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Chapter 19 The War on Land Gas Attack at

Canada’s first major battle in I saw the whole gas attack as probably no was fought in Belgium near the town of Ypres one else did. I have never been in a bat- on 22 April 1915. Deadly poison gas was tle—and I have been in many—where the used for the first time in the war during this men were suffering in such numbers that battle. Here is how one soldier described the their crying and groaning could be heard experience. all over the battlefield. None of us had ever seen gas before. Reflecting It was the first gas attack in history. 1. The painting of the gas attack shown Suddenly we saw the gas rolling up in here is by Canadian artist Richard a brownish yellowish bank. It was Jack. Describe what you see in the between 1 and 3 m high ... painting.What impressions does it I went over to where the line had create of the battle? been broken and where there was confu- 2. The Canadian soldier who describes sion. No Canadian troops were running. the battle probably went to war with great enthusiasm, looking for adventure The gas was dreadful and suffering like so many others at the time.What was immediate. The only thing we could did he actually find out about war? do was soak our handkerchiefs in urine 3. How does the soldier describe the and hold them over our noses. actions of the Canadian troops in the Thousands were lying around gasping battle? If you were in this situation, and crying. They were being drowned by how would you have reacted? the gas. They didn’t know how to protect themselves. But we held our position.

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Troops on the Move protected by machine guns and barbed wire. The battle at Ypres was only one of many Soon the trenches stretched in parallel lines for battles fought during the long years of the several hundred kilometres across the country- war. Troop movements began in August 1914. side. In some places, the enemy forces were German forces swept through Belgium and into separated by only 25 m. Soldiers in World War I northeastern . Within a few short weeks, fought mainly by . German troops had made it almost to the out- The area between the enemy trenches was skirts of Paris. But the Allies moved faster than called no-man’s land. This strip of land was expected. The French used every armed with buried land mines and covered with vehicle they could find, including Paris taxi- barbed wire. Soldiers had to venture out into cabs, and rushed troops to the front. Eventually, this area to attack enemy trenches, but they the British and French managed to stop the were an easy target for gun fire or exploding German forces from advancing further. shells. Sometimes the wounded caught in no- man’s land could not be brought back to safety. Trench Warfare The soldiers in the trenches could do nothing In October 1914, both armies began to “dig in” but listen to the cries of agony from their dying before winter. They dug rows of deep trenches comrades.

Night was the worst time in the front-line trenches. Everyone was tense and watchful for any signs of attack. Raiding parties crept across no-man’s land at night.They cut through the barbed wire with wire cutters and made surprise attacks with their bayonets.The area they cut through the wire had to be wide. If it wasn’t, the soldiers were an easy target for enemy fire as they gathered together in the narrow opening. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 302

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In the Trenches

Life in the trenches was uncomfortable at the best of times. Soldiers often had to sleep standing up or slumped against the sandbags. One soldier wrote: “[We] were packed into trenches, six or seven or eight men all pushed in together as tight as they could go, and wet right straight through.We never took off our shoes or our clothes, we just slept in them. But we’d take any sandbags that were halfway dry and pull them over our feet and tie them one on top of the other, four or five on each leg.And in the morning when you woke up, why the outside sandbag would be soaking wet ...”

Trench side view Trench system overhead view

Opposing forces Opposing Machine gun Sap forces Firing line Sandbags Dugout

Parados Parapet 1.5 metres Traverse 1.5 metres Front-line trench Latrine Sandbags Sandbags

Elbow rest Sandbags trench Trench mortar Ammunition Support line storage with reserve companies Communication Duck- boards Drainage Fire step sump

The trenches were laid out in a zigzag pattern.This stopped any enemy fire from sweeping along the whole length of the trench.The front-line trenches were usually about 2 m deep and were protected by piles of sandbags. Small trenches called saps were dug out into no-man’s land.These served as lookout posts. Soldiers could move between trenches by going through joining sections called traverses.They could also follow communication trenches back to a line of support trenches. Command posts and reserve companies of soldiers were stationed in the support trenches. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 303

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Because it was wet and dirty in the Battles on the trenches, sickness and disease spread rapidly. Western Front Two of the most common illnesses were trench In April 1915, the first division of 20 000 foot and trench mouth. Trench foot was rotting Canadian troops took up places alongside the of the flesh between and around the toes. British on the Western Front. The front was Trench mouth was a painful infection of the the line where opposing armies faced each gums. Everyone had body lice living in their other. In the horror of the years that followed, mud-caked uniforms. these troops would be Rats ran through the joined by another trenches feeding on 400 000 fellow the garbage and Canadians. Some of human waste. Some Canada’s proudest soldiers suffered moments and greatest from shell-shock, contributions to the a nervous break- war were in battles down caused by the along the Western tremendous stress Front. The following of battle. are just a few of the After a month or major battles in which so in the trenches, Canadians fought. units were allowed a break. They would The Battle of Ypres was the first time in the Ypres go back behind the war poison gas was used. Later, both sides The Canadian First front lines. There they developed even more deadly poison gases. Division went to the had a chance to sleep Worst of all was mustard gas.This burned the front lines near the in a dry place, rest, eat skin and lungs, and caused blindness. Eventually, city of Ypres in more effective gas masks were invented.These a decent meal, and Belgium. Their task masks had filters that purified the air. above all, bathe and was to hold about clean up. 3.5 km of the line in The soldiers in the trenches must often the face of heavy German attack. They had only have wondered what they were doing there. been in action for a few weeks when they faced On Christmas Eve 1915, Canadian and German the first deadly poison gas attack. You read soldiers joined in singing “Silent Night” across about a soldier’s experience in this attack at no-man’s land. One soldier said: the beginning of this chapter. The poison gas was made of chlorine. It It seemed that [the Germans] didn’t want to was released by the Germans from canisters be there any more than we did. But it when the breeze was blowing toward the Allied seemed that somebody else was pulling the trenches. Chlorine gas burned the eyes and strings behind the line. We were just put throat and destroyed the lungs. Soldiers who there to work out a game. It wasn’t really breathed the gas choked, gasped, coughed, and hatred. Only sometimes you did hate, when many died. The Canadians had only makeshift you see your chums and your friends get gas masks, but they managed to hold their shot. It would be pretty hard on you that position. way, and you could say you’d hate for a The number of killed and wounded at Ypres while, but not necessarily hate that you was high. More than 5200 Canadians died. One wanted to kill. But you had to kill or be in five was listed as killed in action, gassed, killed, if you wanted to survive .... missing, or wounded. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 304

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MAIN FINLAND BATTLEFRONTS NORWAY Allied Powers SWEDEN and their allies IRELAND Neutral nations RUSSIAN DENMARK EMPIRE Front lines GREAT NETHERLANDS BRITAIN Eastern Front BELGIUM GERMANY LUX. Atlantic Ocean Western Front SWITZERLAND -HUNGARY FRANCE Italian Front ROMANIA SPAIN PORTUGAL SERBIABULGARIA Balkan N Front Mediterranean Sea GREECE

0 250 500

London MAIN CANADIAN BATTLE SITES 1915–1917 If you did question 2 (Detail of above map) in the skill on page 293 North Sea in the last chapter, you GREAT BRITAIN NETHERLANDS predicted where the Western and Eastern Dunkirk Passchendaele Fronts would be.Were Nov. 1917 Ypres your predictions right? English Apr. 1915 Channel BELGIUM Beaumont Hamel Vimy Ridge July 1916 Apr. 1917

Somme Front line November 1914 GERMANY Front line FRANCE December 1917 LUXEMBOURG Major battles involving Canadians 0 25

Paris

Where is the front line in 1914? Where is it in 1917? What does this shift in the front line tell you about which side is gaining most territory in the war? What do you think about the amount of terri- tory that has been gained? 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 305

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Battle of the Somme—July 1916 The first day of the in Fast Forward France was the most disastrous the Allies had ever suffered. Troops from Newfoundland and Labrador The Canadian War Museum played a major part in the Battle of the Somme. The Canadian War Museum in Ottawa has col- Newfoundland and Labrador was then not part lections and exhibitions that tell the story of of Canada, but it was a loyal colony of the Canada’s participation in wars and peace- and fought on the side of the keeping from colonial times to the present. Allies. The troops faced a particularly strong Among its World War I galleries, you can walk part of the German line at Beaumont Hamel. through a reconstructed trench, see a German They were mowed down by German machine Maxim machine gun, examine some of the gas gun fire as they moved across no-man’s land masks worn by Canadian soldiers, look up toward the German trenches. Ninety per cent close at a Nieuport fighter plane, listen to of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment were memoirs, and see actual examples of posters, killed or wounded. It was “the greatest single medals, uniforms, and war art. disaster in the 500 plus year history of Visit the museum on the Internet at Newfoundland and Labrador.” www.civilization.ca/cwm. For 141 days, the Battle of the Somme con- tinued. Canadians fought so heroically that they became known as storm troops. During the rest of the war, Canadians were often called in to Casualties for both sides had reached 1.25 lead an attack. British Prime Minister Lloyd million. Twenty-four thousand were Canadians. George later wrote, “Whenever the Germans The British had advanced no more than 11 km. found the Canadians coming into their line, People at home were horrified by this mas- they prepared for the worst.” He also praised sacre. Many blamed the generals. Others the troops from Newfoundland and Labrador blamed the politicians who had started the war. for their great contribution and bravery. To many soldiers, the real enemy was not the The Battle of the Somme ended five months Germans or the Austrians, but the war itself. after it began. Both armies were exhausted.

At the Somme, tanks were used for the first time in warfare.The tank was a British invention. Tanks were huge armed “land ships” weighing over 25 tonnes. They lumbered along at less than 5 km/h.Though they often got stuck in the mud, tanks were able to break through the barbed wire of no-man’s land.At first, the British generals did not appreciate the value of the tank. But, this new weapon eventually helped to win the war. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 306

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Scenes from the Battle of the Somme

7:30 a.m. sharp The attack is about to begin. An officer leaps to the top of the trench.Waving his cane, he orders his troops forward.

The soldiers go over the top. One man is hit as soon as his head appears over the trench. He falls back into the mud.

The soldiers stumble through the barbed wire of no-man’s land heading for the German trenches.They face a hail of German machine gun fire. Many soldiers never make it out of the trenches. Others lie in the mud of no-man’s land.

A British sergeant says later,“Our dead were heaped on top of each other ... In places three and four deep.” Only a few Allied soldiers ever reached the German trenches. By nightfall British and Canadian casualties totalled 57 470, the heaviest ever in warfare for one day’s fighting. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 307

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Skill Building: A Research Report—Part 1

The Internet, CD-ROMS, books, encyclopedias, more carefully.You might decide to focus on newspapers, magazines, films, pictures... there are major types of airplanes used in World War I, for so many places to find information, it can be example. overwhelming. How and where do you start? The trick is to focus on exactly what you need to Step 3 Do Your Research know.Then you can decide what your best 3. Once you have a clear idea of your topic, resources are and find the information quickly. you can start your research. First you need to Suppose you are asked to do a research identify possible resources.Two key places to report on World War I. Here are some key steps start are the card or computer catalogue in your to follow. resource centre and the Internet. For information on types of airplanes used Step 1 Understand Your Assignment during World War I, there are several possible 1. Be sure you understand the purpose of your subjects to look under. In your resource centre assignment. For example, you need to know that catalogue, you could search under “airplanes,” a report focuses on a specific topic. It summa- “World War I,” or “weapons.” The catalogue lists rizes key facts and information about that topic. all resources by author, title, and subject. [Hint: First, ask yourself these questions. Always have a pencil and paper with you when • Do I understand exactly what I am being using the catalogue. Jot down the call numbers of asked to do? the books so you can locate them on the • When is the assignment due? shelves.] • How long should it be? On the Internet, you will need to be more • How is it to be presented—written, oral, specific when you type in your search topic. Be etc.? sure you type in “Airplanes in World War I” or • How will it be evaluated? “World War I airplanes.” Choose a search engine Highlight key words in your assignment so you that will give you a short description of each are absolutely clear on what you need to do. source so that you can decide if it looks like what you need. Bookmark sites that look Step 2 Define Your Topic promising so that you can return to them 2. Often you will be given a choice of topics. afterwards. Choose your topic carefully.Ask yourself: • Will I find this topic interesting? 4. Next, get an overview of your topic. Browse • Will I be able to find resources? What might or skim through a number of the resources you the best resources for this topic be? locate.The idea is to familiarize yourself with the • Will I have enough time to complete the information available on your topic.Then you can assignment? decide where you will focus your attention in • Is the topic specific or too broad? Do I need your research. to define it more carefully? For example, you may discover that encyclo- Suppose your topic is “New Technology Used pedia articles, special reference books on World in World War I.” By asking the above questions, War I airplanes, and a few key sites on the you will come to the conclusion that this topic is Internet are the best sources of information.You too big. So much new technology was intro- should also get an idea of what key aspects of duced, it would be impossible to cover it all in a your topic you want to focus on.You may short report! You need to define your topic discover that there were three major types of 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 308

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planes and you can get information on the tech- 7. Keep your notes clearly organized.You could nical descriptions of each one, how they were keep notes from each source on a separate page used, and how effective they were.You can or card. Or, you could organize your notes into concentrate on those key focus areas in your the key aspects of your topic that you are research. focusing on. When your research is finished, you are Step 4 Keep Good Notes ready to put together and present your report. 5. Make point-form notes from your resources. You will get to that in Part 2 of this skill in the Try to use your own words. Stay focused on the next chapter (pages 322-323). major aspects of your topic, but don’t be afraid to include some other interesting information if Try It! you think it may be useful. Gather references for Choose one of the following topics on World illustrations as well. War I and work through the steps outlined above to research for a report. 6. Always note the source of the information a) trench warfare d) airplanes (author, title, date, and page number for b) poison gas e) submarines books/the web site address and any other infor- c) tanks f) role of women mation about the source from material on the Internet).

Vimy Ridge 001110010011110100011101000 They surprised the German At Vimy Ridge on 9 April 100110101000111010011101011 soldiers in their trenches. 001010110101001110001101010 1917, Canada won its 010110111100101100001011010Netsurfer In a few hours, the Can- most celebrated battle. 001101101010101001101011010 adian troops had captured o100101010010100100101010010 German forces had dug in 000010101100101001001010101 the ridge. That day more 010111010100101111011100001Visit an excellent on the hills at Vimy. From 100101001011010100101010101web site for ground, more guns, and this high point, they could 101000011100100111101000111 more German prisoners 010001001101010001110100111research on World control all the surround- 010110010101101010011100011War I at were taken than in the first ing areas. British and 010100101101111001011000010www.worldwar1.com. two-and-a half years of the 110100011011010101010011110 French troops had tried 100011101000100110101000111 war! many times to push the Four Canadians won German forces out, but they had failed. the Victoria Cross (the most prestigious Finally, after months of preparations, the award given by Britain to its heroes). The vic- Canadians launched a surprise attack on the tory helped to boost the spirits of the soldiers ridge. For the first time, all four Canadian divi- and the people at home in Canada. It focused sions fought together. In a blinding sleet storm, attention on Canada and the important contri- the Canadians forced their way up the hill. bution our troops were making. Brigadier- Usually an attack began with firing at the General Alex Ross said, “I thought then . . . that enemy for several days with heavy shells from in those few minutes I witnessed the birth of a big guns. Instead, the Canadians advanced up nation.” It seemed that at that moment of vic- the ridge close behind the exploding shells. tory, Canada became a nation. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 309

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Fast Forward The Canadian National Vimy Memorial Today, a white stone Canadian stands high on Vimy Ridge in France. The Vimy monument not only marks the site of the famous battle, but honours all Canadian men and women who died or risked their lives in World War I. In the park around the monument, the trenches have been rebuilt. If you visit the site, you get a sense of the To the valour of their countrymen daunting task Canadian troops faced on in the Great War and in memory that fateful day in 1917. of their sixty thousand dead Find out more about the Vimy Memorial and this monument is raised by other Canadian World War I memorials on the Internet at www.vac-acc.gc.ca/memorials. the people of Canada

Careful planning and preparation were key to the victory at Vimy Ridge.The Canadian commander, Major-General Arthur Currie, is quoted as saying,“Thorough preparation must lead to success. Neglect nothing.” He was true to his word. Ground troops carefully scouted the area and fighter planes took aerial photos of the Ridge.Troops then made scale models of the entire area.The photo above shows one of these models.The exact position of the German troops and guns was carefully plotted out.When it came time for the battle, each unit knew its assignment.The paint- ing of the battle is by Canadian artist Richard Jack. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 310

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Culture Picture Gallery Link The War in Canadian Art and Photos

uring World War I, news- tion. Often the pictures were Dpapers and magazines sent copied in large numbers and artists and photographers into sold to patriotic Canadians. Soldiers wash the heat of battle to report on The war artists and photog- in a shell hole the war. The government raphers did not glorify war. offered artists the pay and rank They showed the grim horror of of officers if they would go to the battlefield. Some artists also the front. Several artists volun- painted scenes showing the teered to go to the front lines. effects of the war at home. War reporters, photogra- phers, and artists shared the same hardships and risks as front-line soldiers. Sometimes artists sent back rough sketches with their notes. Other artists at home then finished the pictures and news stories for publica-

(above right) Soldiers fire a heavy howitzer gun

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Airmen learn to fire their guns

Women Making Shells by Henrietta Mabel May

1. a) Describe the scene shown in each photo and painting.Who is shown? What is hap- pening? What might have just happened or be about to happen? b) What impressions do these pictures give you of the war? 2. These pictures focus on four key themes of the war:The Heat of Battle, Life Behind the Lines,The War at Home, and the Tragedy of War.Work in groups. Choose one theme and locate other Canadian photos and paintings from World War I. Create a scrapbook or The Stretcher-Bearer Party by Cyril poster board displaying your choices. Include Henry Barraud captions to tell the story of the photos.

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Passchendaele could be sucked in and drowned. Engines of One of the most bitter disasters for Canadians supply trains sank to their boilers. Tanks occurred at Passchendaele in the fall of 1917. quickly bogged down. This area of Belgium had once been beneath A British official, seeing the battlefield for the North Sea. When the shelling destroyed the first time, exclaimed, “Good God! Did we drainage ditches, the land became a sea of really send soldiers to fight in that?” Almost mud. Narrow wooden boards were placed as 16 000 Canadians lost their lives at Passchendaele. pathways over the mud. Nevertheless, soldiers The battle gained 7 km of mud which the and even horses that slipped into the mud Germans soon won back again.

Activities Understanding Concepts

1. Add these new terms to your Factfile. poison gas Ypres Vimy Ridge trench warfare Battle of the Somme Victoria Cross no-man’s land report Passchendaele Western Front

2. All of the following words are related to trench warfare. Imagine you are a soldier in the trenches.Write a descriptive paragraph using all of the words correctly. Refer to the diagram on page 302 for help. duckboards trench mouth communication trenches sap traverses support trenches trench foot trench warfare sandbags

3. Make a list of the problems and conditions soldiers would face in trench war- fare. 4. What happened at Ypres? Explain why Canadians earned high praise at this battle. Digging Deeper

5. THINK You are a soldier on the front lines.Would you rather attack or defend a trench? Explain.

6. WRITE Choose one of the battles covered in this chapter.You are a Canadian soldier, nurse, reporter, or war artist on the front lines.Write a letter home in which you give an eyewitness account describing events, conditions, and your reactions.

7. RESEARCH Find out more about the gas masks developed during World War I. How did they work? How effective were they? Prepare a short one-page report. 300-313 120820 11/1/04 3:52 PM Page 313

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8. DISCUSS/WRITE Soldiers are frequently expected to fight in terrible condi- tions.At Passchendaele, it was almost impossible to carry on trench warfare in the mud of the battlefield. Many believe the battle should have been stopped because of the conditions and the high number of casualties.Yet, the comman- der ordered the fighting to continue. In groups, discuss the following questions. a) Would soldiers ever be justified in refusing the order to fight? Why? b) Do you think military leaders were to blame for the high number of casual- ties? Explain. c) Work together to write a short statement a commander in the battle would make to defend his position.Then write a counterargument. Making New Connections

9. DISCUSS/CREATE Memorials are objects (often statues or plaques) or cus- toms (special holidays) established in memory of important people or events. People have created many memorials associated with World War I. a) Discuss why memorials are important.Which people or events do you feel should be remembered from World War I? b) Create your own memorials for World War I.You can use a variety of media—sculptures, stories, collages, videos, audiotapes, or ceremonies.

10. INVESTIGATE/FIELD TRIP Find more information about famous World War I memorials, or visit memorials in your community. Describe them and discuss what they represent. How do they make you feel?

11. THINK/LISTEN You are a reporter at the Battle of Ypres or Passchendaele. You have witnessed Canadians taking a severe beating from the enemy and suffering many casualties. In groups, discuss how you would report the battle. If you describe the battle accurately, you could demoralize the people at home.You might even be helping the enemy. On the other hand, if you do not tell what happened, you could mislead Canadians and give them false hope.What do you think you should do? Write and record a short radio report. Listen to the reports from other groups. Make comparisons and evaluate the effects of the reports.

12. THINK/MEDIA Which media were used to report on battles during World War I? Today we have television. How would television change or improve the media coverage of a war? Explain your point of view and give examples.

13. a) THINK What do you think was the key to Canadian success at Vimy Ridge? Justify your answer. b) Why do you think people said Canada became a nation with the victory in this battle?

14. CREATE Create a poster aimed at people today to remind them of the impor- tance of Vimy Ridge to Canada.