Die Akustische Architektur Des Computerspiels

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Die Akustische Architektur Des Computerspiels Die akustische Architektur des Computerspiels Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn vorgelegt von Sebastian Lorenz aus Köln Bonn 2014 Gedruckt mit der Genehmigung der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn Zusammensetzung der Prüfungskommission: Prof. Dr. Marion Gymnich (Vorsitzende) Prof. Dr. Bettina Schlüter (Betreuerin und Gutachterin) Prof. Dr. Erik Fischer (Gutachter) Prof. Dr. Sabine Sielke (weiteres prüfungsberechtigtes Mitglied) Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 20.12.2013 iii Inhaltsverzeichnis Einleitung 1 1 Fundamente 7 1.1 SoundimKontextvonSoftware. 8 1.2 Spiel und Erzählung: Von Zahlen zu Zeichen . 25 1.3 LernvorgängeundSpielweisen . 41 2 AkustischeBausteineimWandelderZeit 57 2.1 FrüheFormenderVertonung . 58 2.2 ProgrammierterSound. 66 2.3 RealeKlängeinvirtuellenWelten. 75 2.4 Vergangenes, Gebliebenes und Wiederkehrendes . 90 3 Zeitliche Konstruktionsprinzipien 101 3.1 ZeitstrukturendesComputerspiels . 102 3.2 EreignisbasiertesSounddesign . 110 3.3 Wahrnehmungshilfen zeitlicher Abläufe . 114 3.4 MusikimSpiel ....................... 121 4 RäumlicheKonstruktionsprinzipien 143 4.1 DieVertonungvonSpielräumen . 145 4.2 RaumbasiertesSounddesign . 157 4.3 Navigation und Positionierung . 164 4.4 Spiel- und Erzählformen in Klangräumen . 169 5 Adaption kinematographischer Gestaltungsmuster 183 5.1 Anpassung filmischer Vertonungsprinzipien . 185 5.2 Szenengestaltung . 193 5.3 GesprocheneSprache. 204 6 Audio-Konfiguration 215 6.1 AnpassbareHörerlebnisse . 217 6.2 Multiple Darstellungsmodi . 231 iv 6.3 Die Simulation technischer Medien . 235 Ausblick 247 Literaturverzeichnis 254 1 Einleitung Every possible choice Stanley could make has been designed for him long before he ever set foot here. The narrator want- ed to kill him. Stanley was already dead, from the moment he hit „start“. There is no salvation for either of these two, I’m afraid. The narrator had as little power over Stanley as Stanley did over the paths that he walked. But listen to me.. this story is not over. You can still save these two. You can stop the program before they both fail. Push Escape and press Quit. There’s no other way to beat this game. As long as you move forward, you’ll be walking someone elses path. Stop now and it’ll be your only true choice. Whatever you.. [Metallisches Knirschen. Schwarzer Bildschirm.] Mit dem Verstummen der Voice-Over-Stimme aus den Boxen kehrt die Sprachfähigkeit tausender Stanleys vor den Bildschirmen zurück. In Foren, Portalen und Blogs hinterlassen staunende Spieler1 ihre Mei- nung über die am 27. Juli 2011 erschienene Half Life 2 Modifikation The Stanley Parable und eine ungewöhnliche Spielerfahrung. Die Stimme des Erzählers und der oben zur Wort kommenden Erzählerin stehen in ständigem Konflikt mit den Entscheidungen der Spieler. Einige Berich- te enthalten das Eingeständnis, dass sich nur schwer darüber berichten lässt und legen den Lesern nahe, für wenige Stunden Spieler zu werden.2 Andere Beiträge zerlegen und analysieren die Mechanik und Inhalte des Spiels oder stellen Querverbindungen zu Filmen wie American Beauty 1Der Begriff „Spieler“ meint im Folgenden stets Spielerinnen und Spieler gleicher- maßen. 2So schreibt z. B. das Gee Magazin: „Jeder inhaltliche Erklärungsversuch wür- de die Qualität des Spielerlebnisses mindern. Also bitte, betrachtet eure Un- wissenheit als Chance auf ein verstörendes Abenteuer, das seine Spuren hin- terlässt. Lediglich die Hürde der Installation muss überwunden werden [..]“ (http://www.geemag.de/2011/08/05/the-stanley-parable/, 01.11.2012) 2 her.3 Große Einigkeit herrscht darüber, dass The Stanley Parable zum Nachdenken anregt und Einblicke darüber vermittelt, wie Computer- spiele funktionieren. Es baut seine Kulissen auf, nur um sie vor den Augen und Ohren der teilnehmenden Spieler wieder niederzureißen. Es legt zentrale Prinzipien des Designs offen, die Spiele gewöhnlich ka- schieren oder verbergen. Es ist ein Computerspiel, das etwas über das Computerspiel sagt. Das Werk des 22-jährigen Modders David Wreden demonstriert durch seine Anlage zur Selbstreflektion beispielhaft, wie ausdrucksstark und elaboriert Computerspiele heute sind. In der Tat zeigt ein Rundum- schlag durch Spieler- und Entwicklercommunities, Gesellschaft, Politik, und Wissenschaft, dass ihnen im Positiven wie im Negativen viel mehr zugetraut und zugeschrieben wird, als nur unterhaltendes Spielzeug zu sein. Kritiker verteufeln sie als Killerspiele, Suchtmittel und Ausbil- dungswerkzeuge eines militärischen Unterhaltungskomplexes.4 Befür- worter sehen in ihnen eine Lernhilfe und ein Mittel zur politischen Bil- dung.5 Der Deutsche Kulturrat setzt sich seit Jahren dafür ein, das Computerspiel als Kulturgut zu positionieren. Die Game-Designerin Jane McGonigal sieht in der Anwendung von Spielprinzipien und Spiel- mechaniken auf nicht-spielspezifische Domänen – bezeichnet als Gami- fication – einen Weg zum Weltfrieden.6 All diese ernsthaften Auseinandersetzungen mit dem Spiel deuten auf die Maturität des Mediums und seinen Einfluss auf unser Leben hin. Die Oberflächeneffekte dieser Entwicklung sind unverkennbar. Wer öf- fentliche Verkehrsmittel benutzt, sieht mehr Fahrgäste, die auf ihren 3„I downloaded an interesting Half Life 2 mod, called The Stanley Para- ble. It’s a fascinating little experiment into narrative gaming, and comes off as a kinda hybrid of Bastion, 1984 and American Beauty.“ (User Null, http://www.theclawproject.net/forum/viewtopic.php?f=5&t=1660, 01.11.2012). Einen direkten Bezug zum Film etabliert die Übernahme des Soundtracks von Thomas Newman im Intro der Stanley Parable. 4Bereits 1993 schrieb Bruce Sterling einen Beitrag über den Zusammenprall von Unterhaltung und militärischer Fortbildung in virtuellen Schlachtfeldern (Sterling, 1993). Seit 2002 befindet sich mit America’s Army ein von der U.S. Army veröffent- lichtes Computerspiel auf dem Markt, das offen für Rekrutierungszwecke eingesetzt wird. 5James Paul Gee listet in (Gee, 2003) 36 Lernprinzipien auf, die in der Auseinan- dersetzung mit Computerspielen auftreten. Im Zuge der Serious Games Bewegung entstanden in den vergangenen Jahren mehrere Minigames, die sich der kritischen Vermittlung politischer und wirtschaftlicher Zustände verschrieben haben. Siehe z. B. http://www.newsgaming.com und http://www.molleindustria.org. 6(McGonigal, 2012, 8) 3 Smartphones spielen als Zeitung lesen. Das Motto „work hard, play hard“ ist längst die Devise einer Arbeitswelt, in der die Arbeit zum Spiel und das Spiel zur Arbeit geworden ist.7 Computerspiele und ihre angelagerten Diskurse sind vielleicht der eindringlichste Ausdruck einer Software-Kultur, „[..] a culture where the production, distribution, and reception of most content – and increasingly, experiences – is media- ted by software.“8. Um die Wünsche, Ängste und Mentalitäten unserer Informationsgesellschaft zu verstehen, ist eine Auseinandersetzung mit ihnen unerläßlich. Mit der Fähigkeit zur Selbstreflexion erreichen sie offenbar ein neues Stadium ihrer Expressionsfähigkeit. Wie kam es da- zu, dass Computerspiele so ausdrucksstark geworden sind? Was sind die Eigenheiten ihrer Sprache? Einen Ansatz zur Beantwortung dieser Frage gibt der Medientheore- tiker Lev Manovich in seinen Arbeiten über die „Sprache der Neuen Medien“ und den daran anschließenden Überlegungen über die soziale und kulturelle Dimension von Software. Er beschreibt die Entwicklung des Metamediums Computer als einen zweigliedrigen Prozess, der auf eine „Medienhybridisierung“9 hinausläuft. Demnach werden im Zuge der Software-Entwicklung nicht nur die Inhalte verschiedener Medi- entypen vermischt, sondern auch ihre „techniques, working methods, and ways of representation and expression“10. Die Fülle dieser Varian- tenbildung tritt nirgendwo deutlicher hervor als beim Computerspiel. Übergeordnete Genres wie real time strategy (RTS), first person shooter (FPS) und massively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPG) bezeichnen nur einen Bruchteil der etablierten Spezies des Computer- spiels, die sich im Laufe seiner Geschichte herausgebildet haben. Stän- dig treten neue Kombinationen hervor, die sich nicht eindeutig einem Genre oder Spieltyp zuordnen lassen. Die zusammengesetzte Bezeich- nung der Stanley Parable als experimental narrative-driven first person game ist kein Einzelfall, sondern die Regel eines Vorgangs der konti- nuierlichen Ausdifferenzierung. Im Epizentrum dieser „deep remixabi- lity“11 verortet Manovich einen wachsenden Bestand bausteinartiger Ausdrucksmittel, die sich im Digitalen kreuzen und zu neuen hybriden Formen verschmelzen. 7vgl. (Yee, 2006) 8(Manovich, 2008, 19) 9(ebd., 72) 10(ebd., 25) 11(ebd., 25) 4 Both the simulated and new media types – text, hypertext, still photographs, digital video, 2D animation, 3D animati- on, navigable 3D spaces, maps, location information – now function as building blocks for new mediums.12 Eine Kategorie dieser Bausteine, die bislang weder in den Game Studies noch in den Software Studies eine bemerkenswerte Beachtung gefunden hat, umfasst akustische Elemente wie die eingangs zu Wort kommen- de Voice-Over-Stimme. Akustische Elemente scheinen gleichermaßen dazu geeignet zu sein, als Ausgangspunkt für eine Untersuchung der Ausdrucksfähigkeit des Computerspiels zu dienen und einen Beitrag zum Verständnis der softwarebedingten Medienhybridisierung zu leis- ten. Gesprochene Sprache und Musik gehören schließlich zu unseren ausdrucksstärksten und elaboriertesten Kommunikationsmitteln.
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