Ara: RIGHTS VIOLATIONS OF BANGLADESHI SEX WORKERS 26 27

Patriarchal Pressures on Women's Freedom, REFERENCES Sexuality, Reproductive Health & Women's

Ahmed, F. (2002.) CEDAW and Bangladesh, Constitution, Law & National Initiatives: A Comparative Co-optation into Their Own Subjugation Study. Dhaka: Steps Toward Development. Ahmed, K.U. (1992.) Quest for Autonomy – Political History of Bangladesh. In S. Islam (Ed.) History of Bangladesh, 1704-1971. (Vols. 1-3). New Delhi: Ventams Books. Aysan Sev'er Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2005.) Statistical Pocketbook of Bangladesh 2003. Dhaka: University of Toronto Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Bangladesh Mahila Parishad, Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Association & Naripokkho. (1997). A Commentary on Bangladesh’s Combined Third and Fourth Periodic Report for the KEY WORDS: PATRIARCHY, PATRIARCHAL CONTROL, , Members of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. FOOT-BINDING, DOWRY, BRIDE-PRICE, VIRGINITY TESTS, GENITAL MUTILATION, CARE Bangladesh. (December 1998). Women in Need: Street-Based Female Sex Workers in Dhaka HONOUR KILLINGS City – An assessment of their AIDS/STD risks, risk perception & health seeking behavior. CARE Bangladesh. (March 2004). Brothel Based HIV/AIDS Intervention – Tangail. Deo, M.K. (1999). TheViolence of Family Planning Method in Rural Bangladesh. Dhaka: UBINIG. Starting from the conceptualizations of patriarchal power, the present paper explores the destructive Human Rights Watch. (2003). Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuse Against Persons at High Risk of HIV control of girls and women under classic patriarchies. Examples include female infanticide, Chinese Infection in Bangladesh. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/bangladesh0803 (last visited foot-binding, dowry and bride-price systems, forced virginity tests, genital mutilation, honour March 24, 2005). killings and . Despite the myriad of its manifestations, it is argued that the uniting ingredient in Jagrata Juba Shangha. (December 2001). Bonded Sex Worker in Sex Trade: Case Study of Baniashanta all patriarchies is the obsessive control over women's freedom, sexuality and reproduction. What is & Bagerhat Brothel in Bangladesh – Situation Analysis from Humanitarian & Human Rights Perspective. also noteworthy is that patriarchal systems often co-opt women, especially older women, to become Kamal, A. ‘A Land of Eternal Eid’- Independence, People & Politics in East Bengal. (1989). The enforcers of the rules that bind younger women and girls. Borrowing Kandiyoti's term (1988), the co- Dhaka University Studies. Part A, Vol. 46, 57-81. optation is perceived as a “patriarchal bargain.” The paper ends by suggesting changes at the Mohsin, K.M., Islam, R. (1992). War of Liberation: Civil and Military Resistance. In S. Islam (Ed.) international, national, regional and local levels. It is argued that to end the patriarchal choke on History of Bangladesh, 1704-1971 (Vols. 1-3). New Delhi: Ventams Books. women's lives, a human rights approach which binds the signatory states is very helpful but not Noorani, S. (2000). Sex Workers in Bangladesh. enough. Simultaneously, both women's and men's expectations, behaviour and standard of life ought http://toto.lib.unca.edu/exhibits/blowers/MotherJones/shehzad_noorani.html (last visited to be addressed. February 26, 2005). Tahmina, Q-A. & Moral, S. (2004). Sex-workers in Bangladesh – Livelihood: At What Price? Dhaka: The CAD System. Social scientists often define 'power as the ability to assert one's own will UBINIG. (1995). Trafficking in Women & Children: The Cases of Bangladesh. Dhaka. United Nations Development Programme. (2005). Human Development Report 2004. on others, regardless of the will of the others (Crosbie, 1975; Homans, Web Health Centre. (2000). Contraception & Family Planning. 1974). This definition of power emphasizes the relational aspect of the http://www.webhealthcentre.com/general/sm_contra.asp (last visited April 8, 2005). term. One cannot have power in a vacuum, without also having someone or something to have power over. The above definition also makes it clear that power is dormant; that means, it lies within the 'ability' of the power holder. He (sic) may act on this ability and translate it into action, at which time power becomes influence. He may force others to subjugate to his will disregarding all strong objections, at which time it becomes 'coercive power.' Nevertheless, it is often the case that the power holder does not need to translate his ability into action or force. Instead, the more perceived power the power-holder has, the less the need to turn it into

1 I thank Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) for its generous support of my work on . Please contact Aysan Sev'er, Department of Sociology, University of Toronto at Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada M1C 1A4 for all inquiries about the paper (e-mail: [email protected]). Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 28 29 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN action. Real and entrenched power is clearly known by all and very rarely system, it becomes so taken-for-granted, so much a part of the values, challenged. Frequently, those who have no power of their own will go out norms, behaviour and even part of the socio-religious outlook that one of their way to appease the power holder, so that he does not act on his can hardly challenge that power without creating a major reaction and ominous ability to coerce, or even hurt them (physical power). It is also turbulence. On the other hand, trying to dissect patriarchal power into often the case that those who lack power themselves will become the foot observable/definable pieces will indeed miss the all encompassing and soldiers of the powerful, enforcing the rules and regulations on their own suffocating nature and the consequences of that power. It is due to this kind and punishing the deviants. War-movies and psychological thrillers catch-twenty-two situation that feminists, themselves, have struggled to exploit these complex processes by showing prisoners taking on guard- come up with a definition of patriarchy that all can agree on. It is because like behaviours and concentration-camp victims personifying the most of the same reasons that most men have been able to dismiss altogether ruthless characteristics of their captors. Of course, these are extremes and how they benefit from the existence of patriarchal systems. women are neither prisoners of war nor concentration camp victims. Despite its conceptual difficulty, patriarchy has a life of its own. In its Nevertheless, patriarchal cultures do limit women's roles and choices to rigid manifestations, patriarchal power continues to exert dire such an extent that, what little freedom is open to them can take shape consequences for women in different parts of the world . The type of only within the boundaries of roles that particular culture permits. Wifery, patriarchy that has been particularly vicious is what Kandiyoti (1988) calls motherhood and mother-in-law often define the acceptable and expected 'classic patriarchy.' Classic patriarchies can be found in geographic areas roles for women. that include most of North Africa, the Muslim Middle East (including non-secular Iran and parts of secular Turkey) and South and East Asia PATRIARCHAL POWER (most specifically, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and pre-revolutionary or rural China). As one can see from the above list, classic patriarchy spans At the micro level, the abuse of power is frequent in interpersonal geopolitical regions and crosses over religious boundaries (Islam, relations, as millions of children who are beaten or sexually molested by Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Sikhism and some parents or guardians can testify (Janko, 1994; Steed, 1994). At the macro orthodox pockets of Christian and Jewish faiths). Given the variation, it level, some of the most toxic examples of abuse of power can be traced to will be grossly naive to argue that a particular religion gives rise to classic mass pillage, , slavery and genocide, especially in times of war. More patriarchy. It is more likely that in strongly patriarchal cultures, the often than not, sexuality permeates power differences. For example, interpretation and practices of any religion come to reflect the existing McKinnon (1982) maintains that sexuality is a form of power, where male domination, privilege and control. oppression takes sexual forms and where sexuality becomes the very A commonality amongst strongly patriarchal societies is that almost “linchpin of inequality” (p. 533). Indeed, gendered power differentiations all are agrarian (pre-industrialized societies with labour-intensive have been historically quite perilous. Gendered power differences occur farming). The labour-intensivity of the subsistence pattern makes large between individuals or groups and advantage men. When they occur at family systems as well as male labour a necessity (Kagitcibasi, 1982; Lin, the social and cultural levels, what we have is patriarchal power. 1998). In such agrarian societies, the key elements to the reproduction and Most social scientists admit that of all concepts generated by continuation of classic patriarchy are: patriarchal households where all contemporary feminist theory, patriarchy is perhaps the most overused decision-making power is vested in one man (often the patriarch, or his and in many respects, the most under-theorized (Fox, 1988). The term oldest son), patrilineal tracing of decent and inheritance (which manifest captures the amorphous nature of male power and domination in a given themselves as preference for male offspring produced in wedlock) and society, which is so ingrained, so unquestionable and so effective that it patrilocal extended households (where very young, sometimes child- penetrates all other social realities and institutions. Ironically, this brides are betrothed into the husbands' extended household). Taken amorphous nature of the term is its weakness as well as its strength. together, these three pillars of classic patriarchy reproduce the skewed When male power and domination is infused into the workings of a social gender relations and give unprecedented power to men over women and to older people over younger ones (Fernandez, 1997; Kandiyoti, 1988). Walby (1989) theorizes patriarchy within six interrelated structures. 2 Since the focus of this paper is on men's power over women, I will use the male pronoun “he,” unless, indicated otherwise. These include the mode of production, relations in waged labour, the Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 30 31 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN state, male violence, relations in sexuality and culture. What is important commodified. Historically, female infanticide (killing or exposing female in Walby's conceptualization is the strong link between patriarchal children to natural elements, see Watch, 2003) was practiced cultures and relentless control of women's freedom and sexuality. within numerous classic patriarchies. Methods used to dispose of new- Violence becomes an overtly or covertly condoned tool of control. Men's born girls include choking, suffocating, poisoning, starving, strangling obsession over male offspring translates into an unabated domination and drowning (Hegde, 1999) and even injecting formaldehyde to the soft over women who give birth to these sons. This domination is infused in spot of infants' heads (Hom, 2001, p. 139). The executioners are mothers cultural norms, values and rituals. Women's worth is elevated through or other closely related female relatives who interpret their action in virginity before marriage and piety in motherhood. As Puri (1998) altruistic terms as 'freeing' their newborn daughters from experiencing observes, the three statuses open for women are being some man's virgin life-long rejection and pain (Hegde, 1999). Sadly, women who have few daughter, another man's pious wife and the self-sacrificing mother of freedoms of their own have much to lose from giving birth to daughters sons. Under such cultural constructs, even younger men hold power over rather than sons. women much older than themselves. Moreover, deviation from rules can Although on the decline, such ghastly practices are continuing in out- trigger severe forms of violence against women and girls. Kate Millet of-reach pockets of the developing world (Gendercide Watch, 2003; (1970: 44-45) eloquently summarizes this vicious cycle of control and Janssen-Jurreit, 1992; Johnson & Johnson, 2001; Jones, 1999, Hom, 2001). violence in the following words: In China, the one-child policy has inadvertently exacerbated the risk for female infants. In rural India, female infanticide remains a dark secret. We are not accustomed to associate patriarchy with force. Soperfect However, female infanticide is increasingly replaced by a more humane is its system of socialization, so complete the general assent to its values, (but equally gendered) way of sex selection and selective abortions so long and so universally has it prevailed in human society, that it through the (mis)use of reproductive technologies (Lin, 1998; Luthra, scarcely seems to require violent implementation.... and yet ... control in 1994; Miller, 2001; Plechner, 2000). In regions where patriarchy is patriarchal societies would be imperfect, even inoperable, unless it had unchecked, girl children are still considered as a burden and their health the rule of force to rely upon, both in emergencies and as an ever-present and life still remain at risk (Gendercide Watch, 2003: Hegde, 1999). instrument of intimidation. Plechner (2000) argues that patriarchal states often collude with violence against women, either through acts of commission or through crimes of This paper reviews some of the extreme forms of violence within omission. The culling of the female unborn is an example to both patterns. which patriarchy manifests itself. In the following pages, I will address The low status of women in societies that practice infanticide has been female infanticide, foot-binding, dowry and bride-price systems, forced extensively studied. However, what has often escaped analysis is the virginity tests and honour killings. Although patriarchal rules vastly mental state of women who are socialized to devalue and despise their differ from region to region, what is noteworthy is in no place on earth gender. How much worth and dignity can women attribute to themselves and in no time in human history, can we find cultural rituals and practices if they see their own infant daughters' lives as worthless? that have similarly enslaved boys/men on the basis of their gender. In this paper, I will also address how women themselves get co-opted into Chinese Foot-binding the patriarchal systems. The paper will end with suggestions for change Historically, one of the most disturbing examples of physical control from the international women's rights perspective and through local of women is the ancient Chinese practice of foot-binding also known as initiatives. 'three-inch golden lotuses' (Ko, 2001; Wang, 2000). Starting from age five on, female children's feet were wrapped with strong bandages in such a Female Infanticide way that the toes were curled in and the heel was increasingly pulled towards the toes. Thus, confined and deformed feet were never allowed Classic patriarchies victimize girls/women (Kandiyoti, 1988; to grow more than a few inches in size . Of course, the invasive process McKinnon, 1982; Millet, 1970; Walby, 1988). Generally, girls are not involved years of excruciating pain for the little girls, mutilation of two of wanted, shunned, maltreated, controlled and/or deprived of their most important limbs, sacrifice of their mobility and in some cases, opportunities that their male siblings freely enjoy. Often, girls are loss of numerous toes to continuous infection and even gangrene and Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 32 33 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN death. Yet, women bound their daughters' feet, just as they have bound surface, the burden appears to be on the patriarchal and patrilocal their own, knowing that the prospects for a good marriage was households to pay brides' families the socially acceptable amount for the contingent on the mutilation. Within the patriarchal system, the bound marital rights over daughters. On the surface, one may erroneously think feet meant more than a whimsical beauty standard. It meant a source for that this type of a system will raise women's status. In its application, perverse sexual arousal (Jackson, 1997; Wang, 2000). As a precursor to however, bride price system works similar to the dowry system where their sexual endeavours, men desired and demanded the distinct aroma women are commodified. What they do, how they dress, where they go, of bound feet. The aroma was associated with the powders sprinkled whom they see, how they act, whom they marry... all become guarded, between the bandages to prevent severe infections from developing in the controlled and oppressed aspects of their lives. After all, from birth on, mutilated toes. In sum, women became immobile objects, decorations and girls are commodities that must be prepared for marital sale and the sexualized objects, incapable of exercising even a modest level of potential buyers (patriarchal households) do not want unruly, unclean, freedom. Immobile women posed no threat to men: they were completely unmanageable, tarnished or used (read: sexually experienced) women. dependent on the means and the whims of their husbands. Men who have no means to pay for the women they want may end up forcefully kidnapping them. In the latter case, women become damaged goods and may become vulnerable to crimes of honour, as will be later Dowry or Bride-price Systems & Their Consequences discussed in this paper. Even when girl children are allowed to live, most are considered to be a burden on their families (competition to the inheritance of their male Forced Virginity Tests siblings) because of 'dowry' practices. Dowry systems are generally Sexual or reproductive control of women is rampant in classic defended as important cultural practices. It is argued that dowry is a form patriarchies and often is closely tied to rules of honour and rules of of transmission of some wealth to the female offspring, since patrilineal marriage. One of the most blatant forms of these expectations is the inheritance rules often bar women from inheriting from their male kin. insistence on virginity before marriage. In classic patriarchies, the However, most women never directly benefit since most or all of their constant surveillance of women's whereabouts, family curfews, complex dowry gets absorbed into the patriarchal household. In India, dowry is chaperonage systems are the norm. Pre-marital girls are constantly now illegal, but the practice is rampant. There are many sayings that guarded from participation in mixed-sex peer groups, at the cost of compare 'raising a daughter [to] watering a neighbour's plant' which missing out on educational and/or work opportunities. Loss of virginity signifies the perceived futility of the investment (Hegde, 1999). Moreover, outside of marriage is considered a major catastrophe for the girl, her dowry has taken on crushing proportions since many grooms' families family, clan or tribe. Girls whose 'honour' becomes suspect can be treat dowry as a life-long obligation (Puri, 1998). Women whose families subjected to 'forced virginity tests.' Grooms' families may require 'proof of are not willing or unable to fulfill these obligations are vulnerable to virginity' as a condition of marriage (sale). The required proof may be in maltreatment: they are sent back to their families of origin (which is terms of a written statement from a physician (almost always a male) who equivalent to becoming a social pariah), beaten or even killed (so called examines the intactness of the hymen. Proof may also involve submitting 'kitchen fires' or 'dowry deaths', see Mayell, 2002; Pratap, 1995; Sood, bloodied sheets at the end of the first night of marriage. The extended 1990; Shah, 1990; also see Anwary, 2003 for acid attacks). It is estimated family (mostly women) keep vigil at the bedroom door throughout the that 15,000 dowry deaths happen in India every year. This estimate does not include murders which are successfully disguised as accidental deaths (UNIFEM, 2003b). Other patriarchal societies practice 'bride price' or the lump sum payment of money/land/goods/livestock etc., required to acquire a wife. On the

4 As food for thought, Dworkin (1974) pointedly asks us to consider the immobilizing and deforming effects of modern killer shoes with sharpened toes and 3 In ancient China, only girls from elite classes were subjected to foot-binding. ridiculous heels before expressing our aversion to the ancient Chinese practice. Of course, Working class and peasant girls' feet were not bound since their labour power was much too Dworkin's goal is not to make light of the foot-binding practice, but to show the continuation valuable for the labour-intensive rice farming. of beauty myths that target women's body, freedom and choice. Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 34 35 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN first night. Moreover, the bride's body may be examined (again, by elder Scare tactics abound amongst the illiterate. Popular false myths are women) for fresh cuts in case she was not a virgin but tried to fool her that if you leave the alone, it will grow into a penis or grow teeth examiners. These practices reinforce the cultural belief that women are (Walker & Parmar, 1993). Young women are also taught that their not to be trusted. They also set women against women. Aside from the unaltered genitalia is ugly and repulsive. However, the real function of all demeaning nature of these practices, more serious perils await such practices is to make women's sexuality scrutinized, painful and girls/women who 'fail' such tests. They may be ostracised, sent back, devoid of pleasure. For men, mutilated women become a form of marital replaced by a new wife, beaten or even killed (Cindoglu, 2000; Mernissi, insurance against infidelity. Especially in Africa, this patriarchal practice 2000). is so common and so widespread that women defend it as their own. It is For those who have had the good fortune of being born in less the mothers who insist that their daughters go through the procedure, it oppressive cultures, it is quite difficult to imagine the stress young is the mothers/aunts who physically hold down the little girls and it is girls/women go through just prior to or during the first night of marriage. women midwives who do the cutting. Women conform to these practices Even when they are virgins, it is possible that they may be subjected to fearing that doing otherwise will disadvantage their daughters in the false accusations, or due to the structure of their hymen, they may fail to marriage market. bleed. Many young women attempt suicide, due to the heightened Despite a global outrage against such practices, it is estimated that pressure during marriage. In societies where virginity at marriage is an two-million girls are subjected to the invasive alteration of their genitals obsession, there is a booming industry in hymen re-construction which each year (Lax, 2000). Especially in Africa, the practice is widespread. On exposes women to unnecessary surgical procedures. Such practices also the surface, the practice is justified as a socio-religious right of passage engender dishonesty amongst marital partners. and a necessary form of 'cleanliness.' Defenders of such practices also erroneously aliken genital mutilation to male circumcision. In fact, Genital Mutilation removing the clitoris, in part or in full, is more accurately comparable to Another intrusive control on women's sexuality/reproduction is the removing part or the whole of the penis. Mutilated women invariable practice of infibulation or genital mutilation (Dorkenoo, 1995; Toubia, experience a loss in sexual pleasure and may experience serious health 1998; Williams & Sobieszczky, 1997; Wilson, 2002). Barstow (1999) claims and reproductive complications. Barring a few accidents, circumcised that genital mutilation happens in 40 countries across the world. Starting men do not experience any of these health problems. from as young as one-week old infants, but more commonly during early puberty, girls are forced to go through a procedure which amputates a Honour Killings portion or the whole of their clitoris, and/or . It Caputi (1989: 438) points out that systematic violence against women, is often performed by midwives with no medical training, who use including murder, should be seen as sexually political murders or a “form razors, kitchen knives, broken glass, sea-shells or even their teeth as of murder rooted in a system of male supremacy in the same way that cutting instruments (Barstow, 1999; Toubia, 1998). Often, the wounded lynching is based in white supremacy.” Amongst all classic patriarchies, flesh is sewn together with thorns and weeds, leaving a tiny openning for it is those that practice dowry or bride price that have developed the urination and menstrual discharge. Since most societies have passed laws harshest rules to regulate girls/women's bodies and sexuality. Women are against these dangerous procedures, people revert to dark-ally often socialized/cajoled/forced to wear various garb that covers their practitioners with no medical training. Often, unsterilized instruments bodies, limits their vision and interferes with movement. Most of the are used to scoop out the genital flesh of the little girls. Even when severe regulation stems from an elaborate conceptualization of 'honour' where infections and blood poisoning may be avoided, excruciating pain, women's (especially young women's) behaviour and even attitudes are difficulty with menstruation, painful intercourse and complications with subjected to relentless evaluation (Duzkan & Kocali, 2000; Kocturk, 1992; childbirth are common (Al-Dawla, 2000; Toubia, 2000; Toubia & Sharif, Maris & Saharso, 2001; Ruggi, 1998; Sev'er & Yurdakul, 2001). Honour (or 2003). When the original procedure leads to severe scarring, women may the behaviours that are deemed to tarnish it) becomes a major social and have to be surgically opened and get re-sewn for each childbirth. family preoccupation. Honour is seen as much too important to be left to self-monitoring by girls or younger women. Older men, older women and younger men (as potential purchasers) are all conscripted into controlling Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 36 37 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN girls/women, around the clock (Fernandez, 1997). Those who are deemed DISCUSSION to behave in ways that tarnish their family honour may be locked-up, severely beaten or even induced to commit suicide or killed. Going to So, the list of the dark faces of classic patriarchy goes on and on. One movies, dating, getting married to someone without parental consent, or legitimate question is why do women who constitute approximately 50% even being a victim of rape or incestuous molestation may be considered of all societies submit to these practices? A more intriguing question is as an act of dishonour, punishable by death (UNIFEM, 2003a; Sev'er & why do women, themselves, become enforcers of the patriarchal rules? As Yurdakul, 2001). Strong kin ties and social taboos about the privacy of we have seen in the preceding discussion, it is women who sacrifice their patriarchal families deter witnesses from testifying even when murders infant daughters to infanticide. Women have bound their daughter's feet take place in crowded public places. in the past. Even today, women continue to mutilate their daughters' In honour killings, usually the youngest son of the family is cajoled to genitals. It is women who police the virginity of their daughters and carry out the gruesome deed. Usually, no one testifies, even though there daughters-in-law, chaperone them and report the observations/rumours may be numerous people who know about the crime. Most frequently, the to men. Women inspect the bloodied sheets after the first marital murders are presented as accidental deaths or suicides and thus stay intercourse. It is also women who remain silent or actively serve as outside of the criminal justice system (Sev'er & Yurdakul, 2001). Police shields to protect their sons or husbands who murder their daughters in and other branches of the criminal justice system may not be too eager to the name of honour. Although increasingly rare, a few women, willingly seek justice. In the unlikely event that a conviction ensues, the or not-so-willingly, still walk to their husbands' funeral pyres. perpetrator's young age will assure leniency and a drastically shortened One answer to these puzzling observations lies in the relational aspect sentence. He will also receive a hero's welcome as the one who cleansed of all power relations (Crosbie, 1975; Homans, 1974). After all, those who the family honour (Maris & Saharso, 2001; UNIFEM, 2003a). lack power subscribe to the rules of the powerful and those who have power, try to hang on to it at all costs. However, a more insightful answer Sati is found in what Kandiyoti (1988) calls 'the patriarchal bargain.' Historically, some Indian women were expected to and actually Patriarchal societies symbolically revere women's reproductive role burned themselves at the funeral pyre of their deceased husbands within legitimate marriages and promise them respect, some power and (Anand, 1989). Sati which literally means a 'virtuous woman' is intimately prestige in becoming mothers (of sons) and mothers-in-law (Brown, linked with the idea of pativrta according to the sacred Hindu scriptures 1997). For women, there are few legitimate alternatives for security (Narasimhan, 1994: 45-47). Basically, pativrta suggests that a wife's duty outside of marriage. However, marriage is not a fundamental right. is to be happy when her husband is happy, to be sad when her husband Instead, marriage is contingent on elaborate conceptualizations of is sad and to be dead when her husband is dead (Narasimhan, 1994). honour, many restrictions on the physical body, complete control of Although starting from the late 19th century, laws in India forbid sati, it sexuality and severe limitations on social and personal freedoms. Since nevertheless remains in practice in some rural regions. Despite the deviations from rules of honour unleash unbearable pain and harm, most cultural rhetoric of martyrdom that is bestowed on perfectly loyal wives women learn to 'obey' the patriarchal boundaries and look forward to the (pativrta), the clear message this brutal practice reflects is that the society future rewards their docile compliance promises. Moreover, they learn to has no place/role for a woman who survives her husband. Rigid gender make sure that their daughters also play by the rules, if they too, are going socialization coupled with deprivation from opportunities have forced to gather the fruits from attracting a husband and bearing legitimate sons. many women to resign to a fiery death without much fuss. However, In ancient China, it was the mothers who wrapped their daughters' feet in there have been recorded cases where women were drugged and increasingly tightening loops. In Africa, it is the mothers who hold their physically dragged to the funeral pyres by their adult sons (Anand, 1989; daughters down when their genitals are being carved out. In the middle Narasimhan, 1994). east and southwest Asia, mothers/mothers-in-law follow and chaperone every move of young girls and demand virginity tests. Mothers also participate, albeit indirectly, in decrees for honour killings and continue to protect their sons who carry out the execution (Sev'er & Yurdakul, 2001). Women are the ones who seek selective abortions or snuff-out the life out of a female newborn, praying that the next pregnancy produces a son Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 38 39 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN

(Miller, 2001). In an ironic way, women collude with these practices in CONCLUSIONS order to preserve the only life they know. To do otherwise, to change the rules in the middle of the game may mean that the suffering they, What needs to be done to change the tide of patriarchal oppression themselves, have endured may have been for nothing. which dates back thousands of years? What needs to change in order to The above discussion should not be taken as blaming the victims. On break the cycle of women getting co-opted into the patriarchal rules? Of the contrary, the intent is to show the extreme difficulty in breaking the course, there is no easy answer to these questions. However, one thing chains of patriarchy which are so entrenched that only a few ever try. Dire which is clear to me is the necessity to see patriarchal violence against consequences await those who dare to deviate. Patriarchal rules also women as a continuum. If we fragment the perils women face by culture, make sure that women do not (can not) unite. They remain isolated in by religion or by social or personal failures, we will lose our ability to see what appears to be individual struggles, while all women remain as the the destructive power of patriarchy in its amorphous and pandemic form. second class. Patriarchal rules set older women against the younger ones, Fragmenting global forms of violence women face also leads to the rich women against the poor and women associated with the groom undesirable outcome of seeing the problems as 'us' (whatever us may be) against women associated with the brides (Brown, 1997; Fernandez, against 'them' (whoever they may be). It is true that classic patriarchy is 1997). Cast, class, race, religion further prevent women from seeking unique to certain parts of the world, as amply discussed in this paper. change as an indivisible group. Patriarchal practices even create However, patriarchy and its negative consequences are manifested even unsurpassable chasms between mothers and daughters. Thus, like a outside of classic patriarchies. Fragmenting these issues also fragments mystical snake that devours its own tail, patriarchy re-produces itself our ability and resolve to confront and change the patriarchal rules and within each generation. expectations that give rise to the problems. Since patriarchy is a global What about the fathers, husbands, sons, brothers and the male kin? issue (despite the different faces it takes in different geographic locations How is it that they do not rise up against the maltreatment and or nation states), we must first seek its solutions at the global level. And oppression of women whom they call mothers, sisters, wives and since the different faces of patriarchy take on very unique forms, we must daughters? I think, the fact that they do not is yet another indication of the also seek solutions particular to that unique manifestation of the problem. power of patriarchal rules. Even decent men are often silenced by the The overall success lies in addressing multiple dimensions, not in privileges the system bestows on them. They have a say in things, just by truncated approach. the fact that they are men. The exploitative balance works because even At the global level, concern for human rights became a beacon for men at the bottom of the status pecking order can dominate some women, many nation states that did not want to live through the atrocities of the namely their wives and their daughters. Their gender brings men WWII. In December 10, 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights acceptance, recognition, support of other men and servitude of women. codified the principles of life, liberty, security and freedom from torture as Yet, ascribed power has its own drawbacks: In patriarchal systems, men indivisible and non-reducible rights for all people. Ironically, application never get to experience fulfilling egalitarian relationships with women of some of these fundamental rights to life conditions specific to women because the system feeds on inequality. Some are and girl children had to wait another 50 years (Bond & Phillips, 2001). conditioned/accustomed to seek mutilated women rather than cherishing Even then, some of the United Nations declarations such as CEDAW the natural beauty of their partners. In company of other men, they may (1979) and DEVAW (1993) mostly remain as guidelines without any feel obliged to pass a decree to kill a wife, a blood-sister, their niece or means for international enforcement. Even when patriarchal states daughter. In honour killings, often the youngest brother is chosen as the become signatories to these women's rights protocols, violations of executioner, hoping that the legal system will be merciful on a child-killer. women's rights continue to be overlooked or written off as cultural Yet, it is these young boys who will have to live with the nightmares of prerequisites (Abramson, 2002). If women's life, liberty, freedom of choice, the evil they commit no matter what their patriarchal clan tells them. One and freedom from torture are truly going to be protected as fundamental day, they may have to force their own sons to duplicate their sins. Thus, and indivisible human rights, the individual states where violations of classical patriarchy inflicts untold misery on women, but in a diabolical these rights occur must be held accountable for taking all necessary way, it also depraves its male benefactors. means to protect the victims as well as to persecute the offenders. If the states systematically fail either in their protection of women/girls and/or Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 40 41 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN in the prosecution of the individual offenders of crimes against women, breaking down patriarchal walls. The states also must invest into the there should be an international body which strongly sanctions this future of their citizens through reform of inheritance and land-ownership failure. Sanctions should range from requests for specified changes, laws. Perhaps more than any other dependency, economic dependence is shaming, to political and economic sanctions. Notwithstanding the the one which increases vulnerability. States must also be beckoned to difficulty of developing internationally agreeable sanctions, what is invest in health-care and educational programs to curb high birth rates. important as a principle is that the states themselves must be made to feel Women who have no control or say about their own reproductive moral, political, legal and economic pressure from the community of capabilities are more saddled by the traditional views which define them nations in order to protect their own citizens (especially women and exclusively in their reproductive roles. Without dismantling the reverence children). for the motherhood role, creating alternate pathways for respectability for Within the local levels, especially in classic patriarchal regions, top women will be a key in breaking the patriarchal choke on their lives. In down, direct foreign interventions do not work because traditional this transformation, it is crucial to enlist the help and authority of the local societies are suspicious of the ideas and ideals associated with the west. elders (both men and women) into the process of social change where Given the deep-rooted suspicions, the existence of either national or change will come along with them rather than despite them. Without international laws/treaties/agreements are not, by themselves, sufficient eliciting the help and cooperation of the elders, the age-based patriarchal to eliminate the dark patriarchal practices. On the contrary, in an effort to systems will sabotage any and all efforts to create positive change. preserve the religo-cultural identities within an increasingly westernizing As a final point, while doing our best to understand and change the world, orthodox patriarchies may even respond with rigidification of tortured lives of our eastern and southern sisters, should we not also their practices (comparable to resurgence in religious extremism). Thus, critically question the gender-based inequalities in our own lives? The although international interventions are absolutely necessary at the state challenge in creating more egalitarian gender relations partially lies in level, they are useless or even counter-productive at local levels. Within changing both women's and men's expectations, behaviours and roles the latter, solutions may involve working within the positive aspects of across the world. the individual cultures. The aim will be to allow and encourage the positive aspects to strip down the legitimacy attributed to violent practices. For example, in patriarchal societies, the concept of 'honour' and its link to women is so entrenched that it will be futile to attempt to dismantle it. Instead, the importance of honour can be reconceptualized as honour in not hurting women and children, and the honour of forgiving perceived misdeeds. Elders should be able to see a role for themselves and find face-saving mechanisms for discontinuing historically binding rituals (i.e., honour killings). Another example would be in terms of a culture that is transfixed on dowry. Maybe, expectations about elaborate gifts to flow from the bride's to the groom's side can be altered slightly, by seeing, for example, the formal educational attainment of the brides to substitute for dowry. This transformation in thinking may work by making the brides more independent and in a stronger position to productively contribute to the finances of their household while at the same time, gaining economic self-sufficiency and bargaining power. This will preserve the system of investment, without enslaving women. I also believe that education and job opportunities, better standards of 5 CEDAW (1979) is the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination living for all (including men/women of all ages), incremental against Women and DEVAW (1993) is the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence replacement of the need for only male labour with need for male and Against Women. Information about their protocols can be accessed through female workers through technological development will go a long way in http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw. Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN 42 43 Aysan Sev’er: PATRIARCHAL PRESSURES ON WOMEN

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KEYWORDS: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN, HOMEOWNERSHIP, RENTAL HOUSING

Using a representative sample of 7,141 Canadian women living either in renter- or owner-occupied housing, this investigation assessed the extent of women's elevated risk for violence in rental housing relative to owner-occupied housing as well as potential explanations for this relationship. Canadian women living in rental housing were twice as likely as their counterparts in owner-occupied housing to experience violence. Explanations examined included family life course (age, marital status, duration of union), male control and domination (sexual jealousy, sexual possessiveness, patriarchal domination), socioeconomic indicators (woman's and partner's employment, woman's and partner's education), and control variables (place of origin, Aboriginal status, urban/rural residence, dwelling type). Results showed that family life course as well as male control and domination are important for understanding the elevated risk of violence against women in rental housing. Thus, the classic housing policy stance, to simply encourage homeownership, will not adequately address this women's health issue.

For centuries researchers have associated homeownership with social benefits, including psychological and physical health (Green, 2001; Hubbard & Davis, 2002). However, despite increasing recognition of the need for gender specific research on health (e.g., Russo, 1990), the relationship between homeownership and women's health does not appear to be a focus in the housing literature. The objective of this study is to examine, in the Canadian context, the relationship between homeownership status and an important women's health issue: partner violence. The extant housing research begs the question of whether living in an occupant-owned dwelling decreases women's risk for violence by an intimate partner. In other words, does living in a renter-occupied dwelling increase a woman's risk of experiencing violence? An

1 This research was supported by a University of Manitoba, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (UM/SSHRC) Grant. Address all correspondence to: Department of Family Social Sciences, 35 Chancellor's Circle, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada. R3T 2N2 (e-mail: [email protected]).