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New Chronometric Dates for the of Nasca, Author(s): Persis B. Clarkson and Ronald I. Dorn Source: Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 56-69 Published by: Society for American Archaeology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/971600 Accessed: 15/12/2010 12:49

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http://www.jstor.org NEW CHRONOMETRICDATES FOR THE PUQUIOS OF NASCA, PERU

PersisB. Clarksonand RonaldI. Dorn

Numericage assessmentsof organicmaterial encapsulated by varnishpresent on stone lintels of two "puquios" in the Nasca regionof the southcoast of Peruindicate a Precolumbianage. Acceleratormass spectrometry radiocarbon analyses at the Isotrace Laboratoryrevealed ages of cal A.D. 560(620)650 and cal A.D. 600(640)660 (I sigma). Thesecalibrated measurements are consideredto be appropriatein the contextof the archaeologicalsettlement pattern datafor the region.As well, the writtendocuments of the colonial period neitherconf rm nor deny the presenceof the puquEos.Three assumptions are inherentin the acceptanceof these dates:(I) AMS 14C dating and its application to rock varnishyield reliableresults, (2) sample contaminationcan be recognized,and (3) determinationof the age of the puquiosrests upon testableavailable information; ex silentio argumentsabout the presenceor absenceof the puquiosin the Nasca regionbefore the Spanish conquestare inadequatefor the resolutionof the question. Se ha determinadola edad cronologicaen los dintelesde dos puquEosde la regionde Nasca, costa sur del Peru, en base a materialorgan ico encapsuladoen barniz de roca;los fechados indican que los puquEosson prehispanicos. Los estudiosradiocarbonicos de espectrometriapor aceleracionde masa ('4CACM)realizados en los laboratoriosIsotrace han proporcionadodos fechas radiocarbonicascalibradas 560(620)650 D.C. y 600(640)660 D.C. (I sigma) respec- tivamente.Estas fechas calibradasse consideranapropriadas dentro del contexto de los patronesde asentamiento prehistoricode la region de Nasca, entendiendoademas que los documentoscoloniales no conf rman ni niegan la existenciade puquiosen la zona. Trespremisas son inherentesa la aceptacionde estosfechados: (I) elfechamiento de 14C medianteACM proporcionaresultados fRables e aceptablespara el estudio del barniz de roca, (2) cualquier contaminacionde las muestraspuede ser detectada,y (3) la determinacionde la edad de los puquEosse basa en tecnicas reproduciblesy datos verifcables. El uso de argumentosex silentio no es adecuadopara demostrarsi los acueductosexistieron o no en tiemposprehispanicos.

Researchers working in the Nasca region nean channels and clear out the debris ac- of southern Peru are no doubt familiar cumulatedover the last year (Urton 1981:4). with an intriguingcultural feature known as While a variety of hydraulic systems were puquios. Puquios, also referred to as aque- used and adaptedthroughout the New World ducts or filtrationgalleries, are artificialchan- before and after the Spanish arrival in the nels constructedas tunnels or trenchesto gain sixteenthcentury, the puquios discussedhere access to the water table. Between approxi- include the threedrainages of the Rio Grande mately Januaryand April each year, during de Nasca: the Nasca (Aja and Tierras Blan- the rainy season in the , the rivers flow cas), Taruga,and Las Trancas (Figure 1). and the water table rises, thereby providing Precipitationin the Nasca region itself is sufficientwater for the fields surroundingthe insufficientto supportcurrent human and ag- puquios. The necessary cleaning of the sub- riculturalneeds: the averagerainfall recorded terraneanchannels is timed to coincide with between 1957 and 1965 at the Majoro sta- the lowest water level at the warmest time of tion, situated about 3 km from the town of the year,usually between October and Decem- Nasca, was 5.03 mm, with a range between ber, when people crawl throughthe subterra- 23 mm (in 1963) and 0 mm (in 1958, 1960, Persis B. Clarkson* Departmentof Anthropology,University of Winnipeg,515 PortageAvenue, Winnipeg,Man- itoba R3B 2E9, Canada RonaldI. Dorn * Departmentof Geography,Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-0104 Latin AmericanAntiquity, 6(1), 1995, pp. 56-69. Copyright@ 1995 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology

56 Clarkson and Dom] CHRONOMETRICDATES FOR THE PUQUIOS, NASCA, PERU 57

Figure 1. Map of the Nasca re- gion. and 1965 with January through September ogists and ethnohistorians.In a preliminary only recorded for the latter year; ONERN archaeologicalstudy of the prehistoricsettle- 1971 II:15). The puquios help to offset the ments of the Nasca region, Schreiber and insignificant amount of precipitation in the Lancho(1988) note that therewas an increase Nasca region by acting as a buffer against of settlements in previously uninhabited ar- drought.Although the waters in some of the eas in the Nasca Valley during Nasca 5, or puquios may fail to rise during times of approximatelyA.D.500. These areasare suf- drought in the Andes, placing some stress ficiently dry that the kind of settlement ex- many never dry up. A upon the system, pansionwitnessed during Nasca 5 would have drought during 1990 and 1991 ended in been impossible without a permanentwater March 1991 when heavy rains arrivedin the Schreiberand Lancho posit that the Andes, causing severe flooding in the rivers system. into and damage to the retardedcrops in the sur- suddenexpansion of Nasca 5 settlements roundingfields that were not wateredby pu- these zones was due to the construction of quios; in fieldswhere puquio waterwas avail- the puquios. The settlement patternstudy of able, many ofthe cropshad grownsufficiently the Nasca Valley is still ongoing,and the final that they were able to withstand the effects results have not yet been published (Schrei- of the flooding. ber and Lancho 1995). Silverman (1986:20) has also suggestedthat the location of Nasca The Age of the Nasca Puquios Valley sites, such as the Middle Horizon Pa- Evidence for the age of the Nasca puquio checo (Menzel 1964; Paulsen 1983) and the system has been brought forth by archaeol- Late Horizon Paredones, might have been 58 LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 6, No. 1, 1995 chosen to take advantage of the already ex- of puquios. Barnes and Fleming (1991) sug- isting water system. gest that the lack of an eyewitness account The origin of the puquios has been studied regardingthe puquios dating back to early by a variety of researchers.An Inka origin colonial times indicatesthat the puquioswere was posited by the historianClements Mark- a post-Conquestconstruction by the Spanish. ham based on his examinationofthe puquios Barnesand Fleming believe that the puquios in 1853 (in Joyce 1912:119-120), as well as sharemuch in common with Moorishqanats, by other researchers (see Auza A. 1948, which were built throughoutthe Iberianpen- Conkling 1939, Gonzalez G. 1934). The Pe- insula, and that the techniques of construct- ruvian priest and amateur archaeologist A. ing these hydraulicsystems came to the New Rossel Castro stated that the Inka had never World with the Spaniards.However, as Ko- built subterranean irrigation systems any- sok points out, there are few references to wherein their domain, other than Nasca, and ancient irrigationworks by the early Spanish suggestedthat they were pre-Inkain age (Ros- chroniclers, perhaps because "(m)ost of the sel Castro 1942). Rossel described "Classic writers ... record the luxury, wealth and Naska" remains recoveredfrom the puquios abundance of fruits and vegetables in the (Rossel Castro 1977:175-176). There are no coastal valleys without inquiring into the illustrationsof the artifacts recovered in the method of their production.... They were puquios by Rossel, nor is there any infor- thereforenot primarilyinterested in the eco- mation about the puquios in question nor the nomic life of the coast insofar as the people specifics of the location of the artifacts;Ros- there could be used as human pack animals sel's conclusions are considered unsubstan- and mine laborers"(Kosok 1940:172-173). tiated here. Based upon Rossel's 1977 pub- Trimbornhad two wooden lintels from the lication, Petersen (1980) stated that the pu- Cantalloqand Majoro puquios in the Nasca quios were built between middle and late Valley radiocarbondated (see Scharpenseel Nasca times, or approximatelyA.D.400-800. and Pietig 1974). These yielded ages of The evidence of the presence of highland 110+100 B.P. (Bonn-1971) and 140+100 Huarpapeoples from Ayacucho, where com- B.P. (Bonn-1972). Radiocarbon ages within plex undergroundwater systems had been this rangefall outside the range of reliability used extensively in the Nasca region during of radiocarbondating because they are too late Nasca times (Paulsen 1983:104), might recent.However, it should be noted that such also suggest a precedent for the Nasca pu- measurementsare consistent with the peri- quios. Rossel also linked the subterranean odic replacementof wooden lintels, and with puquios with the geometric geoglyphs (see the fact that maintenanceof the puquios has Rossel Castro 1959:3.55), which he stated been continuous over many centuries. Thus, contained tombs with Nasca artifacts. We radiocarbonages of perishable materials as- suspect that Rossel was referringto Nasca sociated with the regularmaintenance of the cemeteries,which abound on the valley mar- puquios probably cannot provide evidence gins in the vicinity of the geoglyphs in the for the originalconstruction date of these fea- Las Trancas, Taruga, and Nasca valleys. tures. Rather,we must seek more reliablema- There is no direct archaeologicalor spatial terials for dating that are indicative of, or link between the geoglyphs and either the associated with, the construction of the pu- Nasca cemeteries or the puquios. qUiOS. Some of the better-known early colonial Spanish accounts of the Nasca region, such Methods of Numeric Age Assessment of as those of the sixteenth-centurychroniclers Nasca Puquios Cieza de Leon and Guaman Poma de Ayala, With the exception of Trimborn's ages, all or the seventeenth-centuryVazquez de Es- previous studies of the age of the Nasca pu- pinosa, lack specific mention of the presence quios have relied upon inferential evidence Clarkson and Dorn] CHRONOMETRICDATES FOR THE PUQUIOS, NASCA, PERU 59 of the association of the puquios with de- Inspectionand analysis of the rock varnish mographic,archaeological, ethnohistoric, or formation on Nasca puquio stones indicated comparativedata. Recent studies of rock var- a very diffierentvarnish from that of the geo- nish reveal techniques by which the age of glyphs; this varnish did not fulfill the con- constructionor the formation of naturaland straints for cation-ratio dating (Dorn 1989). cultural stone features can be discerned by The type of varnish on these faced stones is criteria independent of associated cultural characteristicof varnish from wet environ- materialor assignedcultural meaning. These ments, and is totally dissimilar to the type of absolute, or numeric,techniques include cat- varnish found in the nearby surfaces ion-ratio dating (Dorn 1989), which can pro- (Figure 2). Viable cation-ratio dating is de- vide relativeages, and AMS radiocarbondat- pendent upon varnish formed in stable arid ing (Dorn et al. 1989; Dorn et al. 1992b). environments. The chemistry of the puquio Rock varnish is a ubiquitous coating of varnishis also dissimilarto subaerialvarnish manganeseoxides, oxides, and clay min- in the nearbydesert (Table 1). This evidence erals fixed by bacteriafound on exposed rock of wet-environment formation is consistent surfaces. The varnish accretes over time, with the situation of the stones used to con- forming layers that can be discerned under a struct the puquios, which is a damp micro- microscope (Dorn and Oberlander1982). In environmentrelative to the surroundingdes- stable environmental situations created by ert region. arid environments, the chemical composi- The stones used in the constructionof the tion of uninterruptedlayers of varnish can puquios are from the surrounding region. be used to indicate the relative ages of var- Open trench-stylepuquios may be faced with nished features. The presence of datable or- stone retainingwalls, while tunnels have ma- ganic materialscontained on and within rock sonry or cobble side walls. Some of these are varnish layersand between the basal layer of riverinecobbles similar to those found in the varnish and the stone means that the age of nearby riverbeds, and would have been a varnished cultural features such as the pyr- likely source of this building material. The amids of Egypt(Blackwelder 1948) and stone lintels are also made from a stone consisting artifacts(Hayden 1976; Dorn et al.1986) can of quartzite with iron; this type of stone is be ascertainedindependent of typologicaland locally available, although stones of the size iconographiccriteria; furthermore, these ages used for the puquio lintels may have been can be corroboratedby historicaldata where imported. However, in dressingthese stones available, such as for the Egyptian monu- to create the desired rectilinearshape for the ments. lintels, preexisting varnish was removed. If We (Clarksonand Dorn 1991; Dorn et al. these stones were to have been reused from 1992a; see also Bray 1992) have undertaken any of the numerous architecturalfeatures studies of the rock varnishes associated with scattered throughout the valley, desert-type culturalfeatures in the Nasca region.The nine varnish would have been clearly discernable reported AMS 14C ages from the geoglyphs beneaththe damp-climatevarnish undermi-

. . . range between 92 B.C. and A.D. 658, which croscoplc examlnatlon. effiectivelyspan the EarlyIntermediate Phase Microscopic examination of varnished of Nasca culture.Aside from an internalcon- stones shows organicmaterial at the interface sistencyof the dates (whichnevertheless must betweenthe varnishand the stone that formed be carefully considered; see Andrews and on the surface of newly exposed stone sur- Hammond 1990), the ages derived from the faces before the onset of varnish formation; rock varnish associated with the Nasca geo- very rarelyis organicmaterial trapped within glyphs are consistent with independentlyde- varnish layers. Organic material such as cy- rived iconographic and archaeological cor- anobacteria,fungi, and lichens from this in- relations (Clarkson 1990, 1992). terface can be collected and dated using ac- o - - - - -

60 LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY lVol. 6, No. 1, 1995

Table 1. MicrochemicalVariability in Rock VarnishesCollected from DifferentWaterflow Environments,Compared with SubaerialRock Varnish.

Sample MgO A1203 SiO2 p205 Wailua River, Kaui, Hawaii (Figure2C) Lighter texture <.04 19.71 .22 na <.04 18.97 .21 na <.04 15.96 .34 na <.04 19.06 .22 na Average + 1 sigma <.04 118.43 + 1.68 .25 + .06 na Darker texture <.04 .29 85.23 na <.04 .69 91.90 na <.04 .82 87.21 na <.04 .45 93.61 na Average + 1 sigma <.04 .56 + .24 89.49 + 3.92 na Kin Kin District stream, Queensland, Australia (Figure 2B) Lighter texture .09 19.67 .64 na <.04 24.55 .18 na .05 20.73 .72 na <.04 20.57 .21 na Average + 1 sigma <.O7 + .03 221.38 + 2.16 .44 + .28 na Darker texture <.04 22.88 15.83 na <.04 28.09 12.33 na <.04 22.48 11.68 na Average + 1 sigma <.04 224.48 + 3.13 13.28 + 2.23 na Orcona Puquio (Figure 2A) Lighter texture <.04 24.36 .46 na <.04 19.93 .38 na <.04 17.47 1.49 na <.04 13.81 .75 na <.04 24.36 1.76 na Average + 1 sigma <.04 19.99 + 4.55 .97 + .62 na Darker texture <.04 34.57 17.65 na <.04 27.69 16.84 na <.04 33.74 15.34 na .04 23.32 15.00 na Average + 1 sigma '.04 229.83 + 5.31 16.21 + 1.25 na Subaerial Rock Varnish (Figure 2D) Desert pavement, Terrace of Rio 1.89 19.93 26.85 .92 Ingenio, north of Nasca, Peru 2.02 18.71 28.65 1.26 1.58 19.14 24.20 1.08 1.67 15.78 19.70 1.08 From surface of varnish to base 1.49 16.23 18.76 1.67 of varnish 1.76 16.55 21.67 1.40 2.16 16.33 20.90 1.24 1.24 14.40 16.41 .89 1.64 16.55 20.24 1.17 1.49 15.49 17.97 1.33 Average + 1 sigma 1.69 + .27 16.91 + 1.76 21.54 + 3.92 1.20 + .23 Notes: Analysis by wavelength dispersive microprobe, using ZAF correction and 10 micrometer spot size. Transects identified on micrographs in Figure 2. Na = not analyzed; bld = below limit of detection. celerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radio- Rock varnish samples were collected from carbon dating. The varnish formation on the lintels of the Orcona and Cantalloq pu- stones from Nasca puquios was examined in quios in the Nasca region. The lintels were cross-sectionby backscatterelectron micros- chosen becausetheir durability,and the effiort copy, revealingsuitable formationfor collec- that went into shaping them, would have tion of organic material for AMS 14Cdating made them unlikely to have been replaced. (Figure 2a). In addition, the shape of the two-faced lintel Clarkson and Dom] CHRONOMETRICDATES FOR THE PUQUIOS, NASCA, PERU

61

Table 1. Extended.

K20 CaO TiO2 MnO FeO BaO

04 <.04 03 45.69 .06 3.39 04 <.04 03 55.52 .08 4.22 04 <.04 03 50.34 .18 3.77 04 <.04 03 50.03 .45 3.64 04 <.04 03 50.40 + 4.02 .19 + .18 3.76 + .35 bld <.04 03 .57 bld bld .18 <.04 03 .28 .05 .04 .17 <.04 03 .12 .02 .08 .02 <.04 03 .38 .04 bld + .09 <.04 03 .34 + .19 .04 + .02 .06 + .03

.04 .04 03 50.98 .08 3.46 .80 <.04 03 44.93 .13 3.10 .10 <.04 03 41.66 .62 2.89 .04 <.04 03 50.01 .08 3.34 +.42 '.04 03 46.90 + 4.38 .23 + .26 3.20 + .25 .04 .07 .06 26.17 7.70 1.15 .04 <.04 .04 19.04 4.36 .87 .04 <.04 .05 17.77 9.56 .91 .04 '.07 .05 + .01 20.99 + 4.53 7.21 + 2.63 .98 + .15

.04 <.04 03 45.68 .33 2.65 .04 <.04 03 47.48 .57 2.51 .04 <.04 03 45.87 .89 2.30 .04 <.04 .04 49.48 .97 2.57 .07 .04 03 46.32 .34 2.41 + .02 '.04 04 46.97 + 1.57 .62 + .30 2.49 + .14 .04 .03 .05 18.42 4.77 1.04 .04 .03 03 16.05 3.19 1.19 .04 .07 .05 21.30 3.70 1.26 .04 .05 03 24.55 3.75 1.40 .04 .05 + .02 05 20.08 + 3.67 3.85 +.66 1.22 + .15

1.12 1.12 .37 12.74 14.68 .21 .22 0.88 .63 9.25 14.58 1.21 1.48 1.19 .43 10.50 19.14 1.50 1.59 1.41 .70 9.53 24.24 2.17 1.41 1.33 .55 12.12 24.82 1.82 1.78 1.23 .58 10.67 24.59 1.84 1.71 1.26 .47 8.34 24.26 2.21 1.64 1.12 .58 9.17 22.77 1.98 1.51 1.16 .58 10.48 26.93 1.84 1.48 1.09 .63 12.47 22.69 2.05 1.59 + .29 1.18 + .15 + .10 10.53 + 1.51 21.87 + 4.31 1.68 + .60 stones is unusual,carved from unusuallylarge 1993) from the Orcona puquio lintel, and stones uncommon in the region;we have not 1430+60B.P. (TO-1623;organicmatterfrom seen such dressed stone slabs in structures rock varnish; 613 C =-25g), cal A.D. present in archaeologicalsites in the region. 600(640)660 (calibratedat 1 sigma) (Stuiver The ages of each of the samples, 1460+50 and Reimer 1993), from the Cantalloq pu- B.P. (TO-1622; organic matter from rock quio lintel, are internallyconsistent with each varnish;613C =-25Soo), cal A.D. 560(620)650 other, as well as with a suite of nine other (calibratedat 1 sigma) (Stuiver and Reimer radiocarbondates from geoglyphs from the ANTIQUITY LATIN AMERICAN 1, 1995 62 lVol. 6, No.

Figure2. Backscatterelectron micrographs of rock microns.A varnishesdiscussed in text. Numbersunder scale thin black line in each micrographmarks the bars are in probetransects varnish-rockboundary. Arrows reflect locations of matchedwith transectnumbers in Table 1. micro- KinKin (A) OrconaPuquio varnish, Peru. (B) Stream District, Queensland,Australia. (C) Stream varnish, varnish, Wailua River, Kaui, Hawaii. (D) varnish,natural desert pavement,Pampa San Jose, Nasca, Peru. Scale bars in micrometers. Subaerial rock

Nascaregion (Clarkson and Dorn l 991; Dorn Implications of Radiocarbon andClarkson 1992; Dorn et Dates for . al. l 992a). . While . Nasca . . Puquios lnternalconslstency ls not necessarly an ln- Two dicationof overall reliability (see, for assumptions are iIrlplicit in the analysis ex- presented ample,Andrews and Hammond l 990), here: (1)AMS 14C dating of rock these varnish datesalso fall within the age rangessuggested provides reliable minimum-limiting ages,and (2) byother dependent means mentionedearlier. sample contamination can be recognized. Whileit is theoretically possible that non- These assumptions are explored inthis section. contemporaneousolder organic matter had beenincorporated into the sampled varnish (Dornet al. 1989), no examples of this pos- RockVarnish IDating sibility have been encountered in analyzing AMS 14C is a reliable dating technique in scoresof samples worldwide (Dorn et al. l992a). archaeologywhen used within the limitations ofthe method (Goh 1991; Taylor 1987). Clarkson and Dorn] CHRONOMETRICDATES FOR THE PUQUIOS, NASCA, PERU 63

Statementsto the effectthat radiocarbondat- suggestthat the stones we sampled from the ing is an unreliableor "experimental"meth- puquios were derived from earlier Prehis- od (Barnes and Fleming 1991:61) ignore a panic structuresthat were mined by the Span- body of literature that indicates otherwise. iardsfor suitablestones for buildingpuquios, While our approachto extractingorganics is and thus our radiocarbondates provide an indeed experimental, independent assess- age for the stones, and not the construction ments of the validity and reliability of AMS of the puquios in question. We agreethat this 14C dating of rock varnish demonstrate that is, in theory, a possibility that should be con- the method is reliable (Dorn et al. 1989; sidered, but the chemical, micrographic,and Loendorf 1991). Radiocarbon ages for or- physical evidence indicate otherwise. These ganic materialon the surfaceof rock varnish types of evidence are discussed below. must be youngerthan organicmaterial at the Rock varnishes can be found in a variety interfaceof the rock varnish and the under- of environments, including springs,streams, lying surface.This has been shown in all prior caves, soil peds, regoliths,and the more com- tests (Dorn et al. 1989, 1992b; see also Dorn monly studied subaerial "desert" varnishes et al.1986,1987,1989,1991,1992a,1992b). (Dorn and Oberlander 1982). Varnishes The AMS l4C dates derived from organic formedin differentenvironments, such as the material at the interface of the rock varnish damp puquio and the adjacent"desert" var- and the dressed stone lintels of the two pu- nishes of Nasca, have different chemistries quios are consistent with the ages derived for and textures. the puquios, based upon the shifts in settle- Figure 2a illustratesa backscatterelectron ment locations documented by Schreiber micrograph of rock varnish formed in the (Schreiberand Lancho 1988) in Nasca 5. Orconapuquio lintel, one of our sample sites. In backscatterimages, the brightness of the texture reflects the chemistry (brighter = Sample Contamination higher atomic number). The varnish of the All samples to be considered for AMS l4C puquio is brighter in color than the under- dating are first subjected to microscopic ex- lying rock because of the great abundanceof amination for evidence of poorly formed or manganesein the former(Table 1). However, interruptedvarnish development. These dis- the textureand chemistryofthe adjacentsub- turbances can be caused by the growth of aerial varnish are totally dissimilar (Figure lichens that destroy varnish, or by stone sur- 3d; Table 1). The Al203:SiO2ratios in Table faces that have been alternately exposed to 1 are extremely high in the puquio varnish, and hidden from varnish development yet are typical for subaerialvarnishes in the through natural or cultural intervention. In adjacent desert. MgO, K20, CaO, and TiO2 these situations, the context of any organic are virtually lacking in the puquio varnish, material trapped between the stone and the but are at typical minor element concentra- initial layer of varnish is too disturbedto be tions in the desert varnish. FeO is at very low considered.These analysescan indicatewhen or minor element concentrationsin the pu- a sample is inappropriatefor AMS l4C dat- quio varnish, but in much greaterabundance ing. Moreover, the differentialnature of the in varnishes in the nearby desert. formationof rock varnish in arid vs. wet con- The texture and chemistry of the puquio ditions has been noted by Dorn, and these varnish,in fact, are most similarto waterflow differencesare easily detected undera micro- varnishes found in tropicalsettings. Tropical scope. stream varnishes are among the firsttypes of Barnes and Fleming (1991:61; see also rock varnish studied (see Boussingault1882; Barnes 1992) reject the ages of the samples Darwin 1897; Francis 1921; Hume 1925;von we collected from the Nasca puquios (Clark- Humboldt 1812). Figure 2c shows varnish son and Dorn 1991). Barnes and Fleming formed on boulders in the splash zone of 64 LATIN AMERICANANTIQUITY [Vol. 6, No. 1, 1995

WailuaRiver, Kaui. Figure2b illustratesvar- termediate site of Tambo Viejo in the Acari nish collected from the same region where Valley, where she says there is flowingwater, Francis (1921) conducted a classic study of presupposes that the unusually sized and the formation of rock varnish on boulders of shaped Nasca puquio lintel stones were sit- tropical streams in Queensland, Australia. ting in flowing water at Tambo Viejo before The rangeof textures and chemistry in these transportto Nasca in 1954. Josue Lancho, a stream varnishes is quite similar to the tex- life-long resident of Nasca and former rep- turesand chemical variation found in the pu- resentativefor the Instituto Nacional de Cul- quio varnish (Table 1). tura in Nasca, has taken a special interest in Finally, the situation and characteristicsof studyingthe puquios (see Schreiberand Lan- the puquio lintels were examined in the field. cho 1988); he showed us puquios for which The unusualsize and shapeof the lintel stones he had no knowledge or information of any have alreadybeen noted here. Wooden lintels reconstructionactivity. He is certainlyaware are known from puquios under current use. of the puquio reconstructionsthat have been While wooden lintels would have been likely undertakenin the region, having participated to deterioratein the damp climate of the pu- and advised in some of these reconstruction quios, the stone lintels are unlikely to have efforts. sufferedany damageor deteriorationover the We know of no water-flowvarnish forming centuries,and thus were unlikelyto have been at present in the region, other than in the replaced. puquios (Figure3a). Varnishis fairlydelicate The implication of these findings is that (Mohs hardnessis '41/2 ). The transportfrom the puquio varnishes we sampled were not the hypotheticalsource of water and the sub- "reused,"as suggestedby Barnes and Flem- sequent puquio construction would have to ing. The puquio varnisheswere formed in the have been accomplished in a fashion that damp environment of the puquio chamber, would not have eroded the delicate varnish. not in the adjacent desert. In our studies of Lastly, the similarity of the two radiocarbon the puquio varnish, there is no evidence of ages derived from the puquios requires that an "overprint"of water flow varnish super- the faced stones were placed in the water- imposed over a previous subaerial varnish. flow environmentat about the same time for If the varnishes on which we placed mini- the "reuse" hypothesis to be correct. In ad- mum ages were indeed reused, as Barnesand dition, all of the lintel stones that we viewed Fleming (1991 :61) believe, the following very were securely in place, rendering it further unlikely series of events would have had to unlikely that they would be easily dislodged. transpire.First, the lintel stones would have Although there is ample building stone to have been faced sometime before ca. 1560 available in the Nasca region, it is possible B.P. (the 2-sigma variation of the 14Cage of that stones subjected to the conditions nec- 1450+55). Second, both faced stones (from essary for the formation of water-flow var- the Cantalloq and Orkona puquio lintels) nish were broughtin frownelsewhere to com- would have to have been transported to a plete the constructionof the Nasca puquios. perennial stream where a water flow varnish The most likely source is the archaeological would have formed. Third, after the water site of Tambo Viejo in the AcariValley, where flow varnish formed on the faced surfaces(a Menzel and Riddell noted truckscarrying of process taking an unknown period of time), large quantities of cobbles from the walls these faced stones were transportedto two throughoutthe site in 1954 "for the irrigation separate puquios and set in the roof. While project on the pampa and elsewhere"(Men- this scenario is possible, it is not very plau- zel and Riddell 1986:3). It is unlikely, how- sible. Barnes's(1992) suggestionthat the lin- ever, that stones removed from Tambo Viejo tel stones may have come from the EarlyIn- could be the same stones as those encoun- Clarkson and Dom] CHRONOMETRICDATES FOR THE PUQUIOS, NASCA, PERU 65 tered in the Nasca puquios for three reasons. us. It is curious that the Spanish chroniclers First, the majorityofthe stones used in build- recordednothing about the geoglyphs in the ing at Tambo Viejo svere cobbles from the Nasca region, nor those found elsewhere nearby Rio Acari; Menzel and Riddell note throughout the arid coastal desert of Peru. that cobbles were used for Nasca structures The linear geoglyphs in the Nasca region- and possibly reused by the Inka in later con- trapezoidsand straightlines measuringup to structions(Menzel and Riddell 1986:7).While many kilometers long-are densely situated, the interior walls visible from the entrance- visually impressive, and easily seen from the way of the Nasca puquios examined were groundor from isolated low hills. Many geo- made of river cobbles, there is an ample sup- glyphs exist in the vicinity of known colonial ply of river cobbles available in nearby period haciendas. On the basis of icono- streams at Nasca. Second, the only shaped graphic, stylistic, and contextual grounds stones mentioned at Tambo Viejo were (Aveni 1990; Browne and Baraybar 1988; grindingslabs (Menzel and Riddell 1986:13) Clarkson 1985, 1990; Isbell 1978; Silverman and sandstoneblocks in the Inka architecture 1990), there is little question that the geo- at the site (Menzeland Riddell 1986:17). Nei- metric and biomorphic figuresof the Nasca ther of these conform to the shape or material region are Precolumbian in age. Recent ra- of the puquio lintel stones tested in the Nasca diocarbonanalyses of the varnish on the geo- region. Third, the situation of Tambo Viejo glyphscon firm a Precolumbianage (Clarkson is on a bluff above the flood plain (Menzel and Dorn 1991; Dorn et al. 1992a). and Riddell 1986:2-3), and the likelihood of A lack of commentaryby the Spanishabout flowingwater through the site, except for that the puquios must also be considered in the caused by occasional rainfall, is remote. contextof a similarlack of commentaryabout majorarchaeological complexes in the region Viability of Nasca Puquio Varnish Ages with standing monumental architecture.No The Prehispanic radiocarbonages obtained known colonial documents mention the huge from the Orconaand Cantalloqpuquios con- Prehispanicarchaeological complexes of Ca- trast with the eyewitness accounts of the huachi and Estaqueria,downstream of the Spanish colonial documents, in which there modern town of Nasca. There is no question is a lack of any known mention ofthe puquios that Cahuachiis a Precolumbiansite (Strong in the Nasca region before 1692 (Barnesand 1957; Silverman 1985). Thus, an ex silentio Fleming 1991:52). We have addressed the argumentby Barnes and Fleming (1991) re- methodology of varnish dating and the sam- garding the lack of known written Spanish pling proceduresused on two Nasca puquios; commentary on the puquios, until after the here we address the significance of the his- Spanish had settled the Nasca region, should torical documents regardingthe age of the logically be applied to the geoglyphsand Ca- Nasca puquios.A review of majordocuments huachi, too. on filtration-galleryirrigation systems in the Barnesand Fleming (1991:59) suggestthat New World and in the Iberianpeninsula has the Spanish tradition of constructingthe pu- been presentedby Barnesand Reming (1991). quios continues to this day, noting as evi- Perhapsthe most significantinformation re- dence that a "recentlyremodeled" water sys- vealed in the Spanishcolonial documents re- tem in the Azapa valley of northern Chile gardingthe Nasca puquios is what is not re- bears a "striking"similarity to the Nasca pu- corded in the documents. There are three quios. They point out that both systems use monumental features of the Nasca region- "small water-roundedstones to line the ca- the puquios, the geoglyphs, and the site of nals" and both "incorporateopen channels." Cahauchi-and none of them is mentioned The materials used in the Azapa and Nasca in the colonial period documents known to watersystems were both readilyavailable and 66 LATIN AMERICANANTIQUITY [Vol. 6, No. 1, 1995

satisfiedthe needs of the builders.In fact, the failureto clean debris out ofthe subterranean radiocarbonages obtained for the Cantalloc channels would leave them blocked and in- and Orcona puquios in the Nasca region in- effective for delivering water to the com- dicate that these puquios are of Prehispanic munities relyingupon them. The annual rise origin. Schreiberand Lancho's (1988) study of subterraneanwater beginningaround De- of Prehispanicsettlement patterns in the Nas- cember-Januaryin the Nasca Valley, coin- ca region indicates a correlationbetween pu- ciding with the rainy season in the Andes, quios in three Nasca drainages and an ex- would have been obvious to the inhabitants pansion of Nasca 5 settlements. Neither of the Nasca region. (White Schreiber and Lancho's nor our studies ad- Mountain)stands out in sharpcontrast against dress or indicate that other hydraulicsystems the dark-coloredpampas and Andes moun- of coastal Peru and Chile are of similar age. tains, and can be seen from virtuallyall parts Indeed, until numeric age assessments of of the Nasca region. It is likely that the Nasca stones associated with hydraulicsystems can residents noted other correlations with the be obtained, and archaeologicalexplorations rise of the subterraneanwaters. Cerro Blanco ofthese hydraulicfeatures can be undertaken, is connected with the origin of the puquios a Prehispanicage of at least some of the Nas- in a legend recorded in the Nasca region in ca puquios must be considered, based upon 1982. the evidence that doesexist. In ancient times, before there were aqueductsin the valley, a great drought occurredand the people had Implicationsof Puquios for Prehispanic no water for years. The people began crying out to Nasca Residents theirgod, Viracochaor Con. They cried and screamed What might have motivated the Precolum- the word nanay (Quechua for "pain"); they were Quechua-speakers.The word nanay was the origin of bian residents of the Nasca region to con- the name of the city: nanay > nanaseca > Nazea. struct the puquios? Repeated failures of the The people went en-massto the foot of CerroBlanco, water to appear in the upper reaches of the which was their principaltemplo or adoratorio;this rivers may have been a factor motivating was the place where they spoke to the gods. At that them to seek out alternativesources of water. moment, Viracocha/Condescended from the sky to the summit of the mountain and heard the weeping Increasingaridity along coastal Peru around of his people. He was so moved by their cries that he A.D. 500 is suggestedby glacial cores from began weeping, and tears flowed from his eyes. The Quelccayaglacier (Thompson et al. 1985) and tears ran down Cerro Blanco, penetratedthe earth, the environmentaldata from the north coast and these tearswere the originofthe aqueducts[Urton of Peru (Nials et al. 1979a, 1979b; Shimada 1982:1s1 1]. etal. 1991). It should also be noted that the December The constructionof such a majorhydraulic solstice sun rises behind Cerro Blanco as system during Nasca times suggests social, viewed from the region of the puquios. This political, ideological, and economic ramifi- "announcement"might have been to prompt cations for the residents of the region. Any the necessarypreparations for the upcoming communities upstream of the newly con- agriculturalcycle. structed puquios would no longer have had any control over the water sources of down- Conclusions streampopulations in the Nasca Valley,which The dilemma between "history" and "folk may have led to a shift in power away from tradition"is by no means unique to the post- the upstream communities. Communities ConquestNew World. In the Andean region, using the puquios would have likely partic- as well as elsewhere, people trained in the ipated in their maintenance, thereby indi- Western tradition tend to rely upon "histor- cating a level of coercion and cooperation ical" accounts of the Spanish chroniclersas typical of nonegalitarian societies. Regular fully reliable and to consider the "histories" maintenance of the puquios is essential, as of indigenous people as quaint and fabricat- Clarkson and Dorn] CHRONOMETRICDATES FOR THE PUQUIOS, NASCA, PERU 67 ed. As Urton (1990:1 1) notes with regardto Auza Arce, C. 1948 E1 rol de nasca, Jaqui y Acari en el imperio de Inka accounts recordedby the Spanish, "the los incas. Revista del Museo Nacional 17:86-95. traditions preserved in the Spanish chroni- Aveni, A. A. (editor) cles are the product of variously motivated, 1990 The Lines of Nazea. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 183, Philadelphia. hierarchical interpretations (i.e., teller Barnes, M. translator recorder).The possibility of am- 1992 Dating of Aqueducts. Nature 359:111. biguities, misunderstandings,and individu- Barnes, M., and D. Fleming 1991 Filtration-Gallery Irrigation in the Spanish New ally motivated interpretations entering the World. Latin American Antiquity 2(1):48-68. accounts throughout this process is enor- Blackwelder, E. mous." In a similar vein, Ohnuki-Tierney 1948 Historical Significance of Desert Lacquer. Geo- logical Society of America Bulletin 59: 1367. (1987:3) has noted "that both ethnographic Boussingault, M. and historical representations are incom- 1882 Sur l'apparition du manganese a la surface des plete, partial, and overdeterminedby forces roches. Annales de Chemie et de Physique 27 (Series 5):289-311. . . . that are beyond the control of conscious- Bray, W. ness of the individuals who are involved in 1992 Under the Skin of Nazca. Nature 358:19. the complex process of representingand in- Browne, D. M., and J. P. Baraybar or eth- 1988 An Archaeological Reconnaissance in the terpretingthe 'other,' be it historical Province of Palpa, , Peru. In Re- nographic." cent Studies in Pre-Columbian Archaeology, edited Chroniclers, like archaeologists, are only by N. J. Saunders and O. de Montmollin, pp. 299- and errors are re- 325. BAR International Series No. 421. British Ar- human, and cultural bias chaeological Reports, Oxford. plete throughoutthe accounts of the Spanish Clarkson, P. B. chroniclers. As informative as the colonial 1985 TheArchaeologyand GeoglyphsofNazea, Peru. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, Department of Ar- accounts are of colonial Peru, it would be chaeology, University of Calgary, Alberta. erroneousto assume that the total reality of 1990 The Archaeology of the Nazca Pampa: Envi- early colonial Peru is accounted for in the ronmental and Cultural Parameters. In The Lines of Nazea, edited by A. F. Aveni, pp. l l 7-172. Mem- chronicles. We feel that the hypothesis best oirs ofthe American Philosophical Society Vol.183, shared by Occam is that at least the Orcona Philadelphia. and Cantalloqpuquios were constructedbe- 1992 Absolute Chronometric Dates of the Nazea Geoglyphs: Applications of Radiocarbon Dating in fore ca. 1450 B.P., as corroboratedby de- the Nazea Region, Department of Ica, Peru, 1991. mographic, contextual, and absolute chro- Report on file, Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima. nological analyses. Clarkson, P. B., and R. I. Dorn 1991 Nuevos datos relativos a la antiguedad de los geoglifos y pukios de Nazca, Peru. Boletin de Lima Acknowledgments. Fundingfor this researchwas pro- 13/78:3345. vided by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Colman, S. M., K. L. Pierce, and P. W. Birkeland Councilof CanadaGrant #410-90-1097 to Clarkson,an 1987 Suggested Terminology for Quaternary Dating Athabasca University Learning Services Professional Methods. Quaternary Research 28:31v319. Development Fund Grant to Clarkson,and a National Conkling, H. Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator 1939 Explotacion de aguas subterraneas en la costa Award to Dorn. The Instituto Nacional de Culturain del Peru. Sociedad Nacional Agraria, Lima. Peru provided permission to collect geologicalsamples Darwin, C. Journal of Researches into the Natural History Peru. 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