2 1 rdcini h ideadLwrYnteVle rm1 0 o20 C( BC 2000 to 000 10 from food Valley of Lower establishment and Middle the the to in related production developments cultural outlined 2008a) Hung in i 06 Londo 2006; Liu & Jiang japonica n ln eeiit stelcto fteeris utvto fAinrc ( rice Asian of palaeobotanists cultivation archaeologists, earliest the by of regarded location widely the as is geneticists plant and central in Valley Yangtze The Introduction Chi Zhang China southern in of emergence The eevd 7Fbur 09 cetd a 09 eie:2 a 2009 May 28 Revised: 2009; May 5 Accepted: 2009; February 27 Received: utoein Austroasiatic Austronesian, Keywords: ukadgan aebe eoee rmteests fe 00B,frigsettlements farming BC, 5000 After sites. these rice from of recovered quantities been Considerable fibres. have plant grains of and utilisation husk imply that whorls spindle nteMdl n oe agz alyrsetvl,hv rvddeiec o very for evidence provided have respectively, (Yuan Valley pig Yangtze possible production, Lower rice pre-domestication and early Middle the BC), in (8000-5000 phases Shangshan-Kuahuqiao and Pengtoushan-Zaoshi The chronology). ANTIQUITY abra C 20 Australia 0200, ACT Canberra, colo rhelg n uelg,Pkn nvriy ejn 081 .R China R. P. 100871, Beijing University, Peking Museology, and Archaeology of School colo rhelg n nhoooy ..Hp ulig1,TeAsrla ainlUniversity, National Australian The 14, Building Hope A.D. Anthropology, and Archaeology of School Cafr hn19;Hga u19;Za 98 elod20:111; 2005: Bellwood 1998; Zhao 1998; Lu & Higham 1998; Chen & (Crawford ) 4(00:1–5http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/84/ant840011.htm 11–25 (2010): 84 otes sa hn,suhr hn,rc,cliain rgn fagriculture, of origins cultivation, rice, China, southern China, Asia, Southeast 1 sa-hnHung Hsiao-chun & tal et 06 Fuller 2006; . 2 tal et 11 07 09.Apeiu ril Zag& (Zhang article previous A 2009). 2007, . otes saadsuht unx and to island south . and and Asia , Southeast prongs to two east in spread into – it Yangtze particular, eastern centraland in the From beyond. and cultivation China southern documented agriculture, rice of newly and dissemination a the us of account give authors The tal et rz sativa Oryza 14 C-calibrated 08,and 2008), . var.

Research The emergence of agriculture in southern China associated with the pivotal Daxi, Shinianshan, Beiyinyangin-Xuejiagang, Hemudu and Majiabang-Songze site complexes (5000-3500 BC) spread gradually throughout the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley. Enclosed rice fields have been exposed in some Lower Yangtze Majiabang-Songze sites, such as Caoxieshan (Zou et al. 2000: 97-113). Later in time, the two Longshan-phase site complexes represented by Qujialing-Shijiahe and Liangzhu (3000- 2300 BC), in the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley respectively, saw the establishment of large-scale wet rice cultivation (Fuller et al. 2007). It has been suggested that the southward dispersal of rice agriculture from the Yangtze Valley was perhaps related to the expansions of Austroasiatic- and Austronesian-speaking populations into Mainland and Island Southeast Asia respectively (e.g. Higham & Lu 1998; Higham 2002; Diamond & Bellwood 2003; Bellwood 2005: 222). If so, then southern China, between the Yangtze Basin and northern Mainland Southeast Asia, must have played a significant role in the spread of rice farming. However, due to the rarity of reported rice remains and reliable 14C dates, the question of agricultural development in southern China proper, south of the Yangtze Basin, remains poorly understood. We have previously suggested (Zhang & Hung 2008a) that the process of agricultural dispersal in China was not a singular event. To illustrate this, we focus here on recent discoveries from the regions of --Taiwan (Lingnan includes the provinces of Guangxi and Guangdong) and south-west China (Sichuan, and provinces).

Coastal south-eastern China and Taiwan New evidence for ancient rice cultivation has been reported from south-eastern China, with the oldest sites in Fujian, Taiwan and Guangdong (Figure 1). Here, rice remains can be confidently dated to 3000 BC, whereas dates for many other sites are clustered around 2500 BC.

Guangdong (Figure 1, sites 5, 6, 7 and 8) In the 1970s, a large quantity of rice grains and stalks from the lower and middle layers at Shixia in (c. 2600-2300 BC) were claimed to be of cultivated rice (Yang 1978; Zhang et al. 2006). More recently, four new discoveries of older rice remains have occurred in Guangdong. These come from the pre-Shixia phase at Shixia itself (Yang 1998; Xiang 2005), from Shaxia in , from Guye in Gaoming on the Lower , and from Xinghuahe on the Upper Xi River (Table 1). There are varied opinions on the date of the oldest rice remains at Shixia. The Guangdong Institute of Archaeology (IA, Guangdong 2000) suggests a date contemporary with the Tangjiagang-Daxi phase in the Middle Yangtze, c. 4800 BC, and with the earliest Xiantouling phase, c. 5000-3500/3000 BC, in the Zhu (Pearl) Estuary. But the pre-Shixia phase lacks the painted pottery typical of early Xiantouling, and so may be contemporary with Caotangwan phase I in Guangdong and Shenwan (Sham Wan) layer F on Lamma Island in Hong Kong (Meacham 1978; Museum et al. 1991; Zhu 2001). Shenwan layer F has been dated by Meacham (1978: 126) to c. 3500 to 2200 BC. The site of Shaxia in Hong Kong has produced quantities of rice and Cucurbitaceae phytoliths (Lu et al. 2005) from a context

12 rmyugrstssc sHagusa n asa Ce,ZS 06.Teearliest The 2006). Z.S. (Chen, Nanshan and Huangguashan as such sites younger from Andarayan. 26) Khao; Lum Ban 25) Noi; Kao Baiyangcun; Non 24) 19) Chiang; Nanguanlidong Haidong; Shixia; Ban 23) 18) & 5) Tha; Jigongshan; Nanguanli Fanchengdui; Nok Non 17) 4) 12) 22) Baoduncun; Shijiahe; Nguyen; Nanshan; Phung 16) 3) 11) 21) Gantuoyan; Qujialing; Karuo; Huangguashan; 15) 20) 2) 10) Xiaojin; Tanshishan; Liangzhu; 14) 1) 9) Dingsishan; text: Xinghuahe; 13) the (Taiwan); 8) in Guye; mentioned 7) sites Shaxia; key 6) of Locations 1. Figure nFja,teods iermishv enfuda asihnadhv encarbon- been have and Tanshishan at Chen, Z.S. found 1989; been (Yan BC have cal remains 2870-2340 to rice dated 12) oldest and the 11 Fujian, 10, In 9, sites 1, 2007). (Figure South Taiwan the and from Fujian Relics 2006; Yao & (Xiang dates similar have phase, to suggested Shixia the to related c 50B AO&I 04.Gy n iguh are Xinghuahe and Guye 2004). IA & (AMO BC 2500 . hn h sa-hnHung Hsiao-chun & Chi Zhang 13 pers . comm ) te ean r reported are remains Other .).

Research The emergence of agriculture in southern China carbonised rice grains in Taiwan come from the late Dabenkeng phase sites of Nanguanli and Nanguanlidong, located in the Science Park in southern Taiwan (Tsang et al. 2006). These have been dated to 2700-2200 cal BC and are here found with foxtail millet and beans of an unknown species. These two sites represent a late phase of the Dabenkeng culture in terms of artefact typology (NB: Dabenkeng is the correct , but it is better known as Tapenkeng (TPK), after Chang 1969), and no rice remains are yet reported from the oldest Neolithic assemblages on this island. After 2200 BC, carbonised rice or grain impressions in pottery are reported from many Middle Neolithic settlements in Taiwan, such as Chikan B on Island (Tsang 1999), Kending at the southern tip of Taiwan (Li 1985), Youxianfang in Tainan (Tsang et al. 2006), Zhishanyan in (Huang 1984), and Changguang in eastern Taiwan (Chao 1994).

South-west China Guangxi (Figure 1, sites 13, 14 and 15) The rice phytoliths from Dingsishan phase 4 (the uppermost phase in the site), in southern Guangxi, are currently regarded as the earliest from archaeological contexts in this region (Zhao et al. 2005). Despite the claim by Zhao (2006) that Dingsishan phase 4 dates from 4500 BC, the phase 4 pottery is different from that of the preceding phases in the site and resembles that of the Longshan phase in Wuming (ATGZ et al. 2006), believed to date to 2500-2000 BC (Li & Yang 2006). No rice has yet been found in the earlier phases 1 to 3 at Dingsishan (8000-4000/3500 BC) (Guangxi Team et al. 1998). Xiaojin, in northern Guangxi, has also produced rice remains. This site has three cultural phases, with no agricultural evidence from the oldest (phase 1), but a large quantity of rice grains from phase 2 (ATGZ & Cultural Relics Committee of Ziyuan 2004). There is a most confusing series of 14C dates: phase 1, 2900-2000, 2500-1600 and 2900-1950 cal BC; and phase 2, 2750-1900, 2150-1400, 2900-2200, 5300-1400 and 4000-2900 cal BC. These are not consistent with the stratification but, according to our stylistic comparisons of projectile points, the triangular specimens of Xiaojin phase 2 should postdate the Shijiahe culture in the Middle Yangtze Valley and thus date to c. 2500-2000 BC. Gantuoyan, in western Guangxi, has also produced carbonised rice and millet grains from a late stage of phase 2 in the site sequence (ATGZ & Napo Museum 2003). Two direct AMS 14C dates on the rice are 1920-1660 and 1220-920 cal BC, and one on millet is 1510-1290 cal BC. Through a comparative study of the pottery, the excavators suggest that Gantuoyan 2 was contemporary with the late Shang dynasty.

Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan (Figure 1, sites 16, 17, 18 and 19) In south-western China, the earliest evidence for agriculture comes from north-western Sichuan, associated with Yangshao expansion during the Miaodigou and Majiayao phases, c. 3000 BC (Chen, J. 2007). It is possible that dry land millet cultivation was brought to Sichuan by these Yangshao groups, and carbonised grains of millet Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv. from Karuo in Changdu , Tibet (Figure 1, site 20), are dated by multiple 14C determinations to c. 3500 to 2500 BC (Committee of Relics in the Tibet Autonomous

14 utr fVenms rhelg Nue 06.Hmnbraso hs hss ohin both phases, these of burials But Human Da 2006). the (Nguyen with especially archaeology associated Vietnamese province, Vietnam, of Hoa northern culture Thanh In in 1998). existed Museum (ATGZ groups Fengkai forager Guangxi & similar (IA in Guangdong Nanshanwan in and Lezhukou existed & and 2000) (ATGZ 2004), (ATGZ Qiujiang groups 1975), Jiangkou (ATTGZ Yu, these 2006), Xijin the include Museum 3 along sites Hengxian Excavated especially and rivers. Guangdong, Xi 2 western and Qian and phases Xun, Guangxi Dingsishan eastern and During central 1975). throughout (ATTGZ Ganzao and otyaogteZo o n ogrvr.EcvtdstsicueDnssa itself Dingsishan include sites Excavated rivers. Yong and You Team Zuo, (Guangxi the along mostly and vessels pottery impressed paddle Team and (Guangxi culture cord-marked tools Dingsishan simple stone Most polished with hunting. the and to shell fishing indigenous are freshwater was be sites gathering, culture elsewhere on would this reliant that Dingsishan that and the assume region, lithic of apparent archaeologists ground production) and Chinese by pottery ‘Neolithic’. food occupied with termed for was culture, evidence 3) Guangxi to any Neolithic, 1 of middle (phases absence and Hung the early & the (in the (Zhang (including hunter-gatherers Vietnam In Guangdong northern F). with with Guangxi (zone Fujian and 2008b) – H) traditions (zone islands) regional offshore two southern into China southern in in relevant contexts. review Liangzhu now ecological Final we and difference and sequences time Yangtze potential cultural Middle this the further BC, examine 2500 in To Yangtze. after Shijiahe Lower younger, the Middle slightly the is F) with the (zone contemporary But in Guizhou A). and and phases and Yunnan C Shijiahe Guangxi, (zones Yangtze in Qujialing–Early H) Lower evidence the single the zone the in a 2: Liangzhu with Early–Middle (Figure not contemporary the China and probably Yangtze, BC, south-eastern Middle was 3000 in cultivation to Guangdong rice back and of Fujian extend from appearance dates the The region, event. broad a such Across Valley Yangtze the 2) and (Figure China southern between relations postdate Cultural to appears Guizhou Therefore, and 1). Yunnan (Table Guangxi, younger in is BC. cultivation County 2500 Yuanmou rice in of Dadunzi appearance from the rice the to but Baiyangcun from dated 234-6), remains Rice are 2001). (Xiao Binchuan Haidong Dian at in Lake BC the cal in 3100-2450 phase Neolithic to Shizhaishan dated the region, to belong remains Guizhou rice (IA, earliest dynasty the Shang rice Yunnan, late for the with evidence contemporary BC). County, oldest Weining (2500-2000 in the phase Baoduncun concerned, the is during Sichuan Plain Chengdu in Sichuan. the Valley of from Yangtze north comes Middle both cultivation 2003), the (Wang as Shanxi and far 2007) As Liu 2000; Wang & (Zhang Gansu Region ie eae oDnssa hss1t cu rudNnigi otenGuangxi, southern in around occur 3 to 1 phases Dingsishan to related Sites developments cultural divide archaeologists Chinese onwards, Neolithic early the From Jigongshan from comes rice of presence a for evidence excavated earliest the Guizhou, In tal et 95 6) iermishv lobe on nYnsa otxsi eastern in contexts Yangshao in found been also have remains Rice 168). 1985: . tal et 98,Cagag aztu(unx Team (Guangxi Baozitou Changtang, 1998), . c 5020 C(unnMsu 91 A AS1991: CASS IA, 1981; Museum (Yunnan BC 2500-2000 . hn h sa-hnHung Hsiao-chun & Chi Zhang tal et 1998). . 15 tal et 03,Jiangxian 2003), . tal et 06.In 2006). .

Research The emergence of agriculture in southern China 2006: 316-8 .; Lin 2005 2006: 316 2005; AMO & et al. et al. et al. 2007 pers. comm Tsang Yang 1978;1991: IA, 208 CASS IA 2004 Xiang & Yao 2006 Yan 1989; Chen, Z.S. 3100-2450 BC 3350-2650 BC 2900-2250 BC 2900-2600BC 3100-1900 BC 2760-2470 BC 2670-2460 BC 2500-2300BC 2700-1950BC 2500-1850BC 1500-1190 BC 2140-1750 BC C determinations 2 sigma dates References 100 bp (Bk75050, charcoal) 90 bp (Bk75046, charcoal) 110 bp (Bk76024, charcoal) 14 + − + − + − 120 bp 220 bp 40 bp (NTU-3496, marine shell) 110 bp (GX-27329, charcoal) 50 bp (GX-27328, marine shell) 90 bp (GX-27787, charcoal) 60 bp (GX-27327, marine shell) 40 bp (NTU-3493, marine shell) 50 bp (NTU-3489, charcoal) 40 bp (GX-27788, charcoal) 40 bp ( NTU-3452, charcoal) 60 bp (ZK-0098, shell) 70 bp (ZK-0099, animal bone) 50 bp (NTU-3974, charcoal) 2880-2560 BC Tsang + − + − − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + − + + − + − + − None Relics from the South Phase 3: 4020 NoneNone Yang 1998 Lu Phase 3: 4330 4030 4030 (Lab numbers and materials unknown) 3890 4190 3730 4470 4450 4080 4040 3950 4230 3090 3600 Phase 1: 4220 4110 layer phase phase c. 2500 BC earliest Neolithic c. 2500 BC c. 3000 BC c. 2600-2300 BC Late Dabenkeng c. 2700-2200 BC c. 2870-2340 BC c. 2600-2300 BC Cultural phases & Oxcal, Late Dabenkeng c. 2700-2200 BC phytoliths, one rice grain millet and beans millet and beans rice and Cucurbitaceae rice grains pre-Shixia phase rice grains Shixia phase grains of rice, foxtail 2 rice grains Tanshishan phase rice grains and stalks Shixia phase grains of rice, foxtail Taiwan Fujian Guangdong Taiwan Shaxia, Hong Kong Guye, Guangdong rice grains Xinghuahe, Guangdong Nanguanli, Tanshishan, Table 1. Early rice and millet remains from southern China and Taiwan. Shixia, northern Sites Specimens recovered suggested dates Uncalibrated Nanguanlidong,

16 Dingsishan, rice phytoliths Dingsishan None Guangxi Team et al. Guangxi phase 4 1998 c. 2500-2000 BC Xiaojin, Guangxi rice grains Xiaojin phase 2 3850−+140 bp 2750-1900 BC ATGZ & Ziyuan c. 2500-2000 BC 3420−+140 bp 2150-1400 BC 2004 4030−+110 bp 2900-2200 BC 4700−+800 bp 5300-1400 BC 4700−+200 bp 4000-2900 BC (Lab numbers & materials unknown) Hung Hsiao-chun & Chi Zhang Gantuoyan, AMS on rice grains Gantuoyan phase 3463−+50 bp (DY-1014) 1920-1660 BC ATGZ & Napo Guangxi 2, contemporary 2883−+50 bp (DY-1013) 1220-920 BC Museum 2003 with late Shang AMS on millet grain 3131−+50 bp (DY-D1015) 1510-1290 BC 17

Jigongshan, rice grains contemporary with None IA, Guizhou et al. Guizhou late Shang 2006 Shizhaishan sites, rice grains Shizhaishan 4235−+150 bp from Haidong 3100-2450 BC Xiao 2001 Yunnan Neolithic phase (Lab numbers & materials unknown) c. 2500 BC

Baiyangcun, rice grains c. 2500-2000 BC 3770−+85 bp (ZK-0220, charcoal) 2470-1970 BC Yunnan Museum Yunnan 3675−+85 bp (ZK-0330, wood) 2350-1750 BC 1981 IA, CASS 1991: 234-6 Dadunzi, Yunnan rice grains contemporary 3210−+90 bp (ZK -0299, charcoal) 1690-1260 BC IA, CASS 1991: with Shang 234-6

Research The emergence of agriculture in southern China

Figure 2. The expansion of rice farming from the Yangtze Valley into southern China and Southeast Asia, c. 3000-2000 BC. A, B and C are major agricultural societies in the Middle–Lower Yangtze Valley that expanded southwards with rice cultivation into Fujian and Guangdong (H), Taiwan (I) and the (J). E represents the early agricultural society of the Chengdu Plain, perhaps influenced by C as as by the rice-millet agricultural society of D in northern Sichuan. The appearance of rice cultivation into Guangxi (F) came from C in the Middle Yangtze Valley, and probably from E in the Chengdu Plain, spreading later into Mainland Southeast Asia. A) Liangzhu, 3500-2500 BC; B) Fanchengdui, 2600-2000 BC; C) Qujialing-Shijiahe, 3500-2500 BC; D) Miaodigou & Majiayao, presumably with millet and rice, c. 3000 BC; E) Baoduncun, 2500-2000 BC; F) Dingsishan phase 4 & Xiaojin phase 2, after 2500 BC; G) Phung Nguyen (Vietnam) and agricultural communities in Thailand, after 2300-2000 BC; H) Shixia & Tanshishan, 3000 BC; I) Late Dabenkeng, 2800 BC; J) northern Philippine Early Neolithic, 2000 BC. Guangxi and northern Vietnam, are in crouched and seated postures. Higham (1996: 78) notes that the Da But sites have no certain traces of agriculture. Four 14C dates from Nanshanwan phase 1 are considered to represent the terminus ante quem of the Dingsishan (phases 1 to 3) culture. These are 4800-3600, 5350-4650 and

18 igihnstsaelctdi oe aorbefrrc amn,sc steX aly no Valley, Xi the as reported. such been farming, ever rice have for phytoliths favourable or macroremains zones many rice in Although located BC. 4000-3500 are around sites culture Dingsishan 2004), Dingsishan (ATGZ the shell freshwater of on termination BC a cal 8250-7550 suggesting and bone animal on BC cal 5800-5200 nGagogi h nrsv inoln utr zn ) ae to dated assemblage H), pottery-bearing (zone culture earliest Xiantouling The intrusive 3. the is to Guangdong 1 in phases Dingsishan to related culture farming eprrl iiie 50-50B) iepyoih r o dnie nGaomiao BC. 3500 in after identified phase, Qujialing not the are until was 2007) phytoliths farming Chen Rice and & (He group BC). Gaomiao (5000-3500 to the minimised due for temporarily subsistence Perhaps Mountains, major Nanling Chengbeixi. the the in and became land Middle cultivation Pengtoushan-Zaoshi hunting-gathering good the of as shortage of and such resources natural facies) regions, abundant (Exi these Daxi Gaomiao- in agricultural the initial the societies the from to of developed facies especially Exi facies and Yangtze, Gaomiao-Songxikou-Daxi The non-agricultural Yangtze. the the and Mountains and Nanling Songxikou-Daxi the between region Fujian. the northern Dabenkeng and and Keqiutou southern of to in origins appear discoveries the neither future understand await 2005), To must Guo it. we & of (Liu descendants Zhejiang direct in been both culture have although Hemudu and many the 2008), by have Hung influenced 2007; assemblages (Tsang were Guangdong assemblages Dabenkeng in Neolithic and Xiantouling (pre- with Dabenkeng Keqiutou earliest early similarities The and the Keqiutou respectively. remains the have cultures namely Taiwan, any yet, Nanguanli) and have Fujian as of Chaoan, Neither, coastlines the and plants. along cultivated Fangcheng, potentially as of such Guangxi, and Guangdong societies grooved rice-growing 126). the distinctive by 2005: with whorls (Bellwood Yangtze spindle beaten with Middle barkcloth, spun the as of of fibres textile use of the than for Kong rather emphasising evidence Hong beaters, and no tradition Guangdong Gaomiao-Songxikou- with in fabric sites latter the a culture the Xiantouling of have , the of rather addition, southern In region of but rice. Mountains of Lakes 1999), cultivation Two Nanling Pei the the 1999; in in facies (Bu located Daxi Basin direct culture a Yangtze Daxi not Middle was nuclear Xiantouling the rice-growing However, culture. the Daxi of the regard of descendant archaeologists facies so Chinese Lingnan assemblage many a group Hunan, Xiantouling as forager in the Xiantouling Tangjiagang-Daxi maritime Because of a 79). that suggests 1996: resembles This (Higham located Estuary. closely strategy are Zhu economic sites the most of of uncertain, terms edges is in the Xiantouling along of dunes pattern sand phases subsistence on Dingsishan the than Although styles pottery 3. and to lithics 1 complex more has which 42), 2008: (Hung otenCiao utn-ahrn ussec,i em fdmnsigfeunisof frequencies diminishing of terms Neolithic in in subsistence, decline subsequent hunting-gathering the of was China significance of southern Also BC. 4000-3500 in until and Guangxi BC 3500-3000 until complexes. Fujian-Guangdong tool in flake continued and seemingly subsistence pebble Hunting-gathering was early Dayan F) and Zengpiyan (zone local Guangxi the from in directly Neolithic earliest the contrast by nGagogadFja,ulk unx,teei ofrn identifiably no far so is there Guangxi, unlike Fujian, and Guangdong In hrfr,teeris elti nGagogadFja zn )was H) (zone Fujian and Guangdong in Neolithic earliest the Therefore, to sourced be can H) (zone Fujian and Guangdong in Neolithic earliest the short, In of coastlines the along middens shell the of none BC, 4000 as recently as Until hn h sa-hnHung Hsiao-chun & Chi Zhang 19 c 0030/00BC 5000-3500/3000 . indigenous indigenous developed , exotic pre- but

Research The emergence of agriculture in southern China wild animal bones and shellfish. In Fujian, this decline followed the Keqiutou phase. A similar decline occurred in coastal Guangdong (Nishitani 1997) and also in the and Xia-Jiang regions along the Yangtze. One possibility is that this decline reflected a climatic fluctuation (Zheng et al. 2004), but we cannot be sure since it could also reflect increasing use of domesticated resources for subsistence. After 8000 BC, considerable quantities of rice are present in many settlements in the Middle–Lower Yangtze Valley (Zhang & Hung 2008a). Why did rice cultivation not reach the Lingnan-Fujian region until 3000 BC? To answer this question, we must consider the development of agriculture in the Yangtze Basin itself, and review the local cultural background in southern China. In the early stages of agriculture in the Middle–Lower Yangtze, rice did not account for a high proportion of production, and full morphological domestication did not occur until after 5000 BC (Fuller et al. 2007). In some instances, such as Gaomiao, there even appears to have been fluctuation between hunting-gathering and agriculture. As we have described previously (Zhang & Hung 2008a), farmers gradually extended their settlements into the uncultivated areas along the of the Yangtze. By about 3000 BC, cultivation of domesticated rice became a major subsistence activity, and plough cultivation appeared in the Liangzhu sites (zone A). Population densities increased during the Middle–Late Liangzhu and Early–Middle Shijiahe phases. At the same time, the Zhangsidun and Fanchengdui cultures (zone B) between the Middle and Lower Yangtze started to expand southwards. The Tanshishan culture in Fujian and the Shixia in Guangdong (zone H) both contain many Liangzhu and Fanchengdui cultural traits, such as pottery ding with feet shaped like fish fins, hu,andjadecong and yue.This was the earliest phase of rice cultivation in Fujian and Guangdong. The emergence of rice cultivation in Guangxi resulted from a separate and more inland southward dispersal from the Quijialing culture (zone C) in the Middle Yangtze Valley, via the middle Yuan River and Xiajiang regions with their forager groups. Rice cultivation was thus transmitted from Quijialing into Guangxi and Sichuan a little later in time than into Fujian–Guandong.

From southern China into Southeast Asia Neolithic agriculture in southern China depended on more than just rice farming. Tubers might also have been significant (Tong 2004: 88-107). Unfortunately, the only available evidence for a presence of unidentified charred tubers (possibly Dioscorea sp. and Colocasia sp.) comes from Zengpiyan in Guangxi (IA, CASS et al. 2003: 343). Recently, Daxi phase millet has been found at Chengtoushan in the Middle Yangtze Valley (Nasu et al. 2007a & b), but the domesticated status of this find is uncertain. As mentioned, Yangshao farmers (zone D) introduced millet agriculture into northern Sichuan c. 3000 BC (Chen, J. 2007), and millet agriculture in eastern Tibet can be traced back to 2500 BC, but foxtail millet in southern China is so far only reported from Gantuoyan in western Guangxi (ATGZ & Napo Museum 2003), and from Nanguanlidong and Youxianfang in southern Taiwan (Tsang et al. 2006). However, these finds are sufficient to indicate that millet cultivation was also part of the expansion of agriculture into southern China.

20 uha o o h,BnCin,NnKoNi a o a n a u Khao Lum Ban and Wat Non Ban Noi, Kao Non 2009). BC, Higham Chiang, 2000 & Ban postdate Higham 2004; Tha, Thailand BC (Higham Nok in 2300 Non settlements after dates agricultural as Thailand Most such in 1996). rice Higham earliest & The pottery (Glover 131-2). and 2005: earrings, (Bellwood and impressions bracelets whorls punctate spindle with , infilled stone bands , shouldered incised Vietnam, 2007), with influences northern (Rispoli pottery cultural strong as In with such 2002). associated China, rice southern (Higham contain from sites BC Nguyen Phung 2500-2000 the several Asia, to BC, Southeast 2000 dated Mainland In is Asia. agriculture Southeast earliest Island into Taiwan from peoples been speaking 2008; have Dizon & remains Bellwood 2008; rice 2005, (Hung and Piper northern pigs, of Neolithic domesticated early of the in bones found nephrite, Taiwan Taiwan, BC style, eastern Taiwan cal of Neolithic of Middle 2050-1400 the to to traced be AMS can Luzon by Philippines northern directly the in dated rice Luzon, for northern (Snow evidence in earliest Andarayan The from Asia. comes Southeast into began China farming rice southern of from dispersal hunting-gathering, continuing and farming mixed developed northern Valley. of Yangtze the rivers inter-related of thus Zi those were with and China In ways Yuan southern 1997). innumerable in upper in (He cultures the Neolithic Basin These in Xiang 1997). (He appeared the Guangdong culture in Doupengpo assemblage Gan-Bo Yangtze Daiziping the that Middle the addition, the indicate from in studies Wusaoling culture Wusaoling Recent Fanchengdui and Guangxi. the the region, eastern from and and developed Guangdong, culture Guangdong of Shixia the of culture Valley northern Shixia Xi the the the the into in in Thus, moved BC Lingnan-Fujian. have 2600 and to about Yangtze appear appeared the groups between and Middle regions declined, the of mountainous gradually have cultures Valley the Yangtze not phases, Shijiahe Lower need Middle and and cultivation Liangzhu population Late rice migration boosting the thus southward During China, of southern numbers. contemporaneous into Yangtze arrival that Lower and suggests the Middle the evidence from to Much occurred cause. due only alone the growth been internal China, west scale. in during unprecedented developments were cultural stage became assemblages, large this forager culture) previous of the Shovel’ (Chen, with number Vietnam Compared ‘Large northern 2006). the Y.Z. and so-called Guangdong in western (the Guangxi, increase throughout assemblages geometric sharp widely distributed Dalongtan Guangdong, a 1999). In with (Zhao 1969). Fujian associated sites (Chang from were migration Neolithic cultures or early pottery influence impressed Dabenkeng cultural the secondary Taiwan, over some in cultures imposed involving Marked’ Cord perhaps ‘Fine related latter of series the and a and developments developed 2005) culture cultural (Lin Huangguashan Lingnan-Fujian the further in BC, 2500 introduced, After successfully rapidly. Once place carried took environments. increase be population could varied that and species new domesticated into fully with developed highly already ihicesn ouaini iga-uinadsuhws hn,spotdb well- by supported China, south-west and Lingnan-Fujian in population increasing With south- and region Lingnan-Fujian the in population of growth rapid the Regarding China, south-west and Lingnan-Fujian in sharply arrived agriculture that believe We tal et tal et 09.W eiv hsrpeet h einn ftemgaino Austronesian- of migration the of beginning the represents this believe We 2009). . 96.Rsac yHn niae htteeris elti eteet in settlements Neolithic earliest the that indicates Hung by Research 1986). . hn h sa-hnHung Hsiao-chun & Chi Zhang 21 c 00B.Pottery BC. 2000 . c .

Research The emergence of agriculture in southern China

Conclusion Rice cultivation was introduced into southern China around 3000-2500 BC from the Middle and Lower Yangtze Valley, possibly earlier in coastal regions. Separate coastal and inland routes of expansion are suggested into Fujian-Guangdong and Guangxi respectively, and it is likely that each area underwent a separate process of introduction. In south-west China, agriculture occurred in Sichuan c. 3000 BC and then spread into Guizhou and Yunnan c. 2500 BC. The dispersal of rice agriculture was thus not a single event. In the early stage, before 3000 BC, dispersal was slow, even involving periodic returns to non- agricultural subsistence with a heavy emphasis on fishing and hunting in areas marginal to the main Yangtze Basin, such as the Middle Yuan and Xia-Jiang regions. But once the Yangtze agricultural systems became highly developed with domesticated and transportable crops and animals, rice cultivation spread very quickly. The process of southward dispersal carried not only the knowledge and technology of rice cultivation, but also considerable human population. Because of the consequent growth of farming populations in southern China after 2500 BC, the Neolithic cultures of Lingnan-Fujian and south-west China spread rapidly into Southeast Asia.

Acknowledgements We thank Professors Peter Bellwood and Martin Carver and two anonymous reviewers for giving us invaluable comments on this manuscript. We also thank Dr Qin Ling for providing a reference. Zhang Chi would like to thank the Humanities and Social Sciences Research project (2009-2018) of Peking University for supporting this research. Hsiao-chun Hung thanks the Australian National University for funding her research in East and Southeast Asia.

Abbreviations IA: Institute of Archaeology ATGZ: Archaeological Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region ATTGZ: Archaeological Training Team of the Guangxi Zhuang Municipality CASS: Chinese Academy of Social Science Kaogu: Kaogu (Archaeology) Wenwu: Wenwu (Culture Relic) Nanfang Wenwu: Nanfang Wenwu (Relics from South) AMO, Hong Kong: Antiquities and Monuments Office, Leisure and Cultural Services Department of Hong Kong

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