N. (2003). Bearers of the spirit: SEE ALSO: Cyril and Methodius Spiritual fatherhood in Romanian Orthodoxy. Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian.