1

YOUNG PEOPLES SEXUAL AND REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE NIGER DELTA.

Briggs, L.A., Ph.D.,1 Peter-Kio, O.B. MPH2

Department of Human Kinetics, Health and Safety Education. Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt.

Abstract

Young people of today remain the largest cohort ever and there has been increasing awareness of the need to address their sexual and reproductive health, education and development needs. The main focus of this review was young people sexual and reproductive health needs and education. Young people around the world including the Niger Delta region engaged in risky sexual behaviour which is characterised by decreased age at sexual debut, multiple sexual partners and unsafe sexual intercourse. Sexually active young females stand the risk of pregnancy, since pregnancy usually occurred when least expected, many young people resorted to clandestine and unsafe abortion. There is an urgent need for an integrative approach to addressing young people sexual and reproductive health, education and development needs.

Introduction

The Niger Delta (ND) used to be referred to all those areas at the outmost southern part of Nigeria covering a range of creeks and swamps. During the British Colonial era the inhabitants of this area were called the Ijos (new spelt “Ijaws”) and are mostly fishermen/women. The Niger Delta now comprises of nine states; Rivers, Delta, Edo, Cross River, Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, Imo, Abia and Ondo states of Nigeria (Niger Delta Development Commission, 2005). The ND is border to the south by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east by Cameroon. It occupies a surface area of about 112,110 square kilometers and represents 12% of Nigeria’s total surface area. It is estimated to have a population of about 27million which represents about 23% of Nigeria’s total population (140million) (National Population Commission (NPC), 2006). About 62% of the populations are aged below 30 years. There are about 40 different ethnic groups, 250 languages and dialects in this area. The majority of the settlements are in the form of small settlements of fewer than 5000 inhabitants. However there are urban settlements which include Port- Harcourt, Warri, Asaba, Benin, Akure, Calabar, Uyo, Owerri, Aba and Yenogoa (Okonta, 2007; Niger Delta Development Commission, 2005).

The Niger Delta is the oil rich area of Nigeria where 90 percent of Nigeria’s wealth and resources are derived and all of the crude oil in Nigeria comes from the numerous, large, producing fields located in the swamps of the ND. Nigeria produces over 2 million barrels of crude oil per day and is the 7th largest producer of crude oil in the world. The region is also rich in natural gas which was previously being flayed but is now being harnessed and exported as liquefied natural gas (Udonwa, Ekpo, Ekanem, Inem, &Etokidem, 2005). It has been debated whether the presence of crude oil in the region has been a blessing or a curse. Some have argued that the years of oil exploration activities with frequent spillages have led to severe environmental degradation with resultant destruction of farmlands and aquatic flora and fauna. Consequently the oil boom has become to the people of the ND, a doom. Years of official neglect has resulted in the ND of today being the epitome of hunger, poverty and injustice. It is estimated that 10million people in the area are destitute with 14 million people living in poverty in rural communities (Okonta, 2007).

2

Adolescence means a period of life that starts at puberty and ends at the culturally determined entrance to adulthood (social maturity and economic dependence). The period of life beginning with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and terminating with the assertion of somatic growth, roughly 11-19years of age. However the World Health Organization (WHO) defined adolescents as those aged between 10 and 19years (WHO, 2009) while young people are those between the ages of 10 and 24years of age with a population of 1.8billion about one fourth of the world’s population (WHO, 2009; UNFPA, 2011).

At both the International Conference on Population and Development(ICPD) and its five years review in 1999 and 2004, participants identified adolescent as a particularly vulnerable group. At those world conferences, governments committed to meet the needs of adolescents and youth for information counseling and high-quality sexual and reproductive health services as a way to encourage them to continue their education, maximize their potentials and prevent early marriages and high risk child bearing. Recent programme experiences shed light on practical ways to provide the adolescents with information, social support, and services that they need to protect themselves from sexual and reproductive health problems. This paper reviews young people’s sexuality and reproductive health education and development in the Niger Delta. The main focus is young people sexual and reproductive health. Specifically, sexual and reproductive health needs and consequences of early pregnancy; knowledge, information and services available for young people.

Adolescent sexuality and fertility Fertility usually refers to the reproductive performance of males and females or couples in a given population. The production of live-births in a population is related to the number of marriages, the age at marriage (or cohabitation), the availability, physical and economic accessibility and use of contraceptives and abortion, economic development and income earning opportunity for women, the educational and occupational status of women and the age-sex structure. One measure of fertility is the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) representing the average number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her life time, if she is to pass through all her child-bearing years conforming to the age specific fertility rates(fertility rates obtained for a specific age group) of a given year. Nigeria currently has a TFR of 5.6 and a growth rate of 3% (National Population Commission (NPC), 2009). If nothing is done to this population it will double itself by 2050

Age at sexual debut had declined in recent year’s globally and sexually active adolescent females stand the risk of pregnancy, since pregnancy usually occurred when least expected, many adolescents resorted to clandestine and unsafe abortion. Unsafe abortion according to the WHO(2003) is any procedure for termination of pregnancy either by individuals without the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimum medical standard or both. Unsafe abortion mainly endangers women in developing countries including Nigeria where abortion is highly restricted by law. Every year an estimated 19-20million unsafe abortion takes place out of which 97% are in developing countries and 68.000 women die every year from unsafe abortion (Grime, Benson, Singh, Remero, Ganatra, Okonofua & Shah, 2006). Despite its frequency unsafe abortion remains the most neglected global health challenges.

Serious risk and consequences accompany increase premarital sexual intercourse, particularly when combined with inadequate information and reproductive health services. Increased sexual activity places young people at a greater risk of unintended pregnancies and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS. Many unintended pregnancies end in abortion, but complete data on abortion is hard to come by. Unsafe abortion, which is sometimes self-induced, can result to severe illness, infertility and death. Even in places where safe abortion services exist, access is often restricted for adolescent girls. 3

Complications from unsafe abortions are leading cause of death among adolescents in some countries (Sanderowitz, 1995) and a major contributor to maternal mortality ratio. Nigeria currently has a maternal mortality ratio of 630 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births the second highest after India globally (WHO, 2012).

Premarital sexual activity is common in many parts of the world and is reported to be on the rise (Population Reference Bureau (PRB),1998). In many countries adolescent girls and boys are under strong social and peer group pressure to engage in premarital sexual intercourse. Also, some features of modern life may increase both the desire and opportunity for sexual activity; the mass media, the breakdown of traditional families and norms, increased migration, urbanization and materialism. For a substantial minority of boys and girls, early sexual activity is not consensual. This collaborates the findings of Imaledo, Peter-kio, &Asuquo (2012) in Rivers State were 21.7% of the study respondents reported that their sexual debut was non consensual. Survey shows that on the average, 43% of adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa and 20% of Latin America have had premarital sexual intercourse before age 20. Sexual activity among adolescents is even higher in some developed countries. For instance, in Sweden 95% girls of 15years old have had sexual intercourse; in the United States and France 68% and 72% respectively of adolescents have had premarital sexual intercourse before age 20 years (Alan Guttmacher Institute (AGI), 1994). However, sexual intercourse before marriage is more common among young men than women. In many societies double standard exist; sexual intercourse is viewed as a sign of maturity and status for adolescent boys while for young girls it is forbidden and shameful (Barnett & Stein, 1998).This may be due to the fact that there is no yardstick to measure the virginity of a boy as compared to a girl.

Reproductive health is a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being of an individual and not merely absence of diseases or infirmities in all matters relating to the reproductive system and its functions and processes (International Conference on Population and Development(ICPD), 1994). Thus reproductive health includes consideration of fertility, conception, pregnancy, child birth and family planning.

According to a study by Briggs (2008) adolescents from larger families and not so bright in school and received sexuality education late and from friends are more likely to become pregnant than adolescents from smaller families, who are academically bright in school and receive sexuality education from parents. Also Alvares et al (1982) comparative study of socio-cultural characteristics of pregnant and non- pregnant adolescents of low socio- economic status showed that pregnant adolescents have less schooling and lower intelligent quotient than their counterparts who were not pregnant.

A pregnant adolescent who wants to improve her economic situation finds that she has to do it alone without the support or help of her male partner. Furthermore, pregnant adolescents live with unstable families that provide less psychological stimulation and an excess of free time. Behavioral norms are observed to be permissive, did not practice any religion, and have peer groups with similar liberal attitudes.

Adolescents from large families are sometimes influenced by mothers’ examples. Older girls in the family who are prematurely pregnant may also put pressure on the younger ones to prove their fertility. Hogan and Kitagawa (1983) also identified the family, personal characteristics and community conditions as factors responsible for adolescent pregnancy among African Americans in Chicago, USA. Adolescent females in homes with single parents, large number of brothers and sisters who had been adolescent mother experiences higher rate of initial sexual intercourse and pregnancy. Also, adolescents without supervision by their parents in early dating behavior have significant higher rates of coitus and pregnancy. 4

There is also a contention that the declining commitment of parents to their daughters might be a contributing factor to adolescent pregnancy. Most parents are themselves immature, dependent and poorly educated (Uhlenberg & Eggebean, 1985). This seems to confirm Briggs (1996) findings in a study of adolescent pregnancy in Port Harcourt. That study similarly indicated among others, the poorly educated status of mothers, adolescents and their parents lack of sexuality education and contraceptive knowledge, non-mother-with –daughter discussion of sexual issues and mothers workload that drastically reduced their supervision of daughters sexual life.

In identifying some of the factors responsible for adolescent pregnancy, Jadgeo (1985) observed that society was to be blamed. According to the researcher, the plight of adolescents reflects the societal short comings in meeting the needs of adolescents. For instance, a typical family, south of the Saharan Africa lacked the emotional, financial security needed for raising a child. In some African countries and the Caribbean adolescent pregnancy and child birth are common outside marriage and regarded as a means of improving status, demonstrating fecundity and attracting a new partner to provide support for each successive child (WHO, 1989). Sometimes, early recourse to childbearing, with its well-known adverse consequences, is largely a problem of adolescent girls who follow the dictates of their traditions and marry early (Briggs, 1993).

According to Monroy de Valero (1984), the factors responsible for adolescent pregnancy are early sexual maturation, ages at marriage, opportunities for sexual relation and changing lifestyles. Also implicated are rapid urbanization, younger age at which adolescents are fending for themselves, the mass media, parents and traditional social norms that influence adolescent sexual behavior (Ezekiel-Hart, Briggs & Peter-Kio, 2012). Money’s (1994) study also confirmed that sexual norms are influenced by younger age at puberty than earlier generations. The development that takes place in adolescence is generally uneven, that physical maturity may well be achieved in advance of psychological and social maturity. In fact, in most societies reproductive capacity is now established at an earlier age than in the past(WHO, 1989). A qualitative study conducted by Gorgen, et al (1993) situation factors responsible for adolescent pregnancy was also identified. These are lack of contraceptive knowledge, ambiguous feelings of pregnancy and conception, conflict images concerning the reproductive role of adolescents and pregnancy, and adolescent low esteem in their interaction with older experienced males. The low self-esteem exhibit by adolescents has correlative effect with environmental factors. Although strong cultural influences on the acceptability of early pregnancy might be there, the predisposing factors are persistent poverty, joblessness, lack of skills for self-reliance and lack of hope for the future (Desmond, 1994).

Studies have also suggested that former victims of childhood sexual abuse may be at increased risk for conception during adolescence and that adolescent pregnancies that are antecedated by childhood sexual abuse are often manifestation of socially deviant behaviour (Steven-Simon & Reichart, 1994). This infers that experiences associated with childhood sexual abuse may affect the incidence and outcome of adolescents childbearing. For instance, data from structured questionnaire, focused group discussions and indepth interviews and field observations used to build up a picture of the sexual culture of 9-19years old living and/or working on the streets of a large Brazilian city revealed that those children and adolescents engage in sexual behaviour that put them at risk of STIs including HIV/AIDS and premarital pregnancy (Raffaelli, et al, 1993). Hence interventions must take into account the fact that for some adolescents, sexual intercourse is used as a means of ensuring survival and dealing with psychological issues that arise during adolescence. 5

Reproductive health problems of adolescents Adolescent early childbearing It was estimated that of the over 15million young females aged 15-19years who gave birth every year, 13 million live in developing countries (Haub & Cornelius, 1998) and that 33% of young females in developing countries give birth before the age 20, ranging for as low as 8% in East Asia to 55% in West Africa. Comparatively, in more developed countries, about 10% of young women give birth by age 20.

Typically, early pregnancy and childbearing are associated with less education and lower future income for young mothers. In some societies, for unwed adolescents, motherhood can result in social ostracism. In other settings, adolescents may choose to become pregnant to gain social status with peers, improve their relationship with family members or because they have few other life opportunities outside of motherhood (Barnett & Stein, 1998).

Adolescent mothers and their children face serious health risks from early pregnancy and childbearing. It has been noted that more adolescent girls die from pregnancy related causes than from other cause (Alan Guttmacher Institute(AGI), 1998). In fact maternal mortality among 15-19year old adolescents is twice as high as for women in their 20s. Because adolescent females have not completed their growth, in particular, height and pelvic size, they are at greater risk of obstructed labour, which can lead to permanent injury or death of both mother and infant (Harrison, et al, 1985). Infants of adolescent mothers are also more likely to be premature and have low birth weights. In many developing countries, the risk of death during the first year of life is 1.5times higher for infants born to mothers under age 20 than those born to mothers ages 20-29years (Kirby, 1999). It has been observed that for all women, first births are higher risk than subsequent births, and for adolescents, the risk are greater still, because adolescents have less experience, resources and knowledge about pregnancy and childbirth than older women, they and their children suffer when obstetric emergencies occur.

Impact of adolescent childbearing on future world population The reproductive decisions of today’s youth will have a dramatic effect on future world population growth. United Nations demographic projections illustrate how small difference in level of childbearing can result in large difference in population size. For instance, the UN projected in 1998 that if women have on the average 2 children, world population would rise to 9.4 billion. However, if women average 2.5 children, the world population would reach 11 billion by 2050 (Haub & Cornelius, 1998). To the amazement of all the world population reached 7billion in 2011(UNFPA, 2011).

Timing of birth is very critical. Projections show that if today’s adolescent begin childbearing two and half years later than the current average age at birth(12.5), population size by the 22ndcentury would be lower than if no change in timing of birth occurred. Similarly, if they waited five years to have their first births, population size would be 20 percent lower than it would be if current patterns continue (Bongaarts, 1994). In particular, the decision these young people make regarding family size and the timing of births will make today’s young people critical cohort in determining the size of the world population for years to come

Reproductive health needs of young people The reproductive health needs of adolescents cut across both females and males. Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are mostly at a loss when pregnancy occurred but recent studies have now indicated that the adolescent male is also affected for pre-marital fatherhood (Briggs & Cavern, 2000). According to the Population Council (1994), adolescent boys are taught to be sexually aggressive and to view sexual intercourse as contest in which winning means convincing a girl to have sexual intercourse. Unfortunately adolescent boys reproductive health needs are generally ignored. Most adolescent males start sexual 6 intercourse at an early age and with multiple partners(Pitman & Adams 1988; Sigh &Wulf, 1990). They are likely to be proud of their sexual experience (Sigh &Wulf, 1990). In addition, in some societies, if a boy does not have sexual intercourse by what is assumed to be an appropriate age, his friends and even family members may question his masculinity (Population Council, 1994).

Contraceptive Knowledge, Information and Services available to Adolescents Generally speaking, adolescent females are less likely than women over age 20 to use contraceptive methods. Reasons for this include lack of information, misinformation and fear of side effects along with geographic, social, cultural and economic barriers to access and use of family planning. Findings in a study in Port Harcourt metropolis indicated that among 297 pregnant adolescent females, 68.3% did not know of modern contraceptives while 42.0% of their male partners also had no contraceptive knowledge and only 3.0% practice contraception (Briggs and Craven, 2000). Typically, family planning services are designed to serve married adult women. Unmarried adolescents may find service providers hostile or unhelpful, especially where strong cultural or religious beliefs condemn sexual activity among unmarried adolescents. Also, the sporadic and unplanned nature of adolescent sexual activity can be an obstacle to consistent contraceptive use.

Survey have indicated that between 12.0% and 42.0% of married adolescent females in developing countries who say they would prefer to space or limit births are not using family planning. If sexually active unmarried adolescents were included, the unmet needs of women would certainly be higher (UN, 1999). Only 13% of married adolescents ages 15-19yearas use contraception in sub-Saharan Africa. It is worthy of note that a finding in a study to compare practice, the opinion of parents and teachers on contraceptive practice among adolescents in Port Harcourt indicated that 79% of parents and 46.6% of teachers would not encourage the use of contraceptive practice among sexually active adolescents(Briggs, 1994;2002). The implications for such negative viewpoints are not far fetched when one considered the fact that the same study revealed that 85.2% of mothers have never had any mother-with –daughter discussion of sexual matters with their adolescent females. Many mothers are too busy to supervise their adolescent dating or courtship, have no sex education, either shy to discuss sexual matters with their daughters due to the salient taboos attached to such discussion in some societies.

A review of available clinical records of new acceptors of modern family planning method in Rivers State (1989-1991) revealed that in 1989 only 6.3% of adolescents’ 15-19years visited the Planned parenthood office for contraceptive services. The number declined to 4.2% in 1990 and slightly increased to 4.7% in 19991 (Briggs, 1998). A more recent review of the Planned Parenthood office (2008-2010) revealed that only 0.4% of adolescents visited the office for contraception services (Briggs & Peter-Kio, 2011).

Reproductive health education and information available to Adolescents It is believed that if adolescents were provided with adequate education and information on reproductive health, early unplanned pregnancies could be controlled and prevented. A survey carried out by the IPPF (1977) showed that three-quarters of adolescents under the 15years and half above 15years have no access to reproductive health information. Ladipo, et al (1996) study also revealed that 45% of pregnant adolescents in Nigeria most often cited lack of knowledge as the reason for not using contraceptive. This of course confirmed Briggs (1998) study in Port Harcourt where similarly 68.3% of pregnant adolescents interviewed at the antenatal clinics have no contraceptive knowledge. A more recent study in Port Harcourt indicated that 38.0% of adolescents attending antenatal clinic have no knowledge of contraceptives (Ezekiel-Hart, et al, 2012). 7

Whether adolescents have access to formal education and information is often determined by government policies and laws which usually tends to reflect the culture, religion and socio- economic climate in a given country. Countries providing sexuality education programmes in schools presents lower rates of adolescent pregnancy and abortion (Creatsas, 1993). It seems sexuality education programmes are absolutely necessary to offer adolescents the knowledge on the implications of premature sexual activity, as well as prevention of unplanned pregnancy.

Conclusion About 2 billion people, more than one fourth of the world’s 7billion people are between the ages of 10 and 24years making this group of people the largest ever to enter adulthood. It was estimated 60% of young people live in the less developed countries. This population of young people in these countries is significantly higher than in the more developed countries.

It has been stated that the current generation of young people is the healthiest, most educated, and most urbanized in history. While urbanization brings greater access to education and health services, it also carries greater exposure to the risk of drug and alcohol abuse, violence, unintended pregnancy, STIs including HIV/AIDS. Modernization usually tends to create more employment opportunities, but this is not so in the Niger Delta, rather it brings about a loss of traditional values and separation from extended families. The context in which young people live today would most likely influence the course of their lives in the future.

Recommendations The following recommendations are made 1. Young people should have access to accurate and relevant information about human sexuality and reproductive health 2. A mature masculinity should be promoted as a basis for responsible sexual behavior. This needs the support of social organizations in the community whose social norms assess boys masculinity by sexual adventurism 3. Effective sexuality educational programmes should be implemented in schools and at community level and periodically evaluated. 4. Provision of social support system where adolescent girls need to be assured that society really could deliver alternative to pregnancy, such as education, skill acquisition and regular income 5. Legislative provision for preventive care and services for adolescent mothers and their babies who are unable to fend for themselves should be in place

References

Alan Guttmacher Institute (AGI)(1994). Hopes and relations. New York, AGI

Alan Guttmacher Institute (AGI)(1998). Into a new world: young women’s sexual and reproductive lives. New York. AGI:12

Alvares, et al. (1987). Socio-cultural characteristics of pregnant and non-pregnant adolescents of low socio-economic status: A comparative study. Adolescence, 22(85):149-156

Barnett, B., & Stein, J. (1998). Women’s voices, women’s lives: The impact of family planning. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Family Health International: p.83

Bongaarts, J (1994). Population policy option in the developing world. Science, 263(5148): 771-776 8

Briggs, L.A (1994). Post primary school teacher view point on reproductive health and contraceptive practice among girls in Port Harcourt. Journal of Roy Soc. Health, 144(5)235-239

Briggs, L.A. (1998). Contraceptive counseling amongst adolescents in Port Harcourt, Nigeria: social Welfare Workers can help too. West African Journal of Nursing, 9(2): 84-87

Briggs, L.A. (2002). Comparative analysis of parents and teachers viewpoint on contraceptive practice among adolescents in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. West African Journal of Medicine, 21(2):95-98

Briggs, L.A. (2008). Issues in Health Education. Abuja. Timi Hyacinth Enterprises.

Briggs, L.A., & Craven, R.C (2000). Reproductive health needs among male partners of pregnant adolescents in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. International Journal of Health Promotion and Education, 38(4): 151-154

Briggs, L.A., & Peter-Kio, O.B. (2011). Characteristics of new acceptors of modern family planning in Planned Parenthood Federation of Nigeria, Rivers State. Nigerian Journal of Health Education, 15(1)223-232

Briggs, N.D. (1993). Illiteracy and maternal health: educate or die. Lancet, 341(8852):1063-1064

Creatsas, G.K. (1993). Response of married adolescents to contraception during adolescence. Current opinion in Obstetric and Gynaecology, 19(6)485

Desmond, A. M.(1994). Adolescent pregnancy in the United States: not a minority issue. Health Care for Women International, 15(4): 325-331

Ezekiel-Hart, J., Briggs L.A., & Peter-Kio, O.B (2012). The prevalence of adolescent pregnancy in Rivers State of Nigeria: Implications for sexuality Education. International Journal of Educational Development, 2(1):1-12.

Gorgen, R., et al. (1993). Problems related to school girls pregnancies in Buskina faso. Studies in Family Planning, 24(5):283-294

Grime, D.A., Benson, J., Singh.S., Romero, M., Ganatra, B., Okonufua, F.E., & Shah, I.H. (2006). Unsafe abortion: the preventable pandemic: The Lancet sexual and reproductive health series 4, October 2006.

Harrison, K. A et al (1985). The influence of maternal age and poverty on childbearing with special reference to primigravidae aged 15years and under. British journal of Obstetrics and gynecology, Suppl 5.

Haub, C., & Cornelius, D. (1998). World population Data Sheet. Washington DC Population Reference Bureau.

Hogan, O.P., & Kitagawa, E. M. (1983). Family factors in the fertility of black adolescents. (Unpublished), 45p

Imaledo, J.A., Peter-Kio, O.B., & Asuquo, E. O (2012). Knowledge, Perception and Experience of Non consensual sex among undergraduate students of the University 9

of Port Harcourt, Rivers State. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 2(2):2005-2015

International Conference on Population and Development. (1994). International Conference on Population and Development Programme in Action New York. Para. 6.7. Cairo.

Jadgeo, T. (1985). Caribbean Teenagers - their shortcoming are society's. People, 12(1):14- 17

Kirby, D. (1999). Reducing adolescents pregnancy: Approaches that work. Contemporary Pediatrics, 16(7):92-105

Money, J. (1994). Sexual revolution and counter-revolution. Harmone Research, 41 suppl, 2:44-48

Monray de Valero, A. ed (1984). Consequences of reproduction during adolescence. In Salud, sexualided adolescencua give practice para integrar la orientation sexual en la atencion de salud a los adolescents, Mexico city, Mexico, Cant de Orientacion Para Adolescentes 181-189.

National Population Commission (NPC). (2006). Population and Housing census, 2006. Abuja, Nigeria.

National Population Commission (NPC). (2009). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2008. Abuja, Nigeria: National Population Commission and ICF Macro

Niger Delta Development Commission (2005). Draft copy of the Niger Delta Regional Development Master Plan. NDDC: www.nddconline.org. Downloaded on 2nd May 2005.

Okonta, P.I. (2007). Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health in the Niger Delta Region ofNigeria-Issues and Challenges. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 11(1):113- 124

Pitman, K., & Adams, C. (1988).What about the boys? Teenage pregnancies strategies. Washington, DC: Children's defend fund.

Population Council (1994).Family Planning and gender issues among adolescents.New York: Population Council

Population Reference Bureau (PRB) (1998). Improving reproductive health in developing countries, Washington DC Raffaelli, M., et al (1993).Sexual practices and attitudes of street youth in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Street youth study group. Social Science and Medicine, 37(5):661-670

Senderowitz, J. (1995). Adolescents health. World Bank discussion paper 272. Washington DC. World Bank 17.

Singh, S., & Wulf, D. (1990).Today's adolescents, tomorrow’s parents.A portrait of the Americans. New York: Alan Gutmacher Institute

Steven-Simon, C., & Reichart, B. (1994).school based prenatal and post- partium care: strategies for meeting the medical and educational needs of pregnancy and parenting students. Journal of School Health, 62(7): 304-309 10

Udonwa, N.E., Ekpo, M., Ekanem, I.A., Inem, A.V., & Etokidem, A. (2004). Oil doom and AIDS boom in the NDR of Nigeria. Rural and Remote Health 4 (online), 2004: no 273. http://rrh.deakin.edu.au. Down loaded 24th April 2005.

Uhlenberg, P., & Eggebean, D. (1985).The declining well-being of the American adolescents. Public Interest, 82:25-38.

UNFPA (2011). Delivering results in a world of seven billion people. Annual report, 2011

United Nations. (1999). Key actions for the further implementation of the programmes of action of the International Conference on Population and Development. New York. United Nations Population Fund

WHO (2009).Adolescents pregnancy: a culturally complex issue. Bull world Health Organization 87(6) 410-411

WHO (2012). Trends in maternal mortality: 1990 to 2010. WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA and World Bank estimate.

WHO. (1989). Reproductive health of adolescents: A strategy for action. A joint WHO/UNFPA/UNICEF statement. Geneva

WHO. (2003). Safe abortion: technical and policy guidance for health systems. Geneva. 11

The Conflict between Science and Religion: The Need for Compromise

By

Kemka H. Ogbonda, PhD Department of Biology Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Rumuolumeni, PMB 5047 Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

Summary

The paper examines the apparent conflict between Science and religion. In so doing it looks at the real cause of the conflict, which originated from the differing views of science and religion on the origin of the universe and of life. It examines both science’s and religion’s views, notes the discrepancies in the views and brings out clearly the areas where each, science and religion, has failed. To strike a compromise between science and religion, it suggests what should constitute a new science and a new religion. It finally proposes the concept of Scientific Religion which, it is hoped, will help to move humanity forward in the path of progress.

Key Words: Science, Religion, Conflict, Scientific religion, Compromise.

Introduction Science does two things: it discovers; it invents. To discover is to lay bare something that was there but hidden until the discoverer uncovered it. Invention is a human creation, invented by human ingenuity. In either discovery or invention, science uses a methodology commonly referred to as the scientific method, which involves processes such as observation, data collection, experimentation, etc. It therefore draws its conclusions from observable and demonstrable evidence. Religion, in contrast, has no pinpointable methodology. It relies solely on faith, belief, dogma, or superstition. This lack of any known process makes its assertions unreliable and fraught with danger as it has no way of proving, demonstrating or explaining what it believes or faithfully holds to be the truth or fact. Science, by its very nature, does not recognize or accept anything that cannot be subjected to its processes. In particular, it rejects the existence of the Supernatural, an Intelligence (God) somewhere who is in charge of and controls all events in the universe. Religion, which thrives in supernaturalism, frowns at this position of science. Here begins and lies the conflict between them that is science and religion. Can this conflict be resolved? This paper sets out to examine the conflict between science and religion and tries to strike a sort of compromise where each, science and religion, is ready to shift a little in order to accommodate the other. It is hoped that none - science or religion – would have anything to lose at the end.

Instead, both will become partners in progress even as man struggles to solve life's numerous puzzles in order to survive on earth.

The Conflict between Science and Religion: The Need for Compromise

The Conflict between Science and Religion 12

Between 200 and 1200 AD was a period of Dark Ages in the history of the development of knowledge. The Catholic Church was at the helm of affairs of the world, controlling and directing all aspects of knowledge. Superstition reigned and greater reliance was placed on religious dogma. No distinction was made between science and theology, and the one was questioned as little as the other. No important scientific advances were made during this period. Much later, a period of intellectual reawakening came in Europe. Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), both theologians and philosophers, who taught at the University of Paris enunciated and accepted the idea of a distinction between natural truth (Science) and revealed truth (Religion). Thus, large segments of human knowledge were separated from theology. This paved the way for science. In like manner and at the same time, Roger Bacon (Ca. 1210-1293) at Oxford University was calling for an end to unthinking acceptance of authoritative writings such as Aristotle's. He told the world: "Cease to be ruled by dogmas and authorities; look at the world." Later, Francis Bacon (1581-1621) championed the experimental approach to knowledge, urging men to trust no statements without verification; to test all things with the utmost vigor. The statements by these great men prepared the grounds for a more scientific approach to events and sort of antagonized scientists with the Church. Scientists' questioning of certain religious dogmas and superstitions aroused the anger of the Church. Hence, under the Inquisition many of the early scientists were either executed or imprisoned for their views which were seen to be against the teachings of the Church. This marked the beginning of the conflict between scientists and theologians; between science and religion.

The Real Cause of the Conflict

The cause of the conflict between science and religion can be traced to two important developments in the history of knowledge. They are: 1. Copernicus' view of the heavenly bodies. 2. Darwin's theory of organic evolution.

Copernicus' View of the Heavenly Bodies

Based on Greek philosophy and particularly on the teachings of Aristotle, the Church had accepted and taught the earth-centered idea of the solar system. That is, that the earth was the centre of the solar system, with all other heavenly spheres (planets) revolving around it. In those days, there was no scientific community and education was largely in the hands of the Church. The authorities on religion and science were often one and the same. A Polish Catholic, Mathematician and Astronomer, named Nicolaus Copernicus came up with his concept of the positions and movements of the heavenly bodies. In his views which were contained in a book titled "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres", Copernicus advanced the heliocentric (sun-centered) concept of the solar system. That is, that the sun was at the centre of the solar system and not the earth as adopted and taught by the Church. His model was a mathematical (scientific) ideal. The Church did not like this position of Copernicus as it stood opposed to their own teaching. A leader of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther (1483-1546), said of Copernicus: "This fool wishes to reverse the entire science of astronomy." In reaction to this opposition by the Church, Copernicus (Awake!, 2005) wrote a letter to Pope Paul III. Part of the letter reads:

Kemka H. Ogbonda, Ph.D 13

"There are certain ‘idle talkers’ who take it upon themselves to pronounce judgment, although wholly ignorant of mathematics, and if by shamelessly distorting the sense of some passage in Holy Writ to suit their purpose, they dare to reprehend and attack my work; they worry me so little that I shall even scorn their judgments as foolhardy”

Sooner or later another scientist emerged. He was Galileo Galilei who also was a Catholic. Galileo Galilei elaborated on the work of Copernicus and was convinced that Copernicus was correct. He also saw spots on the sun, today called Sunspot, thus challenging another cherished philosophical and religious tenet - that the sun is not subject to change or decay. By this time and development, the Catholic Church had become openly opposed to the Copernican theory. Hence, when Galileo argued that not only was the heliocentric concept correct but it harmonized with scripture, the Church smelled heresy. That is, by arguing that the heliocentric concept agreed with scripture, Galileo presented himself as an authority on religion, which further provoked the Church. There could only be one Church, one authority - in the sight and reasoning of the Catholic. In 1663, the Inquisition sentenced Galileo to life imprisonment, which was quickly commuted to house arrest in consideration for his age. Galileo was condemned because he rejected an interpretation of scripture based on Greek philosophy. He had no quarrel with the Bible; his quarrel was with the Catholic Church, which allowed Greek philosophy to influence its theology, the Church bowed to tradition rather than follow the teachings of the Bible. It was only in 1992 that the Catholic Church officially admitted to error in its judgment of Galileo (Awake!, 2005). Darwin's Theory of Organic Evolution

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882), a naturalist, in 1859 published a book titled "The Origin of Species". The book is an embodiment of his studies which culminated in his theory of the origin of life and of species. In his own words, Darwin (Darwin, 1859) writes:

I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgment of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists until recently entertained, and which I formerly entertained-namely, that each species has been independently created - is erroneous. I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species."

Darwin's theory is the theory of descent with modification through variation and natural selection. In other words the theory is saying that life evolved from non-life without any divine interference and that all species evolved from pre-existing species rather than having been specially created. Darwin's theory sparked off a lot of controversy. Scientists (of the time) saw the theory as an answer to the question of the origin of life. In it also they saw an explanation for the origin of the universe, which made them conclude that the universe, universal laws, and life itself were products of evolution, according to Darwin. The Church was not happy about this; for the Church, another heresy

The Conflict Between Science and Religion: The Need for Compromise 14 has been committed. Charles Darwin, himself, was called "the most dangerous man in England." Science's view of the origin of the universe and of life itself

The Universe

Two theories are advanced to explain the origin of the universe.

1. Big Bang Theory (Taylor, 1969): This theory states that sometime in the distant past, billions and billions of years ago, vast fields of gas (where they came from, nobody knows) gradually condensed and finally became incandescent. Then, perhaps set off by heat, a blast (an explosion) occurred that gave rise to the universe -gases, cloud, from which the stars, sun, all the planets, and the universal laws originated. 2. Steady - State Theory (Hoyle, 1951): This theory postulates that matter is constantly developing from nothing, continues for a few billions of years and then disappears again into nothing. That is to say that the universe is infinite in time and space with no beginning. It continues to expand with the appearance of new matters and extinction of older ones.

Life Life is said to have evolved from non-life by chance chemical evolution (spontaneous generation), without any divine interference. The chemical evolution was followed by biological evolution that ultimately gave rise to the first-ever form of life. The whole of present-day life is thought to have descended from the simple primeval life.

Religion's view of the origin of the universe and of life itself

The Christian Religion tells us that the universe and, life itself, were specially created by an Almighty God (Holy Bible, 'a').

The discrepancy between science's view and religion’s view of the origin of the universe and of life itself Both science and religion agree that life came from the dust (non-living matter). But while religion sees an Intelligence (God) behind life from the dust (Holy Bible 'b'), science does not see any Intelligence but blind chance.

Listen to what some leading scientists had to say: • Scientist Dobzhansky said... "evolution is due neither to chance nor to design. It is due to a natural creative process" (Weier et al.1982). • Scientist Karl Von Naegeli said... "to deny spontaneous generation (life from non-life) is to proclaim a miracle." (Hardin,1966).

Why science tends to maintain its view 1. Science, by its nature, is materialistic and promotes materialism - the theory that physical matter is the only or fundamental reality and that all being and process and phenomena can be explained as manifestations or results of matter. Science, therefore, does not see or recognize anything outside the material world.

Kemka H. Ogbonda, Ph.D 15

2. The existence of an Intelligence (God) or a force behind all order in nature cannot be investigated in the (science) laboratory. Any phenomenon science cannot investigate (and prove) in its laboratory is considered as non-science and so, non-existent. 3. The scientific community is like a club or society, which has certain laws or proto-cols binding its members. For one to truly belong, one must be obedient to the laws of the society. So, anyone who professes science and who recognizes the existence of a God has committed scientific heresy. He has become dissident and stands the risk of being ostracized. No scientist would want to be so seen or treated; hence the scientific view is tenaciously held and observed.

The failure of science Science has failed because of its inability to recognize and accept the existence of the supernatural or paranormal.

The failure of religion The major pitfall of religion is its tenacious hold on faith, belief, dogma, or superstition. Striking a compromise between science and religion I have always seized every available opportunity to tell my students that, if there was anybody, somewhere, who would accept and, believe in, the existence of a supernatural God, it must be the scientist (that is, one who studies and professes science). This is because everything around and about him, the scientist, - the universal laws, which he discovers and which he uses in his inventions; the life he lives; death itself, which he cannot explain or control; other wonders of the universe - just everything, speaks of an Almighty God, somewhere. Science must accept this as a fact. It (science) has nothing to lose by so doing. Religion lays much emphasis on faith or belief, which results from or leads to superstition. Superstition is retrogressive in nature. Religion must abandon this aspect of it. Hear what some “movers” and “makers” of society say:

• Science investigates, religion interprets. Science gives man knowledge which is power, and religion gives man wisdom which is control.” -Martin Luther

• “Science without religion is lame and religion without science is blind.” -Albert Einstein Science and religion, each must be able to shift grounds a little to accommodate the other, to reach a compromise. Such a compromise is very vital for the survival of the human species. A new science I advocate a new science, the science that acknowledges, recognizes, accepts and has fear and respect for the supernatural, an Almighty creator who created the universe and its laws, who created life in the first place, and who is incharge and in control of the earth and all that happens on it. That supernatural Being is the source of science and of scientific knowledge.

The Conflict between Science and Religion: The Need for Compromise

A new religion 16

I advocate a new religion that professes and has respect and fear for a true Almighty God. It is the religion that sees sense, science, and reason in all that it does. It is a religion that asks questions and sees reasons for its actions. It is a religion that understands, tolerates and is adaptable to changes in the society.

The Concept of Scientific Religion In the pursuit of science or religion, a new concept is proposed – the concept of Scientific Religion. Scientific religion adopts a scientific approach to religion and the use of religion in science. Its major thrust is:

• Using the principles of science to explain religious issues; the use of the scientific method in the study and practice of religion. • Using religion to explain certain issues that science has no explanations for. • Seeing any issue as superstitious and, therefore, useless or magic, which cannot be explained and understood by reasons of Science or religion.

Conclusion

Science must work in harmony with religion and religion with science in order to further the progress, survival, perpetuation, and preservation of the human species.

References

Awake! (July 22, 2005). New York: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.

Darwin, C.R. (1859). The Origin of Species. J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd London.

Hardin, G. (1966). Biology : Its principles and Implications. Second Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company. San Francisco.

Hoyle, F. (1951). The Nature of the Universe. Harper and Brothers, New York.

Taylor, K.N. (1969). Creation and the High School Student. Tyndale House Publishers, Wheaton, Illinois.

The Holy Bible: New International Version (1978). a) Genesis 1:1-31; b) Genesis, 1:27. Guide Posts Carmel, New York.

Weier, T.E., Stocking, C.R., Barbour, M.G. and Rost, T.L (1982). Botany. An Introduction to Plant Biology. Sixth Edition. John Wiley and Sons.

Kalabari Masquerade Traditions: Extrapolation of Culture, 17

Aesthetics and Education for Sustainable Development

Charles Goye Tobin Omuaru Fine and Applied Arts Department Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Port Harcourt

Abstract Masquerade in traditional African societies is a phenomenon, though the events have spiritual connotations, they are artistic, entertaining and educational. Unfortunately, nowadays, the displays are greeted with nostalgia, contempt, biased criticism and mix feelings. Only few make effort on preserving the traditions. The reason can not be far fetched; mostly, because of the imported Western culture and its concomitants; amongst which are civil service jobs, new values, more lucrative oil and gas jobs and business in the far away big cities. Without doubt, these have resulted to neglect and abandonment of the culture and traditions of the kalabari people. If this mindset and attitude are left unabated, the African cultures and traditional practices will drift into oblivion. The paper is therefore designed to study the educational values, aesthetics, economic and tourism potentials intrinsic in the performance of Kalabari masquerade tradition that can be extrapolated for development at modern times.

Introduction In the deltaic part of the South-South region, Rivers State of Nigeria, at the estuaries of the Atlantic Ocean domicile a Negroid people, popularly called Kalabari. The word Kalabari is adulterated from the original name Pere-bo-keleke-Ibari, Horton (1969). They speak Kalabari, a dialect of the Ijaw group and live in densely populated settlements, numbering thirty three towns and villages, excluding fishing settlements that are acquiring village status. In the present democratic dispensation, they are split into three Local Government Areas; namely Akuku Toru Local Government Area, headquarter at Abonnema, Asari Toru Local Government Area, headquarter at Buguma and Degema Local Government Area, headquarter at Degema.

Their major occupation is fishing, and selling of their excess catches to their close and distant neighbours. Their settlement at the banks of the ocean brought them in contact with the early white visitors. The opportunity gave rise to overseas trade, Western education and political awareness which gave them priceless opportunities, but did not rob them of the practice of their culture and traditions. But today, things are beginning to change.

Extant culture

The phenomenal African Culture and Traditional life of the Kalabari people is now giving way for the diffused Western life style. The one time bustling squares and community halls are now ghostly, while the inhabitants are faced with new challenges; environmental degradation caused by oil and gas explorers, who exploit the people, in exchange of intra and inter communal squabbles, killings, cultism, and crimes such as sea piracy in recent times, especially along the creeks and down the deep seas. The schools of fishes are becoming shallow, and the fishes are receding back into the ocean, where mechanized fisher-men can only ferry, leaving the subsistent fisher-men to their peril. Though faced with this dilemma, they irk out for a living and carry on with the left-over of the culture and traditions inherited from their ancestors. 18

Kalabari Masquerade Traditions: Extrapolation of Culture, Aesthetics and Education for Sustainable Development

The culture of a people is the nucleus of their existence and survival, as well, a mark of distinction between them and other peoples. Popular definitions of culture by Edward Tylor, quoted by Thompson (1991) and others are as follows. For Tylor, culture, “that complex whole which include knowledge, belief, law and habits acquired by man as a member of a society” To Nwosu and Kalu (1982) culture is “a distinctive and transmissible network of symbols which characterize a designed aggregate of people”.

From the foregoing, it is explicit that, culture is the sum total or aggregate of the people’s life which binds them together; it involves their aspirations, attitude, and day to day running of the community of which every individual is a stake-holder. Also important is their religious inclination, and recreation. In Kalabari, as in other African communities, there is a thin line between religion and other aspects of the culture: from birth to marriage, religious ceremonies, and even at death the air is charged with traditions of the past, commonly referred to as “Elem-sa k’ Mie mie ayi”, translated as “the doings of the Past”. It provides a constant means of measurement of standard between the past and present. In the present circumstance weaker culture are obliterated when in contact with foreign ideas. Especially, with Christian ideas, African practices are wrongly interpreted, misunderstood and judged wrongly; as a result, Kalabari masquerade traditions suffer setback, where as people are oblivious of its benefits and services to the community. The validation of this hypothesis is taken from Aig-Imoukbuede’s quotation of Chinua Achebe’s work (1986), which says, “The arts are not the poor relation of the economic world. On the contrary they are source of its vitality”. It is on this premise Kalabari masquerades are studied in order to arrive at answer for these problems.

An overview of Kalabari Masquerade origin

The underlying practice of masquerade ceremonies in the past has been spiritual, until most recently when its use revolves around aesthetics and entertainment. The origin of masquerade in kalabari can be traced to the recorded versions of Horton (1973) and the narratives of Dodoye Iboroma, a masker in bakana. Horton’s version was narrated by the famous Owuye Ekine, the leader of Ekine society of kalabari (buguma). Owuye Ekine’s narrative presumes the relationship between the kalabaris and the mythical beings, where the gods have direct influence on the affairs of men. He traced the story to a beautiful woman who rejects all suitors to the annoyance and jealousy of men and gods. When she chose to marry the son of a chief priest of Ojoma, the owuama apu (the spirit people) got angry and kidnapped her; where she resided and learned the trade (masquerading) of the spirit world. However, after a long while she was released with the instructions (taboos), the dos and don’ts of masquerading; failure was to attract some severe consequences. Ekineba, as she was called was returned to her husband, in Ojoma – where she was cleansed and purified after which she got engaged in human activities. With the help of her husband and some other men she set up the masquerading tradition, and the association was named after her. However, after intervals, men questioned her singular rights to perform certain functions (against the status quo in the community), given by her erstwhile captors, afterwards violated the instructions and Ekineba was thereafter taken away by the water people. Other popular versions recited by Dodoye Iboroma depict less mythically imbued and more humanly analytical stories. He says, the kalabari in distant past inhabited same location with the Efiks, whose trade in ‘headhunting’ led to reprisal attacks by the kalabaris, with the same type of masks by the Efiks which afterwards develop to masquerading tradition. The second 19 story has it that, those who traverse the rivers for their daily livelihood had seen the water people perform masquerades to their delight, and on report to the chief of the community,

Charles Goye Tobin Omuaru expedition to record the event would be designed for the next fenibeso, inorder to institutionalize these spectacles. It is noted that most masquerades in kalabari were developed through this source, while others are adopted or abducted from other sources.

The colour and pageantry exhibited by the kalabari masquerade can be summed up in the following by Jenewari (1973);

The Masquerade present a corresponding, if not More spectacular, display of colour and variety. Each of them has behind it a story which explains its origin and ownership, it’s role in Ekine, its costume and headpiece. The Various masquerades thus involve cross-classification.

There is an array of masquerades, types and styles representing various classes of creatures, namely animals of land and sea, fishes, reptiles and birds. However, it will be difficult to give an accurate account of the total number of all the masquerades in kalabari towns and villages. This not withstanding, Jenewari noted fourty six in buguma Owu aru sun ceremony. This figure can be replicated, knowing that Ekine society exists in all the kalabari towns and villages; however with minor indigent differences.

Kalabari masquerades can be classified according to the location they are derived, for example, the animals of land and sea, reptiles, fishes, birds as well as water spirits. Presently, there are no noted classifications of kalabari masquerades; however, few that are studied are on sculptures and headpieces by Horton (1965) and few others. Also, that which is noteworthy is the Jenewari’s Owu aru sun: Kalabari most colourful ceremony, his discursive narrative is impressive, clear and concise; creating mental images of the ceremony on the minds of readers. The pictures provided for illustration may not be adequate, but they afford readers windows to glimpse the ceremony; they are as well tasking, giving opportunity to creative minds to fill in the puzzles. Nevertheless, it would have been gratifying if comparative analyses between buguma’s Ekine and other kalabari towns such as Abonnema and bakana are made. Interestingly, it also includes masquerades that belong to various war canoe houses in buguma, namely,Toru okoko, Igoni, Gbasa, Ngbula, Omua, Abirimanga, Igbo, Otobo, Egweta sambi, Ogion, Egbelegbe, Aki, Emene Peri-Igbo, Siri, Agbara, and a lot more. However, it should be noted that, differences in styles of masquerade headpieces and costumes are found in different communities, for instance, the otobo of soku village is decked with palm fronds which conceal the headpiece, as well as the body, while those of Buguma, Abonnema and Bakana are left visible.

Classification of Masquerade, Performance and Taboo

There are wide range of masquerade groups, each with its types numbering five to eight or more; each group is a family of it’s own, having the leader, a father, mother and children. They represent animal life, fish, or the birds of the sky which is least represented. These are all twined in the world-view of the Kalabari people, where gods find their place in the human world. A deeply religious and complex nature of interrelationship of what they commonly refer to oju (body), teme (spirit), tamuno (creator) and so (heaven). But there are 20 three distinct non-material beliefs in this world-view that hold sacred to the Kalabaris, which are the oru, owu and duen.

Kalabari Masquerade Traditions: Extrapolation of Culture, Aesthetics and Education for Sustainable Development

The traditional concepts explained above guide the people’s actions, for example, the village heroes that found ‘some-thing’ amongst men and left after, once lived among them, revered but left without the taste of death. The owu are water people, who show interest and influence in the affairs of men, Horton (1981). Duen are the spirits of the dead, who exist with humans in the spiritual plane. Among the three, the Kalabaris represent the owu in their masquerades; they influence human lives especially, the creeks which the Kalabari people traverse, for fishing and other networks of activities, including trading, war, marriage, etc. At different occasions, the villages are agog with minor or major festivities, and at such times the masquerades are at their prowl, followed by men and children. The sound of bells that trail the gait of a man and echoes of children’s voices annunciate the entry of masquerades to oblivious passers-by. To whatever occasion that beholds these events, a proper planning was needed; if it was a masquerade event to honour the death of a chief, wealthy businessman, a patron or an annual occasion for masquerade club, or the Ekine annual festival, there would be a night-watch.

In order to discuss this, let us take a referent event for a wider view. For preparation, any event of this nature deserves adequate arrangements, by making provisions of masquerade head (the sculptures) – costumes, and other accessories. Also inclusive are foods, drinks, fund to purchase items and payment of needed services, as a matter of fact the event requires huge finances. When the needs are met and others are improvised, dates are then taken for the festival. However, before then, news must have gone far beyond the localities, even to cities which bring home sons and daughters, friends, in-laws, fans and well wishers, holiday makers, tourists, lovers and copyists. Vigil will be organized; a mock performance that could last between thirty minutes to one hour or even more, of drumming, singing and dancing. This excludes the performances. The night is actually used to put up finishing touches to all arrangements and preparations. Most members are awake till the wee hours of the night, except the masqueraders, who are forced to take their rest to sustain energy and clear mind for the next day. The vigil is also designed to carry out ritual activities for purifications and ablutions to the gods. There are three days of performance, twice a day, one in the morning and the other in evening. Every morning, from the early hours of 6.00 am masquerades are decked with head- pieces and costumes. They make morning routine by going round the community, possible neighboring villages as well. Brief performances take place at the village or compound square (the playground).

The major display takes place in the evening with fun-fire, laughter, giggling, praise and jubilation from the spectators. Each day comes with different patterns of dances, styles of display and songs, dirges and dramas. Masquerade performances are characterized by drama, the reenactment of mythical beings and events, gods and ancestors of the villages whose relationship with men on the seas and land have tremendous effect on the lives of the villagers. These could be fertility, protection from assailants and enemies, abundant fish and successful war expeditions. The success of these expectations depends on their ability to keep up their part of the bargain, taboo. Every masquerade association has some taboos designed to guide human activities, in relation to the gods and among the masqueraders. For instance, a masquerader must abstain from immorality; failure comes with its consequences. However, there is nothing wrong for masquerade associations to develop code of conduct for themselves, in whatever form it takes, but this should not interfere with the rights of other citizens in the community. The taboos and secrecies surrounding masquerades displays are 21 some of the criticism that have underlie masquerade development in many African societies. As the communities continue to

Charles Goye Tobin Omuaru develop and open up its gates for non-indigent visitors and the influx of the prevalent Christian religion, the society can never be the same. Masquerade association must take this into consideration and structure their activities to respect other people’s views. For complete narration of some of the masquerade displays read “masquerades of Kalabari” by Omuaru (1994), “ikaki” by Horton (1981) and “Gods as Guests”, Horton (1991). The narrations are excellent; readers can imagine pleasant performances in their minds eyes. The author hereby examines the development traits intrinsic in them.

Concepts and definitions of development

The term ‘development’ has been used too often, proliferated, and euphemized for growth, expansion and elaborate. It also describes the level of success or failure in the life of people and country, especially African countries after independence. There are phrases like underdevelopment, developing countries and scientifically advanced countries from those that are not. To the lay man, development is taken to mean possession of personal belongings, enlargement of ones territories, for example, buying more dresses, good food, houses, cars and the likes. On the part of society or government, development is putting up high rising buildings, construction of roads, bridges and employing people into government offices. Quite frankly, the concept of development is beyond these expectations, and by application varies from place to people. In this concept, the paper shall examine development from the standpoint of national development, taking it from the Kalabari masquerade traditions as a unit. To make it more succinct, let us review the ideas of others, whose literatures on development’ can be regarded as widely acceptable.

Time dictionary defines development as ‘to make visible, make better or stronger, to bring out possibilities – evolvement, (Balander and Stodden, 1986). To Walter Rodney (1972),

Development is many-sided process, at the level of the individual; it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity self- discipline, responsibility and material well-being …. At the level of social groups, therefore, development implies increasing capacity to regulate both internal and external relationship.

Certain salient ideas in Walter Rodney’s definition occur more regularly; this indicates emphasis and highlights the importance of the characteristics. He points out that, to be developed, the individual must have increased capacity; capacity implies adequate education and training that enables him function effectively in order to make significant decisions for his liveli-hood, his family, community and the nation by extension. However, without increased personal skill and capacity, there is nothing like development, hence the collective responsibilities of people in any social group reflects the viability of that group. Simply put, the wealth of a nation is the reflection of its people, a transmission of personal will power and intellect to nation building. Whilst Iwe says, 22

…………a development transmission should embrace the material, cultural, moral and social spheres of human life. It is a transition from material wants and misery to reasonable measure of material sufficiency, from moral underdevelopment generated by avarice and selfishness to higher values of life, service and care for others, Iwe (1979).

Kalabari Masquerade Traditions: Extrapolation of Culture, Aesthetics and Education for Sustainable Development

The implication therefore, development is a product of individual and collective capacity building which translates to materials, nonmaterial goals and achievement. On the personal or individual level, development is an attainment of mental capacity building which results from education, and social exposure. It is worthy to note that, this attainment begets material achievement and the ability to appreciate and utilize them.

Therefore at the level of individual, as Walter Rodney (1975) puts it, “it implies increased skills and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self discipline… and material wellbeing”. It is doubtless that, the collective use of the individual skills, capacity and creativity, etc, generate the so needed material and non-material well-being for the social groups or the nation in general. How then can Kalabari masquerade performances as a unit be extrapolated for development for the immediate communities, the state and country at large.

The significance of masquerade in Kalabari

The psychological influence of religion on man is so intense that he is hardly able to wriggle himself out of its claws, neither has education (Western) been able to do the magic. The negative impact this has created on the sculpture, whether fetish or everyday sculptural piece, especially when grotesque in form, abstract in the Africa arts style is an object of spiritual worship or Voodoo. With this mental state in the society, the appreciation of modern African Sculpture continues to elude development. African Ancient arts are sold out at the back door; masquerades have begun to fall into disfavour with the people, which was previously a major form of entertainment. Clergymen and preachers have worsen the situation with attacks on the arts, so are Nigerian home movie directors, who misinterprets the sculptures as object of Voodoo, without clearly understanding the facts through research, instead of poisoning the hearts of people against the arts.

It is a simple fact, and clear to many that in Africa and in many places, the roles of a priest and the artist are distinct – however, it is not out of place, that a talented priest can produce art work for his role instead of consulting an artist. However, that depends on the community, if dual functions are permitted. It is also common knowledge that, it is after the priest has received his commissioned art work from the artist, incantations, sacrifices and ablutions are made on the object before it becomes fetish and assumes it’s role. Therefore, it is erroneous to assume that sculptural arts are fetish and associate them with Spirits.

Having stated these, let us examine the importance of masquerade in the society. Before we elaborate on this, Leuzingers statement is worth starting with, she says: “…… Masks have important sociological, political and psychological functions, not the least of which is that they reduce people’s tension from time to time and relieve their fears, Leuzinger (np)”. 23

This is perfectly correct, but there is more to it than the few points she made; there are numerous values and benefits intrinsic in masquerade performances both in the past and present that can be extrapolated for development in and out of the communities they are staged.

Masquerade Traditions, Socio-cultural and Economic Development

Ideal mode of social interactions and dances as we earlier learned about most western cultures is closed door theatre, ballet and banquettes. This practice may conflict superficially with the African cultural tendencies, but the concepts have a lot in common. Erroneously early

Charles Goye Tobin Omuaru white visitors considered the natives having nothing to do except dancing, singing and ceremonies. However, this is misrepresentation, it is in this respect Nzekwe, (1981) states that, “Despite the change which has overtaken masquerading and left it a monument to a vital principle of traditional religion among these peoples; it is developing along other channels. It has now become an entertainment and other channels. It has now become an entertainment and a source of amusement in their lives”.

Nowadays, the socio-cultural structure has changed; leisure has become luxury, hence, tension and stress are common factors at home and work place. Between the years 2003 and 2008, especially in the Niger Delta the scenario is worsened by gun running, resource control-struggles, gangsters’ activities, kidnapping and robberies. The need to relax, loose tension in the community cannot be over emphasized. Nevertheless, the old cultural mode for sociality which celebrates all situations must be maintained. It is on this premise the Abuja, Calabar and Rivers States carnivals (‘Carniriv’ of 1988 fame’) is welcomed.

The practice of mono-economy wielded towards exportation of oil as a single big time commodity for export, without commensurate interest in Microeconomic strategies (whereby internal production of needed products to service the economy) has been the bane to the development in the past. Aig-Imoukhuede (1990) scored some vantage points in his treaty “culture and national economy” some of which he suggested exportation of local craft, such as textile, tie and dye, embroidery (shoes, caps, gowns, blouses etc) and other fabrics of African traditional motifs and patterns. However, cultural exportation is also very vital.

The development of tourism industry is now on the reawakening. The investment in the tourism industry, using the African culture as bedrock, of Duke’s fame, Ex Governor of Cross River State is a challenge to others. Unfortunately, many players lack focus and creativity, leaving the industry static and lack of activities. The ideas of using Western style of tourism does not make creative change, until a workable African ideas are evolved, the desired goals won’t be achieved.

Masquerade Drama And Talent Development

Though, Kalabari masquerade performances have religious implications in the past, such as ablutions and libations; nowadays, they are shielded with dances, comedy and theatrical performances. Masquerades, attendants and dancers carry out various acts, events 24 of mythical deeds, as they relate with human beings of the community: - lifestyles, good and bad events of people far and near. Nzekwu (1981) confirms this in the following, that,

There is a myth behind each masquerade performances, a short story and very simple story which is usually dramatized. Occasionally one comes across a long elaborate story, but-this is never performed even where it concerns a water spirit actually portrayed in mask form. For since it serves as a frame upon which other art-forms such as music, dancing and dress hung, ---

Kalabari Masquerade dramatization falls into three categories, one, Miming, secondly the owu (spirit) possession and thirdly, dramatic presentation of life events and imaginary contrivance. They mimic events of spirit world with the intent to create hilarious scenes to entertain audience. Such events are spiritual and do not represent direct personage, but

Kalabari Masquerade Traditions: Extrapolation of Culture, Aesthetics and Education for Sustainable Development calculated to create cynicisms of life which have some bearings to true to life situation. Secondly, men and masquerade join to dramatize events of the mythical relationship with each other, or order wise, if it concerns the fish and the fishermen, as in the case of the Seki (the Crocodile), how man hunt or trap the fish. This event becomes so comical that, the audience eventually joins the scene, which climax to catching the fishes. The significance of this drama is that Man’s supremacy over all the cosmological inhabitants is indisputable.

The last of which is possession, this dramatic events can be compared to modern day manifestation of the Holy Spirit, and the speaking in tongue syndrome. Events of this character abound in traditional oru, duen and ancestral spirit visitations. The spirits are said to possess the person, object or masquerades in the events where singing drumming, dances and libations of alcoholic drinks are made to call the spirits for visitation. This is what Horton (1981) tagged “The Gods as Guests”. The events, as natural as they may look, especially in the case of ancestral spirits, are some obvious spiritual entanglements that dispel doubts. However, natural creative talents in acting are shown in the other two. The masquerade events have provided educational opportunities for character developments, and learning to acting in local or traditional drama events.

Masquerades and cultural development

To begin with Nduka, a professor of education; defines education as,

The process of cultural transmission and using culture to embrace the people’s art, music, literature, philosophy, religion, commerce, political organization, science and technology as well as all other ideas and values, implicit and explicit, that permeate a society and bind its people into reorganization unit, Nduka (1994)

It is evident the professor is interested in the relations between Western education and African cultural background. Osokoya (1987) defines “education as a “continuous process which the society establishes to assist its members to understand the heritage of the past and to participate productively in the future”. 25

These definitions are however related by extension to this discourse, a working definition therefore is, the set of values useful for the sustenance of the society, evolved by the society overtime and transmitted by the people to it’s young ones and others to fit in, in order to prolong the life of the community. The curriculum involves a great deal of activities, sometimes tedious: pedagogy sometimes involves practical sessions with adults who create models as examples to follow, comparable to formal School’s demonstration techniques. Everyone, as it is generally known is a teacher Kalabari.

The aims and functions of traditional education are still relevant and useful, not only to the Kalabari as a people, but also to the individual. Joad’s (1994) three-fold purpose of education stands out as reference. They are:

1. To enable the child make a living. 2. To equip the child play his part as a citizen 3. To enable the child develop all the latent powers and faculties of his nature and enjoy a good life

Charles Goye Tobin Omuaru

By and large, these are some of the tenets of Ekine masquerade club, which are still relevant in to-day’s Kalabari society. The expectation of every parent in a traditional Kalabari society is to see a child grow up to be acceptable, responsible and talented person. Hence, parents encourage their male children and wards to join the Ekine society in order to be acceptable, responsible and talented persons in the society. This is done through various trainings to acquire the necessary education and skills to perform the Ekine rites, Masquerade and Ada dances; as well as technical ability to create and produce craftworks.

One of the interviewees ,Dodoye Iboroma pointed out that, he was introduced into the Ekine society at a tender age of nine, in spite of the fact that he inherited his talents from his forebears, this was because, his parent wanted the best for him. The masquerade societies afford every Youngman the opportunity to learn several traditional techniques to fit in the general society and accepted as a cultured man. This is a spring board for him to develop his dancing potentials that will give him a ticket to the Ekine society. Horton (nd) opines that “Kalabari villages felt that being a senior member of the association was almost a ‘sine qua non’ of full citizenship”. Every society needs to maintain its culture in order to move ahead, using the arts, dances and other values at its disposal to service itself. This can be referred to as ‘cultural heritage’ and sustainable development. However, dynamism and cultural diffusion in the 21st century is inevitable, with its attendant technological and scientific break through. Hence, the tasks and challenges for culture experts and modernist school of thought is to focus on control and direction. The channel through which this can be done is education. Education can simply be defined as the acculturation of the youths, with the right values in order to sustain the society. The school curriculum provides a veritable avenue to transmit these values to the youths.

At the subject level, creative arts, cultural motifs should be introduced in the kindergarten, primary and secondary schools. Cultural week should also be introduced and children be directed in cultural activities by learned personnel in the field of arts and culture. Complete cultural studies should be introduced in the University curriculum.

Oral and material culture as history and education for development 26

It is beyond concept, but empirical that, educated Africans in the Western cultural life style without knowledge of African culture and tradition is said to be worse than infidel, knowing that his future dwells with his people in the African community. It is therefore illogical and inconsistent with African educational ideology for African schools’ curriculum developers to loose sight of the importance of the cultural history and African traditional education.

The songs, dramas, rituals, poetic, citations, dirges in the masquerade performances are oral literatures which depict and transmit the history of the people. In these oral performances, the deeds of the ancestors, their relations with the gods, and their might at war are the thematic narratives in the songs. Though Western critics have objected to oral history e.g Helpel (Osa-dolor 1993), but many more have revealed it’s usefulness in African historiography. The road was first paved by Dike’s work “Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, (1930-1885), Osadolor (1993). Vansina (1965) and, Alagoa (1987) have triumphed with loud campaigns in their various academic contributions. The masquerade ceremonies are theatrical stages where message are passed as history through songs, recitations, drama and rituals. Also, through this medium learning takes place.

Kalabari Masquerade Traditions: Extrapolation of Culture, Aesthetics and Education for Sustainable Development

Tourism Potentials of masquerade

Aesthetics by Webster’s dictionary is “concerning the appreciation of the beautiful, especially the arts”; and tourism, “the practice of touring for pleasure, the industry, tourists and catering to them,”(Webster 2000).

We need not analyze the concept of aesthetics in this discourse, but it is of general notion that beauty is innate, and individualistic; however its concept varies from individuals to peoples. An in-depth study of aesthetics strikes in us the concept of ‘Arts for Arts sake’. Interestingly, aesthetics does not begin and end with the plastic arts; it encompasses poetry, literary works and the masquerade arts. A little reflection on masquerade arts and aesthetics’ brings to bear the seemingly forgotten aesthetic Jargon of Emerson’s “Rhodara”, which says “that if eyes were made for seeing, the beauty it’s excuse for being”, Osborne (1970). The idea and concept of beauty as stated earlier, is innate and at will needs satisfaction by the pleasure of seeing and the need for owning, whether with perceived religious infusion, man’s curiosity must be bridged. Nonetheless, a keen observation brings to light certain comics, or deliberate infusion of aesthetic ingredients to soften the deeply seated religious rites and ablution. It is of this fact Nzekwu conjectures that, “These non religious, purely aesthetic values which keep the art going nowadays were extremely important even before traditional religion went into decline, Nzekwu (1981:134)”.

Ezekwu is referring to the masquerades. Evidences of these and the likes make nonsense of the perceived idolatry and sacrileges of masquerade display at this time like ours, where its extrapolation conveys tourism potentials for a viable economy. This is not simple idealization; examples abound in the middle-east. With the notion that, oil, the major economic commodity may be extinct, or alternate source could be in the offing, therefore the financial excesses of today’s oil are diverted to tourism-of their kind. Where does Nigeria 27

(nation so blessed with abundant natural, human and cultural resources) come in, in the pursuit of economic and cultural ‘Uhuru’.

Chief Mike Amachree, philosophically quipped, culture is a product, therefore it should be properly packaged by the relevant personnels’ and agencies for buyers. Eboreime does not in any means disagree when he cited evidences from other literatures in addition to his submission, when referring to masquerade performances. They posited that;

…. ballet and opera, (Isichei: 1983), They almost all take place in cleared traditional Arena that can accommodate large audiences and Music is a crucial catalyst for marshalling villagers (Aniako & Cole: 1984). Stage props are not often Essential as is common in the west. Music, dance, text, Costume and oral traditions, fuse in a single aesthetic Experience which has elements is common with the Elizabethan, Eboreime (1990).

We may as well conclude with Eboreime’s words that “there are many unique traits in the Niger Delta masquerading traditions and environment that can help boost cultural tourism”.

Charles Goye aTobin Omuaru

Conclusion

The study examines Kalabari masquerade traditions in the face of antagonizing realities, from religious campaigns, mass exodus from homes to distant places in search of daily meals, crude oil politics and related wars. Its sustenance is as a result of the internal & traditional structures,(founded at ancient times), education and the indomitable pride of the Kalabari man, especially in his culture. The study highlights the threat, outlines values that are inherent in the culture which are useful for the development of education, recreation, tourism and the economy. In the light of the above, the following suggestions are made.

Justice, peace and security are the foundation and Panacea for development, without which this academic contribution and many are waste. The Nigerian system must evolve a strategy to preserve and protect the culture from decay. Masquerade traditions and aspects of the culture should be studied and preserved. Institutions should have web-sites for African culture, especially where they are located. Masquerade Museum should be founded. The three local government councils in Kalabari should establish arts and culture departments in the councils. 28

Under the above, local craft unit should be established to encourage and train talented youths in the communities. Owu-aru-sun, the Ekine masquerade festival should be organized annually instead of the circles of interval. Local government and companies doing business in area should sponsor and promote masquerade and other cultural events for tourism.

This will address some of the shortcomings.

Bibliography

Aig-Imoukhuede, F. (ed.) (1990). Exploiting Nigeria’s Cultural Heritage for Nation building; Njgeria: Federal Ministry of Information and Culture.

Alagoa, E. J. Delta Masquerades Nigeria magazine No. 93, 1967.

Alagoa, E.J., Oral Historical Traditions in Africa. Tarikh, Vol. 8, 1987.

Balander, D. O., Stodden, V.L. (1986). Time dictionary. New York: Lexican Publications, Inc.

Eboreime, J. Masquerade, As Events with potential for Tourism-beyond the showcase. Nigeria magazine, 58, Nos 1 and 2 Jan., June pp 18-28 (1990).

Horton, R. Ekineba: A Forgotten Myth? Nigeria Magazine, Vol. No. 2 June 1975.

Horton, R. Gods as GUESTS, in Ogunbiyi Y. (1981). Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: a critical source Book. Great Britain: The Pitman Press for Nigeria magazine.

Horton, R. (1965). Kalabari Sculpture. Nigeria: published by Department of Antiquities.

Isichei, E. (1983). History of Nigeria, Nigeria: Longmans.

Iwe, N. S. S. (1979). Christianity, culture and colonialism in Africa. Nigeria: N

Osokoya, I. O. (1994). History and policy of Education in Nigeria. Nigeria: Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan.

Jenenewari, A. W.: Owu Aru SUN: Kalabari most colourful ceremony. Oduma, vol. 1, no. 1, October 1973 pp 27-31

Luzinger, E. (1979). (nd) The Art of Black Africa.

Ogunbiyi, M. (1981). Drama and Theatre in Nigeria: a critical source book. Great Britain: The Pitman Press for Nigeria Magazine.

Kalu, O. U. (ed) (1982). Readings in African Humanities – African cultural Development., Enugu: Fourth Dimension publishing co. Ltd.

UNPUBLISHED WORKS 29

Omuaru, C. G. T. (1994). Sculpture in Seki: Masquerade of Kalabari: Bakana as a case study. A Master’s Degree Thesis; Ibadan, University of Ibadan.

A REVIEW OF CHALLENGES OF SCIENCE TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE RIVERINE AREAS OF RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

BY

T. Nayeiyi Agina-Obu Ph.D Department of curriculum studies and Instructional Technology Rivers state University of Education Port Harcourt [email protected] 08035535647 Abstract

The riverine area of Rivers State has been a developmental problem unlike other deltaic regions of the world due to lack of willingness on the part of government to make life 30 meaningful for them. This review was carried out in order to highlight the problems encountered in the teaching and learning of science in the riverine area, such as poor communication network, lack of scientific materials, low level of motivation and insecurity among others. Recommendations were made on ways to improve the situation.

INTRODUCTION

Science is the rational and systematic study of the environment through observation and experimentation with a view to understanding the environment in order to manipulate and control it for betterment of mankind. It is a veritable tool that forms the bedrock for any meaningful development of any nation. Its study leads to both theoretical and practical knowledge about the environment which can be used to manipulate and harness the forces and resources of nature for human development and wellbeing.

Education is variously described as the most potent instrument that society uses for individual and societal development. Science education helps us to make what is learnt at school relevant to the learner and society. Science enables us to produce an individual with skills capable of sustaining him in society; hence the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN 2004) states among others the relevance of science to humanity to:

- observe and explore the environment

- develop basic science process skills including observing, manipulation, classifying, communication, hypothesizing, interpreting of data and formulating models

- develop a functional knowledge of science concepts and principles

- explain simple natural phenomena

- develop scientific attitudes including curiosity, critical reflections and objectivity

- apply the skills and knowledge gained through science to solve everyday problems in the environment

- develop self confidence and self reliance through problem solving activities in science.

- develop a functional awareness of and sensitivity to the orderliness and beauty of nature.

A REVIEW OF CHALLENGES OF SCIENCE TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE RIVERINE AREAS OF RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

As Nigeria moves into the 21st century the major challenge that probably faces her is likely to be that of survival among numerous challenges in an intensively competitive world which is completely dominated by the great might of science and technology (Audu and Oghogho 2007). Scientific and technological literacy, Dike and Ndokwo (2007), say connotes a comprehension of the scientific approach and application and not necessarily the whole gamut of scientific and technological knowledge concepts, methods and process skills to life, work and culture of values enabling one to distinguish between 31 appropriate and inappropriate uses of science and technology. It implies the development of scientific and technological attitudes; approaches and skills which are necessary to cope with a rapidly changing environment and which are useful for problem-solving and decision making in daily life hence the quality of both life and the entire cosmos, (Maharjam and Whittle, 2000). Wasagu, (2006, 2007), Laughsch, (2000) are of the view that the impetus for interest in scientific literacy during the late 1950s is likely to have been the concern of the American Science Community about Public support for science in order to respond to the Soviet launching of Sputnik in 1957. At about the same time, the Americans were again concerned about whether, their children were receiving the kind of education that would enable them cope with a society of increasing scientific and technological sophistication. In Nigeria, it has been observed that the number of students opting for (STME) over the years has been dividing (Abdulahi, 2007; Onyejemezi, 2001). It has been suggested by Itamah (2007) that this has resulted from among other factors, lack of access to skilled professional teachers who as Abdullahi (2007) put it, are grossly inadequate. Other factors militating against STME are poor laboratory conditions, inadequate classrooms and instructional materials conducive school environment, home and pedagogical factors.

The impact of science and technology has never been seen so closely felt by mankind in the past as it is in recent times. What kind of life shall we be living in without the beneficial products of science and technology? It is a known fact that the rest of the world is making frantic revolutionary strides in science and technology education noticeable in all areas of human endeavor particularly in ICT, genetic engineering, cloning, medicine, among others. It therefore appears unfortunate that Nigeria, inspite of her knowledge of these feats is still not willing or ready to join the race.

Njoku (2007) points out that Science and Technology (S & T) education is critical to national development and its sustenance. The world of today is dominated by science and Technology, so much so that almost everything is now scientific and technological in nature. Technological artifacts and processes have so dominated the home, the work place and indeed the totality of the environment that everybody needs at least basic knowledge of science and technology to contribute to development efforts, and to at least survive, if not succeed in the society today. This implies that S & T education should be accessible to all citizens for conducive living in the modern society.

It is however the case that many citizens of Nigeria and indeed other countries of the world, especially the developing countries of the African continent, still wallow in abject lack of scientific and technological knowledge and skills, and thus find it extremely difficult to contribute to or benefit from the developmental activities which invariably and T. Nayeiyi Agina-Obu Ph.D obligatorily depend on sound knowledge and skills in S & T disciplines. Such citizens usually find living very difficult and unpleasant, poverty is their lot and unhappiness and regrets approximate their daily experiences. That many citizens lack basic knowledge and skills in S & T imply that there is lack of equity in S & T education in Nigeria. To engender equity and improve access to basic S & T education, it is necessary to identify and describe the various factors that underlie disparity and equity in learners’ access to science and technology education in the riverine areas of Rivers State. 32

Rivers State, one of the 36 States of Nigeria was created on the 27th of May 1967. She has 23 local government councils with a population of about 5 million. Out of the 23 local councils 8, namely Akukutoru, Andoni, Asari toru, Bonny, Degema, Ogu/Bolo, Okrika and Opobo/Nkoro are predominantly riverine.

The terrain of these councils has made development very difficult. Consequently, there is usually criminal lack of accessibility in terms of road network, health facilities, electricity, potable water supply, such that humans and animals drink from the same pond water, adequate and affordable accommodation, regular and unfettered means of transportation, small scale industries and higher institutions among others. Perhaps in order to assuage these perennial predicaments, the federal government decided to construct a coastal road to link these island communities.

The absence of these appears to have rendered the upsurge of organized crimes by idle youths. The preponderance of militant activities and organized crimes by youths in the area attest to this episode. Schools, particularly post primary, could be seen dotted in these areas Workers posted to some establishments fail to report except perhaps those inexperienced and had for long been in the unemployment market, who in which case go to work from Port Harcourt, once or twice in the week.

Enrolment of students into these schools is very low sometimes less than 200 students in all classes from upper basic to SS3. As facilities are not easily available, students posted to these schools hardly accept such posting. Despite these challenges, many candidates of WAEC and NECO ship in droves and enroll in these schools because it is usually here they can make the required number of credit in subjects acceptable by JAMB to enroll in tertiary institutions.

SOME CHALLENGES OF TEACHING / LEARNING SCIENCE

1. Poor Communication Network

A major challenge facing the people living in the riverine area of Rivers State is accessibility/security of lives and property. Majority of schools in the island settlements are not reachable by roads except through open hand pulled canoes and speed boats which quite often are prone to mishap on the rough seas and rivers. At times sea pirates attack the boats and either kill the passengers, throw them in the mangrove swamps, and make away with their properties, money and even the boats. There is so much insecurity on the seas that no one accepts to be posted there. The difficulty is such that the cost of erecting a building is enough to erect three of the same type on the main land. This has created a lot of poverty among the dwellers. In fact, Ajoku (2006) agrees that communication

A REVIEW OF CHALLENGES OF SCIENCE TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE RIVERINE AREAS OF RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

network in Nigeria is still far from being developed. The educational research workers have to cover hundreds of kilometers in search of relevant research data. This problem is compounded by the lack of effective and efficient transport systems. Some of the places are so remote that they are hardly accessible by any means of modern transport. For instance, he went on to say, in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, the only means of transportation is through the water ways by the use of engine boats and this is very 33

expensive. In fact, some of the areas cannot be reached by engine boats except by local canoes. Thus, the educational backwardness of the riverine locations and fishing communities continues to be a matter of utmost concern. It is a known fact that road construction in this area is a very difficult venture. Indeed, conducting research under these conditions makes the whole affair quite unexciting and frustrating.

2. Lack of Scientific Materials

Scientific knowledge plays an integral part in nation building. A lot of efforts have been made by the Federal government to promote the study of science in schools. Admission into tertiary institutions is tilted in the ratio of 3:2 in favour of science. What then is the rationale for the provision of learning resource? It is a fact that scientific thought takes its ultimate point of departure from problems suggested by observing things and events encountered in common experience, it aims to understand the observable things by observing some systematic order in them and its final test for the law that serves as instruments of explanation and prediction in their concordance with such observation. SEPA (1978) points out that its approach to science education takes the view that science is the medium through which a child might develop his national curiosity and his power of problem solving and decision making. These are fundamental qualities of enquiry and constructive attitudes to qualities of an education which has particular relevance to the African environment and which foster the child’s understanding of his world and potentials.

Probably due to the communications problems or lack of willingness on the part of government, schools in this part of Rivers State lack even teacher’s copy of text books. A teacher may be lucky to have a copy and it is on this that both the students and teacher depend, thus exposing the students only to the theoretical concepts to the near exclusion of application and utility aspects of science: hands-on and minds-on activities as a result of which they look at science as a school matter and not something that affect their daily lives and living.

There is abject lack of science materials in the schools in these areas: no science laboratories, workshop equipment, libraries, science teachers and auxiliary staff not to talk of ICT. How can schools in these areas regard themselves being part of a functional society to compete effectively for survival?

T. Nayeiyi Agina-Obu, Ph.D

3. Poor Access to Basic Education

It is common site in this part of the world where many school-going age children do not have access to education due to several reasons, some of which are poverty and inability to afford prescribed school fees and text materials. When children lack access to basic education, the issue of participation in the formal learning of science becomes near impossibility.

4. Gross Inadequate Number of Science Teachers 34

We cannot gain say the fact that the number of science teachers in Nigeria generally is inadequate. From the upper basic to the senior levels of our secondary school system, schools in the riverine areas of Rivers State appear to be worst hit in the availability of science teachers in almost all the science subjects and mathematics. We can appreciate this, in the light of acquisition of scientific literacy among students.

5. Low level of Motivation for Science Teachers.

According to Adeyanju (2006), teachers in Nigeria generally are poorly motivated due to factors such as poor remuneration, delayed payment of salaries and other emoluments, Sometimes teachers are promoted without arreas from the effective date of their promotion, poor and lowly image of the teaching profession and negative attitude of the government and public to teachers. Consequently, teachers are no longer dedicated and committed to their professional calling. Science teachers are not treated indifferently from the general treatment given to teachers. Science teachers are a scarce commodity and should be encouraged to be posted to these difficult terrains by providing special allowances free accommodation and transport facilities to them so as to have a sense of belonging to be effective in their duties. Absence of these has tended to negatively affect their interest and vigour in the performance of their duties and by extension students’ unimpressive performances in science subjects. It seems that Rivers State government has lost sight of the fact that national development, to a very great extent, is intricately dependent on science education.

HOW TO ENSURE TEACHING OF SCIENCE AND IMPROVE ON LEARNERS’ ACHIEVEMENT

There are various methods that can be applied in the teaching and learning of science in these areas and improve in learning outcomes majority of these rooted in the government’s desire and willingness to improve on the situation. If science teaching and learning are made in a way the learner sees the world and reacts to it, science learning would become much easier, faster and useful in problem-solving and utility.

The Rivers State government has to bear in mind that she has the responsibility to provide level playing ground for all and sundry to bring about even development of all facets of the state irrespective of the geographical or natural location. We must bear in mind that:

a. The learner is active in his physical and sociological environment and so, learns through activities in such environment.

b. The learner is curious, explorative and enjoys exploring the environment.

A REVIEW OF CHALLENGES OF SCIENCE TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE RIVERINE AREAS OF RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA

c. The activities and observations of the learners in their environment form the background for further learnings.

1. Improvement of access to Science Education 35

For any person or group of individuals to learn science, such must be accessible to education irrespective of the terrain. A situation where some parts of the state are regarded as a no- go area; it is the responsibility of a caring government to see that such people are brought into the mainstream of governance. Schools in the mainland area have school buses that teachers and students use leaving the island schools to make do with nothing.

The Federal government is called upon to expedite action in the construction of the coastal road to link these island settlements to the mainland to promote socio- economic activities. The state government should make efforts to link these areas by road or in the alternative reconstitute the “Love Boat” to ferry people with minimal difficulty, supervise the schools with the use of helicopters from time to time to see things for themselves and equip the schools with science materials.

2. Motivation of Science Teachers

It is a truism that no teacher wants to be posted to any of these schools because of the harsh and inclement condition people live in these areas. The state government and public spirited organizations should show commitment by encouraging teachers to work in these areas by paying them certain special allowances which others in the urban settlements do not enjoy like Nigerian Liquified Natural Gas (NLNG) does to teachers on Bonny Island. This eventually will encourage them to stay and enhance science teaching and learning in the area.

For this area to catch up with the technological development of the 21st century – scientific literacy, there is the need to promote effective teaching of science in these schools right from the primary through secondary to tertiary levels. To produce scientifically literate society, science education and its accessibility must be for all students irrespective of the location of the school. According to Sutman (1996) an individual is scientifically literate when he /she is able and willing to continue to learn science contents, to develop science processes on his /her own and be able to communicate the results of this learning to others. The main objective of scientific literacy as posited by Shamos (1995) is that society (and the individual) will somehow benefit if its members are sufficiently literate to participate intelligently in science – based societal issues. While the lofty goal of achieving scientific literacy for all students is admirable, we can now appreciate the level of science teaching and learning in the riverine areas of Rivers State of Nigeria.

T. Nayeiyi Agina-Obu, Ph.D

CONCLUSION

We could safely conclude from the paper that the riverine area of Rivers State of Nigeria has to be improved upon so as to bring about enhanced socio economic activities. Teachers, particularly science teachers should be posted and retained with special inducements. Provisions must be made in terms of science facilities such as textbook, 36 libraries, electricity and water to attract students and staff to the place. Above all let the place be made secured for effective teaching and learning of science in the area.

Reference

Abdullahi, A. (2007) Functional Science, Technology and Mathematics Education for National Economic Empowerment and Development. A speech delivered at the 2007 School of Science National Conference held at Federal College of Education; Zaria, April 2-5.

Adeyanju, T.K. (2006) Teacher-led Professional Development through Support and Mentoring, Journal of Teacher Education 1 (1); 16-32

Ajoku, L. (2006) Foundations of Educational Research & Statistics Port Harcourt, Pearl Publishers.

Audu, U.D & Ogbogho, K. B. (2007) The Relevance of Learning Resources in the Effective Teaching of Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM). Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Conference Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria. Pp 73-76

Dike, N. & Ndokwo, K.J. (2007) Issues on Human Resource Development for Science, Technology and Mathematics Education (STME) in Nigeria Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Conference of Science Teacher’s Association of Nigeria, 19-23

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education, Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education

Itamah, D. (2007) A keynote address delivered at the 2007 School Science National Conference held at Federal College of Education, Zaria April 2-5.

Laughsch, R.C. (2000) Scientific Literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84 (1) 72 – 95

Maharjam, S.P. and Whittle, P.A. (2000) Promoting Students’ Science and Technological Thinking: Developing Skills, Attitudes Concerning our Environment. Katmandu (ER 11)

Njoku, Z. C. (2007) Engendering Learning Equity in Science and Technology Classrooms for Sustainable Development Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Conference of the Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria pp 24-31

Onyejemezi, D. A. (2001) Quality, Production and Distribution of Teaching Resources/Teachers. In Okwudibia, N. and Sulaman, J.(Eds), Reassessing the Future of Education in Nigeria. Education Tax Fund 5th Annual Conference held at Federal college of Education, Kano. September, 11-15

Shamos, M.H (1995) The myth of scientific literacy New Brunswick, N. J: Rutges Univ. Press 37

Sutman, F. X. (1996) Science Literacy: A functional definition. Journal of Research in Science Teaching.Vol.33 Pp459-460

Wasagu, M. A. (2006) Science and Technological Development. Paper Presented at National Science and Technology week, organized by Ministry of Science and Technology Education Sokoto.

Wasagu, M.A. (2007) Functional Science Technology and Mathematics Education for National Economic Empowerment and Development Paper Presented at the School of Science National Conference held at Federal Coll. Of Educ. Zaria. April, 2-5

THE PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER; NATURE, FUNCTIONS AND FREEDOM TO TEACH

BY

NMOM OGUDIA CHRISTOPHER SOCIAL STUDIES DEPARTMENT 38

IGNATIUS AJURU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, PORT HARCOURT.

Abstract

Teaching as a profession and as a career over the years has been inundated with a lot of problems, controversies and some self-searching identity crisis. Although a lot of inroads have been made in actualizing some of these ideals, but the outlook has not been clear and promising due to some self-inflicted problems, from teachers, agencies in- charge of teachers/teaching, the union leaderships and the societal perception of teachers. The coming of social studies as a school subject added its own problems and identity crisis. The complex nature of the subject matter, some ambiguity and misunderstanding by the general public have indeed called for serious attention to the issue of “freedom to teach” which is a major issue bothering teaching as a profession. The purpose of the paper is to expose and explain the nature of Social Studies teacher and teaching in a complex society like Nigeria and how they affect his or her to teach. The paper argues that “freedom to teach” is not obtained on the platter of gold but on the competence and integrity of the teacher. It also explains that freedom is not awarded but should be fought for on clear professional term; and that the professionalism and freedom of teaching Social Studies come from of hard work. INTRODUCTION

A teacher is a professional who earns his/her professional status. He/she is just of conferred with this status. The teacher can teach and he knows what he wants to teach and how he will teach it. He has the knowledge about teaching as an art and he is skilful. The teacher can actualize the potentiality for knowledge already in the learner. The teacher can translate knowledge, skills, attitudes and values with certain professional principles. What we find in some of our public and private schools are cheaters because they cannot teach in such schools with the basic and fundamental professional principles, within any instructional process.

The Nigerian teacher plays significant responsibilities and roles in the development of a functional and relevant educational system. The teacher determines the extent of national development in Nigeria. The quality of the teachers and their inputs into the development of the instructional system will influence the graduates produced at all levels of our educational system, (Nmom, 2005).

The teacher can provide the much needed quality control devices in our educational system at all levels. Indeed, the teacher can be described as a manager, a motivator, the captain/pilot, interactive agent and above all the chief executive officer and managing director of the Nigerian educational system. Teachers hold the key to a better world for Nigeria. Therefore very few people can do without them.

THE PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER; NATURE, FUNCTIONS AND FREEDOM TO TEACH

The Nigeria Social Studies Teacher

The Social Studies teacher has a difficult task in actualizing all these because of the nature of the subject matter, the newness, the lack of relevant supporting materials and finally the nature of Nigerian society in which he or she finds himself or herself as a teacher. (See Nwosu, 1987, Ogunsanya, 1988, Nmom, 2006) and even the NCCS (1998) confirmed it “As 39 a complex field of study-social studies carries with it major responsibilities in the education of citizens on social needs and to speak with a uniform voice”.

The term ‘Social Studies’ is not altogether appropriate when applied to the typical primary teacher. He/she is in a self-contained classroom, meaning that he/she she teaches all of the subjects the total curriculum in a particular grade. Departmentalization is not uncommon in the upper grades and a few schools have retained or adopted some form of it in the middle grades. The growing practice of team teaching sometimes provides a degree of subject specialization for the primary teacher. Even under these forms of organization the same teacher is likely to be responsible for both social studies and language arts. However, neither departmentalization nor team teaching has won universal acceptance. The typical primary teacher can be characterized as a science, language, mathematics, arts, or music teacher. Just as accurately as he/she can be characterized as a social studies teacher. In the absence of a more apt designation, however, the phrase social studies teacher is used in this context to refer to the primary teacher in his/her capacity as a teacher of the social studies.

A great deal is required and more is expected of the primary teacher. He/she is expected to understand society, have a wide and workable knowledge of all fields, be correct with the latest developments concerning child nature and growth, and be a master of methods and material, of teaching. In view of these exacting demands, it may seem unreasonable to expect him/her to give very much attention to the teaching of anyone field. When that field is then social studies, however, several reasons can be advanced for such expectation.

In our civilization social inventions and the techniques of human relationship have fallen behind our advance in material inventions and machine technology. It is therefore, reasonable to claim that for the present at least, the social studies field is the most important. Whether it is the most important or merely the furthest behind, it is regarded in many systems as the core of the elementary and secondary programme. Furthermore, the field is difficult, it requires extensive and intensive study, and because of its rapidly increasing and changing content; it requires constant addition and revisions. Because of its importance, its increasing place in the school and its difficulty, the primary school teacher can profitably devote special and intensive attention to the field of the social studies.

Function of the Social Studies Teacher

The social studies teacher has the difficult task of bringing diverse element together and blending them into a harmonious whole. His/her first major function is to study the children, their growth, nature, need, interest, capacities, and limitations, and how they learn. This obligation requires that she keeps abreast of development. To be a student is even more

Nmom, Ogudia C hristopher important for the primary teacher than for the secondary school or College teacher since the pupils are dependent and need more guidance than the advanced students. He or she should therefore search eagerly for such help as the professional literature offers. This idea is supported by NCSS (1992) when it described Social Studies:

”As a complex field of study, Social Studies carries with it major responsibilities in education of citizens on social needs and used for the common purpose of helping students to 40

function effectively as citizens in the complex inter-dependent world of twenty-first century”. The second major function of the social studies teachers is that he/she should be a student of the social sciences and of current problems and events. This is necessary because the social sciences are the storehouse from which classroom material and units are derived. In a related matter, NCSS in 1992 after its meeting in Washington DC, USA, defined Social Studies as “the integrated studies of social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence”. By keeping abreast of current problems and events, the teacher can utilize the newest materials, either because they supplement the social sciences or because they facilitate instruction. Notwithstanding the availability of excellent textbooks, documentary films and other audiovisual aids, and certainly, attractively prepared units, the teacher is still responsible for the quality of the material which he/she presents to her pupils.

The third function of the social studies teacher is to be the curriculum maker, or in other words, the creator of the social studies. The historians' history, the economist's economics or the geographer's geography usually needs revision, simplification, and reorganization. Being a student of the sciences, the teacher is prepared to recognize accurate timely, and pertinent materials. And being a student of children, she is qualified to remake these materials into suitable units for the pupils.

The forth function of the social studies teacher is to be the connecting link between diverse groups and elements, the interpreter of each to the other. As a specialist in human relationship, he/she can interpret the school to the community, the community to the school, the teachers to the parents, and the parents to the teacher. He/she can bring together the past and the present, the new and old, the alien and the native, near and remote, the school and society.

The idea is in line with Ogunsanya (1988) statement that:

“Social studies is the study of the practice of living as a good citizen with one immediate cultural environment and the modern world community in other words, their adjustment patterns and their place in rapidly changing world community”. Teaching Profession

Teaching is a systematic, rational and organized process of translating knowledge skills, attitudes and values in accordance with acceptable professional principles and practices. Teaching is simply a process of making things known to people. It has learner/student-centered dimension, (Nmom, 2005).

THE PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER; NATURE, FUNCTIONS AND FREEDOM TO TEACH

A professional teacher is continuously involved in systematic instructional planning if learning must be achieved effectively and efficiently. In instruction, the teacher arranges and organizes all human, material, temporal and spatial resources to facilitate the learning of his students and learners. Therefore, the teacher is a manager par excellence.

Teaching profession is noted in intellectual theory and research according to Awotua- Efebo (1999) and supported by Smith et al (1982) when he said that, "the practice of a profession cannot be disjoined from its theoretical understanding or vice-versa ... The 41 authorities to a profession constitute an avocation based on customary activities and modified by the trial and error of individual practice. Such an avocation is a craft". This therefore, justifies that in every profession, there are rules, dos and don’ts.

Smith went further to state that:

‘One of the chief differences between a teacher who is theoretically trained and the one who is not, is that the theoretically trained teacher will perform with a set of sophisticated concepts taken from the underlying disciplines of pedagogy as well as from the pedagogical field itself. The teacher who is not theoretically trained will interpret events and objects in terms of common sense concepts that have come from the experience of the race permeated with outmoded ideas about human behaviour”. Inspite of all these, Awotua-Efebo, 1999:10 identified six (6) main obstacles confronting professionalization of teaching in Nigeria which are: (1) Until recently, (1999) teachers did not need to be licensed before they taught in a classroom. (2) The average person believes he/she can teach without being trained. (3) The low wages paid to teachers. (4) Many teachers to day see their job as yielding no satisfaction beyond the monthly salary. (5) The teaching environment is not encouraging. (6) The entry requirement into the teaching profession compared to other professions is low.

But he want to conclude that these shortcomings notwithstanding, most Nations accord teaching a professional status (just like Nigeria) National Policy on Education of 1981, ILO and UNESCO 1966 agreement and of recent Teachers' Registration Council of Nigeria all lay credence to that fact. Although, the status of the teaching profession in Nigeria, and in fact Africa, is low; recruitment has been carried out haphazardly while training has been inadequate. In analyzing the teachers position, the competent teacher is a good citizen, a good community leader, innovator and an enlightened parent. His influence extends beyond the confines of the classroom; if he is a university graduate, he has a great influence because everybody expects him to be a reservoir of knowledge and skills, (Fafunwa, 1985).

Nmom, Ogudia Christopher

Banjo, (1980) reveals that teachers as much as possible should be qualified, suitable and interested in the teaching profession. They should cultivate the right attitude, be dedicated to duty, and professionally qualified. This will help them successfully teach the children of today who will become leaders of tomorrow. In a similar study in Europe concerning high quality education and learning, Buchberger et al (200Q) found that 42

"Over the past few decades European societies have been confronted with substantial social, cultural, economic and technological changes and challenges. There seems to be widespread agreement that education and training will have to play a key role in order to meet these changes adequately and the challenges pro-active (pp 2-5). Buchberger ascertained the establishment of "Europe knowledge" as indispensible with emphasis on the "professionalization" of teaching and teacher education. It is worthy of note to emphasize that the process of continuous professional development otherwise known as “staff development” or teacher development starts with the recruitment process of the initial students of teacher education, and consists of the following closely related components: initial teacher education, induction, in-service teacher education; and further education (see Day & Sachs, 2004). With this therefore, it is clear that professional teachers are the hub of our educational system around which the quality of the teaching and learning experience revolves, (Ololube, 2009).

Freedom of Teaching Social Studies

The social studies more than any other field of the elementary programme is fraught with controversial issues. People feel strongly about how history is taught, the manner in which parties and election are treated and what is said about the appointment, social relation and regional projects like the state airports. Even when the teacher is competent, reasonable and tactful, she is in danger of offending individual and groups. Her freedom to teach is likely to be restricted. If any teacher is to stand up for her freedom it will have to be the social studies teacher, because of the uniqueness of the subject matter, the intrigues and complexities of content, (Green, 1988, Nmom, 2002).

The teacher wants freedom to teach, not for any selfish or personal reason, but because she cannot teach honestly, frankly and effectively without it. The pupils deserve the right to learn, they cannot have it unless the teacher has the freedom to teach. The school is the institution which is committed to objectivity, to an unbiased presentation of materials. Political parties are committed to their politics, churches are pledge to their creeds, industry is set to maintain its practices, labour unions, are organised to uphold their side of disputes. Only the schools even undertake to be disinterested and uncommitted. Those who restrict the teacher are trying to deprive the children of their own opportunity to hear all sides of issues.

Freedom to teach rests upon professional competence, (Okeke, 2004, Day & Sachs 2004, Ololube 2009). Freedom to speak on all kinds of issues cannot be bestowed upon a person. Such freedom must rest upon knowledge, judgment, good intentions, objectivity and disinterestedness. Freedom to teach is not a commodity which the school board or

THE PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER; NATURE, FUNCTIONS AND FREEDOM TO TEACH

Superintendent bestows upon teachers, it is a hard won right which belongs to a teacher because she has demonstrated the capacity to handle. While teachers are justified in desisting petty restrictions and regulations, they must be sure their freedom rest upon competence, for in the long run even school board or a superintendent cannot grantee freedom to an unworthy teacher. It is necessary to agree and support the assertion by Hegel (1967:233) that "it is solely by risking life that freedom is obtained ... the individual (teacher) who has no stake in 43 life may, no doubt, be recognized as a person; but he has not attained, the truth of this recognition as an independent self-consciousness”.

Unfortunately, teachers like other men and professions rarely admit their fear of freedom openly. However, tending rather to camouflage it - sometimes unconsciously by presenting themselves as defenders of freedom. Teachers give their doubts and misgiving an air of profound sobriety, as befitting custodians of freedom. But teachers confuse freedom with the maintenance of the status quo; so that if conscientization threatens to place that status quo in question, it thereby seems to constitute a threat to freedom itself.

The "fear of freedom" has afflicted the teachers, a fear which may equally well lead them to desire the role of authority, thus they imbibe a prescribed behaviour and follow it to the letter. The teacher having internalized the image of the authority that be and adopted their guidelines, are fearful of freedom. In actual fact, freedom would require teachers to eject this image and replace it with autonomy and responsibility. Freedom for any teacher should be acquired by some sort of conquest, training, integrity, some professional ethics and standard etc, not by gift. It must be pursued constantly and responsibly. Freedom is not an ideal located outside of man; nor is it an idea which becomes myth. It is rather the indispensable condition for the quest for human completion, (Paulo, 1984).

Retractions upon the teachers' freedom assume various forms. Sometimes they appear as directive on where to room or board, what Church to attend, what entertainments to shun, the manner in which to dress, what habits to eschew. Fortunately these kinds of restrictions are disappearing rapidly from Nigerians school system.

Within the social studies there are many taboos. In some communities the teacher must not criticize advertising, in others the price on a particular commodity is an untouchable, another he/she must not say kind things about labour unions, sex, Medicare, in some of the Biafran revolution, the civil war or an election must be handled with precaution. In too many communities teachers are told that they must, or cannot use certain materials in teaching social studies.

The greatest harm in these retractions is not the specific limitations which they impose but the general inhibiting effect which they have upon the teacher's moral. They are well calculated to break the spirit and induce craven submission. Under them the teacher is tempted to give up initiative and become an unimaginative and routine hearer of lesson. Thus these taboos may restrict, mar and destroy the quality of instruction which the children receive.

Nmom, Ogudia Christopher

Against these in roads, these petty inversions of her personal and professional career, the teacher can protect both as an individual and as a member of a group. She can inquire about such matters before accepting the school, and in extreme case she can protest, fight, and possibly resign. Short of resigning she can help to carry on a campaign to enlighten the public as to the issues and to point out the dangers of such restrictions since they are sometime the result of arbitrary orders by school boards, individuals and others authorities 44 made to quiten some valuable patron, they are open to publicity and analysis. Surely teachers of all people should believe in education, even that, which teachers direct toward their own protection. But there is no quick or sure care for oppressions and restrictions. Increased salaries, high status, above all increased competence will in the long run win freedom for the teacher.

In conclusion, therefore, all that they need is scholarship and professional conduct which will synchronize with effective teaching. On the other hand, it is obvious that the most difficult problems the teacher of Social Studies encounters are his/her personal competence on the job which if properly handled, the problem of freedom to teach is half way solved. Also that the teacher of Social Studies is a major factor whose functions can enhance or detent the realization of the objectives on any educational system. The teacher at this lower levels is very crucial in triggering off early intellectual process.

REFERENCES

Ausubel, D. P (1969): “Is there a discipline of educational psychology”? In Herbert, J and Ausubel, D. P. Psychology in teacher preparation: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education – Monograph No. 5. Awotua-Efebo, E. B. (1999): Effective Teaching Principles and Practice: Paragraphics - Port Harcourt. Banjo, S. A. (1960): A West African Teachers' Handbook. London, University of London Press. Buchberger, F. et al (Ed) (2000): Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe UMEA TNTEE. Day. C. and Sachs, J. (2004) (Eds) International Handbook on the Continuing Professional Development of Teachers. Bershire - Open University Press Fafunwa. A. B. (1991): The History of Education in Nigeria, Ibadan, NPS Educational Publishers. Freire, Paulo (1984): Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York, The Continuum Publishing Corporation. Gayle. H. G. and Carolyn Chapman (2002): Differentiated Instructional Strategies. London Sagfe Publications Ltd. George Hegel (1967): The Phenomenology of Mind. New York. p. 8. Green, M. (1988) “Education, Arts and Mastery: Toward the Sphere of Freedom” (Chapter 5) The Dialectics of Freedom, New York, Teachers College Press. NCSS (1992): The Nation Council of Social Studies. Bulletin.

THE PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER; NATURE, FUNCTIONS AND FREEDOM TO TEACH

Nmom, O. C. (2002) (Ed) “Social Studies and Citizenship Education for Nigeria Youths” in Basic Social Studies: An Anthology Port Harcourt, ABC Publishers. Nmom, O. C. (2006): “Analysis of the Nature, Structure and Scope of Social Studies” Interdisciplinary Journal for Research Initiators Vol. 2 No. 1 Jan-June. 45

Nmom. O. C. (2005): Fundamentals and Methods in Social Studies. Port Harcourt, Nissi Books. Nwosu, S. N. (1987): The Concept and Scope of Social Studies” Lecture at Longmanns Junior Secondary School Workshop 25th August- Holy Rosary Secondary School. Port Harcourt. Ogunsanya, M. (1988): “Critical Analysis of the Concept of Interpretation of Social Studies” Seminar Paper at St. John’s Campus College of Education, Port Harcourt. Okeke, B. S. (2004): Teaching in Nigeria: The Bureaucracy and Professionalism. Enugu Mercury Intemational Publisher. Ololube. N. P. (2009): Understanding Teachers Professional Competencies for Education Effectiveness, Owerri, Springfield Publishers Ltd. Smith. R. M. (1982): Learning How to Learn: Applied Theory for Adults: Chicago: Follet Publishing Co.

The Disappointment of Religion

By 46

Kemka H. Ogbonda, PhD Department of Biology Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Rumuolumeni, PMB 5047 Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

Summary

In this paper religion is examined in the light of its assumed position as the custodian of humanity's values and morality. It is revealed that religion, particularly the Christian and Islamic religions, has become aberrant and, therefore, disappointed the human species. This, it has done by defaming women and portraying them as evil; sticking so much on "faith”, which often degenerates into fanaticism and culminates in wars and terrorism; acting as anchor on which man hooks his support for the perpetration of evil against his fellow man and, by being generally retrogressive in nature and detrimental to the survival of man. It is suggested that, for the survival of the human species religion, that aspect that has to do with "faith", must be abandoned. The world has advanced so much and people must combine religion with some science, with common sense, in order for humanity to survive.

Key words: Religion, disappointment, man, society, science, supernatural.

Introduction

Man exhibits a dual nature - the material (physical) man and the immaterial (spiritual) man. Religion falls within the spiritual, and expresses the relationship between man and the supernatural beings (Almighty God, smaller gods, spirits or divinities). Marxist philosophers define religion as... "the sign of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world and the soul of soulless conditions,... the opium of the people." (Haralambos and Heald, 1980). In this definition, religion is seen as an illusion, which merely reduces the pain produced by exploitation and oppression. In the eye of the sociologist, however, such problems as expressed by the Marxians, are not solved by religion. What religion does is to make life more bearable in the midst of great suffering (Anele, 1999). Religion is not an individual affair but rather a group property which manifests in the institutionalized behaviour of the adherents. It deals with "faith" - the belief in supernatural phenomena. The universal religions are faiths such as Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism, modern Judaism, and Islam. The one thing that is common to all is that they emphasize beliefs which are available and accessible to every member irrespective of nationality, race, sex, or locality. Religion believes so much in "faith", that is, "I believe", and because of this, it has failed and disappointed the human species in every aspect of his life. This paper examines the various ways in which religion, that aspect that deals with "faith", has failed humanity.

The Disappointment of Religion

How religion has disappointed humanity

1. The denigration of women Women seen as weaker vessels 47

The defaming of women was started by religion when the Christian religion referred to the woman as the "weaker vessel" in comparison to the man (Holy Bible, ‘a'). As a follow- up, early Christians came up with devastating statements that cast aspersions on women. Hear these: St. Paul saw women as tempters of men - they (women) ensnared men and tempted them to desert their lofty goals; St. Jerome warned that women were the gateway to the devil; St. Thomas Aquinas called them "defective, ill-formed males"; John Damascene castigated them as "the outpost of hell", ....."Sick she-asses", and "hideous tempters"; and Pope Gregory the Great stated that women had two uses only - prostitution and motherhood. (Kitzinger, 1994). Armed with and encouraged by these impressions about women by notable religious leaders, men have always belittled and looked down on women. Most men do not see anything good in a woman except, perhaps, as a thing to be used for male sexual satisfaction, a "tart" to be consumed. Our medical doctors cajole them and use them as experimental organisms. They insert their hands into their vagina carelessly and sometimes in the presence of their husbands. Worse still, they see them as a body to be photographed, legs spread wide and vulva exposed. However, today's realities show that women are as strong and energetic as men, sometimes more intelligent than men and occupy high positions in government (politics), commerce and in virtually every aspect of human endeavour. Women are the source of creativity and love, the embodiment of charity and self-sacrifice. In times of war when men are occupied destroying men, women are busy somewhere making more men, ensuring the perpetuation of the human species.

Women to be dominated by men Women's domination by men has religious backing. The Christian religion, for instance, says: ..."your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you" (Holy Bible, ‘b’). In many societies (cultures) a woman is considered a subordinate and spiritually inferior. She has to be unquestioningly obedient to her husband, whatever his character and however he treats her. A wife must worship her husband as a god. She must revere him even though he is evil. In family decisions, her opinion is secondary. This unfair position of women bestowed on them by religion explains men's chauvinistic attitude towards them. It even makes men fear women. Socrates had this to say. "Once made equal to man, woman becomes his superior."

The portrayal of women as evil Religion portrays women as evil. Eve (the mother of women) was evil and caused the evil that befell Adam (her husband) and the whole of humanity (Holy Bible, 'c'). Today, in the eyes of men, every woman is dangerous or, potentially dangerous. A woman represents the forces of darkness, of animal nature, which draw noble men away from the spiritual, threatening to pollute and to emasculate them. A woman is seen as an agent of pollution by the very fact that she menstruates. Kitzinger (1994) contrasts between man and woman, bringing out the woman's evil nature:

Kemka H. Ogbonda, Ph.D

Man Woman Adam Eve Superior Inferior Right Left 48

Closer to God Closer to the Devil Intelligent Unintelligent, stupid Strong-minded Credulous Cool-headed, brave Fearful Reliable Unreliable Strong Weak Responsible Irresponsible

But instead of seeing women as evil beings predisposed to quarrelling and making trouble, talkative, gossips, and "all Eve", women are to be considered modest and honourable.

The turbaning of women The Islamic religion has worst treatment of women. In traditional Islamic (moslem) societies, a woman should not be seen outside; if she has to be seen, she must have her body covered, she must wear a veil. This treatment, I think, stems from the fact that the woman is seen, always, as evil and has evil intentions at any point in time. A woman's resistance to men's sexual advances is doubtful, and so in order not to attract or tempt a man, she must have her body veiled. What an unfair treatment by religion! The woman - and womanhood - would need a rebranding.

2. Religious faith degenerates into fanaticism and culminates in civil wars and terrorism

Anybody who has been watching Aljazeera, a cable news channel with headquarters in Doha, Qatar, and London, England, must be fed up with reports about religious extremism, terrorism, and conflicts plaguing the world. Over one-half of the news on that channel is about religious wars in the form of terrorist attacks and revolutionary uprisings, manifesting in the form of organised wars and killings and suicide bombings, mostly in the Arab world that is fundamentally islamic. If it is not Afghanistan, it must be Iraq, Pakistan or, Iran. Many of the attacks are targeted at Christians, a rival religious faith, all in the name of the same God or, Allah. Jos area, Nigeria, where we have Moslems and Christians living together, is almost always in the news, not for anything good but for one organised killing of Christians by Moslems or the other. Religion is causing much suffering in the area and people are becoming fed-up with it. Differences in religious belief have brought mutual mistrust into the body politic of nations, and even within a nation, leading to political crises, leadership problems, hatred, tribalism (ethnicism), discrimination, suspicion and distrust. The problem between the State of Israel and the Arab world today is basically the result of differences in religious faith. It is religion versus religion, Islam pitched against Christianity. Christianity, as a religious faith preaches obedience, loyalty, loveliness, humility, non-shedding of blood, etc. Militancy and fanaticism characterize the Islamic faith. Anele (1999) reports what some Islamic militants and fanatics have to say:

The Disappointment of Religion

• "Those who are against killing have no place in Islam. If the survival of the faith requires the shedding of blood, we are there to perform our duty". • "Islam is not Christianity... Islam is the religion of agitation, revolution, blood, liberation and martyrdom." 49

Nduka (1964) reports part of a letter from the Sultan of Sokoto to Sir Fredrick Lugard in 1902:

"Between us and you there are no dealings except as between Mussulmans and unbelievers, War, as God Almighty has enjoined on us. There is no power or strength save in God on high"

Where exactly is this kind of religion, that is Islam, taking humanity? A religion that does not respect the sanctity of life; a religion that speaks of blood, blood, and blood, every time. Is the human species not already doomed by such a faith? The world's religions have brought the horrors of human sacrifice, crusades, pogroms and inquisitions. In the modern world this darker side of religion has become dangerous. The question now is, for how long will these continue - the killings, maiming, plundering, destructions, burnings - all in the name of God or, Allah? For how long exactly will they last?. Maybe, until God Himself intervenes. Kraus (1973) has these to say: • "God – the Almighty Creator of the Universe. It is said that without God's will no leaf can fall from a tree; no speck of sand can move in the desert. Consequently, as God is all-knowing and all-powerful, he must bear the ultimate responsibility for all that happens on this earth". • "God is all-loving. This "loving God", if he is really all-knowing and all-powerful, must be held responsible for all the crimes and misdeeds committed on this earth."

3. Evils perpetrated in God's name History is replete with cases where man has committed serious atrocities against his fellow man in the name of God. Under the combined teachings of Christ and his God-father- mother, the Inquisition, a tribunal of the Catholic Church, tortured and executed countless men and burned alive as witches thousands of guiltless women. In like manner Christian priests have blessed and are continuing to bless, the arms which are destined to maim and kill not only men of other creeds, but also their own Christian children. Killers (armed robbers, assassinators, kidnappers, abductors, etc) donate their moneys to churches and are blessed and treated as celebrities and what more, televangelists are everywhere fleecing their flocks.

4. The proliferation of religious groups (churches), emergence of Pentecostalism and the sinking of morality. There is an inverse relationship between morality and the number of religious groups worldwide. Hence, the more the number of churches for instance, the more the crime, violence, dishonesty, untruthfulness and various other vices. Two reasons come to mind as to why the increase in the number of religious groups: people have lost confidence in their leaders (politicians) and, the economic difficulties of our time. One consequence of these? Frustration! As a possible way out, people now seek solace in religion. The proliferation of churches goes with self-appointed Bishops, Arch-bishops, Pastors, Reverends, Apostles, General Overseers, etc as chief executives who turn the churches to their private establishments and open Bank accounts which run into millions of naira in their own names. Rich men (oil company workers, business men and women, politicians, etc) who go for

Kemka H. Ogbonda, Ph.D miracles and protection are their best and cherished clients as these people donate thousands and millions of their sometimes ill-gotten wealth. Just visit any of the big Pentecostal churches in town on any worship day and see the number of flashy cars and jeeps packed in the church premises. As for the GOs (General Oversees), their major aim is fleecing their flock while placing less emphasis on the moral uprightness of their customers. Some even go 50 as low as involving themselves in the sexual harassment of their female members. Where else does one go for moral lessons if not the churches? The Pope (Head of the Catholic Church) has on one or two occasions come out on television to apologize to the world the sexual abuses of his lieutenants, the priests. I thank him so much for being so courageous and honest.

5. Unrestrained insistence on materialism and sex by dispensers of religion.

The dispensers of religion (pastors, overseers, etc) talk so much about the acquisition of material wealth - how to make one rich, overnight - and sex, to the neglect of the more important value issues and salvation. One, who himself is not rich, promises to pray (or, prays) for another to become rich, even without hard work. All we hear is:

"2012, your year of unparallel prosperity; your year of unleashing miracle of abundance; your year to possess your possessions; your year of supernatural abundance; your year to say, good bye to poverty”. Haba, Pastor!. Meanwhile, have you counted how much leaves your purse, as offering, each day you attend that Church? Multiply this amount by how many times you go to Church in the month and by the population (number attending church, each day). Then, check his Bank account at the end of the period. His Bank account swells while your purse gets many "rat holes". This is the problem with the Pentecostal Churches, which are one-man outfits (private entrepreneurships). They are just out there to exploit the people. The established Churches (Catholic, Anglican, Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist etc) are better in every respect. According to Saro-Wiwa (1995), the Pentecostal Churches lack the strength of the organized Churches. I think it is because the Churches (particularly the Pentecostal Churches) talk so much and so loudly about sex that sex is so much misused and abused, that there is so much of sexual immorality. Just tell a child not to touch a particular thing and that's what that child would like to touch first, because you have aroused the child's curiosity. Instead of preaching total sexual abstinence, why don't our pastors preach and teach sex education which equips people, particularly the youths, with the knowledge of how to handle sex issues? Sex education will especially enlighten on the evils of indulging unnecessarily and irresponsibly in sex, particularly unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The more our pastors insist on sex, the more the awareness and the more the abuse. They insist on non- sex before marriage (even during courtship) and yet there is hardly any marriage nowadays in which the bride is not wedded with a three-to-five month’s pregnancy. Is this not hypocrisy - even in the house of God? If the Church can wed (bless) a woman already pregnant, how does it then defend its position on premarital sex?.

From a man's point of view, the primary motivation to take a wife is the satisfaction of his sexual urge. True. The boy and girl who are courting, hoping to marry, have we asked them to go for sexual compatibility test as they do other tests like HIV & AIDs, blood group, Rh factor, genotype? Do we not know that sexual incompatibility could bring problems in marriage, and sometimes lead to divorce soon after marriage? Yes! For the pastor, the

The Disappointment of Religion problem is sex. Since sex is the problem, it could also be the solution to sin and temptation. Leo Tolstoy (a sex maniac), cited by Kraus (1973) pronounced his own final solution to man's conquest of the flesh: the proposal of total sexual continence: By suppressing the sexual urge entirely, men would cease to leave any offspring and the human race would quietly expire. With the disappearance of man, sin and temptation would also die out." Yes. 51

Perhaps, that's the only way out - to come out with a "Drug" that would completely kill the sexual urge in man.

6. Faith problems The major pitfall of religion is the problem of "faith", which has to do with belief in the supernatural. "Faith" brings out clearly the retrogressive nature of religion, leads to the destruction of the faithful, is detrimental to survival and leads to intellectual darkness. Instances of these abound around us.

Retrogressive nature of religion (i) In 1976, an acquaintance of mine from a neighbouring community and who had a sound West African School Certificate (WASC) refused to attend a scholarship interview because it fell on a Saturday, a Sabbath day, his day of worship. Every person who attended that interview (including the author) got the scholarship and is today a graduate. As I write now, he still has not seen the four walls of a university.

(ii) The use of condom during sexual intercourse is recommended to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIsJ and unwanted pregnancy. But religion (the Catholic Church, for instance) condemns it and sees it as sin, likening it to the sin of Onan ("wasting" semen by not ejaculating it into a woman). Whoever uses a condom has committed a biological Onan.

(iii) A man is married to a woman for 10 years plus without a child. Because of religion that condemns polygamy he does not take another wife who would raise children for the family. At old age, who takes care of the childless couple? Suppose the man died without leaving offspring, what report would he give God who enjoined him to multiply and fill the earth? Or, suppose everybody lives and dies without leaving offspring, wouldn`t the human species expire on earth? The Whiteman who gave us (Africans) the religion has a way of solving this problem: he divorces the unfertile wife and re-marries. Divorcing a wife for the simple reason of childlessness, and taking a second one, which is a more serious offence? Aside from this, the Whiteman has an advanced culture (a good welfare system) that takes care of aged men and women.

(iv) A woman decides not to tell lies because her religion condemns lying. Assassins come to kill her husband and he hides. Would she disclose her husband's whereabout to the assassins simply because she would want to obey the religious injunction? Suppose she does and the assassins kill her husband, has she done well? If the religion was Christianity, what would be the mind of Jesus Christ and his God-Father-mother on the issue? The woman had done well? I am sure that if we were to have a third section of the Holy Bible, a "Newer Testament", certain things that are in the New Testament won't be there. The "Newer Testament" must have to be written to reflect the realities of today's world. Certain lies, depending on the circumstance, must be accommodated in today's society. I consider such lies as healthy.

Kemka H. Ogbonda, Ph.D v) A pregnant woman is made to fast for, sometimes, as long as 21 days in the belief that whatever problems that are associated with the pregnancy would be solved by so doing. This is particularly a case with the celestial (spiritual) churches. 52 vi) An ill person refuses to take any drugs (medicaments) but instead, will "faithfully", be drinking "blessed" or "holy" water. vii) A pregnant woman who loses so much blood due to prolonged labour and bleeding or an accident victim who also has lost much blood, will refuse blood transfusion all in the name of religion.

Faith leads to the destruction of the faithful i) Somebody goes to a native doctor to make amulets and charms for protection as bullet-proof. To test the potency of the amulet, he is shot at and he dies.

ii) A hunter who, instead of relying on his bow and arrow/spear, faces a lion with charms and amulets. The lion devours him.

Religious faith detrimental to survival Kitzinger (1994) reports that: i) In famine-stricken parts of India the cow, a sacred animal, will roam about freely and eat the precious crops. But the starving and dying Hindu, for the sake of faith and religion, will not interfere with it nor use it for food. ii) In Haiti, newborn babies die of tetanus contracted as a result of animal dung being rubbed ceremoniously on the umblical knot.

Religious domination leads to intellectual darkness i) In parts of East Africa, for example, a woman who is having a long and arduous labour may have her vagina packed with cow dung. It is an act that has significance in pastoral societies, where the main economic value is cattle. The dung is meant to encourage the birth of the child by letting it smell how wealthy (as determined by the number of cows owned by its father) its father is. (Kitzinger, 1994) ii) A student who has an on-coming examination sends biro pens to be used in the examination to his church's alter or pastor for blessings, instead of studying hard for the examination.

Conclusion "Faith" or "belief", which is the life-blood of every religion is fraught with danger. Albert Einstein has said "... Religion without science is lame". For the sake of man, for the sake of the human species religion, that aspect that deals with "faith", must be abandoned. People must embrace and apply some science, some common sense, in the things they do. Too much of religion, and no science, will spell doom for man.

REFERENCES

Anele, K.A. (1999). Social change and social problems in Nigeria. Springfield publishers, Owerri. 53

Haralambus, M. and Heald, R. (1980) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London: University Tutorial press.

Kitzinger, S. (1994). Ourselves as Mothers. The Universal Experience of Motherhood. Addison – Wesley publishing company.

Kraus, G. (1973). Homo Sapiens in Decline: A Reappraisal of Natural Selection. The New Diffusionist Press.

Nduka, O.A. (1964). Western Education and the Nigerian Cultural Background. University Press Limited, Ibadan.

The Holy Bible: New International Version (1978). a) 1 Peter 3:7; b) Genesis: 16; c) Genesis 3:6-7. Guide posts Carmel, New York.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SELF-CONCEPT AND PARENTING STYLE ON ACADEMIC ADJUSTMENT AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN TRANSITION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA

BY 54

Torubeli, Victor Ayebami PhD Department of Educational Foundations Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State [email protected]

And

Ambakederemo, T. Elisabeth Ph.D Department of Educational Foundations Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State

Abstract

This study investigated the predicting value of emotional intelligence, self-concept and parenting style on academic adjustment among adolescents in transition from primary school to Junior Secondary school in Bayelsa State of Nigeria. Three hundred junior secondary school one students were randomly drawn from six public schools in Yenagoa metropolis of Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State using the simple random technique. Their age ranged between 8 and 13 with a mean age of 11.9. Data were collected using four valid instruments. The multiple regressions were used to analyse the data. Findings revealed that the three independent variables jointly and collectively predicted the academic adjustment of students in transition. Based on that, the implications for the findings are highlighted.

Introduction

Adolescent development has emerged as a major area of education and psychological research. Adolescents have long been regarded as a group of people who are searching for and desire to find some forms of identity and meaning in their lives. They have also been regarded as a unique group with a wide range of difficulties and challenges in their transition to adulthood. Adolescents will have difficulty facing major decisions as they enter into Junior Secondary School (JSS). At this level, there is the need to determine adolescents’ state of adulthood.

Also, this stage of transition from primary school to junior secondary school(JSS 1),the adolescent is in the process of discovering the social world, learning new ways to relate to others not only sharing intimate experience, or by falling in love ,but also when he/she sets values which are also a new development at this age. The better adjusted adolescents are in transition, the better will be the adolescents’ present and future integration into the school system, effective study habit and attainment of academic performance (Adeyemo & Torubeli 2006).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SELF-CONCEPT AND PARENTING STYLE ON ACADEMIC ADJUSTMENT AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN TRANSITION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA

Emotional intelligence, self-concept and parenting styles are crucial in the academic adjustment among adolescents in transition to secondary schools. As adolescents try to discover who they are, it is often at this stage of development that rifts develop between them and their parents as the adolescents assume that they “know everything” and think that their parents “know nothing”. The 55 adolescents strive towards self-identification as distinct from those of their parents and as unique persons. Essentially, adolescents venture towards establishing their own goals and values while at the same time leaving behind the goals and values established by their parents or society with the ultimate goal of identity achievement.

Transition in life generally is traumatic, as moving from primary school to junior secondary school (JSS1). This is because, at this stage, the adolescent is in the process of discovering new social activities, learning new ways to relate to others like new set of classmates, new set of peers and probably new set of teachers. In addition, this stage could also be problematic for the fact that the adolescent is faced with new curriculum, which is usually loaded.

Literature Review

It should be realized that one aspect of adolescents is their emotion, and within school and society as a whole, this aspect has more often been over looked. Students are assessed in terms of performance and grade. They are assessed on how well they can play or act. However, emotional intelligence which is an intrinsic aspect of adolescents is usually ignored.

Emotional intelligence has been suggested as critical factor in adjustment to life in general and to work and work performance in particular (Goleman, 1995, 1998). Emotional intelligence refers to the emotional information as it relates to the perception, assimilation, expression, regulation and management (Mayer & Cobb, 2000; Mayer, Salovey & Coruso, 2000).

Emotional intelligence (EI) competencies include good character, integrity, empathy, honesty, maturity, impulse control, emotional self-awareness, human dignity, flexibility, reality testing, trust and others. These competences require skills in introducing feelings, paying attention to feelings, giving significance to feelings, thinking about feelings and taking into account in deciding how to act in life, at work and in the community at large (Akinboye, 2002).

EI can be raised, unlike intelligence quotience (IQ), which is fixed for life. EI can be continually developed to enable people to increase awareness of self and others, develop self- management strategies, and connect with others to create collaboration and harmony. Research indicated that American business each year loses between 5.6 and 16.8 billion dollars by not consistently following EI guidelines. Thus, success is strongly influenced by personal qualities such as perseverance, self-control, and skill in getting along with others. Ei largely determines human character. In fact, it is now described as the major determinant of human success, accounting for 80 percent of human performance while general IQ accounts for 20 percent (Goleman, 1998).

Emotionally intelligent person has been described as well adjusted, warm, genuine, persistent and optimistic (Mayer, Dipaolo & Salovey, 1990; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Salovey and Mayer (1990) in their attempt to clarify and define emotional intelligence categorized it into five domains:

1. Self-awareness – observing one and recognizing a feeling as it happens.

2. Managing emotions - handling feelings so that they appropriate, realizing what is behind a feeling; finding ways to handle fears and anxieties, anger and sadness.

3. Motivating one self-channeling emotion in the service of a goal, emotional self- control, delaying gratification and stifling impulses.

Torubeli, Victor Ayebami, Ph.D and Ambakederemo, T. Elisabeth, Ph.D

4. Empathy – Sensitivity to other’s feeling and concerns and taking their perspectives, appreciating the differences in how people feel about things.

5. Handling relationship – managing emotion in others, social competence and social skills. 56

Looking at the above five domains, Adeyemo (2005) deduced that they have a wide range of useful implications of secondary school students. When faced with transition traumas, all the five aspects of emotional intelligence can make useful contributions.

Studies have shown that EI affects pessimism, depression, griefing, anxiety and general human adjustment. Goleman (1995) in a study showed that good moods make it easier to find solutions for problems. Whether intellectual or emotional; children doing poorly in school, depression interfere with memory and concentration. Dropping out of school is a particular risk for children who are social rejects. Their drop out rate is between two and eight times greater than those children who have friends.

In the study of emotional intelligence and adjustment among gifted adolescents, some studies believe that gifted adolescents protect themselves from maladjustment, that the gifted are capable of greater understanding of self and others due to their cognitive capacities and therefore cope better with stress and conflict (Baker, 1995, Freeman, 1988).

There is converging evidence from other lines of research that emotional competencies are associated with social adaptation.

Evaluations of school-based interventions emphasizing the development of emotional competencies also suggest that emotional learning contributes to social and academic adjustment (Greeberg, Kusche, Cooke & Quamma, 1995).

Self-concept is identified as one of the variables in this study. There is no exact definition of the concept of self-concept, but many of the definitions overlap in various ways by integrating features that are common to the definitions. Thus, it is imperative for a working definition that is consistent with some current research which can be used to integrate empirical evidence on the validity of self-concept interpretations.

In a broad sense, self-concept is a person’s perception of himself/herself. These perceptions are formed through his/her experience with his environment. Seven features have been identified as critical to the construct definition. Self-concept may be described as organized, multifaceted, hierarchical, stable, developmental, evaluative and differential (Shavelson, Hubner & Stanten, 1976).

The term self-concept is primarily cognitive. It directs, controls and determines an individual’s behaviour through what Rogers (1951) described as congruence or incongruence between self as perceived and the actual experience of the organism. He opined that when the experiences of the organism constitute the self, it faithfully mirrors the experiences of the organism, then the person is said to be congruent, adjusted, matured and fully functioning. Incongruence between self and organism makes the individual feel threatened and anxious.

Adolescents’ interest in school, as well as self-concept, self-perception and confidence in their intellectual abilities tend to decline especially following school failures. However, researchers (e.g. Eccles & Wigfield (1985) from their study said adolescents tend to cope better with stresses when they use ‘approach’ rather than ‘avoidance’ strategies. Approach strategies such as seeking support to solve a problem, are associated with positive outcomes such as a higher self-concept. Avoidance strategies are often related to poorer adjustment. These self-concepts correlated positively with personal, social and overall adjustment.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SELF-CONCEPT AND PARENTING STYLE ON ACADEMIC ADJUSTMENT AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN TRANSITION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA

Parenting style is the last variable in this study. Parenting is a complex activity that includes much specific behaviour that work individually and together to influence child outcomes. Parenting style has been found to predict child well-being in the domains performance, psychosocial development and problem behaviour (Darling, 2000). 57

In most cases, young people who have been raised in authoritative households are more psychologically competent than peers who have been raised in authoritarian, indulgent, or indifferent homes (Steinberg, 1996). In contrast, adolescents raised in authoritarian homes are more likely to be dependent, more passive, less social and less self-assured.

Adolescents raised in indulgent households are often less mature, more irresponsible, more conforming to their peers and less able to assume positions of leadership. Adolescents raised in indifferent homes are often impulsive and more likely to be involved in delinquent behaviour and could experiment with sex, drugs and alcohol (Fuligni & Eccles, 1993; Kurdek & Fine, 1994; Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg & Dornbusch 1991; Pulkkinan, 1982; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts & Dornbusch, 1994). Most of the researchers agreed that authoritative parenting is composed of three main components: warm (the degree to which the adolescent is loved and accepted), structure (the degree to which the adolescent has expectations and rules for his or her behaviour), and autonomy (the degree to which parents accept and encourage the adolescent’s individuality (Barber, 1992; Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Steinberg, Elmen & Mounts, 1998).

In most cases, parental warmth is associated with adolescents overall competence. The presence of structure is associated with fewer behaviour problems, and the presence of autonomy support is associated with fewer symptoms of psychological distress such as depression or anxiety (Barber, Olsen & Shagle, 1994; Steinberg, 1990). The authoritative family is more able than other families to adjust to new stages of the life cycle (Hill, 1980). From the findings of Hill (1980), authoritative parents are flexible in their demands and expectations to suit the changing needs and competencies of the adolescents, a process that is likely to help the younger person continued development.

Although, considerable studies have been conducted in the areas of each of these variables as it relates to the adolescents, there are limited studies that have combined these three variables and regressed them to determine the predictability on the transition of school-going adolescents. To this end, this study attempted to bridge such missing gap and to build on the existing literature for future generation.

Research Questions

The purpose of this study was to investigate the predictive effects of emotional intelligence, self-concept and parenting styles on the academic adjustment of transiting junior secondary school students.

In order to actualize the objective of the study, the following two research questions were answered in the study.

1. To what extent would emotional intelligence, self-concept and parenting styles (independent variables) when taken together predict junior secondary school one students’ academic adjustment (dependent variable)? 2. What is the relative contribution of the independent variable to the prediction of students’ academic adjustment?

Torubeli,Victor Ayebami, Ph.D and Ambakederemo, T. Elisabeth, Ph.D

Methodology

Design

This study is a descriptive survey research. It only carefully observes and records information as they naturally occur at a point in time when the study is being conducted.

Population/Sample 58

The population of this study consisted of all school-going adolescents in junior secondary school in Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State, Nigeria. The participants in the study were three hundred (300) junior secondary school class one students randomly drawn from six public secondary schools in Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State. A simple random sampling technique was then randomly selected from the six schools. Of the sample selected, one hundred and forty four (144) were boys while the remaining one hundred and fifty six (156) were girls. The age ranged between 8 and 13 years with a calculated mean age of 11.9 years and standard deviation of 2.9 years.

Instrumentation/Validity/Reliability Tests

Four instruments were used to collect data for the study. The instruments were described below.

1. Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire

The emotional intelligence (EI) questionnaire designed by Schuttle, Marlouf, Hall, Cooper, Golden and Dorheim (1998) was used to assess the emotional intelligence of the subjects. The instrument has a total of 33 items with response format ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. A typical item on the scale reads thus :( 1] “I know when to speak about my personal problems to others. (2) I have control over my emotion. High score on the scale indicates a high emotional intelligence. A Cronbach’s Alpha of .87 was found for internal consistency of the scale. It also has test-retest reliability of .78. The scale also shows evidence of validity as scores on the scales were shown to be related to eight of the nine measures predicted to be related to emotional intelligence.

2. Self – Concept Inventory

A sub-scale A of the Adolescents Personality Data Inventory (APDI) was adapted for this study. The APDI by Akinboye (1977) was developed to measure the social, family, biological, health, personal, psychological and educational factors affecting the behaviour of Nigerian adolescents. The sub-scale A of the APDI measures the adolescents self perception that is self-concept. APDI has an internal consistency reliability of 0.87. The instrument is widely used by Nigerian researchers with success.

3. Parenting style Questionnaire:

The instrument was designed by the researchers in relation to Darling’s three parenting styles. The instrument is a thirty item questionnaire with response anchor based on Likert 4-point format from (1.)Strongly agree to (4.) Strongly disagree. Some items of the questionnaire read thus;

(1) My parents consult me when taking decision that concerns me. (2) My parents do not border any time I leave the house to see my friends. (3) I am always afraid of my father because he scolds me always even when I am not at fault.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SELF-CONCEPT AND PARENTING STYLE ON ACADEMIC ADJUSTMENT AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN TRANSITION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA

The questionnaire was trial tested and yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.70.

4. Adjustment Scale

A sub-scale J of the Adolescent Personality Data Inventory (APDI) was used for the study. The subscale J of APDI consists 20 items that basically describe the various ways an adolescent adjusts himself/herself on academic and social-personal situations. The APDI was 59

developed by Akinboye (1977). The subscale has a response format ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. A typical item on the inventory reads thus: “I often experience a feeling of personal satisfaction”. The items were generated from the products of some clinical interviews with adolescents in some Nigerian secondary schools as well as from existing literature. The APDI has an internal consistency reliability of 0.87. It also has a test- rested reliability indicated by r = 0.87 after three weeks and r = 0.80 after two months. The instrument had been shown to be valid as it has been widely used by researchers among Nigerian samples with success.

Procedure

Data for the study was obtained using the four valid and reliable instruments already discussed. The instruments were administered on the participants during the first term of the first years in junior secondary school. The administration was done by the researchers with the assistance of Vice Principals, and this facilitated their easier administration. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study. After the researchers had explained the instruction, participants completed the research instruments in their classes. The administration lasted for about an hour in each of the participating schools. There after, the instruments were retrieved. Of the three hundred and forty questionnaires distributed, three hundred were retrieved and considered good for the study. This indicates a response of 94.5%.

Data Analysis

Data analysis involved multiple regression procedure to examine the predictive effect of the three independent variables (emotional intelligence, self-concept and parenting styles to the prediction of the dependent variables on academic adjustment among junior secondary school one adolescents.

Result

Two issues were addressed in this study. One of the issues of concern was the extent of the joint contributions of the independent variables (emotional intelligence, self-concept and parenting styles) to the prediction of academic adjustment among junior secondary school adolescents. The second issue of interest to the study, was to find out the extent of relative contributions to the prediction of academic adjustment of the students. The results of the data analysis that provided answers to the research questions raised are presented below.

Torubeli, Victor Ayebami, Ph.D and Ambakederemo, T. Elisabeth, Ph.D

Table 1: Regression Analysis of Adjustment Data

Multiple R = 0.487

Multiple R square = 0.237

Adjusted R square = 0.224

Standard Error of estimate = 17.014 60

Analysis of variance

Source of variance Sum of square DF Mean square F.0B P

Regression 20493.575 5. 5298.715 18.304 0.05

Residual 85108.675 294 289.485

Total 1116022 294

Going by the result presented in table 1, the three independent variables gave a coefficient of multiple regressions (R) of 0.224. Thus, the analysis showed that the independent variables contributed

22.4 percent to the prediction of students’ academic adjustment. Also indicated in the table is the analysis of variance for the multiple regression data. This produced an F ratio of 18.304 and found to be significant at 0.05 Alpha levels.

Table 2: Relative Contributions of the Independent variables to the prediction

Variables Un-standardized Standardized T P description Coefficient

B Std. error Beta

Constant 10.359 16.810 0.616 NS

Emotional 0.260 0.058 0.230 4.459 0.05 Intelligence

Self-concept 0.394 0.068 0.297 5.804 0.05

Parenting 0.303 0.050 0.307 0.000 0.05 style

From the results displayed in table 2 above, all the three independent variables relatively made significant contribution to the prediction of students’ academic adjustment. The t observed for each of the variables attest to this fact.

Discussion of Findings

The result of the study revealed that the three independent variables when taken together were effective in predicting junior secondary school one students’ academic adjustment. This is an indication that the effectiveness of a combination of the independent variables did not occur by chance. The analysis showed that the independent variables contributed 22.4 to the variance of the outcome measured. As for the extent to which each of the three independent variables contributed to the prediction, all the three independent variables relatively made significant contributions to the prediction of student’s adjustment.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SELF-CONCEPT AND PARENTING STYLE ON ACADEMIC ADJUSTMENT AMONG ADOLESCENTS IN TRANSITION TO SECONDARY SCHOOL IN BAYELSA STATE, NIGERIA

The result indicated that self-concept is the most potent contributor to the prediction, followed by emotional intelligence and parenting styles in that order. The finding in the study that self-concept is the major contributor to the prediction of students’ academic adjustment is best understood when it is realized that students who perceive themselves positively could adjust better in all ramification. This finding is in line with the finding of Arul (1972) who established that self concept correlates positively with personal, social and overall adjustment. 61

The study also established that emotional intelligence is a contributor to the prediction of students’ adjustment. Again, the explanation for this result is not far fetched. Emotional intelligence competencies are likely to contribute to warm, smooth and spontaneous social interaction, preempts conflict to warm, smooth and spontaneous social interaction, preempts conflict and tension and enhance effective functioning as well as flexible focus of attention. In this respect, this study is in corroboration with Adeyemo and Torubeli (2006) whose finding demonstrated significant relationship between emotional intelligence and life adjustment. This finding also corroborates the observation made by Akinboye (2002) that emotional intelligence affects pessimism, depression, griefing, anxiety and general human adjustment.

The study also established that parenting styles is a contributor to the prediction of students’ academic adjustment. This finding is in consonance with the view of Adeyemo (2005), that parents exert profound influence on every aspect of a child’s life. The significant impact of parenting styles on student academic adjustment is best understood when it is realized that most parents have great expectations for their children. It is the desire of most parents that their children excel in life and they would not leave any stone unturned to make sure that their children are given necessary support. In a situation where the school and the home work towards the same goal, the result is a happy one.

Implication of the Findings

The results reported in this study established the need for the school counseling psychologists to assist students in secondary schools to acquire emotional intelligence and self-concept competencies since these variables were significant in the prediction of academic adjustment. The overall adjustment of students in school predicts academic achievement of the adolescents. Secondary school guidance counselors could help parents to sharpen their parenting skills and effective parenting styles.

Recommendations

 Guidance Counsellors should be employed in the junior secondary schools in order to assist students in the personal-social, vocational and educational counselling.  Emotional intelligence training should be established in the junior secondary schools in order for adolescents to acquire emotional intelligence and self concept competences to be academically adjusted.  Guidance counsellors employed in schools should help parents to sharpen their parenting skills and effective parenting styles.

Conclusion

Adolescents transiting from primary school to junior secondary school are faced with decision making challenges. The better adjusted adolescents are in transition, the better will be the adolescents’ present and future integration into the school system, effective study habit and attainment of academic endeavour

References

Adeyemo, D.A (2005). Parental Involvement, Interest in schooling and school environment as predictors of Academic Self-efficacy among fresh secondary school students in Oyo State. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology. 5-3 (1), 163-180.

Adeyemo, D.A. & Torubeli, V.A (2006). Psycho-social factors as correlates of Adjustment among secondary school students in Transition. Journal of Sociology and Education in Africa 5, 2, 85-102. 62

Akinboye,J.O.(1977).Adolescent Personal Data Inventory(APDI). Ibadan: University Printing Press.

Akinboye, J.O. (2005). Emotional Intelligence, Human Integrity, Honesty, Fairness and Dignity in the work-place .J.O. Akinboye(Ed.) Psychological Principles for success in life and workplace; Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publisher Ltd

Torubeli, Victor Ayebami, Ph.D and Ambakederemo, T. Elisabeth, Ph.D

Arul, M.J. (1972). A Study of Self-Concept related to adjustment and achievement. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology, M.S University of Baroda.

Baker, J.A. (1995). Depression and Suicidal Ideation among academically talented Adolescents. Gifted child Quarterly, 39 4, 218-223.

Barber, B.K., Olsen, J., & Shagle, S. (1994), Association between Parental Psychological and Behavioural Control and Youth Internalized and Externalized Behaviours. Child Development 65, 1120-1136.

Connell, J. & Wellborn, J. (1991), Competence Autonomy and Relatedness: A Motivational Analysis of Self-System Process. Pp 43-77.

Darling, N., (2003). Parenting style and its correlates. Sat Health. Com.

Eccles, J. & Wigfield, A. (1985). Teacher expectancies and student motivation. In J.B. Dusek (Ed.) Teacher expectancies (pp. 185-226) Hills dale, H.J. Eribaum.

Freeman, J. (1988). Emotional Problems of the Gifted child. Journal of Child Psychology Psychiatry, 24, 3, 481-485.

Fuligni, A & Eccles, J. (1993). Perceived Parent – Child Relationships and early Adolescents’ orientation towards peers. Developmental Psychology, 29, 622-632.

Goleman D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence: New York: Bantam Books.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: why it matters more than 1 Q New York: Bantan Books.

Greeberg, M.T., Kusche, C.A. Cooke,. E.T. & Quamma, J.P. (1995). Promoting emotional competence in school-aged children: The effects of the PATHS curriculum. Development and Psychology, 7, 117-136.

Hill, J. (1980). The Family. In M. Johnson (Ed.). Toward adolescence. The Middle School Years (Seventy-ninth Year book of the National Society for the Study of Education) Chicago University of Chicago press.

Kurdek, L. & Fine, M. (1994). Family acceptance and family control as predictors of adjustment in young adolescents. Linear,curvilinear, or interactive effects. Child Development 65, 1137- 1146.

Lamborn, S. Mounts, N., Steinberg, L. and Dornbusch, (1991. Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful families. Child Development.60,100-120

Mayer, J. & Cobb. C (2000). Educational Policy on emotional intelligence! Does it make sense? Educational Psychology Review, 12, 2, 163-183. 63

Mayer, J., Salovey, R. & Caruso D. (2000). Competing models of emotional intelligence. In R.J. Sternberg, (Ed) Handbook of Human Intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Mayer, J.D. Dipaolo M & Salovey P. (1990). Perceiving effective content in ambiguous visual stimulating emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 70-72.

Mounts, N. & Dornbusch, S. (1994). Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful families. Child Development, 65, 754-770.

Pulkkinan, L. (1982). Self-control and continuity from childhood to adolescence. In P. Baltes and O. Brim (Eds.). Life Span Development and Behaviour vol. 4 New York: Academic Press.

Rogers, C.R. (1951). Client-Centres therapy. Bosten: Houghtonmifflin.

Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185-211.

Schuttle,N.S.,Marlouf,J.M.,Hall,L.E.,Haggerty,D.J.,Cooper,J.J.,Golden,C.J., and Donheim,F . (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Difference,25,165-177.

Shavelson, R.J, Hubner, J.J. & Stanton, G.C. (1976). Self-concept validation of construct interpretation. Review of educational research, 46, 407-441

Steinberg, L. (1990). Autonomy, conflict, and harmony in the family relationship. Pp. 255-276 in S. Feldman & G. Eldiott (Ed). At the Threshold: The Developing Adolescents, Cambridge, and Mass Harvard University Press.

Steinberg, L. (1996), Adolescence (4th ed) American, Mc Graw-Hill. Inc.

Steinberg, L., Elmen, J. & Mounts, N. (1989). Authoritative parenting, psycho-social maturity and academicsSuccess among adolescence. Child Development, 60, 1424-1436.

Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S., Darling, N. and Dornbusch, S. (1994). Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful families. Child Development, 65, 754-770.

Torubeli, V.A. (2004). Psycho-social factors as correlates of academic achievement and adjustment among adolescents in transition: The case of Bayelsa State. An unpublished M.Ed Thesis, Department of Guidance & Counselling, University of Ibadan, Ibadan – Nigeria. 64

DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS OF WOMEN SMOKING AND DRUG ABUSE: A SOCIOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

By

Ukpere, Dennis R. Tobins Email:[email protected] 08064525329, 08189980112, 08125467037 Department of Geography & Environmental Studies Ignatius Ajuru University of Education P.M.B. 5047 Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt Abstract

This paper examined the development implications of women smoking and drug abuse on the family. The study adopted the socio-spatial approach using both primary and secondary data. Three non-directional hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The results showed that: there is spatial variation in women smoking across the urban centres of Nigeria; there are significant differences in women smoking across the different occupations in Port Harcourt; and there is significant relationship between women smoking/drug abuse and level of women’s contribution towards the socio-economic development of the family. Statistics revealed that 25% of smokers never lived to celebrate their 70th birthday due to nicotine influences. Smoking and drug abuse drain the pockets of smokers and cause more harm to pregnant women such as respiratory, reproductive and hereditary problems. The 65

African woman is noted for her roles in family building. Today these roles are dying away due to women involvement in smoking and drug abuse. As a result, the family is facing institutional neurosis with no sign of immediate relief. Hence, there is urgent need to halt this menace through the imposition of taxes and fines on smokers, cigarette traders and producers; and mass literacy programmes in order to save our families from total collapse.

Key words: smoking; drug abuse; cigarette; women; development; spatial variation.

Introduction

Introduction

There is a collaborative effort by experts from different fields in tackling some of the World’s most challenging and itching problems which have become a social cancer in the development process. While retaining its philosophy and methodology as a spatial science, contemporary human geography is apt in addressing these problems through a progressive re- alignment and broadening of its scope and direction in treating the fundamental problems of spatial differences or inequalities, location, and distribution. Human geographers are becoming more proactive in seeking better ways of offering logical solutions to world problems.

It is on this premise that this current study is aimed at the socio-spatial analysis and evaluations of the incidence of women smoking, and drug abuse and its antecedent effects on the development of the African family. The retrospect involves a trace of the genesis of cigarette/tobacco smoking, the effects of smoking on the human body, specific effects of smoking on pregnant women, and the development implications of women smoking and drug abuse on family building in Africa.

DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS OF WOMEN SMOKING AND DRUG ABUSE: A SOCIOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

There are several approaches to research and a particular study may adopt one to two or even more approaches. For instance, while Rauber, San Sebastian and Inda (2008) applied the social, and elements of the ecological dimensions to their study of ‘the city, the environment and gender relationships seen through Latin American eyes’; in her part, Lieberherr-Gardiol (2008) in her study, ‘urban sustainability and governance: issues for the twenty-first century’, was rather socio-spatial in approach by incorporating the social, ecological and spatial dimensions. In the same vein, Walther and Dautel (2010) were more succinct in the use of the socio-spatial approach in their study, ‘intra-regional employment growth in Luxembourg (1994-2005). But Poon and Thai (2010) on the other hand, were rather explicitly ‘socio- economic’ in approach in their work: ‘micro-credit and development in northern Vietnam’.

It is therefore very obvious that the socio-spatial approach is the best way to carry out this research. This is base on the fact that the subject matter under consideration is a social research with social, economic, and spatial dimensions. Studies have revealed that the socio- spatial approach to social research is the best approach due to its suitability. For instance, Pacione (1995) in his study: ‘the socio-spatial development of Glasgow’, opined that the development of the city has been socio-spatially functionalized along lines of social, economic, political, and spatio-ecological considerations.

Also, Onwuchekwa, Ukpere and Ejenna (2009) applied the socio-spatial method in their study of land use and waste dumps in Port Harcourt. They observed that land use variations in the city is spatially influenced by the existence of waste dumps; among other factors such as social, economic, government policy, accessibility and community interference. For this 66 current study, one crucial element of the social dimension is ‘perception’. People have different perception to smoking and drug abuse.

To some people, smoking cigarette is either a normal or abnormal routine of life. As a habit, smoking is very easy to cogently practice and when indulged in, it gets harder than diamond to break. A lot of people have become slaves to smoking or hard drugs. To such persons, the habit is more of a social neurosis than a mere medical dilemma of the modern times.

It is common to listen to or read the various tobacco/cigarette advertisements end notes with a warning- “tobacco is dangerous to your health”, and “tobacco kills”. The rational question to ask seems to be: are these companies really sincere in telling people to quit smoking? Or are they just making caricature of the smokers; who perhaps are seen as fools by both manufacturers and the public?

Generally, the magnitude of smoking and drug abuse; and of women smoking in particular have a socio-spatial occurrence. This variation is attributable to differences in natural environments, culture and religious beliefs, social life, income levels, and perception which is determined by level of awareness and education. Other secondary factors are occupation, age and sex (Ukpere, 2010). For instance, in colder environments such as Central Europe and the icy regions, a lot of people including adolescents engage in smoking. Certain traditions prohibit smoking by women and people less than 30 years. While in societies where Christian Pentecostalism is dominant, smoking is both a taboo and sinful for all segments of society and especially for women. It is also common knowledge that commercial sex workers, sailors and soldiers at war situations often engage in high level smoking and drunkenness (Jain, 2011a; Ukpere, 2010; Wilson, 2011).

Ukpere, Dennis R. Tobins

Statement of problem

The number of women involved in smoking and drug abuse is alarming. Recent reports have it that over 140 million sticks of cigarette are smoked daily (WHO, 2011 cited in Kahinde, 2011).

Consequently, the number of deaths resulting from smoking is also on the increase. Yet, more and more people especially the youths and ‘would be mothers’ are joining this illicit habit.

It is pertinent to reiterate here that, the socio-cultural and economic problems of drug abuse, youth restiveness, women involvement in smoking and drunkenness; and the corresponding loss of family moral values, are all geographic in nature. It therefore means that solutions to them must also vary from place to place. This implies that geographic factors are inevitable in the development process. This includes the use of socio-spatial techniques and processes such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Geo-informatics. Unfortunately, these techniques are still under utilized in Africa.

Often time, we have hurriedly replicated Western models in the fight against smoking and drug abuse, and these have not worked well in Africa (Kahinde, 2011). Policies such as regulating smoking in public places, and bringing the warnings of smoking only at the end of the advertisements of cigarette brands are only but a drop of water in the ocean. The effects of smoking and drug abuse are very awful to both the woman and her family. Studies conducted in the US revealed that 25% of smokers hard never lived so long as to celebrate their 70th birth day due to influence of nicotine (Parkers, 2011). That, in highly developed countries, smoking causes the death of more people than alcohol, drugs and suicide put together). It is said that two packs of cigarettes contain lethal dose of nicotine which is 67 divided into portions, and the fatal effects stay unnoticed. One is therefore moved to ask the following questions: How did smoking originate? Do smokers actually know the damage they cause themselves? Is smoking of benefit to any one; and what are the reasons why people smoke? What are the effects of smoking on women, and especially on pregnant women? What are some of the development implications of women smoking and drug abuse on the family? And what are the possible ways of prosecuting this war against smoking and drug abuse?

The Aim of the Study

The study is aimed at examining the implications of women smoking and drug abuse as it Affects the socio-economic development of the family as a social unit and agent of socialization, innovation diffusion and cultural transmission in Nigeria.

Methodology

The Socio-spatial Approach The study adopted the socio-spatial approach. Both primary and secondary data were used.

These were generated using oral interviews and questionnaires, as well as qualitative survey research and case studies.

The Socio-spatial Approach to research lay emphasis on the over all dimensions of the research endeavour but with particular reference to the social, spatial, ecological, as well as the temporal dynamics of the subject matter.

DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS OF WOMEN SMOKING AND DRUG ABUSE: A SOCIOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

According to Ostermann (2011), the socio-spatial approach in social work emphasizes social space analysis as a distinct method for practitioners and researchers in carrying out social research with the spatial dimensions of the research setting, and its socio-cultural dynamics being studied to carry out routines and activities relevant to the topic of the study. The approach emphasizes the major themes and methods for future research on the topic.

In his own view, Spatscheck (2011) opined that, the socio-spatial paradigm follows an interactive perspective of carrying out research with focus on the social, spatial, ecological, and planning scales of the urban land space, with a view to carry out research on certain urban ecosystem services based on quantitative and qualitative methods.

Hypothesis

1. There is no statistical spatial variation in women smoking across the urban centres of Nigeria. 2. There is no significant difference in women smoking across the different occupations in Port Harcourt. 3. There is no significant statistical relationship between women smoking/drug abuse and the socio-economic contributions of women in family development in Nigeria.

The utilized tools for analysis were the one sample only Chi-square goodness-of-fit test(x); and the Spearman Rank Order correlation coefficient (rho). 68

The Origin of Tobacco/ Cigarette Smoking

The question of where and when cigarette smoking started has generated a lot of academic and social discourse across the globe. Many ancient societies engaged in smoking but not tobacco or cigarette. It depended solely on the type of plant or herb and the purpose of the smoking. Smoking has religious, medicinal or social connotations. For instance, according to oral history, in ancient Odual kingdom {at the north of the Central Niger Delta Region of Nigeria}, the act of sniping or inhaling the smokes and aroma of certain medicinal herbs dated back from the Sixth Century. The Sakas {the Oduals} under the leadership of its founder and warrior, Egho, often snipped or inhaled certain dried leaves or shrubs either as medicine to cure certain ailments or as a booster to spark off anger and aggression during conflicts. It was also used to appease the gods (Ukpere, 2010).

Tobacco smoking is practiced where tobacco is burnt and the vapour is either tasted or inhaled. According to Jim Six (2009), the act of tobacco smoking started between 5000-3000 B.C. That, cigarette smoking started in America. The production of tobacco also started in America where people began to consume its leaves for smoking and chewing. Peoples of the Maya Civilization in Central America and the Aztecs of South America were the first users of tobacco. This was pronounced during religious festivals which was attributed to the fact that both Priests and deities were shown smoking through pipes on the region’s local pottery.

During the 17th century in Spain, the corn husk was replaced by paper and this later spread to other nations of the earth. By the 1830s, cigarette got to France where its name was born. The present popular word ‘cigarette’ is the French adaptation of the Spanish word ‘sigarito’. In 1850, Turkish leaves were introduced, which was popular in Russia (Parkers, 2011). After the Crimean War, cigarette got to the English world through British Soldiers. Due to its popular

Ukpaere, Dennis R. Tobins

demand, a London tobacconist, Philip Morris (a very popular name now) began to manufacture cigarettes in 1854. The cigarettes were hand – rolled and about 40 cigarettes per minute could be rolled out by a good roller in a factory (Jim, 2009). The increasing popular demand of cigarette led to the manufacturing of the first cigarette making machine in 1879.

In 1954, R.J. Reynolds manufactured the first filtered cigarette under the brand name- Winston. In 1956, the first filtered cigarette with menthol named ‘Salem’ was introduced. And in 1962, Kent brand was launched. This had ‘micronite filter’, containing asbestos. In 1980s and 1990s, the companies marketed their products extensively in other countries. Developing countries of Asia, Latin America, Africa and the Middle East were specifically targeted.. In fact, this period saw Marlboro being ranked as the top brand in the world as its sales exceeded those of Coca Cola’s (Parkers, 2011; Jim, 2009; and Kennedy, 1986).

In Africa, the act of cigarette smoking was introduced and popularized by two sets of people. First by the voyages of discoveries and missionary work; and secondly by African returnees (scholars, slaves or farm workers from the Caribbean). In Nigeria for instance, certain English and Portuguese explorers and priests were seen smoking cigarettes. With the discovery of crude oil and the influx of expatriates into the Niger Delta area, smoking spread across the crannies of the region. This became worst when oil rig- workers began to camp along the coastal communities. The old, young, and women began to smoke cigarettes. Drug abuse and crime rates began to rise. Today, it is no longer a taboo for a girl to smoke even in public.

How does smoking work in the body? The foremost thing is that tobacco smoke attacks the oral cavity. The dental enamel gets damaged, oral mucosa is often irritated, activity of salvia glands gets low, bringing down the 69 protective function of salvia and in addition, it produces bad breath. With time, lip cancer develops. It takes place when the smoker holds the cigarette in the teeth instead of using hands. Then smoke moves through the bronchus causing their spasm. This leads to breathlessness and hyper secretion of protective mucus in the bronchus (Parkers, 2011).

Smoking decreases the inflow of fresh air and in addition, blood haemoglobin connects with carbon of tobacco smokes and can no longer transport oxygen. Hypo-oxygenia develops, causing harm to all systems of vital importance especially to the cardiovascular system. Smoking cause the spasm of blood vessels which leads to increase in blood pressure. This condition multiplies the work load on the heart. Thus, smokers risk raising their chance of heart attack by eight times.

Smoking also increases the production of stomach juice and such a run free work leads to ulcer and gastritis. It is an established truism that only one cigarette a day makes one seven steps closer to cancer. Smoking more than one pack a day, a person could make this distance twice shorter. Cigarette smokes contain dangerous tar and nicotine. Nicotine and attendant poisons in time multiply their concentration, making the work of the body more difficult and complex (Parkers, 2011; Wilson, 2011; and Jain, 2011). Smokers die not of the nicotine itself, but of the diseases and complications arising from its influence. Smoking in its cruelty is so close to the dreaded AIDS.

DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS OF WOMEN SMOKING AND DRUG ABUSE: A SOCIOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

Specific Effects of Smoking on Pregnant Women

Drug abuse affects the general functionality of the body system. Its effects is much felt on the reproductive system and other sensitive organs of the body. The main effects of smoking on pregnant women can be summed up into respiratory and reproductive problems; passive smoking and its antecedent effects on the unborn baby; and hereditary problems.

Respiratory and Reproductive Problems The quantum of oxygen that a pregnant woman inhales is reduced when she smokes. Carbon dioxide will not be fully exhaled from the body. The oxygen will be insufficient to meet the mother’s own need let alone that of the unborn baby. Normally, only small quantities of oxygen are passed from the expectant mother to the unborn child. In the same way, the baby also gets dangerously increased amounts of carbon monoxide because the entire quantity is not exhaled from her body.

Ultimately, both mother and baby will be breathing poisonous gases like carbon dioxide and will breath less oxygen and suffer from all sorts of respiratory problems (Jain, 2011b; Willson, 2011). Smoking is responsible for some of the cases of bareness. Parkers (2011) postulated that smoking causes more intense damages to the reproductive system of pregnant women. These in turn affect the sex life of the unborn child when he/she grows up. The semen count could be reduced in the case of a male child. It could even make him impotent. And in the case of female offspring, the ovary and the fallopian tubes could be intensely 70 damaged. This makes it difficult and sometimes even impossible to conceive babies. Infertility is one major side effect of smoking in older women.

Passive Smoking and its Perils In passive smoking, the pregnant woman is not involved in direct smoking but she inhales the smokes when other people smoke around her. The unborn child like her mother, is also affected by passive smoking. If the husband smokes, both baby and mother are affected. Similarly, if other people who visit her smoke, the unborn baby gets affected. It is therefore advisable to request partners and other people to refrain from smoking whenever they come around the pregnant woman. Again, a new born baby’s health is affected. Since the baby’s physical system will be very timid, the smoke can cause lots of infections. The health of the mother is also affected in the process as they would have already lost a lot of stamina during the birth. It is therefore pertinent to note that any harm done to the mother will, very often be passed on to the baby whether in the womb or during breastfeeding because the baby spends a good deal of his/her time with the mother until he/she is fully grown up.

Hereditary Problems Heredity is the transfer of genetic traits from parents to offspring. It is also during this process that certain hereditary disease is inherited by the offspring. Smoking by pregnant woman is considered to be very dangerous. When a pregnant woman smokes, the child gets vulnerable to all the hereditary diseases. The risks are comparatively smaller for a woman who does not smoke.

Occupational Specialties of Women Smokers in Port Harcourt and Yenagoa (2008-2010) Investigations reveal that there are lots of secret women smokers in both Port Harcourt and Yenagoa especially among the high class ladies and married women whose husbands and family members are kept in oblivion. Apart from disparity among the different occupations, there is increase in the number of women smokers. A lot of women under anonymity testified Ukpere, Dennis R. Tobins that, sometimes, they have to hide and smoke because of the social stigma, while others especially the commercial sex workers and those exposed to public functions were of the opinion that “there is no need hiding or pretending, as smoking is part of life” (Ukpere, 2010). The society is at risk. The African family is experiencing a period of transition marked by institutional neurosis. This is perhaps the most challenging social dilemma of our time. And this is due to the abandonment of the traditional roles of the African woman in home building. The involvement of women in obnoxious crimes and taboos such as smoking, drug abuse, trafficking and prostitution is the social cancer and agent of destabilization of the African family. If the trend in women smoking continues unchecked, then the cohesion of brotherly love and affection which the African family is known for, is doomed for destruction.

Table 1.1 Occupational Specialties of Women Smokers in Port Harcourt (2008-2010) 71

Occupations/professions 2008 2009 2010 Total

Commercial sex workers and club girls Bar attendants and sales girls 405 430 484 1319 Teachers (primary and post primary) Police and Military 207 230 237 674 Paramilitary (NSCDC, Prisons, Customs, Immigrations) 1 2 - 3 Market women(kiosk, shops, shades,) Hawkers of goods 108 127 132 367 Nurses and Doctors(private and public) Sportswomen (athletes, footballers,) 42 55 65 162 Musicians and dancers Artisans(artists, hair stylists, seamstresses) 70 81 92 243 Students (tertiary and senior secondary) Female taxi drivers 201 211 220 632 Female vendors(books, newspapers and magazines) 1 - 1 2

47 50 57 154

169 181 189 539

109 122 130 361

240 288 300 828

30 47 58 135

20 28 32 80 Grand total 1650 1852 1997 5499

Source: Ukpere 2010, Social Survey of Women Smokers in Port Harcourt, pp 12.

DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS OF WOMEN SMOKING AND DRUG ABUSE: A SOCIOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE Table 1.1 Occupational Specialties of Women Smokers in Yenegoa (2008-2010) 72

Occupations/professions 2008 2009 2010 Total Commercial sex workers and club girls 207 230 237 674 Bar attendants and sales girls Teachers (primary and post primary) 108 210 287 605 Police and Military Paramilitary (NSCDC, Prisons, Customs, 3 2 1 6 Immigrations) Market women(kiosk, shops, shades,) 208 232 255 695 Hawkers of goods Nurses and Doctors(private and public) 142 155 175 472 Sportswomen (athletes, footballers,) Musicians and dancers 40 51 62 153 Artisans(artists, hair stylists, seamstresses) Students (tertiary and senior secondary) 111 121 120 352 Female taxi drivers Female vendors(books, newspapers and magazines) - 1 1 2

37 40 57 134

139 141 189 469

101 123 133 357

120 188 222 530

9 15 21 45

7 11 21 39 Grand total 1232 1520 1781 4533 Source: Ukpere 2010, Social Survey of Women Smokers in Yenegoa, pp 13. Analysis of Data/Testing of the hypotheses Ho 1: There is no statistical spatial variation in women smoking across the urban centres of Nigeria. The Spearman rank order correlation coefficient (rho) was used to analyze the data from the two urban centres of Yenegoa and Port Harcourt. The hypothesis was tested under the 95% probability level. Data from Port Harcourt are marked X while those from Yenegoa served as Y.

Table 1(a): Data from Port Harcourt and Yenegoa

X 1319 674 3 367 162 243 632 2 154 539 361 828 135 80 Y 674 605 6 695 472 153 352 2 134 469 357 530 45 39 The Spearman rank order correlation used here is stated thus: rho = 1 - 6. Σ d2 N (N2 – 1) Quoting Spearman, Oyegun (2003:150) opined that if the n ≥ 10, then rho tends towards the Student’s ‘t’ distribution given thus: t = r. n-2

1 – r2 Ukpere, Dennis R. Tobins

The result of the computation is summarized below. 73

Table 1(b): Result from the computation of Rank order correlation (rho) for Ho1 N Σd Cal. Cal.t. df Sign t- Decision Reason rho from (n-2) level critical rho 14 64 0.86 5.84 12 0.05 2.18 Ho1 Cal. t > Rejected t-critical

Ho 2: There is no significant difference in women smoking across the different occupations in Port Harcourt. The One sample Chi-square goodness-of –fit test (X2) is used to analyze the field data gotten from Port Harcourt. The row data served as the observed frequencies (O) while the mean score of this data set served as the expected frequencies (E) (Oyegun, 2003:150-153; Joe, 1992:284-286).

The One sample only Chi-square (X2) used here is stated thus: E (O - E) E Table 2(a) Field data from Port Harcourt (2008-2010)

O 131 674 3 367 162 243 632 2 154 539 361 828 135 80 9 E 392. 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392 392. 8 ...... 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

The result of the computation is summarized below. Table 2(b) Result from the computation of Chi-square for Ho2

Cal.X2 Sign level df(n-1) Critical X Decision Reason 4603. 0.05 13 22.36 Ho2 rejected Cal. X2 > 6 table value

Ho3: There is no significant statistical relationship between women smoking/drug abuse and the socio-economic contributions of women in family development in Nigeria. Again, the One sample Chi-square goodness-of –fit test (X 2) is used to analyze the field data gotten from Yenagoa. The row data served as the observed frequencies (O) while the mean score of this data set served as the expected frequencies (E) (Oyegun, 2003:150-153; and Joe, 1992:284-286).

Table 3(a) Field data from Yenagoa (2008-2010)

O 674 605 6 695 472 153 352 2 134 469 357 530 45 39 E 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323 323...... 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 74

DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS OF WOMEN SMOKING AND DRUG ABUSE: A SOCIOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

The result is summarized below.

Table3 (b) Result from the computation of Chi-square for Ho3

Cal.X2 Sign level df(n-1) Critical X2 Decision Reason 2554 0.05 13 22.36 Ho2 rejected Cal. X2 > table value Interpretation of Results

Ho1: There is no statistical spatial variation in women smoking across the urban centres of Nigeria.

Yenegoa and Port Harcourt were the two urban centres used for the study. Both cities showcase the typical characteristics of Nigerian urban centres. Hence, the result is a true representation of what happens in other urban centres. Arising from the computations, the obtained rho of 0.86 was subjected to the Student’s‘t’ distribution. Thus, the calculated t of 5.84 is by far greater than the critical table value of 2.18 under 95% probability level thus, null hypothesis one (Ho1) is therefore rejected. This means that there is spatial difference in women smoking across the urban centres. This is perhaps due to differences in socio- economics and culture of the people.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in women smoking across the different occupations in Port Harcourt. Arising from the calculations, the obtained Chi-square value of 4603.6 is by far greater than the critical table value of 22.36 at 95% probability level. Hence, null hypothesis two (Ho2) is again rejected. This means that there is significant variation in women smoking across the different occupations under study. This variation is attributed to the nature of each occupation and the degree of exposure or access of workers to cigarettes. See tables 1.1 and 1.2 respectively.

Ho3: There is no significant statistical relationship between women smoking/drug abuse and the socio-economic contributions of women in family development in Nigeria. Arising from the computations, calculated Chi-square of 2554 is by far greater than the critical table value of 22.36 at the 95% probability level hence, Ho3 is rejected. This implies that there is significant relationship between women smoking/drug abuse and the level of socio-economic contributions of women towards the development of the family in Nigeria.

Development Implications of Women Smoking and Drug Abuse on Family Building in Nigeria. The African society is homogenously well organized. There is a well structured system through which the norms and values which guide peoples conduct and behaviour are traditionally passed on to every generation. These value systems are fast eroding away. Nations of the world have legislations regulating the use of hard drugs and tobacco/cigarette smoking, but these have not been effective because of poor implementations (Olumati, 2009). Environmental Rights Groups across the globe have been on the front burner of series of protests and campaigns against tobacco smoking. In Nigeria, the idea of a legal framework is relatively new and still on the nursery level as a bill to regulate tobacco smoking is pending in the National Assembly. There are grave consequences of women involvement in smoking and drug abuse on the family.

Ukpere, Dennis R. Tobins 75

These impacts may be social, psychological, environmental, economic, and historical. Within Port Harcourt and its environs, a stick of cigarette sells between #5- 20.00 depending on the brand and location or place of purchase. On the average, some people smoke between 10-30 sticks per day. Thus, the economic cost on the family is very high. A woman under my investigation confessed that she smokes at least 25 sticks per day. By implication, she spends #125-500.00 daily on cigarette. This translates to between #500- 2000.00 per week; and #2, 000 – 8,000.00 per month. This economic waste of the income of the family can only spell doom on the family, as this will cause financial crises and stagnation.

Also, apart from ageing conditions in women, the risk of bearing a child that is psychologically inactive, melancholic, imbeciles, the morons, and the weaklings e.t.c, is higher in women that involves in smoking and drug abuse (Jain, 2011a). The task of taking care of this set of children are challenging. Extra time, money and special attention must be dedicated to them. The family may also hire the services of special home nurses. Thus, the high social and economic cost on these sets of children negates the harmony and progress of the family. But these children are not responsible for these challenges rather; the woman should be blame for her irresponsibility especially during pregnancy.

Social outcast and let down is meted on not just the woman smoker or drunkard alone, but also on her family. And this continues for decades as it forms part of the history of such family which is told to every generation. It also causes a kind of nightmare for people seeking marriage tiers with such families. When a woman continues to smoke, with time, her social life begins to wear-out. This social deterioration result to the inability of the woman to be emotionally attractive to her husband. She begins to lose the appetite for sex because of retrogressive impacts on her libido. Later on, she becomes sexually inactive and repulsive. The long run effect of this is that, the husband begins to look for alternatives including staying away from home and promiscuity.

The family is now in crises. Its peace, love, progress and continuity is under serious threat. Smoking and drug abuse forces the woman to spend lesser time on her kids. She does not demonstrate true motherly love to her children again. As a result, the moral upbringing of the children are affected. These children grow up without undergoing the various home training through which the right values are inculcated into the child during the various developmental stages. They are rather forced to learn one habit or the other from house help and peers. At the end, some of them becomes a course both to the home and society.

Children learn very fast. They watch their elders perform certain tasks and wish to do same at the slightest opportunity. When they perceive that their mother who is expected to be their role model smoke or drinks, they hastily conclude that smoking is not bad hence, they begin to practice smoking even at very tender ages. A woman who engages in smoking hardly saves. She will prefer to spend her income on smoking and alcohol rather than investing on her children education and welfare. This is a serious crime against humanity. Apart from abject poverty, incidence of child abuse and child labour is high in broken homes, and homes where smoking and alcoholism is the order of the day (Olumati, 2009).

Also, apart from polluting the house or vicinity, carbon dioxide from cigarette smoking reduces the amount of oxygen in a room; and make the room uncomfortable. It is also the common gas for greenhouse effects and climate change.

How best can we fight the war against smoking and drug abuse? 76

DEVELOPMENT IMPLICATIONS OF WOMEN SMOKING AND DRUG ABUSE: A SOCIOSPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

As earlier reported, the adoption of models from the West in combating smoking and drug abuse has never worked well in Africa. This is simply due to the fact that the societies are different in terms of the natural environments, socio-cultural factors as well as people’s perception and awareness. Even within the same geographic space, great variations exist between the different areas. Rather than relying on insincere producers’ advertisements, and regulating smoking in public places, more robust and sincere efforts should be adopted if we actually want to win the war against smoking and drug abuse and save future generations from its dreaded effects. There should be regular campaigns to schools, markets, churches, mosques; and other public places. A life ban could be place on smoking or introducing very high environmental and income tax on both producers and smokers, as well as special levies on all categories of traders of tobacco products and illicit drugs. Cigarette/ Tobacco companies should be closed down especially in Africa. They should be advice to invest in other better products.

Conclusion

Smoking and drug abuse are not only dangerous but they kill. It is better one does not even try the habit of smoking because, once formed, is very difficult to stop. The traditional motive for smoking is centered basically on religious and social grounds. Drug abuse and Cigarette smoking has severe consequences on both males and females.

Generally, the effects of drug abuse and cigarette smoking come in different dimensions. These can be grouped under social and psychological, environmental, economic, and historical. The specific effects of smoking on women especially pregnant women include respiratory and reproductive problems as well as heredity problems.

The results from the analysis/testing of the three non-directional hypotheses revealed that: (1) there is statistical spatial variation in women smoking across the urban centres of Nigeria; (2) there is significance difference in women smoking across the different occupations in Port Harcourt; and (3) there is significant relationship between women smoking/drug abuse and the level of women’s contribution towards the socio-economic development of the family in Nigeria.

The involvement of women in smoking and drug abuse has negative implications on both the woman and on the peace and development of her family. Traditionally, the African woman is well celebrated for both her radiant beauty and brilliant roles in family building. She is regarded as ‘a home builder’.

In contemporary time, the involvement of women in smoking and drug abuse has resulted to the abandonment of these traditional roles by the woman. Thus, the level of moral decadence in the home is a function of women engagement in smoking and drug abuse. The numbers of women smokers are on the increase and this portrays serious danger on strong family values. It is no longer a taboo for a girl to smoke even in the open. This madness must be stopped lest we suffer from full blown institutional neurosis of the family.

Ukpere, Dennis R. Tobins 77

The best way of fighting this menace is through the imposition of specific taxes on the smoker, manufacturers and traders of tobacco products and hard drugs. Enlightenment campaigns and counseling should be carried out especially on women. They should be encourage to dedicate more time on the development of the child through the inculcation of the right family values into the child. The woman should often be reminded of her traditional role in the development of the family and society at large.

References

Jain, S. (2011b).Five Top Tips to Help You Stop Smoking Accessed February 6, 2011at http://www.articlegarden.com/Article/5-Top-Tips-to- HelpYou-Stop-Smoking/128247

Jain, S. (2011a). Facts about Smoking Accessed February 8, 2011 at http://www.articlegarden.cm/Health- Hazards-of- Smoking/45596

Jim S. (2009). Origin of Tobacco Smoking Accessed November 24, 2010 at en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tobacco_smoking

Joe, A.I. (1992) Fundamental Statistics for Educational and the Behavioural Sciences, Kraft Books Limited, Ibadan

Kahinde, O.(2011). Smoking and Drug abuse as agents of family destabilization, Ibadan, Ade and Bola Publishers.

Kennedy, D. B. (1986). History of Cigarette Smoking Accessed November 20, 2011 at http://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/history of cigarette-1986.html

Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Pregnant Women Accessed March 3, 2011 at http://www.notosmoking.com/herbal-smoking-articles/pregnnant- women- smoking.html

Lieberherr, G. (2008). Urban sustainability and governance: Issues for the twenty-first century. International Social Science Journal, vol. LIX No314, pp.321-325 Olumati, J. C. (2009). Understanding African Peoples and Societies, Emhai Books, Choba Port Harcourt.

Onwuchekwa, I. S; Ukpere, D. R. T; & Ejenma, E. (2009). Land use variations around waste dumps in Port Harcourt, Rivers State. International Journal of Pure and Applied Science, vol.2.No.1 pp1-7

Ostermann, K. W. (2012). The Socio-spatial Paradigm in Social Work Studies.

International Journal of Research on Methods, Royal Dutch Geographical Society, (KNAG), VOL.3, No.1 pp 351-359

Oyegun, C. U. (2003) Essentials of Social and Environmental Research, University of Port Harcourt Press, Port Harcourt

Pacione, M (1995). Glasgow: The socio-spatial development of the city. Royal Scottish Geographical Society, University of Strathclyde, UK 78

Parkers, M. (2011). Health Hazards of Smoking Accessed March 4, 2011 at http://www.articlegarden.com/Article/Health-Hazards-of smoking/45596

Poon, J.P.H. &Thai, D.T. (2010). Micro-credit and development in northern Vietnam. Geografiska Annaler (Series B) vol.92B, pp.65-79.

Rauber, I; San Sebastian, A.; & Inda, N. (2008), The city, the environment and gender relationships seen through Latin American eyes. International Social Science Journal, vol. LIX No314, pp.421-433.

Spatschck, C. (2011), The Socio-spatial Approach. International Journal of Research on Methods, Royal Dutch Geographical Society, (KNAG), VOL. 2 No.5 pp343-351

Ukpere, D. R. T. (2010). Women Smokers in Port Harcourt and Yenegoa- a Social Survey Report, Social and Environmental Sciences Study Group, Port Harcourt.

Walther, O. & Dautel, V. (2010). Intra- regional employment growth in Luxembourg (1994- 2005). Geografiska Annaler (Series B)vol.92B, No 1.pp.45-63.

Wilson, J. (2011). The Best Moisturizer is Quitting Smoking Accessed March 12, 2011 at http: // www.articlegarden.com/Article/Health-Hazof- Smoking/45596 79

ANALYSIS OF TEACHER SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION IN RURAL AND URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

BY

OWHONDAH, SAMUEL NARIOCHUKWU, PHD Email [email protected]. Mobile Phone no. 08035088669 RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF FOUNDATIONS/MANAGEMENT, PMB 5047, RUMUOLUMENI CAMPUS, PORT HARCOURT

&

EGWANWOR, WILLIAMS IFEANYI JOEL Email [email protected]. Mobile Phone no. 08036721727 RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE, PMB 5047, RUMUOLUMENI CAMPUS, PORT HARCOURT

Abstract

The analysis of teacher supply and utilization in rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State was undertaken to avert the lop-sided staffing disposition created by perennial discriminatory practices in teacher allocation among schools in the area. The actual levels of teacher supply and their utilization rates were determined. Two research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. Adopting the simple random sampling method, teachers and pupils in 444 schools drawn from 299 rural and 145 urban, was the sample size. Data were elicited through the Primary Teacher Supply and Utilization Inventory (PTSUI) for principals and the Document Analysis. The descriptive and inferential statistics were adopted to analyze the data. The study revealed that the actual level of teacher supply was higher in urban than rural schools; and teacher utilization rate was generally low, but higher in rural than urban schools. There were no significant differences in the hypotheses tested. Hence, the supply of primary teachers for rural and urban schools should be widened and further strengthened; and effective teacher utilization in schools should be ensured through the maintenance of the prescribed pupil-teacher ratio, and motivation of teachers.

Introduction The performance level of the educational sector of all national economies is sometimes consistent with the inputs of teachers into the system. The teacher input is usually made during the curricular and co-curricular activities in the school. This input later transforms to the quality of pupils produced in the school. Teachers represent the teaching personnel in the school system at any given time. They in their proper mix (in terms of supply and distribution) are vital for improving the productivity of schools when inputs employed into the curricular and co-curricular activities are maximally utilized. 80

ANALYSIS OF TEACHER SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION IN RURAL AND URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

However, there is the observation that input of teachers into the production processes at school is often hampered by intimidating forces, resulting in low productivity. For instance, despite the approval by education authorities of a workload of 25 or 30 periods per week (Enaohwo, 1990) and the prescribed pupil-teacher ratio which under the Universal Basic Education (UBE) is 1:35 (FRN, 2004), the situation in schools as observed is that majority of the teachers are over-utilized, while a few are under-utilized (Eke 2010) and with physical facilities grossly inadequate and over-utilized (Okpe, 2010). The rural schools are worse than their counterparts in urban schools in staff distribution (Ibara, 2004). It means that there was an apparent over supply of teachers in some schools, whereas others are hard pressed. This means that the distribution of available teachers is very crucial than the overall supply.

The increased workload is likely occasioned by observed geometrical increases in classroom population without corresponding increases in facilities and teacher provisions (Owhondah, 2006; Okpe, 2010 and Eke, 2010). Hence, productive hours and potentials are wasted when teachers are misplaced in their work assignments. Under- or over- utilized teacher, wastes not only time, but also the efforts and energies of his pupils. When the teacher is properly utilized it simply connotes that there will be less frustration, high morale and greater task accomplishment, because less energy is expended to results. To avert the apparently discriminatory practice in staffing distribution and the unfavorable teaching disposition and poor utilization, which the observed situation might impinge on teaching/learning outcome, this paper therefore focuses on the analysis of teacher supply and utilization in rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State. This is imperative to proffer some urgent measures as answers to improving effective teacher allocation (distribution) and productivity in schools. Teacher supply and utilization in schools Teachers serving in the school system are expected to attain a specific standard workload to determine their level of utilization. There must be a measure of the number of pupils taught and time put in by the teacher in the school during the curricular and co- curricular activities. The utilization of teachers can be expressed as a percentage of certain variables to determine the rate. Certain indicators definitely determine the teacher utilization rate. The teaching time utilization rate, teacher class size utilization rate, and the global time utilization rate are some of them (Uwazuruike, 1991 and Ebong, 2006). Others include parting in general school activities, professional activities and co-curricular activities (Edem, 1987 and Owhondah, 2006). The Teaching Time Utilization Rate (TTUR) measures the percentage of effective school hours put in by a teacher (teaching load) over the official hours recommended by praetors of schools (Uwazuruike, 1991; Nnabuo, 1996; and Edem, 1987). The government’s regulation stipulates that a maximum load of sixteen (16) hours a week be put in by a teacher. The teaching time utilization rate can be calculated mathematically as represented in Equation 1: TTUR = Actual Teaching Load x 100 Theoretical Teaching Load 1

Owhondah, Samuel Nariochukwu, Ph.D and Egwanwor, Williams Ifeanyi Joel 81

The Teacher Class Size Utilization Rate (TCSUR) measures the number of pupils taught by a teacher. A teacher handling ten pupils may not be doing the same magnitude of work with another teacher teaching up to forty pupils. This necessitates the need to calculate the pupil-teacher ratio (PTR). The government’s prescription of a ratio of 1:35 implies that the rate of utilization of the teacher in relation to class size can be computed mathematically as represented in Equation 2: TCSUR = Actual Average Size of Teacher’s Class x 100 Theoretical Size of Class 1 The global utilization rate (GUR) measures the official teaching load per week multiplied by average size of teacher’s class over official class size. Mathematically, the global utilization rate (GUR) can be derived using Equation 3: GUR = Weekly teaching load per teacher x Average size of Teacher’s Class x 100 Theoretical Teaching load per Week Theoretical Size of Class The figure derived from the GUR gives an idea of the extent to which teacher resources are being utilized. The result of the analysis indicates where there is optimal, over or under staffing of schools which enables appropriate measures to be taken in order to move the imbalance between teacher demand and supply. Teacher utilization rate is sometimes determined greatly by deployment of teachers in appropriate mix, recruitment of the right quantity and quality teachers and assigning to them corresponding duties based on their qualifications (Ibara, 2004), the harnessing of the totality of teachers’ skills, energies, talents and social characteristics to achieve educational objectives and simultaneously making the teacher achieve his life goals (Ojo, 1997). Inherent in any good staffing design is the optimal utilization of staff. The optimal utilization of teachers according to Nnabuo (1996) requires school heads to be guided to the extent that the best teacher should be assigned to classes needing the greatest help such as beginning classes, examination classes, slow classes and troublesome but brilliant classes. Teachers should be assigned to age levels they can best work with; and teaching load should be equitably shared among the teachers. Adequate planning, therefore, must be done to guide against any level of utilization problem. The school head should also be guided by job description format outlining the work to be done by each teacher as well as his extra duties. And should take note of the teachers teaching qualifications, experience and previous training, the number of pupils and lessons to be taught daily or weekly; the amount of preparations required; the length of class period; the amount of time required for grading pupils work; and the characteristics of the pupils (Edem, 1987). On the average, the workload of a teacher should not be below 25 or 30 periods a week (Edem, 1987) or an average of 40 hours a week based on the various types of work that constitute teaching e.g. teaching pupils in the classroom-30 hours, taking part in general school activities-7 hours and taking part in professional activities-3 hours. In assigning workload, there should be no discrimination and where there are differences in workload Edem (1987) suggested that those involved must also be given sufficient consideration before jobs are assigned to them, because it affects their level of productivity and reduces or enhances their morale. 82

ANALYSIS OF TEACHER SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION IN RURAL AND URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

Primary school and the teacher The primary school is the education centre where children aged 6 to 11 plus goes for instruction, training, character building and attitudinal modification. It is a production centre for the first level of education and serves as the bedrock of the entire education system. It forms the base or the sub-structural or foundational education level from which all other forms of super-structural education- secondary and tertiary levels spring-up. It is, therefore, the key which brings to bear the success or failure of the whole system (FRN, 2004). The goals of education which primary schools seek to achieve include: the inculcation of permanent literacy and numeracy and the ability to communicate effectively; the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking the giving of citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and contribution to the life of the society, molding the character and developing sound attitude and morals in the child, developing in the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable him to function effectively in the society within the limits of his capacity, and providing for further educational advancement including preparations for trade and craft of the locality (FRN, 2004). In fact, primary education is of strategic importance in the analysis of teacher supply and utilization. Looking at the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) as it relates to primary education, the design of the curriculum applies to all the states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria without exemptions. The practical translation of the curriculum content means that teachers who should teach the various subjects outlined must be adequate to maintain 1:35 ratio for effective teaching and learning. However, the primary school teachers do not operate like those of the secondary school teachers. Observations have shown that once a teacher is assigned to a stream of a class, the teacher is equally expected to cover that stream in all matters of curriculum- the teaching of specified subjects, covering the lesson periods each day, writing the notes of lessons on the subjects for each week, keeping the daily attendance of pupils, evaluating and assessing the pupils on each subject taught, maintaining discipline of the pupil in class, and in addition does other co-curricular activities that relate to his work. The primary school teacher, thus, appears to be a “jack of all trade” in the teaching/learning business. The reason for the above is that the teacher is usually expected to have a general knowledge of all the subjects during his institutional training at the Teacher Grade Two Certificate (TCII) or primary education courses of tertiary institutions. But, could all primary school subjects be expertly (professionally) taught by one teacher in a stream amidst the teaming pupil enrolment? In fact, with an increasing scope and content of school curriculum, resulting from modern educational challenges, the effective utilization of the classroom teacher in the teaching/learning activities becomes a matter of concern. Purpose of the study The major purpose of study was to analyze the teacher supply and utilization in the rural and urban primary education in Rivers State. The specific objectives were to:

• determine the teacher supply in rural and urban primary schools; and • determine the teacher utilization rate in rural and urban primary schools.

Owhondah, Samuel Nariochukwu, Ph.D and Egwanwor, Williams Ifeanyi Joel 83

Research questions The study was guided by two questions

• What was the teacher supply for rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State? • What was the teacher utilization rate for rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State? Hypotheses

• There is no significant difference between teacher supply in rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State. • There is no significant difference between teacher utilization rate in rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State. Methodology The study adopted a descriptive survey design in order to analyze the teacher supply and utilization in the Rivers State rural and urban primary schools. The population for the study was the teachers and pupils in 1040 public primary schools in Rivers State (RSUBEB, 2009); while the teachers and pupils in 444 schools- 299 rural and 145 urban schools, was the sample size. The simple random sampling technique was adopted to select 70% of the Local Government Areas (LGAs) where these schools were located through a table of random numbers. The procedure gave a total of 16 LGAs. The primary schools in each of the LGAs were enumerated to obtain a total of 632 schools. Finally, 70% of the schools in each of the areas were randomly selected to form the sample size for the study. Thus, the 444 schools were selected for the study. The primary school heads were the respondents. All schools located in areas outside the local government headquarters and where social amenities were lacking was regarded as rural schools. Those schools located in the local government headquarters and where social amenities are abundant including all schools in Obio/Akpor and Port Harcourt Local Government Areas were considered urban schools. The Primary Teacher Supply and Utilization Inventory (PTSUI) for primary school heads in Rivers State was designed to elicit data pupil enrolment, available teacher stock, classroom spaces availability, average class size, average classroom teaching load per teacher, average time spent by teacher a week on general and professional activities, and co- curricular activities. Document Analysis which involved the search of file records was equally used to elicit pre-existing statistical data on teacher supply and utilization from publications and official records of the Rivers State Ministry of Education (M.O.E) and the Rivers State Universal Basic Education Board (RSUBEB) for the period 2005–2009. The degree of reliability of the instrument was established through a pilot study on heads of 25 primary schools outside the sample schools, calculated at 0.94. The data collected through the inventory and document analysis were analyzed through frequency counts, and percentages and averages were computed. 84

ANALYSIS OF TEACHER SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION IN RURAL AND URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

Results The results of the study are presented in tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 below. Table 1: Analysis of Teacher Supply in Rural Primary Schools in Rivers State, 2004- 2009

Year No. of Pupil Teacher Classroom Teacher- Average Average schools enrolment supply spaces pupil no of no of available ratio class per teachers school per school

2004 285 96731 3027 1672 1:39 11 6

2005 285 104055 2656 1672 1:39 9 6

2006 292 118277 2291 1584 1:51 8 5

2007 292 126786 2430 1584 1:52 8 5

2008 292 138471 2385 1584 1:58 8 5

2009 292 152725 2423 1292 1:63 8 4

Table 2: Analysis of Teacher Supply in Urban Primary Schools in Rivers State, 2004- 2009

Year No. of Pupil Teacher Classroom Teacher- Average Average schools enrolment supply spaces pupil no of no of available ratio class per teachers school per school

2004 144 70031 2452 2112 1:29 17 14

2005 145 75974 2428 2271 1:31 16 15

2006 144 79984 1940 2126 1:41 13 14

2007 145 85443 2097 2126 1:41 14 14

2008 144 87656 2087 1981 1:42 14 13

2009 145 97649 2126 1981 1:45 15 13

Tables 1and 2 above provide information on the actual teacher supply for rural and urban primary schools, respectively. When data on the two tables were compared it revealed that during 2005-2009, the teacher-pupil ratio was higher for rural schools than the urban schools. The average number of teachers per school was higher for urban than the rural schools. The average number of classroom spaces available per school was higher for urban schools than the rural schools.

Owhondah, Samuel Nariochukwu, Ph.D and Egwanwor, Williams Ifeanyi Joel 85

The relative high teacher-pupil ratio per school for rural areas implies that there was low teacher supply in the schools. While the high average number of teachers and classroom spaces per school in urban areas implies high teacher supply in schools. It generally implies that the schools in urban areas had higher teacher supply than those schools in rural areas. Hence, the level of teacher supply during 2005-2009 was higher in urban schools than the rural primary schools in the area. Table 3: Analysis of Teacher Utilization Rate for Rural Primary Schools in Rivers State, 2004-2009

Year Teacher Utilization Rate Indicators

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Average Average Average Average Average Actual Teaching Global classroom time time spent time Average time time Class teaching spent per teacher spent on total utilization utilization size per load per on other co- time rate rate teacher based on teacher professional activities spent (TTUR) (GUR) % based 16hrs a on per per % on 1:35 wk general school teacher teacher school activities at at 4hrs a based activities 3hrs a wk wk on at 7hrs a 30hrs a wk wk

200 32 10 4 2 2 18 60 48.0 4

200 39 10 5 3 2 20 67 65.3 5

200 52 10 3 3 3 19 63 81.5 6

200 52 9 5 3 2 19 63 81.5 7

200 58 9 6 3 3 21 70 101.5 8

200 63 9 6 3 4 22 73 115.0 9 86

ANALYSIS OF TEACHER SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION IN RURAL AND URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

Table 4: Analysis of Teacher Utilization Rate for Urban Primary Schools in Rivers State, 2004-2009

Year Teacher Utilization Rate Indicators

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Average Average Average Average Average Actual Teaching Global classroom time time spent time Average time time Class teaching spent per teacher spent on total utilization utilization size per load per on other co- time rate rate teacher based on teacher professional activities spent (TTUR) (GUR) % based 16hrs a on per per % on 1:35 wk general school teacher teacher school activities at at 4hrs a based activities 3hrs a wk wk on at 7hrs a 30hrs a wk wk

200 29 12 6 2 4 24 80 58.0 4

200 31 12 6 3 3 24 80 62.0 5

200 41 12 6 3 3 24 80 82.0 6

200 41 12 5 2 3 23 77 78.9 7

200 42 12 6 3 2 22 73 76.7 8

200 46 12 6 3 3 24 80 92.0 9

Tables 3 and 4 provide information on the teacher utilization rate for rural and urban primary schools respectively. In comparative terms, the tables reveal that during the period 2005-2009, the average class size per teacher based on 1:35 ratio was higher for rural schools than the urban schools. The average class teaching load based on 16hours a week was lower for rural schools than the urban schools. The average time spent per teacher on general school activities at 7 hours a week was lower for rural schools than the urban schools. The average time spent per teacher on professional activities at 3 hours a week was almost the same for rural and urban schools. The average time spent on other extra activities per teacher at 4 hours a week was lower for rural than urban schools. 87

The results on the tables reveal that the utilization rates for 5 years (2005-2009) were marginally the same for both areas. But, from 2007 to 2009, it was higher for rural than urban schools. The number of years in which teacher utilization was marginally the same for both areas was less than the number of years it was higher for rural than urban schools.

Owhondah, Samuel Nariochukwu, Ph.D and Egwanwor, Williams Ifeanyi Joel Table 5: Analysis of difference between Teacher Supply in Rural and Urban Schools, Observed and Expected Frequencies Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Total Rural 3027 2656 2291 2430 2385 2423 15212 fo (2940.7 (2728.7) (2270.9) (2429.7) (2400.2 (2441.5 fe ) ) ) (fo-fe) 2 1.9 0.2 0.0 fe 2.5 0.1 0.1 Urban 2452 2428 1940 2097 2087 2126 13130 fo (2538.2 (2355.2) (1960.0) (2097.2) (2071.7 (2107.4 ) ) ) fe 2.3 0.2 0.0 (fo-fe) 2 2.9 0.1 0.2 fe Total 5479 5084 4231 4527 4472 4549 28342 Xo2=10..5 Xo2 = 11.07 at P < .05 > Xo2 = 10.5, df = 5 The results in table 5 above show that the null hypothesis was upheld and alternative hypothesis rejected. There is therefore no significant difference between teacher supply in rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State. Table 6: Analysis of difference between Teacher Utilization Rate in Rural and Urban Schools, Observed and Expected Frequencies

Teacher Utilization Rate Indicators Rural Urban Total Schools Schools Average class size Fo 296 230 526 fe (277.7) (248.2) (fo-fe) 2 1.1 1.3 Fe Average classroom teaching load Fo 57 72 129 fe (61.1) (60.8) (fo-fe) 2 2.0 2.0 Fe General school teaching activities Fo 29 35 64 fe (33.7) (30.2) (fo-fe) 2 0.6 0.7 Fe Professional activities Fo 17 16 33 fe (17.4) (15.5) (fo-fe) 2 0.0 0.0 Fe Other co-curricular activities Fo 16 18 34 88

fe (17.9) (16.0) (fo-fe) 2 0.2 0.2 Fe Total 415 371 786 Xo2=8.1

ANALYSIS OF TEACHER SUPPLY AND UTILIZATION IN RURAL AND URBAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

Xo2 = 11.07 at P < .05 > Xo2 = 8.1, df = 5 The results in table 6 above show that the null hypothesis was upheld and alternative hypothesis rejected. There is therefore no significant difference between teacher utilization rate in rural and urban primary schools in Rivers State. Discussion The findings of the study indicate that the level of teacher supply was higher in urban than rural schools in Rivers State. This means that the concentration of teachers in one location was evident in urban schools. This explains why there were periods of teacher surpluses and shortages in schools. Teacher surplus means that teachers exist more than the requirement in a particular locality. On the other hand, teacher shortage means that teachers exist less than the requirement. The general shortage of teachers noticed in schools implies that more teachers are required in the system to offset the imbalance. This corroborates the earlier studies of George (1995), Denton (1988), Enaohwo (1990) and Owhondah (2006) wherein they found that documented shortage of teachers had occurred over a decade. The observed imbalance between the rural and urban schools cannot be devoid of the inconsistencies inherent in distribution of teachers to schools. For instance, Ibara (2004) had observed that the distribution of teachers is based on the discriminatory practices which become clearer with an approach that recognizes the multifaceted aspects in teacher allocation and the influence was made more evident in situations where there are four graduate teachers with two thousand five hundred (2500) pupils in one school and in another fifty-five (55) graduate teachers with five hundred and fifty (550) pupils. The discriminatory supply of teachers ought not to persist in favour of any locality in order to avoid a drift of people to the place. This will also forestall overcrowded classrooms or empty schools leading to infrastructural decay resulting from waste and obsolesce. It will further check the problem of insufficiency of teachers that robs pupils the opportunity of effective learning. Besides, the challenge of parents sourcing for alternative schools for their children may equally minimize. The imbalance is a challenge to education policy makers to focus their attention on training, recruiting and posting of teachers to areas of need for their effective utilization in schools. It further directs the attention of stakeholders in education to widen and further strengthen the provision of more class rooms in schools. The test of the null hypothesis revealed a no significant difference between the level of teacher in rural schools and urban schools. This explains that the concentration of teachers in one location was not evident in Rivers State primary schools. The rural and urban schools shared similar experiences in teacher supply. The findings further reveal that the teacher utilization rate was generally low, but relatively higher in rural schools than the urban schools. When we critically consider the 89 global utilization rate of teachers as reflected in the result, it is logical to conclude that teachers irrespective of their schools were generally under-utilized- utilized below the set minimum level. However, even though the general impression is that teachers were underutilized, the years 2008 and 2009 depict a case of maximum utilization of teachers for rural schools with the global utilization rate being relatively equal to 100%. While this is true, a state of shortage of teachers with high teacher –pupil ratio for school could still lead to excess average teaching time,

Owhondah, Samuel Nariochukwu, Ph.D and Egwanwor, Williams Ifeanyi Joel excess time on general school activities and excess time on other extra school activities, where teachers are committed to work. This could lead to global utilization rate. In such a situation, the existing teachers ought to work extra time in all activities, except that the teachers are demoralized. The scenario as portrayed by the findings of the study depicts that teachers were generally demoralized. In this respect Edem (1987) and Nnabuo (1996) noted earlier that a teacher may be demoralized with too large a class, too many lessons to teach daily, too many problem pupils or with too many intolerable responsibilities of high complexity and magnitude. No significant difference was discerned between the teacher utilization rate in rural and urban schools. This further explains that both the rural and urban schools experienced similar teacher utilization rate. By implication, the findings of the study denote that teachers in rural and urban schools face similar teaching-learning problems in the discharge of their tasks and responsibilities. Location does not take away the challenge. It is only pertinent that those factors which stimulate and those that hinder teachers in executing school duties be addressed if education is expected to prepare generation of people for the greater task of living in the society. Conclusion The discussions make the equality of teacher demand and supply a necessary step towards achieving school improvement. The equality averts teacher shortages which distort effective teacher input in school programmes. Equilibrium condition ought to be sought through the adoption of appropriate and a more effective staffing allocation strategy. Teachers, therefore, ought to be distributed among schools on the basis of positive discrimination which is usually guided by need disposition. Recommendations Based on the conclusions of the study the following recommendations were made.

• The supply of primary school teachers for rural and urban areas should be widened and further strengthened. • The teacher supply practice for primary schools should be properly adjusted and pupil enrolment requirements closely monitored to bridge the gap between their demand and supply in schools. • Effective teacher utilization for primary schools should be ensured through the maintenance of the prescribed teacher-pupil ratio and motivation of teachers. • A measure of regular checks and balances should be adopted by school managers and school proprietors to ensure that pupil enrolments and teacher supply increase correspondingly. 90

References

Denton, J.J. (1988). Recruitment and selection of mathematics and science teaching candidates for a non-traditional teacher certificate programme. A case project portrayal. Texas: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, pp.31-36.

Ebong, J.M. (2006). Understanding economics of education. Port Harcourt: Eagle Lithograph Press.

Edem, D.A. (1987). Introduction to educational administration in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Book Ltd.

Eke, J.O. (2010). Physical facilities provision and utilization in public secondary schools in Rivers State. Department of Educational Management, Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt.

Enaohwo, J.O. (1990). Economics of education and the challenge. New Delhi, Deyagariji: Anol Publications.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Nigeria: Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) Press.

George, V. (1995). Demand and supply of technical teachers in secondary schools in Rivers State. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis. Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Ibara, E.C. (2004). Effective distribution and utilization of teachers in Rivers State: A panacea for secondary school goal attainment. Unpublished Ph.D Seminar Paper Presented to the Institute of Education, Faculty of Technical and Science Education, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Sept. 28-29.

Nnabuo, P.O. (1996). Educational management theoretical perspective on practice and research. Choba: Port Harcourt: Bengray Publishing Co.

Ojo, F. (1997). Human resources management theory and practice. Yaba-Lagos: Allied Emant Company.

Okpe, N.F. (2010). Resource provision and utilization for quality public and private secondary education in Rivers State. Unpublished M.Ed Thesis. Lagos: School of Education National Open University of Nigeria, NOUN. 91

Owhondah, S.N. (2006). Demand, supply and utilization of primary school teachers in Rivers State. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. Port Harcourt: Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nigeria.

Rivers State Universal Basic Education Board (2009). Primary schools statistical analysis in Rivers State. Department of Planning, Research and Statistics, Port Harcourt.

State Ministry of Education (2009). Primary schools statistical analysis in Rivers State. Department of Planning, Research and Statistics, Port Harcourt.

Uwazuruike, C.N. (1991). Educational planning and national development: A Nigerian perspective. Nigeria: Mekslink Publishers.

92

Delivery of Vocational and Technical Education: The Challenges Reagan N. Robinson Department of Technical Education Rivers State University of Education,Rumuolumeni P.M.B. 5047, Port Harcourt. Rivers State 08033889671 [email protected]

Abstract

The paper deals with the delivery of vocational and technical education in Nigeria and the challenges facing it. A critical look was taken at the current state of vocational and technical education. A concept of delivery system was expressed. In the concept, a Teaching Equation was formulated which had its derivation from the simple mathematical equation. The equation was to prove the fact that delivery system is tangible and measurable enough to be calculated in a teaching/learning process. It was presented in the paper that instructional sheets are forms of delivery system in vocational and technical education that can be reinvigorated. However, factors like inappropriate teaching methods, limited equipment and facilities, curriculum crisis and poor input of computer technology were seen as the challenges of VTE delivery. It concluded by highlighting appropriate teaching practices like train and re-train teachers, active computer aided instruction and constant source of information to improve the delivery system.

Introduction

Vocational and technical education are learning experiences meant to be imparted to an individual systematically in order to get him adequately equipped for a good employment in a recognized occupation. It is designed to prepare individual to acquire practical skill, basic and scientific knowledge and attitude required as artisans and technicians at sub-professional level (FRN, national policy on education, 1998). In Nigeria vocational and technical education has an epileptic understanding. A good number of persons do not understand the concept of VTE hence could not differentiate between vocational education and technical education. This has resulted in making the society to believe that vocational and technical education is meant for the incapables in academic pursuit. Against this background, vocational and technical education is experiencing a slow progress till date. Makoju (2007) noted that vocational education is not exactly the same with technical education. While vocational education is that skill-based programme designed for sub- professional level education and based in a specific vocation, technical education on the other 93 hand is the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge. The major difference between the two terms is that, whereas vocational education is designed for a particular vocation, technical education does not target any particular vocation but gives general technical knowledge. Thus, while every vocational education programme is technical in nature not all technical education programme are vocational. This subtle relationship accounts for the interchangeable use of both terms in academic literature.

Delivery of Vocational and Technical Education: The Challenges

The misconception over the years about vocational and technical education is gradually becoming enormous. This misconception has generated negative attitude towards its courses by the public as noticed in the national policy on education (1981) when it expressed government unhappiness over the public attitude which regard vocational technical education as inferior to other types of education. The bias of the public according to Kayode (2005)is partly due to the course structure and content as noticed in the National Policy on Education (2004).The indication is that our technical institutions rely mainly on a model based on a foreign technical environment as against the needs of the society. Another reason is that, the delivery system of vocational and technical education is contrary to expectation. Of course this is one of the causes of the challenging progress of vocational and technical education (Kayode,2005). Being an aspect of education designed to develop skills and practical knowledge, vocational and technical education require delivery system that is practically based and skill oriented. A practical and skill oriented delivery is expected to involve equipment and facilities that will bring about learning experience. This learning experience according to Makoju (2007) is usually brought about through appropriate trainings. But all these are far from the reality. The equipment and facilities are rarely available in most of the technical institutions in Nigeria and hence making the delivery system cumbersome and carried out of content and context. The result is inappropriate trainings that will lead to poor learning experience. Automatically vocational and technical education would continue to dwindle. A corrective measure is to face head-long the challenges surrounding the delivery system and ensure its proper outcome, which is the essence of this paper. Current State of Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria There has been substantially increased participation of private finance in technical institutions in some African countries (Adolf & Kondo, 2004).In Nigeria the case is different. There is a growth of private colleges operating as a profit making enterprises. This has led to a great erosion of quality in technical education. In most public and private technical institutions, it is seen that technical education and vocational trainings are provided with outdated curriculum that does not meet the current labour market needs. In the area of research, institutions offering vocational and technical education are still having serious challenges. It is either VTE professionals are mere contributors or great spectators in matters concerning VTE; wrong persons are appointed to supervise vocational and technical education. In the light of this, technical education institutions are operating under poor management, characterized by poor delivery (Akintola & Ademola, 2007). Delivery procedures established by most of the institutions have been focusing on traditional knowledge base, in which emphasis has been placed on didactic teaching methods. Students are therefore forced to reproduce in examination what they have memorized. This is a treatment of empty-state. The result is that, graduates who are not capable of reflecting their knowledge to the world of work are produced, hence an effect on the socio-economic state of the Nigerian nation. The summary is that the framework in which vocational and technical education is operated in Nigeria is becoming too obsolete. 94

The Concept and Theory of Delivery System Perhaps the most important and potent way of enhancing and improving the content of any subject matter is the appropriateness of the methods of teaching. The method of teaching is what in most cases is described as delivery in education (Makoju, 2007). In other words the teaching method applied or adopted in any learning experience is seen as a delivery system. But, according to UNESDOC (2001), the pattern of presentation adopted by a trainer to achieve the end result of learning is described as delivery.

Reagan N. Robinson The understanding here is that having in mind the aims, objectives and content of a subject matter and adopting an appropriately articulated presentation in order to achieve learning is delivery. Having this description in mind, this paper would like to define delivery system as the pattern and manner in which a given teaching method is presented to learners in a teaching/learning process. The meaning is that teaching method and delivery system are not exactly the same, but they are related. Teaching method refers to the various techniques of instruction employed by a teacher in a teaching process after adequate consideration of the content and objectives of the subject matter. On the other hand, delivery system is the personality input approach, articulation, disposition, view and speech a teacher employs in a teaching process, having the teaching method in mind. This invariably means that delivery system can be assessed. To assess it, it must be made tangible and measurable else its conceptual problem will remain unsolved and vague In a teaching process an appropriate teaching method alone cannot achieve an actual teaching without a good delivery system. Similarly, a good delivery system alone cannot achieve an actual teaching without an appropriate teaching method. From the above analogy, a combination of teaching method and delivery system would achieve an actual teaching. A further expansion of the analogy would lead to a simple mathematical expression, referred here as TEACHING EQUATION. In this equation; Actual Teaching (AT) is equal to the sum of Teaching Method(TM) and Delivery System (DS). The practical expression is as follows;

AT = DS + TM Teaching Equation (1) Similarly, TM=AT - DS ……………………………………. equation (2) DS = AT - TM……………………………………..equation (3) Where; AT (Actual Teaching): Referred to the real teaching realized in a given period of time. TM (Teaching Method): Referred to the teaching techniques that suits the content and subject matter, e.g. Lecture, Project, Discussion etc.

DS (Delivery System): Referred to the manner, approach and articulation of presenting a given teaching method. Analysis: This equation can be analyzed numerically by giving values to the variables in the equation. The value for delivery system is the score for students’ verbal response to a test immediately after a given teaching period. The value for teaching method is the score for students’ written response to a test after a given teaching period, while the value for actual teaching is the sum of delivery system and teaching method. 95

Delivery of Vocational and Technical Education: The Challenges

Actual Teaching is a form of assessment centered on the teacher’s performance. It evaluates the teachers’ performance based on the students’ test scores after each class. It shows whether the teacher has effectively taught or not. Calculation for actual teaching can be done for an individual student or the entire class. For individual student, the direct score of the student is used for the variables in the teaching equation, while for the entire class, an average score of the whole students is used for the variables in the teaching equation. It is assumed that the score of TM and DS are expectantly 50% each for a maximum performance in the equation, while AT is expectantly 100% for a maximum performance. Example: Assuming in a class of 10 electrical technology students, their verbal test scores are 13, 18, 17, 23, 36, 08, 16, 20, 15 and12 after a Circuit Theory class. If the average written test score of the entire class is 28%, calculate the actual teaching done in the class by the teacher. Solution: Given; DS (Entire class) = 13+18+17+23+36+08+16+20+15+12 = 17.8% 10 TM (Entire class) = 28% AT (Entire class) =? Hence, AT = TM + DS (from equation 1) AT = 28 + 17.8 = 45.8 Therefore, AT = 45.8% From the above calculation, actual teaching is 45.8%, which is seen as a poor performance of the whole class. This invariably implies that actual teaching was poorly done; hence the teacher did not do an effective teaching. Delivery in Vocational and Technical Education Vocation and technical education according to Adenuga (2005) is the acquisition of skills, knowledge and aptitudes in any specialized area of study (profession or occupation) to qualify one for gainful employment or self-employment. It means, this type of education is geared towards skill acquisition through practical means. Hence the delivery system should involve improving practical content/skill acquisition. According to Eyibe (1987), demonstration, project method are among other basic technology teaching methods that vocational and technical education delivery system is gazed at, which are requiring the use of tools and materials in the practical classes. Delivery cannot be complete without the necessary practical requirement in VTE. However, a well-known set of student content technology method at the tertiary level is the family of workshop practice known as “Instructional Sheets”. Instructional sheets were 96 originally used in connection with vocational/technical classes under the title of “Job Sheets”. The content of those sheets are organized for the purpose of analyzing and preventing instruction

Reagan N. Robinson in joint form to enable the learner proceed with less personal attention from the teacher. This methodology is very effective for productive purpose and for the production of functional job or items. There are seven types of instructional sheets namely; job sheets, project sheets, student plan sheets, operation sheets, assignment sheets, information sheets and programmed instruction sheets. The names are descriptive as the functions. The instructional sheets are part of delivery system that helps students to perform practical work in the workshop on their own. This aspect of delivery system which is meant for vocational technical education is teacher/instructor centered during teaching process. It is a fundamental form of delivery system that is inevitable in vocational and technical education, but rather looks quiet presently. If it will be re-invigorated, delivery system in Vocational and Technical Education will improve. The Challenges Delivery in vocational and technical education in Nigeria over the years has not been encouraging. It has suffered through epileptic progression due to policies, reforms and poor implementations. Several reasons are responsible for the setbacks which are below. Inappropriate Teaching Methods: Ikpe (2005) defined teaching method as a process of helping someone change skills or acquire new aptitude, knowledge and ideas. It means that teaching is aimed at informing, explaining, simulating, directing, giving and identifying what to learn and problems, evaluating, reporting and recording the learning performances. The delivery equation expressed that, an appropriate teaching method and a good delivery system will realize an actual teaching. Anything less is an imbalance equation. But the observation is that, inappropriate teaching methods are rather employed in vocational and technical education. In vocational and technical education, the teaching methods are usually discovery, project, demonstration etc. but most times the lecture method is employed (Rabin, 2009). This method does not encourage practical know-how which gradually impedes the effectiveness of the delivery system. A falling vocational and technical education is the result. There is no how a method without practical orientation will achieve a subject matter of practical orientation. It is inappropriate and hence cannot achieve delivery system. This is one of the major challenges facing delivery system of vocational and technical education. Limited Equipment and Facilities: Equipment and facilities in technical and vocational education are all the instructional materials like workshops, laboratories, studios, machines, tools, consumables, etc. that are constantly used for the teaching of TVE programmes. These equipment and facilities are expected to be in adequate availability and quality in order to meet the needs of learners and the society. Chado (2004) observed that, many institutions offering TVE programmes in Nigeria are experiencing gross in adequacy of equipment and facilities for TVE training. The available few are either outdated, broken down or lacks appropriate consumables or electricity power supply for the operation of the equipment, which is a direct effect on the teaching methods and hence the delivery system. This is one challenge vocational and 97 technical education is facing in its delivery state. Every effort to tackle it still remains the same syndrome of no adequate equipment and facilities.

Delivery of Vocational and Technical Education: The Challenges

Emah (2005) also noted that, the expendable materials required to be used on equipment and machines for practices and students project are lacking in schools thereby rendering both students and teachers the opportunity of using facilities. Generally, facilities have direct link with their consumables in any learning process of this nature; hence delivery system can be affected negatively. For instance, woodwork technology practices cannot be properly delivered without the supply of woods, nails, screws, glues, etc. Similarly welding machines cannot be used for welding practice delivery without the supply of welding plates and electrodes, while building construction can neither be delivery without the supply of sand, cement, gravels and water. This in variably means that in order to have a good delivery of vocational and technical education programme, the challenge of lack of equipment and facilities must be addressed. Curriculum Crisis: Curriculum crisis in simple term can be referred to when certain aspect of the content of a curriculum signify the possibility of bad or unpleasant consequence on the leaning outcome (Sai 2007). For instance education as a concept requires a learner to attain certain clear objectives during instructions. It is expected that teachers should integrate certain methods with material resources as well as personality input towards enhancing the attainment of certain desirable learning changes as embodied in the curriculum. This is to the extent that the desirable learning changes are expected. Igwilo (1991) has stressed that in vocational technical education, there is curriculum crisis. This can be expatiated further. Firstly, the technical education curriculum operating presently is a western technology development. The students themselves come to school with a different pattern in mind; the African or traditional pattern. Since this curriculum does not recognize the students’ cultural views, the result is conflict of curriculum. Such conflict engendered by the curriculum, hampers the realization of the aspirations for technological development. This conflict has affected the delivery system of TVE seriously. Secondly, our vocational and technical education programme has been in search of relevance since independence. Although some efforts have been made towards injecting relevance into the curriculum in Nigeria, but the crisis still persist. There is too much theory which is not often related to practical. This of course is contrary to the aims and objective of TVE and the delivery system which is to completely enhance practical learning experience is rejected. Thirdly, one frequent complains which technical teachers in this country make are that the curriculum contains so many topics that can be taught within the specified period. The situation is that so much is included in the curriculum and this cannot be covered by the teachers within the available timeframe. This is seen as serious curriculum crisis because there is going to be a miss-match that would set up an imbalance to the actual teaching equation. Poor Computer Technology Input: The usage of computer technology to all works of life and fields of study in the present day society cannot be over stressed. With the aid of computer technology, newer patterns of delivery system can be introduced into vocational and technical education programme. In fact delivery system in VTE can find its bearing with the input of computer technology, but contrary is the experience presently. Most of our VTE institutions are yet to introduce computer technology into their trainings. Simple trainings 98 that could be easy with the aid of computer are still very difficult. Modern computer equipment that will make life easier in VTE operations are still far from sight. Then how can VTE delivery system meet up with the challenges of ever growing 21st century technology development? If the challenges are

Reagan N. Robinson not properly tackled, VTE delivery could be outdated and get out of touch with current societal development. Strategies to Improve VTE Delivery Delivery system is having its share of the declining VTE programme, but there is room for improvement. It is a matter of applying the following Appropriate Teaching Practices which are workable in the midst of distracting government and economic policies. 1. Train and Re-train Teachers: Teachers are also human beings that can easily be affected by the syndrome of Job Monotony (JM). Job monotony is a situation where workers are used to the same way of work yearly of which their efficiency gradually drops. It is as a result of using same teaching method and delivery system for too long. The way out is to create room for teachers to undergo deliberate training on teaching methods and delivery systems at least yearly. It will be an added innovative skill to teaching. It could be in the form of certification which Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT)and Nigerian Teachers Registration Council (NTRC) can easily introduce and enforce. It is a constant train and re-trains activity for teachers. Besides, it will enable teachers to use better innovations to improve the delivery system. 2. Active Computer Aided Instruction: The issue of computer aided instruction into every academic system is more of a paper work than actual happenings. Most VTE institutions are yet to have a single computer system to aid learning. For those who have, the computer system begins and ends in typing and printing documents. Nevertheless an active Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) can be introduced into the delivery system in such a way that both the workshop and the classroom learning will work with computer. It is just to ensure that teachers compulsorily give the training and reports through computers in order to enhance the delivery of VTE. 3. Constant Source of Information: Gradually teachers are no longer active in sourcing for new information that will improve their knowledge. Some of them have been using the same delivery system for the past ten years. Their unwillingness to better information through the internet or books closes their access to them. Lack of information they said, “Brings deformation”. To avoid porous ideas and hence poor delivery system, it is good for teachers to constantly source for information. With time, current and improved delivery system will not be difficult to achieve. Besides, the teachers themselves will improve academically to transform students. Sourcing for information should have no limit. Findings From the study, it was seen that a new equation referred to as “Teaching Equation” was formulated. The essence is to prove the fact that delivery system is not an immeasurable term or factor in a teaching and learning process. Hence its concept should not be treated as a vague and unrealizable process as it is usually been seen in most context. From the analysis, its variable is tangible enough to be calculated with numerical values in a teaching process, hence can be quantified and properly assessed. 99

The fact that delivery system is sometimes been viewed and assessed as teaching method does not make it one. From the teaching equation, delivery system is different from teaching

Delivery of Vocational and Technical Education: The Challenges method and hence can be calculated as a different variable. This shows that teaching method is also tangible and is measurable in value. The similarity between them is that their combination produces a quality teaching. It was also seen that apart from the conceptual problem associated with the delivery system, it is also faced with several challenges. From the study, it was seen that using Appropriate Teaching Practices like train and re-train teachers etc. will address the challenging issues of delivery system in vocational and technical education. Conclusion Delivery in vocational and technical education is one salient area of study that is facing serious challenges and require ample of improvement. It has been seen from this paper that VTE programmes can perform better with good practices and measurable oriented delivery system. As at present, the delivery system of VTE in Nigeria looks truncated, but with the formulated Teaching Equation, delivery system can be tangible and measurable enough to produce effective teaching. However, with the challenges like, inappropriate teaching methods, limited equipment and facilities, curriculum crisis, poor input of computer technology, more improvement is still needed. If appropriate teaching practices like train and re-train teachers, active computer aided instruction and constant source of information is put in place, VTE delivery system will get to a very improved dimension.

References Adenuga, B.A. (2005). Vocational and Technical Education for Self Sustenance among Youths. A paper presented at the 18th annual National conference of Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology, held at Rivers State University of Science & Technology, Port Harcourt.

Adolf, B. & Kondo, A. (2004).Reforming Teaching and Vocational Education. A paper Presented at the third conference of the Association of Commonwealth Examination And Accreditation Bodies (ACEAB).

Akintola, K.&Ademola, A. (2007). Delivery of Technical and Vocational Education “Necessary Reforms in Technical and Vocational Education System for Sustainable Development in Nigeria”. A paper presented at the 20th Annual National conference of Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology, held at Kaduna State Polytechnics, Kaduna.

Chado, M.I. (2004). Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning of Technology Education in Nigeria. Minna Journal of Education Studies (MIJES). 2(2)

Emah, I.E. (2005). The Funding Needs of Vocational and Technical Education Programmes in Nigerian School System. Journal of Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology (JONATT). 5(1) 100

Reagan N. Robinson

Eyibe, I. (1987). Practical Process in the Workshop. Enugu: Nuduka publishing Limited.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1981).National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1998).National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC press

Igwilo, C. (1991). Constraints on the Effective Teaching and Learning of Primary Science In Nigeria In Nworgu, B.G. and Emerogu, B.C. (Eds).The Nigerian Primary Education System. Trends Issues and Strategies for Improvement. Onisha: Etukokwu Publishers.

Ikpe, U.G. (2005). The Demands of a Modern Teacher.Uyo: Em-Tubba & company.

Kayode, B. (2005). Enhancing Technical Education Through Universal Basic Education Programme. Journal of Nigerian Teachers of technology (JONATT). 5(1)

Makoju, E.I. (2007). Delivery of Vocational Technical Education in Nigeria and the Reform Agenda. A lead paper presented at the 20th annual National conference of NATT.

Robinson, R.N. (2008). Electronics: An Efficacious Means to the Delivery of Technical and Vocational Educational. Journal of Vocational Education and Technology (JOVET).5(1).

Sai, H.R. (2007). Curriculum Crisis in Technical Education in Nigeria: A Need for Urgent Reform. A paper presented at the 20thannual National conference of Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology (NATT), at the Kaduna State polytechnics, Kaduna.

UNESDOC, (2001). Recommendation Concerning Technical and Vocational Education General Conference, November 2001. 101

A COMPARATIVE CUM EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF POLICE ABUSE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN MILITARY AND CIVILIAN GOVERNMENTS: A CASE STUDY OF THE RIVERS STATE POLICE COMMAND

Igbanibo, Simeon Tamunoibuomi, Ph.D Department of Social Studies Faculty of Social Sciences Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.

ABSTRACT The indubitable and dialectic arguments among scholars, technocrats and policy analysts in respect of which system of government as between military or civilian administrations have been more culpable in human rights abuses through the Nigeria Police necessitated this study. Hence, an analytical cum comparative study was carried out to unearth which of the two modes of governance abuse human rights the more using a sample size of 500 respondents selected from a population of civilians and Police officers. Using a research question and hypothesis as templates, it was found that there is significant difference in types and frequency of human rights abuses during civilian and military regimes. However, military and civilian governments tended to be on a seemingly equal standing in the following forms of human rights abuses, namely, humiliation of civilians, prolonged detention, intimidation, torture to mention a few.

Introduction In the socio-political history of Nigeria, the issue of Police abuse of human rights is a pathetic trajectory that has inundated the sensibilities of Nigerians. Hence there is an intriguing debate among intellectuals, politicians and human rights activists on which of the two main forms of governments, the military and civilian governments is the abuse of human rights by the Police so rapacious or rampant. The pendulum of arguments either swing towards the military or the civilian governments thus necessitating an empirical and comparative study to reveal which type of government abuse human rights the more using the Nigeria Police as an agent provocateur.

Statement of the Problem In the fifty years of Nigerian existence as a sovereign, the military were in power for not less than twenty-five years that terminated with the formal handing over of power to President Olusegun Obasanjo by General Abdulsalami Abubakar on May 29, 1999. In the same vein, the civilians have experienced seemingly democratic system of government with its attendant problems for not less than twenty-five years, the last twelve years of democratic experience inclusive. During these fifty years of military/civilian governance, there were outrageous criticisms of Police abuse of human rights. The question then is, of these two governments that were in the mantle of governance, which of them perpetrated human rights abuses the more using the Nigeria Police as a pawn to achieve their perfidious desires. The common human rights abuses witnessed during this period include, arbitrary arrest without fair hearing, extra- judicial killings, inability to detect and arraign hoodlums that perpetrate heinous crimes such 102 as armed robbery, assassination, to mention a few. Hence this is a comparative study to bring to light whether Police abuse of human rights is more rapacious in military or civilian governments using an empirical study as a template where 500 respondents consisting of civilians and Police officers constitute the study population.

A COMPARATIVE CUM EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF POLICE ABUSE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN MILITARY AND CIVILIAN GOVERNMENTS: A CASE STUDY OF THE RIVERS STATE POLICE COMMAND

Theoretical Framework The Class Analysis Theory forms the theoretical framework of the study. This theory is seen in relation to the status of the Police vis-à-vis their expected roles in the society. Prior to 1834, sociological and political analysts in Europe used the words of ‘ranks’ and ‘orders’ to distinguish the hierarchical positions or status of the people that crystallized due to the growth of industrialization in Europe. The clearly recognized ranks were the Royals, the Aristocrats, the gentry and the commoners. It was in 1834 that J. S. Mill used the word “classes” to distinguish three classes in the society namely landlords, capitalists and labourers (Hurd et al, 1973:143). These classes exhibited feelings of solidarity, conviviality and promotion of economic and political actions that reflected their class interest. There was feeling of group superiority and inferiority. Marx and Engels (1969:67) have observed that a ruling class apart from its control of government and the economy “among other things, rules also as thinkers, as producers of ideas and regulate the production and distribution of the ideas of their age” (emphasis mine). According to Aaron (2004:73) “A class is a social group whose members share the same relationship to the forces of production”. This is in line with the Marxian perspective which views political power as deriving from economic power. In other words, the economic structure determines the superstructure of the society. The superstructure of the society denotes the major institutions in the society, the societal values and belief system. The values and beliefs of these institutions are shaped by the people that control the substructure or economic base of the society. As Haralambos (2001:41) rightly observed: The dominance of the ruling class in relation to production will be reflected in the superstructure. In particular, the political and legal systems will reflect ruling class interest. For example, the various ownership rights of the capitalist class will be enshrined in and protected by the laws of the land. Thus, the various parts of the superstructure can be seen as instrument of ruling class domination and as mechanisms for the oppression of the subject class. In the same way, the position of the dominant class is supported by beliefs and values which are systematically generated by the infrastructure.

For Ekekwe (1988:1), social classes are “aggregates of individuals who are commonly related to the means of production and who ceteris paribus, share common ideological and political disposition”. Max Weber, (in Schaefer, 2003:218) defined class as “people who have a similar level of wealth and income”. He went on to state that “wage earners constitute a class because they have the same economic position and fate” Nkrumah (1980:17) opine that “a class is nothing more than the sum total of individuals bound together by certain interests which as a class they try to preserve and protect”. He added that, every form of political power, whether parliamentary, multi-party, one-party or open military dictatorship reflects the interest of a certain class or classes in society. In socialist states, the government represents workers and peasants. In capitalist states, the government represents the exploiting class. The state then, is the expression of the domination of one class over the other classes. 103

Furthermore, Nkrumah (1980:19) pinpointed that “a ruling class is cohesive and conscious of itself as a class. It has objective interests, is aware of its positions and the threat posed to its continued dominance by the rising tide of working class revolt”. For Karl Marx, classes are defined “by how much or how little their members own not only of the wealth of a society but of the means by which this wealth is produced” (Berger and Berger, 1971). According to Marx, the society is divided into the bourgeoisie and the

Igbanibo, Simeon Tamunoibuomi, Ph.D proletariat. The proletariat are those who work for the bourgeoisie that earn peanuts or are given wages for services rendered. The relationship between the bourgeoisie and proletariat is seen as a relationship of exploitation and oppression and the struggle between the two groups of people will bring to the limelight the concept of class consciousness. That is the intuitive awareness by the oppressed people of their true position in the society that indeed they are an oppressed group of people that have a common destiny (Berger and Berger, 1971). It is trite to state that bourgeoisies that have the economic resources will advertently wield power to control the political and societal exigencies in order to achieve their desires in the society. Thus, Max Weber described power as “the capacity to carry through one’s intentions in society even against resistance” (Berger and Berger, 1971). It is an open secret that those in power in Nigeria use the Police Force to cow all resistance that is seen as a threat to their tenure in government. On the state, Ekekwe (1988:10) said, Marxists see “the state as maintaining an order in which the interests of the ruling class are favoured in the long run. This is because it preserves the conditions under which the bourgeoisie class is dominant”. Having explained to some extent the meaning of “class” and “state” from a Marxian perspective and “power” from the Weberian angle, let us relate them to the essence of this paper so that the theoretical framework can be properly understood. Major Frederick Lugard, an aristocrat, who later became a Lord, was the main architect of the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914. Prior to transferring his service to the British government, he had worked in various companies such as the East Indian Company, the Royal East African Company and the Royal Niger Company. It was from the Royal Niger Company that he transferred to the British government principally to strictly adhere to the instructions of Her Majesty (Akinjide, 2000:7). Lord Lugard was instrumental to the formation of the Nigerian Police Force and the West African Frontier Force that had not less than 2000 soldiers from inception. The essence of these forces was to ensure that law and order was maintained forcefully. In fact Akinjide (2000:44) posited that: Nigeria was created as British sphere of interests for business. A number of British soldiers, businessmen, politicians were very patriotic but this patriotism was mainly tilted in the interest of Great Britain. Furthermore, Major Lord Lugard became a Lord and of course, his lordship had its pecks and powers of class that accompanied it.

From the beginning, the Police organization was a coercive instrument set up by the colonial masters to protect their interest and subjugate the masses so that they could fully control the resources in the interest of Her Majesty and Great Britain. Moreover, being an aristocrat, Lord Lugard detested any action that would ridicule British interest and the control of the crown lands. Lord Lugard also observed and compared the influence the Emirs in the Northern Protectorate had on their subjects and the radical and critical penchant of the people of the Southern Protectorate and felt that a Police Force that was under the full grip of his government could curtail the eccentricities of the south and ensure the maintenance of law and order in the country. The fact that the Northern Protectorate exhibited the characteristics of a class society with identifiable Royals, Scribes, commoners and the slaves proved helpful in the performance of Lugard’s assignment. Indeed, prior to the formation of the Police Force, the warriors in these Emirates had been protecting the interest of the Royals and the Scribes. This made it much easier for Lord Lugard to recruit personnel from the North to serve in the Police Force. For instance, the West African Frontier Force formed by Lord Lugard with 2000 troops had about 104

90 percent of the recruits from the middle belt of Nigeria (Akinjide, 2000:44). In all, it can be seen that the Police Force was formed mainly to protect the interest of the colonial masters and was used as a coercive instrument to subjugate the people. In fact all oppositions by the

A COMPARATIVE CUM EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF POLICE ABUSE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN MILITARY AND CIVILIAN GOVERNMENTS: A CASE STUDY OF THE RIVERS STATE POLICE COMMAND people were dealt with by the force under the tacit approval of the colonial government. After all, he who pays the piper must dictate the tune. In a nutshell, the class analysis theory is adopted because the history of the formation of the Nigerian Police has class connotation ab initio. This is because Lord Lugard was very desirous and bent on satisfying the whims and caprices of Her Majesty – the Queen of England by ensuring that Nigeria was fully under Her Majesty’s control. The police force was thus used as a coercive instrument to achieve the dictatorial and exploitative control of the country.

Literature Review Human rights are universal. Lalumiere (1993) states that human rights belong to all human beings, to every woman, man and child wherever they live on earth. No individual, group, country or religion in the world should be denied the enjoyment of human rights. Higgins (1994) similarly stated inter alia: Individuals everywhere want the same essential things to have sufficient food and shelter, to be able to speak freely to practice their own religion or to abstain from religious beliefs, to feel that their person is threatened by the state, to know they will have a fair trial. I believe that there is nothing in these aspirations that is dependent upon culture or religion or stage of development. They are keenly felt by African tribesmen as by European city dwellers, by the inhabitant of a Latin American shantytown as by the resident of a Manhattan apartment.

The concept of human rights is an encapsulation of freedom and the inalienable rights of human beings that are imbued in the individual. Philosophers, jurists, feudals, barons and kings all agree on a major issue that man is surrounded by rights that must be protected from the shackles of tyranny and authoritarianism. As for the Police, Section 4 of the Police Act succinctly stated the duties of the police thus: The police shall be employed for the prevention and detection of crime, the apprehension of offenders, the preservation of law and order, the protection of life and property and the due enforcement of all laws and regulations with which they are directly charged and shall perform such military duties within and without Nigeria as may be required of them by or under the authority of this or any other Act.

The Police also perform other functions as controlling traffic, advising disputants on their matters, checkmating fire outbreak and also performing ambulance services during emergency periods (Amadi, 2000:15). From a sociological perspective, Ehindero (2007:61) opined that the objectives of a police system in a free, permissive and participatory society are as follows: to contribute towards liberty, equality and fraternity in human affairs; to help reconcile freedom with security and uphold the rule of law; to facilitate human dignity through upholding and protecting human rights and the pursuit of happiness; to provide leadership and participation in dispelling criminogenic social conditions through co-operative social actions; to contribute towards the creation or reinforcement of trust in communities; to strengthen the security of persons and property and the feeling of security of persons; 105 to investigate, detect and activate the prosecution of offenders within the rule of law; to facilitate free passage and movement in highways, roads, streets and avenues open to public;

Igbanibo, Simeon Tamunoibuomi, Ph.D to curb public disorder; and finally to deal with major and minor crises and help advice those in distress; where necessary acting with other agencies.

However, in contrast to these aforementioned duties of the Police, a plethora of human rights abuses by the Police abound in Nigeria and are well documented by human rights organizations (local and international), journalists, civil society groups, etc. According to Amnesty International (2009) disregard for human rights is prevalent within the Nigeria Police Force (NPF). Detainees are often denied their legal right to see a lawyer. Many have to pay for food or medical care, or to avoid being tortured or otherwise ill-treated. The Police Force is responsible for hundreds of extrajudicial executions, other unlawful killings and enforced disappearances every year. The majority of cases go uninvestigated and unpunished. In its own submission, Human Rights Watch averred that “ordinary Nigerians travelling on the country’s roadways, buying or selling at markets, running daily errands, or working within their offices are routinely subjected to police extortion. Those who resist and fail to pay the bribes demanded are often threatened and unlawfully detained, and at times physically and sexually assaulted, tortured, or even killed by the police”. Furthermore, while most victims who are arbitrarily arrested appear to be detained for a matter of hours, those who are either unwilling or unable to pay are typically held in a police cell overnight, and may be detained for several days or even weeks (HRW, 2010). In November 1987, Eze Ibe, a Mobile Police Constable attached to 23 Squadron, Obalende shot and killed two brothers – Sule and Saka Dawodu at Anikantanmo. This precipitated a week of very serious rioting that culminated in massive destruction of lives and property (Afunku, 1992). Also in May 1987, a Mobile Policeman shot and instantly killed a petrol tanker driver. This extra-judicial killing prompted tanker drivers to withdraw their services; paralysing the national oil sale. A tanker driver’s strike provoked national riots breaking out intermittently in various parts of the federation. In 1988, a 27 year old spare parts seller, Eric Umeibe was killed at a checkpoint by a Police Constable. It was reported that Mr. Umeibe was going home on the fateful day in his Peugeot 505 car with registration number LA9370SJ at about 5.45pm on 8th April. He was ordered to stop by the police; but before he could stop, he was shot on the head by the Police Constable and eventually died (Ojudu, 1988). Two weeks before the killing of Eric Umeibe, a Policeman at a similar checkpoint killed a medical doctor in Lagos. In 1991, Dr. Nwogu Okere, General Manager Klinsite Outdoor Services Limited was killed by a single bullet shot by a Police team whose motives are suspicious. However, the Lagos State Police Command excused the killings; they said Okere’s death could have been averted but for his driver who refused to stop at Alapere Police checkpoint (Kehinde, 1992). In 1992, Dr. Beko Ransome Kuti, Mr. Baba Omojola and Barr. Femi Falana were hounded, arrested and sent to prison on frivolous grounds that they incited mass protest in Nigeria. Their arrest was effected by the Nigeria Police Force under the auspices of a dictatorial government of General Ibrahim Babangida (Kehinde, 1992). On Sunday 6th September, 1992, there was an unusual traffic jam at Herbert Macaulay Street. An army officer Colonel Israel Yakubu Rindam with his orderly and driver were held up in the traffic jam. In order to ascertain the cause of the hold up, the Colonel came out of his car to see things for himself. To his surprise, he was shot at point blank by the Police 106 officers on duty at the checkpoint. The Colonel’s orderly and driver ran to one of the nearby army barracks and narrated the incident. It led to reprisal attack and arrest of members of the Police Force by the Nigeria Army. Later, the Nigeria Police said the policeman that killed the Colonel has been charged to court for murder (Afunku, 1992).

A COMPARATIVE CUM EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF POLICE ABUSE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN MILITARY AND CIVILIAN GOVERNMENTS: A CASE STUDY OF THE RIVERS STATE POLICE COMMAND

On 6th December 1993, Ovwian town near Warri was under siege by members of the Mobile Force of the Nigeria Police. Law and order broke down; the Police unleashed mayhem and extra-judicial killing on the people. Conservatively, it was alleged that not less than 150 persons were killed and properties worth millions of naira destroyed. The excessive reaction by the Police was allegedly due to the uncontrollable attitudes of the youths of Ovwian. It was a clear cut suppression of human rights (Djebah, 1994). Amnesty International reported the Police has having a penchant for killing detainees in their custody for no justifiable reason. For instance, David Idoko, Stanley Okghara and three others were arrested in April 2005 by men of the Enugu State Police Command for suspected armed robbery. The five men were paraded in front of the media on 27 April 2005. At the end of June 2005, the police announced that the men tried to escape police custody after being allowed to go to the toilet at the same time – an extremely unlikely scenario. They were shot and killed. According to information received by Amnesty International, they died of gunshots to the head and the chest (Amnesty International, 2009). On August 10, 2006, the Police in Aba, Abia State, paraded 12 armed robbery suspects in front of the media. According to an official statement, four other suspects were killed “in a shoot-out” with the police during the arrests. But in a bizarre turn of events, the bodies of the 12 men were found at a mortuary a day later. The Nigerian government explained their deaths in a letter to the UN Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, thus: “Upon sighting the police, the suspected robbery gang opened fire and police responded in self defence. During the fierce exchange of gunfire, three of the armed robbery suspects died on the spot while nine others sustained various degrees of injury from the shootout. Before they could be given medical attention, the remaining nine suspects, who survived the shootout died as a result of the injuries they sustained.” This explanation is unlikely as all 12 were paraded alive; some had gunshot injuries (Amnesty International, 2009). A 22year old student, Chukwuemeka Matthew Onovo, was killed in Enugu on July 4th 2008. A court-ordered autopsy confirmed that he died of a gunshot wound. The police claimed that Chukwuemeka was an armed robber, but an eyewitness said he was unarmed when he was killed. Joseph Onu, a commercial driver, was reportedly killed by the Police in Imo State on 15 December 2008 after he refused to pay a bribe at a roadblock. He drove off but Police officers chased him, and he was stopped and shot. The Police took him to the hospital, where he later died. An autopsy established that he had died of gunshots. Similarly, Aneke Okorie, a 39-year-old Okada rider failed to pay a bribe to the Police at a checkpoint in Emene, Enugu State, on 15 May 2009. He was shot and later died on his way to the hospital. In many cases, police officers round up and detain groups of citizens from public places such as restaurants, bars, bus stops, and markets. Police officers interviewed by Human Rights Watch generally referred to these mass arrests as “raiding” (HRW, 2010). Chibuike Anams, a 23years old student, was sitting with two friends at a guesthouse in Elimgbu, Rivers State, on 24 July 2009. When the police raided the guest house, he attempted to escape and was shot and died on the spot. His friends were arrested and later released. No reason was ever adduced by the Police for killing the young man (Amnesty International, 2009).

Methodology 107

The design for the study is a descriptive and comparative survey design. The design is descriptive to the extent that specific forms or patterns of Police Abuse of Human Rights (PAHR) are identified and described. Two nominally distinct populations were studied in this work. These are all Police Officers, and suitably informed civilians such as lawyers, law professors, postgraduate law students or

Igbabnibo, Simeon Tamunoibuomi, Ph.D practising lawyers. The cluster sampling method was utilized in drawing a sample of 500 respondents for the study. The main research instrument that was used for data collection in the study was a battery of eight (8) component instruments presented as sections of a single instrument called “The Inventory Checklist on PAHR (ICOP)”. This means the main research instrument was a questionnaire that was made up of eight (8) sections. Percentage distribution analytical tool was used to analyse the research question while the hypothesis was tested for significance using Chi-square statistical tool.

Data Presentation and Analysis Research Question: What particular forms of Police Abuse of Human Rights (PAHR), if any, tend to be associated with the five governance periods in Nigeria? 108

A COMPARATIVE CUM EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF POLICE ABUSE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN MILITARY AND CIVILIAN GOVERNMENTS: A CASE STUDY OF THE RIVERS STATE POLICE COMMAND

Table 1: Observed Occurrences of PAHR over Nigeria’s Five Governance Periods (1960-2006). Governance Period Letter Forms of Abuse 1960-1966 1966-1979 1979-1983 1983-1999 1999-2006 Dominant (%weight) (CR) (MR) (CR) (MR) (CR) A Indiscriminate arrest 50 (10.0%) 100 (20.0%) 0 (0.0%) 200 (40.0%) 50 (10.0%) 1983-1999 (40.0%) B Humiliation 60 (10.0%) 150 (30.0%) 150 (30.0%) 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) Tied periods (30.0%) C Prolonged detention 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) Tied periods (20.0%) D Unlawful shooting 250 (50.0%) 50 (10.0%) 100 (20.0%) 50 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1960-1966 (50.0%) E Intimidation 50 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) 50 (10.0%) 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) Tied periods (20.0%) F Brutality 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 100 (20.0%) 1999-2006 (20.0%) G Starvation 50 (10.0%) 150 (30.0%) 500 (100.0%) 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) 1979-1983 (100.0%) H Torture 100 (20.0%) 0 (0.0%) 150 (30.0%) 50 (10.0%) 200 (40.0%) Tied periods (40.0%) I Denied Medicare 150 (30.0%) 50 (10.0%) 150 (30.0%) 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0) % Tied periods (30.0%) J False accusation 150 (30.0%) 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 200 (40.0%) 100 (20.0%) 1983-1999 (40.0%) K Money extortion 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) 0 (0.0%) 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) Tied periods (10.0%) L Withholding cases 150 (30.0%) 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) 200 (40.0%) 1999-2006 (40.0%) M Taking sides 0 (0.0%) 50 (10.0%) 150 (30.0%) 0 (0.0%) 200 (40.0%) 1999-2006 (40.0%) N Evidence distortion 200 (40.0%) 150 (30.0%) 150 (30.0%) 200 (40.0%) 0 (0.0%) Tied periods (40.0%) O Intrusion/incursion 100 (20.0%) 100 (20.0%) 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) Tied periods (20.0%) P Banning/stopping 50 (10.0%) 150 (30.0%) 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1966-1979 (30.0%) Q Bail denial 200 (40.0%) 50 (10.0%) 100 (20.0%) 50 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1960-1966 (40.0%) R others 50 (10.0%) 50 (10.0%) 200 (40.0%) 50 (10.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1979-1983 (40.0%) Source: Survey Data (2008) Key: CR = Civilian Regime; MR = Military Regime 96

Igbanibo, Simeon Tamunoibuomi, Ph.D

Before interpreting and analyzing Table 1, it is pertinent to state that the table is divided into five (5) different governance periods, namely, 1960-1966 (civilian regime), 1966-1979 (military regime), 1979-1983 (civilian regime), 1983-1999 (military regime) and 1999-2006 (civilian regime). Fifty percent of the respondents adduced that they observed unlawful shooting during the civilian regime of 1960-1966. Furthermore, 40 percent said they witnessed distortion of evidence by the police force during the civilian regime of 1960-1966. Another 40 percent of the respondents stated that they observed distortion of evidence by the Police Force during the military regime that lasted from 1983 to 1999. Thirty percent of the respondents opined that Police Officers deliberately delayed court action during the 1960-1966 civilian regime while 40 percent of the respondents observed that court action was delayed by Police Officers during the 1999-2006 civilian regime. In respect of intrusion and incursion into people’s homes, the respondents had a tie i.e. 20% observed police intrusion and incursion into people’s privacy during the civilian regime of 1960- 1966 and the military regime of 1966-1979. Also, in respect of bail denial, 40 percent of the respondents said Police Officers under the 1960- 1966 civilian regime perverted justice by denying civilians deserved bail according to law. This finding was replicated during the 1979-1983 civilian regime where 20 percent respondents also averred that accused persons or detained persons were denied bail. In respect of intimidatory attitudes by Police Officers, it was observed that 20 percent of the respondents stated that it was in vogue during the civilian regime of 1999-2006. This was also the case during the 1983-1999 military regime as another 20 percent of the respondents also observed intimidation by Police Officers. This is corroborated by the United States Department of States (2009) report which averred that: the most significant human rights problems in Nigeria are: extrajudicial killings and use of excessive force by security forces; impunity for abuses by security forces; arbitrary arrests, prolonged pre-trial detention, judicial corruption and executive influence on the judiciary; rape, torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment of prisoners, detainees and suspects; harsh and life-threatening prison and detention center conditions…; restrictions on freedom of assembly, movement, press, speech and religion; infringement of privacy rights; and the abridgment of the right of citizens to change the government.

The table also shows that 30 percent of respondents said they observed Police Officers humiliating civilians during the 1966-1979 military regime. This observation was corroborated by another 30 percent that observed same during the 1979-1983 civilian regime. A critical look at the last column of Table 1 shows that past military and civilian governments had a tie in the following forms of abuse, namely: humiliation, prolonged detention, intimidation, torture, denied medicare, money extortion, distortion of evidence and intrusion/incursion. The implication of such a tie is that the Police Force is controlled by the executive arm of the government whether military or civilian. The Police Force functions according to the dictates of its masters. They can resort to any means to cow the populace in the name of restoring law and order; they are advertently satisfying the whims and caprices of those in power. Such actions can gag opposing views and whittle down the supposed rights of the people. In this wise, Ubani (2003), writing in Africa News Service on the fourth anniversary of Nigeria’s transition to democracy, remarked bitterly that: 97

A COMPARATIVE CUM EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF POLICE ABUSE OF HUMAN RIGHTS IN MILITARY AND CIVILIAN GOVERNMENTS: A CASE STUDY OF THE RIVERS STATE POLICE COMMAND

The last four years have confirmed that the absence of military rule is not necessarily synonymous with democracy. There can be such a thing as undemocratic or dictatorial civil rule, as the last four years have shown, and we have now seen that a civilian government can violate human rights with as much impunity as military dictatorship and the socio-economic conditions of the people can be as miserable. We have witnessed four years in which over ten thousand Nigerians were executed in over fifty documented incidents of judicial killings.

These findings are in consonance with Aduba (2005:98) observation on the abuses to right to life during the democratic dispensation of President Olusegun Obasanjo (1999-2007) when religious and ethnic intolerance came to the fore at: Aguleri – Umuleri communal conflict; the Tiv, Jukun, Urhobo, Itshekiri and Ijaw; Ife – Modakeke; Yoruba and Ijaw, Ilaje and Ijaw; Odi, Zaki Biam, Kano and Kaduna religious riots; reprisals in Onitsha, Aba, Owerri and Port Harcourt; Jos riots, communal conflicts in Nassarawa Sate and Bauchi (especially Tafawa Balewa). In all the cases mentioned, the weakness of the Nigeria Police Force was exploited by ethnic and religious warlords.

Also, Shepherd (1980:232) observed that when people protest by rioting due to bad economic policies of government, the military and external creditors combine forces to assure that order is maintained and the hegemonic sphere of national interest is not threatened. Those who resist are imprisoned, tortured, forced into exile or armed struggle campaigns. And mass political killings have resulted.

Testing of Hypothesis Hypothesis: There is a significant difference in human rights abuses between civilian and military regimes.

This hypothesis is analyzed in Table 2 below:

Table 2: Chi-square analysis of civilian and military regimes (the expected frequencies are shown in parentheses) Letter Forms of Abuse Civilian regime Military regime Total A Indiscriminate arrest 100 (258) 300 (142) 400 B Humiliation 310 (361) 250 (199) 560 C Prolonged detention 250 (258) 150 (142) 400 D Unlawful shooting 350 (290) 100 (160) 450 E Intimidation 200 (193) 100 (107) 300 F Brutality 200 (193) 100 (107) 300 G Starvation 650 (580) 250 (320) 900 H Torture 450 (322) 50 (178) 500 I Denied Medicare 350 (290) 100 (160) 450 J False accusation 300 (355) 250 (195) 550 K Money extortion 150 (193) 150 (107) 300 L Withholding cases 450 (419) 200 (231) 650 98

M Taking sides 350 (258) 50 (142) 400 N Evidence distortion 350 (451) 350 (249) 700 O Intrusion/incursion 150 (193) 150 (107) 300 P Banning/stopping 100 (161) 150 (107) 250 Q Bail denial 300 (258) 100 (142) 400 R Others 250 (226) 100 (142) 350 Total 5260(64.5%) 2900(35.5%) 8160 Source: Survey Data (2008) Observed X2 = 822.4 Critical X2 = 27.59 Degree of freedom = (C – 1) (R – 1) = (2 – 1) (18 – 1) = 17 Level of significance = 0.5 Table 2 shows that observed X2 value is 822.4 while Critical X2 is 27.59. Since the observed X2 value (822.4) is greater than the critical X2 value (27.59), The Research Hypothesis which states that there is a significant difference in human rights abuses between civilian and military regimes is therefore upheld or retained. Findings That past military and civilian governments had a tie in the following forms of abuse, namely: humiliation of civilians, prolonged detention, intimidation, torture, denied medicare, money extortion, distortion of evidence and intrusion/incursion into people’s privacy. However, it is noted that there is a significant difference in types and frequency of human rights abuses during civilian and military regimes. Recommendations The following recommendations are proposed: The Police should be responsive and accountable to the people through their elected representatives and not to the President. If it is accountable to the President, it will be easily manipulated politically by the executive arm of government. The law should be amended so that the Police can be accountable to the legislative arm of government and the Police Service Commission which can screen, confirm and remove any indolent and inept Inspector General. It is highly necessary that members of the National Assembly endorse these amendments in order to ensure that the new bill contains clauses to protect human rights and provide a benchmark for police reform in Nigeria. The Police Act that was promulgated in 1943 should be subjected to critical reviews. This is highly imperative taking into cognizance that the 1943 Police Act was the creation of the colonial masters. A major review will serve as a head start for the expected reforms of the Police in the present dispensation. A principal objective of the review is to ensure that the new law is compatible with international human rights standards, in particular, the United Nations (UN) Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials and the fundamental rights provision of the Nigerian Constitution. The Human Rights sections that are established at the Divisional, Area and State Command levels of the Nigeria Police Force should be more functional by educating the public on their supposed function through the mass media, especially the radio and television. They should be more proactive by informing the people how they can assert and exercise their fundamental rights to freedom and association to mention a few.

Igbanibo, Simeon Tamunoibuomi, Ph.D 99

Police recruitment processes should be very thorough and transparent. This will ensure that only well-qualified persons both in character and in learning are recruited. The Police Service Commission should checkmate ethnicism and the penchant for putting square pegs in round holes so that only people that are patriotic are recruited into the Force.

Conclusion In concluding this paper, it will be necessary to assess the findings jurisprudentially. The finding that Police abuse of human rights are on equal stance in civilian and military governments clearly shows that the executive arm of government use the services of the Police and other armed forces to perpetuate their stay in power or enforce their whims and caprices on the people. For example, the 1988 fuel subsidy riots and the 1989 anti-SAP riots were quelled forcefully by the Police and the Army. Also during the 1979, 1983, 1999, 2003 and 2007 elections, the Police Force was used as a pawn by the ruling government to suppress the opposition and rig elections. In addition, though Nigerians crave for freedom of movement, religious affiliation and expression, they are to some extent ignorant of the law and their rights. This has made members of the Police Force to capitalize on their docility and ignorance to perpetrate heinous crimes in the name of restoring law and order. Apart from the few critics that challenge the excesses of governments, human rights abuses by the Police have been prevalent due to the general docility and ignorance of the masses. For example in the case of Shugaba Darman v. Minister of Internal Affairs (1981) NCLR 459, the plaintiff, a member of the Borno State House of Assembly, was accused of constituting a nuisance to the government of the day. He was deported to Chad Republic as a prohibited immigrant. The trial judge – Oye Adefila, a judge of High Court of Borno State – declared the deportation order invalid and awarded exemplary damages in favour of the plaintiff “for assault and unlawful deportation from Nigeria and unlawful interference with applicant’s (Shugaba’s) right to move freely throughout Nigeria.” The action taken by Alhaji Darman shows someone who knows how to take appropriate and decisive actions when one’s rights are trampled. It shows boldness and being conscious of one’s rights. His action goes parri passu with the dictum in equity that “he who comes to equity must come with clean hands”.

REFERENCES

Aaron, K.K. (ed.). (2004). Science in Social Relations. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. Port Harcourt: Kemnela Publications.

Aduba, N. (2005). “Human Rights Practice in Nigeria 1999-2004: A Critique” in Okpara, O. Human Rights: Law and Practice in Nigeria Vol. 1. Enugu: Chenglo Publishers Ltd.

Afunku, A. (1992). “Tale of Woe. Human Rights bodies catalogue abuses in Africa”. African Concord, March 9. pp. 15-16

Akinjide, R. (2000). ‘The Southern Lady of Means’. Tempo, 28th September, pp. 7 and 22.

Amadi, G.O.S. (2000). Police Powers in Nigeria. Onitsha: Afro-Orbis Publications Ltd.

Amnesty International (2009). Killing at Will: Extrajudicial Executions and Other Unlawful Killings by the Police in Nigeria. London: Amnesty International. 100

Berger, P. and Berger, B. (1971). Sociology: A Biographical Approach. New York: Basic Books Inc. Djebah, O. (1994). “After the Massacre”. The News, 7th February. pp. 32-34

Ehindero, S.G. (2007). “The Police and Maintenance of Law in a Democratic Society”. The Guardian Wednesday, January 31. pp.61-62

Ekekwe, E. (1988). Class and State in Nigeria. Ibadan: Longman Publishing Company.

Haralambos, J. (2001). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. Oxford: University Press.

Higgins, R. (1994). Problems and Processes: International Law and How to Use it. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

HRW (2010). Everyone’s on the Game: Corruption and Human Rights Abuses by the Nigeria Police Force. New York: Human Rights Watch

Hurd, G.; Ashton, D.N.; Brown, R.K.; Duncan, P.; Dunning, E.; Holloway, S.W.F.; Johnson, T.J.; and McIntosh, S.M. (1973). Human Societies: An Introduction to Sociology. London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.

Kehinde, S. (1992). “One Death Too Many” African Concord. March 16. P.24.

Lalumiere, C. (1993). “Human Rights at the Dawn of the 21st Century Council of Europe” in Ezejiofor, G. (1999). The Development of the Concept of Human Rights: Definition and Philosophical Foundations” in A.O. Obilade and Clement Nwankwo (eds.) Text for Human Rights Teaching in Schools. Lagos: Constitutional Rights Project.

Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1969). Selected Works Vol. 1. Moscow: Progress Publishers.

Nkrumah, K. (1980). Class Struggle in Africa. London: Panaf Books Publishers Ltd.

Ojudu, F. (1988). “Uniformed and Trigger Happy” African Concord, April 26. p.34.

Schaefer, T.R. (2003). Sociology (8th Edition). New York: McGraw Hill Inc.

Shepherd, G.W. Jr. (1980). “Demilitarization Proposals for the Indian Ocean” in Bowman, I. and Clark, I. The Indian Ocean in Global Politics. New Delhi: Macmillan Press.

Ubani, C. (2003). “Civil Rule Without Democracy”. Africa News Service May-June, P.10. US Department of State (2009). www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008 /af/119018.htm. Retrieved 19 May, 2009 101

EXPENDITURE BEHAVIOUR ON ECONOMIC SERVICES IN NIGERIA’S PUBLIC SECTOR: A CRITIQUE; 1980-2004.

Oruwari, Nye. Department of Economics Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Port Harcourt E-mail: [email protected]

& Suotor, Memoye. Department of Economics Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Port Harcourt E-mail: [email protected] Abstract

The study of Expenditure Behaviour on Economic Services in Nigeria’s Public Sector traces the behaviour of government programmes on the sustenance of the population of the people. The sustainability of the economic life of the people behoves around the command of positive government. To drive these positivities into action, the study is carried out using two equation models of regression analysis. The two equation models exhibit compatibility of the variables used in analyzing the results. The outcome of the analysis inputs a serious concern of the Nigerian government toward the upliftment of her population of people economically. Inspite of this commitment there is still the dare need for macroeconomic balance through her fiscal operations.

INTRODUCTION

Public spending in modern economies has been seen as an indispensable means of ensuring satisfactory social life for the population of a given economy. Modernity requires that the government, through representation and effectiveness exerts “the will of the people in terms of their sustainability. Ordinarily the primary responsibility of government is to provide the food need and security of the people. This can only be made feasible where a responsible government spends responsively to the need of the people and for the people. Public spending therefore, is the means of providing goods and services to the people of a country for economic development and growth. This is the reason for economies of the world to work towards better welfare of the population. By this, macroeconomic stability can be captured and sustained. The issue of spending for the population is indispensable for the government of Nigeria. Nigerians wherever they are would expect a better public sector development and economic services. However, this has to conform with the nation’s earnings within the limit of her budget and its implementation. This calls for an overall thrust of economic policy to ensure the country’s fortune in the management of her financial resources. It was observed between 1998 and1999 that macroeconomic stability was not translated into higher standard of living for the majority of the population of the country hence they remained burdened with economic and even social problems (CBN 2000). This forced the then administration to adopt measures to bring relief targeted at specific sectors of the economy. This was the call for functional economic 102

EXPENDITURE BEHAVIOUR ON ECONOMIC SERVICES IN NIGERIA’S PUBLIC SECTOR: A CRITIQUE; 1980-2004. programme for the achievement of appreciable standard of living and growth level to capture steady growth of gross national product and stability. The issue of public financing in the Nigerian economy has been questionable in terms of its sustainability and growth. According to CBN (2000), the poor execution of programme with relatively high population caused a downturn and resulting into low gross domestic product within the country. The economy needs an appreciable level of programme and measure to achieve stability and growth. The activity of government takes a whole economy into providing wealth and necessities for the good of the population. In this regard therefore and to create multiplier effect to heat the economy, the then third republic’s administration of the country under President Olusegun Obasanjo tried to provided for a market driven economy. This economy was characterized by transparency in governance and anti-corruption crusades. Other features were Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC), National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS), Constitutional Conference, Independent and Corrupt Practices and other Related Offences Act 2002 with a focus on National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) and meeting up with the needs of the millennium goals. Similarly, Late President Umaru Musa Yar’Adua initiated financial services strategy (FSS) and the seven-point agenda on energy and wealth creation among others. These have not generated equitable resource-spread to stimulate increased gross domestic product (GDP). Economic statistics indicate that allocations have failed to reflect sustainable development targets in the country. This problem has so far retarded the major sub-sector of the economy below the target of World Bank human development index. In this regard therefore we shall find out the cause of the poor economic services due to inadequate public spending in the country. Therefore, the objective of this study is to give a critique of the government’s expenditure behaviour in the economy. This study is carried out in five sections. Section one introduces the work. Section two brings out the theoretical and empirical literature. Three treats the methodology while sections four and five give the analysis, conclusion, summary and recommendations respectively.

THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL LITERATURE Chronic public spending behaviour as an issue, and has become a major concern in the developing economy of ours. Extensive theoretical and empirical literatures are required to examine the behaviour of government and some macroeconomic variables. This is necessary due to some crowding-out effect in the economy. Economic studies reveal that the issue of public spending and the growth of economies require equitable and justifiable pattern of spending. This is the reason for major economic function in the design of development plans by government in expectation of both direct and indirect activities of macroeconomic sustainability. The search for explanation of the increasing share of public spending into the sectors of the economy has caused considerable debate among public finance economists. In Keynesian economics, increased government spending is thought to raise aggregate demand. For this reason, Osakwe (2003) shows a strong relationship between increase in net current government expenditure and growth in money supply. Asogu (1991) and Adamu (1996) also respectively demonstrated in their studies of “National Accounting in Developing Economies” that it is most proper for government spending analysis to give a sketch of the commodity flow of the bundle of goods and services in an economy. Adolph Wagner (1989) study on “Expanding state Activity” has it that as per capita income in industrializing countries rise, the relative share of the public sector on national output, would rise. Also Onuchukwu (2000) works on “Public Investment Behaviour in Nigeria”, states Oruwari, Nye and Suotor, Memoye 103

that government expenditure is a volatile component of aggregate demand. That the volatility of government spending makes it an important objective of the study for policy mechanism of the economy. However, Gowland (1980) on “Government Expenditure” indicates the use of cash limit theory to measure the extent of control of local sector spending. That the cash level of spending will be determined by a formula reflecting “need” in the spending of money. Public Spending and Economic Services Economies are sustained through the indispensability of demand of the mass of the population of people. The pursuit of material satisfaction constitutes a significant aspect of life on economies. This shows that no one country can live by bread alone (Kaufman(1980; 230). The definition of economics permits the investigation of how any economy fulfill its wants. Decisions are made in economics on how resources are allocated and to enhance the unlimited desires of consumers. In this regard, goods and services are to be produced and decision on how these goods and services are to be produced and for whom they are produced in the economy has to be made. The government determines the cost-benefit analysis with feasibility studies in association with alternatives if necessary. A study of government business is not complete without the preliminary examination of the structure of the economic services and the pattern of public expenditure distribution and the growth in gross domestic product (GDP). For economists, economic services, and real analysis for the provision of background information that permits consumers in a country to make the most knowledgeable decision. Though, the concern of all the regimes in the country was the economy’s growth and development but there was no guarantee for rapid economic services in the country. In all, between 1960 and 2007 the economic services of the country which were overseen by eleven different regimes, four civilians, six military and one interim government was a force relative to other oil rich countries. This is the reason for Gowland (1980:209) “Economics of Social Policy” specifying the attention of economists to income maintenance programmes, income distribution, education, healthcare, housing and other related economic policies to be expanded considerably. His definition and measurement of poverty resulted to sources of data about the distribution of income in the United Kingdom through the Inland Revenue Statistics (IRS), Family Expenditure Survey (FES), and General Household Survey (GHS). These measures determined the population living at or below the long-term supplementary benefit (SB) rates of 100 percent. In stressing the definition and importance of the United Kingdom’s economy, the study on “Nationalization Acts” specifies economic efficiency, profitability, equity, and macroeconomic objectives to determine economic services and the growth rate of gross domestic product. But where policies conflict with objectives, government considers policy changes to satisfy the profitability objective minimizing the resulting change to the efficient allocation of resources. This is the reason for Nwosu (2002:66) work on “Economic Growth and the Scope of Development”. The study advances the empowerment of man for the realization and unfoldment of his creative potential by which his personality and social environment are continually enhanced. This requires sustained growth in living to fulfill psychological needs and accumulation of productive forces via education, science and technology etc. Without such socially beneficial accumulation, man lives in subsistence, and low level of physio-psychic condition. Economic services are not development for their own sake. They are duly promoted to enhance the output of goods and services. The relevance to economic growth lies in their contribution to gross domestic product. For government to be successful in its fundamental objectives it is necessary to give careful consideration to the planning of its financing. An 104

EXPENDITURE BEHAVIOUR ON ECONOMIC SERVICES IN NIGERIA’S PUBLIC SECTOR: A CRITIQUE; 1980-2004. objective policy concerning itself is the question of distribution of income and wealth with relative treatments of different consumers. For enabling economic services, the military was characteristics of fighting corruption and ineptitude while the civilian regime upheld the philosophy of sustainable growth in GDP through market planning and control. Between 1966 and 1975 the then military regime concentrated on demand management with market mechanism for operation. The Murtala-Obasanjo (1975-1979) regime concentrated on the use of planning, control and demand management. The Shagari regime of (1979-1982) worked through free market mechanism though austerity surfaced in 1982. To offset this Buhari regime (1983-1985) was characterized by controls and stabilization measures with little room for free market mechanism. Babangida adopted a market system with reforms for a deregulated economy, and private-sector led economic growth. The Abacha regime (1993-1998) initiated control and demand management with guided deregulation of the economy. Abubakar (1998-1999) continued with the economic policies of absolute deregulation and privatization of public enterprises within the economy. Specifically interest was huge economic services on investment in industries, social services and infrastructures in order to accelerate growth. This is in line with Anyanwu (1997:99) study on “Public Expenditures” to express in financial terms the capital needed to meet the objectives of government within an accounting period. The idea was to co- ordinate plans to facilitate the allocation of finance for domestic needs. By this, the expansion of economic services could be enhanced. The CBN (2002:116) states that the quality of infrastructure is critical to domestic growth in terms of investment. But within the period of this investigation the third National Development period of 1975 to 1980 of the planned total capital investment of N42,561.10 billion only N29,443.8 million was used. GDP growth rate at the period was 15.5 percent as against 8.2 per cent of the proceeding plan and 0.5 per cent projected from the plan period. Also in the fourth National Development plan (1981-1985), the aim of improving the living condition and reduction of dependency was not achieved. This was because while the plan size was estimated at N70, 276.00 billion, the actual allocation was downsized to N42,200.00 billion with an actual allocation of N17,338.00 billion. With 4.0 per cent growth rate, the country’s GDP fell to a negative growth rate of 2.9 per cent per annum. Expectations were high between 1986 and 1988 as the Babangida military junta instilled a new economic order – the structural adjustment programmes with a free market orientation and diversification of the productive base of the economy but the rationalization process failed to yield economic services, Leading to the three year rolling plans (1990-1995). Macroeconomic variables of gross domestic product (GDP), adjustment of the price level and management programmes were considered. This period provided the base for capital budget to consolidate the achievement of the structural adjustment programme. Though economic services accounted for the bulk of expenditure especially from 1993, 1994 and 1995 (see CBN 1996:31) but, transfers mainly capital repayment took dominant share in 1991, and 1992 accounting for 7.8 and 75.9 per cent respectively of the total expenditure. The 1999 government in Nigeria adopting a market oriented, private –sector led, highly competitive and technology driven economy tried to raise the standard of living and economic independence. The extent to which it went became a big question to be answered. During the period gross domestic product growth rates on key economic services of agriculture, telecommunications, building and construction were 5.2, 5.2 and 3.8 in 1999, 3.0, 6.1 and 4.0 in 2000, 3.8, 30.0 and 12.0 per cents in 2001 respectively. These figures were below the millennium development figure of 7 per cent growth rate. 105

Oruwari, Nye and Suotor, Memoye

Poverty reduction is the greatest concern and challenge of our time. In a millennium summit of 2000 the countries of the U.N declared “We will spare no effort to free our fellowmen, women and children from the abject and dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty to which billion are currently subjected”, (see Oladunni 2004:31). Nigeria faces the greatest challenge of meeting growth targets. Her growth rate is below the threshold of 7 per cent per annum, required for the millennium development goals. This country, with the current height of poverty incidence remains an aberration given the country’s abundant natural and human resources. The poor state is due to poor political leadership, economic mismanagement, corruption, poor socio-economic infrastructures, conflicts and insecurity. However, the Yar’Adua government, from which Mr. President, Dr. Goodluck Jonathan emerged, initiated vision 20:2020 made the economy the first priority, pursues economic stability and GDP growth. CBN (2004: 264) has it that between 2003 and 2004 total growth rate of gross domestic product of the 1990 constant basic prices shows 10.2 and 6.1 per cent respectively. Also CBN (2002:9) in the master plan for Nigeria has it that the financial services strategy is to extend services to an ever increasing army of the poor in the rural areas. CBN (2007:17) sitting the governor on “Clear Vision, and Workable Strategies”, promised that by 2020 credit to gross domestic product (GDP) would be among the top three of emerging markets and that 70 per cent of Nigeria’s population would have access to credit with single digit interest rate. Any crux to these developments will be tasking the Dr. Goodluck Jonathan’s administration. Out of so much to investigate, the question is how deterministic is the government over the recent call for subsidy removal and its

Thuseconomic Log GDP implicationsrt = Log on+ β the1LogCES population + β2 LogINF of the people? + ∑t …………(1) Going by the 2002 Mexico-Monterrey Conference on Financing for Development, countries are required to act in the main areas of where;deepening GDP macroeconomic= Growth rate of reformsgross domestic and enhancing product (GDP)domestic competitiveness, efficiency as a foundation for favourable investment climate, institutional growth and systems of public budget CES = Capital Expenditure on Economic Services to ensure that governments are accountable to their people especially for effective use of public resources andINF investing= Inflation adequate resources in human development. METHODOLOGYIn the equation-two model we present; Our study “Expenditure Behaviour on Economic Services in Nigeria’s Public Sector is LogGDPcarried rtout = Logusing regression+ β1logRES+β analysis. LogINF To +provide ∑t ………………………..(2) vivid answer to our investigation, we specify a Where;two-equation RES = Recurrentmodel of grossExpenditure domestic on product Economic (GDP) Services as a regressand variable and regressors of economic services, capital expenditure on economic services and inflation in the equation - one

β0model is regression constant

While β1 β2 are regression coefficients β0 2

β 0

GDPrt, CES, RES and INF are regression parameters.

EXPENDITURE BEHAVIOUR ON ECONOMIC SERVICES IN NIGERIA’S PUBLIC SECTOR: 106

A CRITIQUE; 1980-2004.

DATA ANALYSIS To determine the impact of public spending on economic services in the Nigerian economy, the study specifies an analytic form of regression of two-equation model such that we present:

Log GDPrt = Logβ0 + β1logCESt-1+β2INFt-1 + ∑t (1)

The empirical result from the regression analysis indicates that Y = 4.080 + 9.19 CES + 0.03 INF (1)i (3.69) (0.15) (0.1) R = 0.50, R2 = 0.62, R2 – Adjusted = 0.39 F-Ratio = 0.42 The above result indicates that the correlation between the regressand variable, i.e. the growth rate of gross domestic product and the regressor variables of capital expenditures (CES) and inflation (INF) on economic services (CES) is 0.05. It shows that the result of the analysis exhibits a correlative or positive relationship between GDPrt, CESt-1 and INFt-1 with a 50 per cent rate in the model for public spending on economic services. With a level of 0.62 in the model, the regression output indicates that the variation in the level of growth rate of gross domestic product (GDPrt) explained by capital expenditure on economic services (CES) is 62 per cent. This indicate fitness in the statistical reliability of this result. The T-values in the model are 3.6 (GDPrt), 0.15 (CES), and 0.1(INF). This test determines the significance of the model used in the analysis of the work at a given statistical level of probability. It further helps to determine the decision rule to indicate the relation between the variables in the regression analysis. The conduct of the test of significance for the improvement of fit and test of coefficient shows a F-Ratio of 0.42 per cent. This test is determined to check the cause or sources of variation in the analysis and the influence of the numerical values of the regressor variables on the regressand variable. Also in order to provide a space for the loss of degrees of freedom for the additional variables that may be added to the variables in the function, this study has taken account of R 2- adjusted. The adjusted R2 in the regression equation shows 39 per cent. For the equation two model, we present; Log GDPrt = Logβ0 + β1logRESt-1+β2INFt-1 + ∑t …….. (2) This regression analysis indicates that; Y = 3.04 + 5.20 RESt-1 + 0.01INFt-1 ………(2)i (3.43) (2.58) (0.44) R = 0.51, R2 = 0.70, R2- Adjusted = 0.60 F-Ratio = 3.34 In the equation (2)i model, the correlation between the growth of gross domestic product (GDPrt) and recurrent expenditures (RES) and inflation (INF) is 0.51 or 51 per cent. The variation in the level of the growth of gross domestic product (GDPrt) explained by the recurrent expenditure (RES) and inflation (INF) on economic services is 70 percent. The T-values are 3.43 2 (GDPrt), 2.58(RES) and 0.46(INF) while the F-Ratio and R -Adjusted are 3.34 and 0.60 respectively.

Oruwari, Nye and Suotor, Memoye Conclusion 107

The result of the analysis above indicates a sustainable degree of relationship between the regressand and the regressor variables. In addition, we admit that there is a statistical reliability of the variables used in the regression analysis which can make best use of fiscal and monetary policies in accelerating economic growth of the Nigerian economy. The study therefore concludes that for this economy to grow, i.e. a high level of growth in gross domestic product of the economy, inflation has to be controlled and reduced with a positive impact on capital and recurrent expenditures of government which can also determine the growth of infrastructure within the economy. Recommendation To encourage growth and public spending on economic services in the Nigerian economy; we recommend that: The government should make effective use of her fiscal and monetary policies in accelerating growth and development. That such fiscal and monetary policies need must be to determine a balanced budget effective to refrain domestic spending from deficit financing. Also that the planning and implementation of budget allocation to capital and recurrent spending be effectively monitored. Economic services are sub-services of government to ensure social security for the population of the country hence requires substantial percentage of budget allocation. Policy makers should see forecast as a prima-facia in the quest for stable economy. Without this they only monitor the tightness of monetary policy using variety of financial indicators. A rise on demand necessitates higher inflation and hence should be checked. The matter for inflation is not the growth rate of the economy but the growth rate of money supply. The growth rate of money supply if not checked well will cause an indication of future inflation.

REFERENCES

Adamu, C. (1996) Nigeria Accounting in a Developing Country; The Case Study of Nigeria, Ibadan: University of Ibadan press. Anyanwu, J. C. (1997) Nigerian Public Finance, Onitsha: Joanee Educational Publishers. CBN, (1996) Economic and Financial Review, Vol. 34, No. 1. CBN, (1996) National Economic Development Planning: A Review of Nigeria’s Performance and Future prospects. CBN (2000) The Changing Structure of the Nigerian Economy and Implication for Development. CBN (2002) Monetary Credit Foreign Trade and Exchange Policy Guidelines; Monetary Circular paper. No. 37. CBN (2002) Industrialization in Nigeria, Vol. 40, No. 5. Gowland(1980) Modern Economic Analysis Massachussets, Butterworth Publishers. Nwosu, E. J. (2000)The Challenge of Poverty in Africa, Owerri, Skill. Mark media. Onuchukwu, O. & Agiobenebo, T. I. (2000) An Econometric Study of Public Investment Behaviour in Nigeria, Port Harcourt, Emhai publishers. 108

EXPENDITURE BEHAVIOUR ON ECONOMIC SERVICES IN NIGERIA’S PUBLIC SECTOR: A CRITIQUE; 1980-2004.

APPENDIX 1

Regressions table for Equation One

Year Growth Rate of Gross Capital Expenditure Domestic Product on Economic (GDP) Services (CES) Inflation (INF) (N’M) % 1980 1.8 5,981.1 10.0 1981 0.4 3,629.4 21.4 1982 4.8 2,542.5 7.2 1983 2.8 2,290.7 23.2 1984 1.0 656.3 40.7 1985 2.2 892.7 4.7 1986 2.3 1,099.9 5.4 1987 4.2 2,159.7 10.2 1988 10.0 2,128.7 56.0 1989 7.3 3,926.3 50.5 1990 8.2 3,485.7 7.5 1991 4.4 3,145.0 12.9 1992 4.3 2,336.7 44.5 1993 2.3 18,344.7 57.3 1994 1.0 27,102.8 57.0 1995 2.2 43,149.2 73.0 1996 3.4 63,581.1 29.1 1997 3.1 169,613.1 8.5 1998 2.4 200,861.9 10.0 1999 2.8 323,580.6 6.6 2000 3.8 111,508.6 6.9 2001 3.9 259,757.8 18.9 2002 5.0 215,333.4 12.9 2003 10.2 97,982.1 14.0 2004 8.1 167,722.0 15.0

Sources: (i) CBN Statistical Bulletin, Vol.15, Dec., 2004 (ii) Gbosi, A.N. (2008)

Oruwari, Nye and Suotor, Memoye APPENDIX 2 109

Year Growth Rate of Gross Recurrent Domestic Product Expenditure on (GDP) Economic Services Inflation (INF) (RES) (N’M) % 1980 1.8 468.6 10.0 1981 0.8 499.4 21.4 1982 4.8 345.0 7.2 1983 2.8 380.0 23.2 1984 1.0 326.9 40.7 1985 2.2 315.4 4.7 1986 2.3 513.7 5.4 1987 4.2 1,092.9 10.2 1988 10.0 1,221.2 56.0 1989 7.3 1,419.0 50.5 1990 8.2 1,613.7 7.5 1991 4.4 1,303.4 12.9 1992 4.3 3,140.4 44.5 1993 2.3 4,656.0 57.3 1994 1.0 3,909.9 57.0 1995 2.2 5,917.9 73.0 1996 3.4 5,841.1 29.1 1997 3.1 7,794.0 8.5 1998 2.4 11,862.1 10.0 1999 2.8 20,451.2 6.6 2000 3.8 29,816.3 6.9 2001 3.9 53.011.1 18.9 2002 5.0 65,910.9 12.9 2003 10.2 96,031.8 14.0 2004 8.1 58,781.6 15.0

Sources: (i) CBN Statistical Bulletin, Vol.15, Dec., 2004 (ii) Gbosi, A.N. (2008)

THE ONTOLOGY OF AFRICAN VALUE SYSTEM 110

A CASE STUDY OF THE OFO SYMBOL OF AUTHORITY IN ETCHE.

BY

MR. OFFOR, ANTHONY ONWUZOR G.S.M: (08032637266) E-MAIL: [email protected]

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY/DIPLMATIC STUDIES IGNATUS AJURU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION RUMUOLUMENI, PORT HARCOURT ABSTRACT

In African communities traditional values which gave meanings to life were replaced by new religious and philosophic values, which while contradicting the previous ones were often not well adjusted to the African present problems, needs and aspirations. It is however a common experience that many individuals owning to ignorance and negligence by society is rendered culturally irrelevant to the progress of culture and traditions. Indeed ignorance is the greatest single factor that prevents meaningful cultural development throughout the world. That is the reason why education should aim at kindling the awareness, the harnessing and chanelling of human potentials towards the progress of culture and tradition. In this direction, Etche ethnic nationality is kin in the usefulness of their historical traditions and the need for every individual to know about their community customs, traditions and origins. This, they further expressed in a proverb “Nwa-ama omenala ama-nna-ya” Meaning a child who does not know the traditions of his community, does not know his father.

INTRODUCTION The Ontology of African value system is an expression which explains the existence and the significance of some African traditional system, be it in the area of belief systems, economy and political systems. Value is the quality attached to anything ranging from humans to object. It is also the relative worth, usefulness, respect, importance or merits we ascribe to anything. The value of an object is majorly rated by the worth we placed on the object. I am very concerned about the value we placed on our lives as Africans and the respect we have for our culture and traditions. Value in its concept to be applied in this discussion shall help us to understand the need of the ofo symbol as it relates to any of the African societies which Etche Ethnic nationality is used as a references point. Hence the ofo denotes religious beliefs and values which are meant to be the spiritual components of culture and play the essential functions of piloting, monitoring and humanizing the entire society (Chuta 1992:21). Despite the influence of colonialism and Christianity in African culture and traditions which its intension was the destruction of all interested areas which Africans could be associated and identified with, Africans still recognized and preserved their cultural practices. Against such influence most scholars and historians from African continent are putting efforts in the writing of history based on the African value system as against the views of the Europeans that the untutored Africans have no history hence Hegel said as for Africa, “It is no historical part of the world. It has no movement or development to exhibit. What we properly understand

THE ONTOLOGY OF AFRICAN VALUE SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY OF THE OFO SYMBOL OF AUTHORITY IN ETCHE. 111

by Africa, is the unhistorical underdeveloped spirit, still involved in the conditions of mere nature on the threshold of the world history. (see Alagoa, the Python’s Eye. Pg. 11) In the light of this paper, the parochial idea about African cultural history which Etche ethnic nationality is one, by some European arm-chair writers who were eurocentric in nature, such as geographers, ethnographers, anthropologists, travelers, traders, explorers, etc shall be corrected.

LOCATION AND ORIGINS OF THE PEOPLE Geographically, Etche is a distinct ethnic group n Nigeria, and located in the present day Rivers State. She occupies an area of approximately 250 square miles. Etche ethnic nationality is made up of thirty four (34) communities and share boundaries on the north with Ngor-Okpala local government area of Imo State, on the east with Ukwa West local government area in Abia State, while in the south and west share boundaries with her Ikwerre neigbours particularly Igwuruta, Umuedeme, Ipo, Ubima, Apani in Ikwerre local government area, and Eneka and Rumukwurusi in Obio-Akpor local government area of Rivers State. The place is not hilly, but the ground rises gradually from the south to the north (Intelligence Report 1930:3 No. 12). But the entire area is watered by the Oguchie river, Otamiri river and Imo river. The Otamiri river and its tributary the Oguchie river are remarkable for the cleanness of the water. Even in the dry season there is a wide swamp on both sides of each of those rivers with fishes and plants available in some places. On the origin of Etche, several stories such as the Benin version and the Igbo version are told concerning their migration. Unlike the Oduduwa Yoruba stories of origin, Bayajidda Hausa stories of origin, and the Osanobua tradition of the Edos which depended on the independent generative theory, all the traditions of Etche origin points in favour of migration from outside (Nwogu etal 2003:3). But my emphasis here will be centred on the Igbo version hence Etche people believed that they are called Etche because that was the name of their common ancestor who migrated from Igboland as a result of hunger and settled at Igbodo the ancestral home of Etche. The story also claimed that while at Igbodo, the epical ancestor married and gave birth to six male children representing the six major clans in the area, namely Okehi, Ulakwo-Umuselem, Igbo, Ozuzu, Mba and Eberi-Omuma. The same account has it that Nri, Akwa and Isuama (Orlu) areas were the Igbo centres from where waves of migration took off mainly to the south and east resulting in the establishment of Oratta, Ikwerre, Etche, Asa and Ndoki people. (Ikime 1980:76). This story of origin is commonly accepted by Etche people based on similarity of culture, spoken dialect, dressing, names etc. for example, Umechem and Afara which are towns in Etche are also found in Umuahia present day Abia State, while Ulakwo a town in Etche Nationality is also a name of a town in Imo State. This is confirmed from an oral interview conducted with Kevin C. Nwauzi on the 15th March, 2001. Let me also use this opportunity to correct an impression posited in the ICHEKE JOURNAL of the Faculty of Humanities, Rivers State University of Education vol. 8 No. 1 and 2 Pg. 74, that Ndachi (Ndashi) is only a community but not a clan in Etche ethnic nationality. Hence the main focus of the discussion is not on the origins of the people, I will not border to explain the various versions of the stories of origin as it relates to the six clans of the ethnic groups.

Mr. Offor, Anthony Onwuzor

THE CONCEPT OF OFO AND OGU: 112

The ofo is an important symbol or instrument in the traditional belief, social, economic and political systems of Etche people. Although it is more expressed in terms of its religious value. It is carved out from the wood of detaruim or seneqalese edulis and prepared by a dibia-(native doctor). But one unusual thing about it is that its limbs have joints of six to twelve inches apart similar to the physical human bone joints. It is one of the joints that is the physical symbol of of0 (Okafor 1992:29). The is also a symbol that gives authority to the father to choose a destiny for the family homestead and which will become the chosen destiny of the clan village his family will produce. The religious value of the Ofo symbol of justice does not lie on its material form but in its presentation. Among the people of Etche, the family follows the principle of gerontocracy. The Priest (eze-agbara) and native doctors (nde-dibia) equally handles the Ofo. Generally it is used to consult the spirits and also used to bound spirits from attack. Equally, it is a vital instrument used to course both the living and the dead. The discussion of the ofo is supported by the saying:

“Ofo is the central symbol of the Igbo religion. In addition to being a staff of authority, it is an emblem symbolizing :he link between chukwu and man. The dead and the living and the unborn. The ofo symbolizes justice, righteousness, truth and trust” (Njaka 1974: 35) Based on the concept of Ofo to the people, there seems to be a correlation to the perception of some scholars as it relates to religion. Oso (1978:66) who defined religion as a means of communication between the supernatural and the human agreed to Otonnaa’s definition as an aspect of human action which contemplates the nature and reality of gods and the supernatural in relation to man (Otonti 1993:69). It is also a fixed relationship between the human self and some none human activities which are variously designated. While Otite and Ogionwo (1979:16) see religion “as a united system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things. They also see religion like other institutions as a means, an instrument for the satisfaction of needs”. They further explain religion as an institution consisting of culturally patterned interaction with culturally postulated super human beings. But Andah (1988:93) in his expression of African belief system and practice considered it as a way of communicating with the divine for the purpose of changing the human situation through rituals, and that such rituals has two important dimensions — what it “says” and what it “does”. So it is a common belief by the people that rituals which the ofo is the stimulant performs variety of things which include, to cure illness, increase fertility, change people’s social status and reveal the future. Hence religion in general involves a supreme being and man on one hand and God-man relationship on the other hand, the people of Etche therefore express their religious life with the ofo in the form of worship, sacrifice or rituals which they regard as obligation towards gods. Among the people, it is classified into two categories, namely the ancestral and the individual Ofo acquired at maturity by males. The ancestral is handed down from generation to generation and it is believed that those who handled the staff or symbol of authority are spiritually alive hence the term living dead. (Mbiti 1978:59). In performing religious functions the village group Ofo is greater than the village Ofo, and the village ofo is greater than the family Ofo, while the family ofo is greater than the individual Ofo (oral report). A devout ofo holder says his prayers fervently with his ofo symbol placed on the ground. The holder of the ofo stands as an intermediary between those living and the ancestors.

THE ONTOLOGY OF AFRICAN VALUE SYSTEM: A CASE STUDY OF THE OFO SYMBOL OF AUTHORITY IN ETCHE. 113

Similarly, there is a very strong belief in Oqu among the ethnic group hence the ofo, agbara (gods) and dibia (native doctor) cannot function without oqu. Infact, it is more of a religious concept than physical object. (Okafor 1992:30). Ogu simply stands for justice and innocence and the power in which spirits act. It is therefore a common belief that Ofo and ogu will vindicate anyone that is wrongly accused of committing crime as far as their hands are clean. Because of the influence of ofo and ogu in Etche, there is a proverb “aqbara gi-eqbumni jio-kwa ogu” meaning the spirit that comes to kill me should ask for what I did. It also means that once your hands are clean there is nothing that will happen to you. Oqu can be invoked when a person is expressing the injuries done to him by another person while declaring his own innocence, or when taking an oath. As African antiquity and art piece of history, its preservation offers a linkage to the establishment of the museum as an institution which came into being in Renaissance Europe to minister to the aesthetic tastes of the aristocratic class. (Afigbo and Okita 1985:98). But with the widening roles the museum see itself as an institution for assembling material evidence of the past vital for the study of African culture and history. Similarly, ‘the museum can only fulfill their roles as the custodians of cultural related historical materials by finding, preserving and displaying them in such a manner not to tamper with the message they convey to the society. Despite the religious values attached to the ofo, it also determines the birth legitimacy of men in the nationality. Infact it is this judgment that gave some limitations to the entitlement of an ofo holder in Etche. Such limitation are: i. An ohu (one having a slave origin) no matter how highly placed cannot handle the family and the village ofo. ii. The osu (outcaste) is also restricted to enjoy the title of an ofo holder. iii. A nwala-ezi (a child born out of wedlock) cannot also handle the family and the village ofo. iv. Onye-kwara-ala (a person who appeased the gods of the land as a result of sexual intercourse with the sister or intercourse in the bush) is bound not to handle the ofo.

CONCLUSION: Every where in the world people places very important value to the lives of its citizens and their ways of life. We hear of German value, British value, American value among others. The Indians have kept their cultures, religions, names, dressings, traditions and most importantly they still cherish their Indian values anywhere they are found. The Chinese also respect their values and they are becoming a formidable force in every part of the world. In the African continent every society has its own culture and traditions that form part of the history of that society. But we all seem to have completely lost touch with our values. We have forsaken our tradition and cultural values. Our youths have abandoned our language and mode of dressing for American and British ways of life. The writing of history people consider most are those relative to political and economic history. Even writers on author biography today assume relevance against those of cultural historians. For the growth and proper upbringing of our generation the writings of history focused on African culture and traditions should not be neglected.

Mr. Offor, Anthony Onwuzor The ofo as a socio-religious symbol is central in the traditional belief system of Etche people and thus it is seen as the law of social and retributive justice. As the epitome of spirituality and 114 religious beliefs, it is still practiced by the people hence Etche people call their religious beliefs and spiritual practices, Omenala.

REFERENCES

ORAL SOURCES:

Amadi, Goziem. Age 50, Chief Priest in Umukamanu Odufor, Etche LGA Rivers State Interviewed on 15th March, 2001.

Nwauzi, Chief Kevin Chinaka. Age 66, a Retired Teacher and Traditional Ruler of Afara Community, Etche LGA Rivers State. Interviewed on 15th March, 2001.

ARCHIVAL MATERIALS:

Cochrane, K.A.B (1930) Intelligence Report on the Etche Clan of the Ahoda District.

Goodliffe, F.A (1936) intelligence Report on the Etche Clan, Ahoada Division.

PUBLISHED BOOKS

Andah, B. W (1988) African Anthropology. Ibadan: Shanson Press.

Alagoa, E.J. The Pythons Eye: ”The past in living present”. Being a Paper Presented in an inaugural Lecture University of Port Harcourt 7th Dec. 1979.

Afigbo, A. E and Okita, S.C (1985). The Museum and Nation Building. Owerri: New African Publishing.

Chuta, S.C (1992) Culture: Concept and Approaches for Normative Development. Akwa: Mekslinks Publishers, Nigeria.

Ikime, O ed (1980) Groundwork of Nigeria History. Ibadan: Heinemann.

Nbiti, J.S (1975) African Religion and Philosophy. London: Heinemann.

Njaka, E.N (1974) Igbo Political Culture. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.

Nwogu, I etal (2003) History of Etche. Owerri: Springfield Publishers.

Okafor, F.U. (1996) Igbo Philosophy of Law. Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing.

Oso, S.O (1978) Introduction to West African Traditional Religion. Ado-Ekiti: Omotoyo Standard Press,

Otite, O and Ogionwo, W (1979) An Introduction to Sociological Studies. Ibadan: Heinemann. 115

Otonti, Nduka ed (1993) Ikwerre history and culture Vol. 1 Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.

A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDE OF PRINCIPALS TOWARD COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN OKRIKA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF RIVERS STATE 116

CHRISTIAN, MATHEW Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt Email for Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract This study was undertaken to investigate the attitude of secondary school principals to community involvement in administration of schools at Okrika LGA. A 5-point Likert scale questionnaire was used to collect relevant data from the principals. Data generated were analyzed using frequency counts and percentages, weighted mean and standard deviation as well as t-test statistic. The results show that secondary school principals in Okrika LGA do not significantly agree with the concept of community involvement in school administration except in the area of school discipline. The study also shows that the attitude of principals toward community involvement was not influenced by some moderating demographics such as gender, qualification, school section and years of experience. However, the following trend was observed in the attitude of principals to community involvement with respect to independent variables as follows: discipline>finance>capital projects> curriculum. It is hereby recommended that, principals reactivate or activate if none already, collaboration amongst stakeholders, especially the community so as to tap of the benefits of community participation or involvement in school administration.

Introduction The job of a principal of a secondary school is multi-faceted and it covers various administrative units such as management of fiscal issues or school finance (Ekundayo, 2010); capital projects (provision and maintenance of physical infrastructures) (Obidoa, 2006; Babayemi, 2006); motivational (Babayemi, 2006; Ajayi and Oguntoye, 2003); curriculum and instructional supervision (Ekundayo, 2010). The daunting nature of these tasks require complimentary support from no other source than the very stakeholders, PTA, Board of Governors, Old Students’ Association and Non-Governmental Organizations who constitute the community or parents. The secondary school level is not only a bridge between the primary and tertiary levels, it is also preparatory level of education or empowerment of teenagers for useful living within the society (FRN, 2004).

The concept of community or parental involvement in secondary school administration is well researched and documented (Epstein & Conners, 1994; Henderson & Berla, 1994). Available evidences point to the fact that community involvement is mainly in the aspects of students’ success or failure in school (Berger, 1995). The concept of community involvement in school administration has not only been discussed within the confines of the school environment and homes but it is also a fast growing topical issue among professional educators and in the legal and policy making spheres among politicians saddled with the responsibility of managing schools (Teicher, 2007; Epstein & Jansorn, 2004; Fan, 2001; Fege, 2000).

Keywords: principals’ attitude, school administration, community involvement

A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDE OF PRINCIPALS TOWARD COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN OKRIKA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF RIVERS STATE 117

The result of such discourse is legislation, upon which researchers recognize that community and principals alike have tremendous opportunity to build partnerships and work together (Igo, 2002). Yet, Nichols-Solomon (2001) opined that community involvement may be one of the few things in education about which there seems to be universal agreement.

Epstein, Sanders, Simon, Salinas, Rodriguez-Jansorn, & Van Vorris (2007) hold the view that educators recognize that successful students, regardless of ability levels, require families who stay informed and involved in their wards’ education. An analysis of 51 studies conducted by Henderson & Mapp (2002) revealed that students with above-average parental involvement had academic achievement rates that were 30 percent higher than those students with below-average parental involvement. It has been reported that when parents participate in their children’s education, an increase in students’ achievement and an improvement of students’ attitudes are typical outcomes. Sustained community involvement has been shown to have a positive effect on student grades, school attendance and personal motivation (Henderson & Berla, 1994). Fewer disciplinary issues and higher aspirations have also been positively correlated with increased parental involvement (Deslandes, Royer, Turcotte & Bertrand, 1997; Henderson & Mapp, 2002).

The need for community involvement transcends all level of schooling. Wheeler (1992) noted that parent involvement at the middle and secondary school levels is vital if teenagers are to become stable and productive adults. Horn and West (1992) found that levels of parent and community involvement have a strong influence on the drop-out rate among students. Epstein, Sanders, Simon, Salinas, Rodriguez-Jansorn & Van Vorris (2002) argued that community involvement is important because the problems of educational achievement and academic success demand resources beyond the scope of the school and of most families. They identified changing family demographics, demands of the professional workplace, and growing diversity among students as some of the reasons that the school or family alone cannot, but a synergy of both can provide sufficient resources to ensure that all children receive the experiences and support needed to succeed in the larger society.

Epstein, et al. (2002) stated also that too many schools and school systems are failing to carry out their basic educational mission and are overwhelmed by the social and emotional needs of children who are growing up in poverty. They also added that schools need additional resources to successfully educate all students and that these resources, both human and material, are handy in the students’ communities. Despite the consensus among researchers, educators, legislators, and parents regarding the potentially positive effects of parental involvement in schools, there are significant impediments to the full participation of each group of stakeholders (i.e. parents, educators, and community members), who must sometimes be urged, persuaded, mandated via legislations to get involved (Kerbow & Bernhardt, 1993).

The importance of the subject of parental or community involvement in schools administration has taken different dimension that calls for decentralization of management of schooling. Infact, it is another popular area of policy emergence in education reforms in some developing countries (World Bank, 2004; Sayed & Soudien, 2005). Traditionally, the efforts of the principals are usually complimented by the works of school inspectors whose responsibilities, amongst others

Christian, Mathew include checking of teachers’ lesson plans, teachers and pupils attendance records, etc (Fobih, 118

Akyeampong & Koomson, 1999; World Bank, 2004). In this part of the world, this complimentary services either not available or inadequate. In Ghana, education circuit supervisors who visit schools rarely went beyond checking staffing numbers and enrolments for the purpose of addressing problems of teacher absenteeism or low enrolment just as district education offices rarely respond to information from monitoring and evaluation reports on problems of teacher absenteeism and poor enrolments (World Bank, 2004; Akyeampong & Asante, 2006). The scenario is no different in Senegal where only an estimated four district inspectors were responsible for supervising nearly 800 teachers (De Grauwe, Lugaz, Baldé, Diakhaté, Dougnon, Moustapha & Odushina, 2005). In Nigeria, the picture is that of no- supervision and no-monitoring according to the words of a onetime education minister: there has been no inspection and supervision of schools in the decade’. Supervision of schools is the heart of quality assurance in education. (Ezekwesili, 2007: 47)

Leon (2003) aptly noted that the mere dearth of research done on parent involvement at the secondary level is a noteworthy “clue” that such involvement occurs much less frequently than it does at the elementary level. Flaxman and Inger (1991) maintained that the benefits of parent involvement are not confined to early childhood or the elementary grades. There are strong positive effects for involving parents continuously through high school. Such efforts work to not only increase opportunities for academic success but also to assuage the natural turbulence caused by adolescence. Parental involvement at the middle and secondary levels is often a difficult balance between adolescents’ desire to develop independence and their parents’ quest to nurture (McGrew-Zoubi, 1998). Modest, yet positive correlations” between parenting style and parental involvement levels in school and cited in several earlier studies indicate “students with higher grades come from parents who demonstrate high levels of warmth, supervision, and psychological autonomy granting and who are highly involved in their adolescent’s schooling” (Dornbusch & Ritter, 1988).

Community or parental involvement in school activities drops significantly from elementary to middle school and continues to decline as the child progresses through high school (Brough & Irvin, 2001; Eccles & Harold, 1993). The desire for autonomy and greater individual responsibility by the adolescent students has been suggested to be the reason for the perceived decline in community involvement (Hollifield, 1994; McGrew-Zoubi, 1998; Shinn, 2002). However, other researches contend that parent involvement at the middle and secondary school levels is vital if teenagers are to become stable and productive adults, noting that adolescence is the time when most teens are forming lifetime values, making continued parental involvement in both home life and school life especially critical (Wheeler, 1992). Some other reasons like parents not feeling welcomed, teenagers feeling embarrassed by parents’ school visitation etc have been advanced for the decline in parental involvement in school administration (Atha, 1998). Other reasons like communication problem between parents and principals; principals’ feeling of parents’ unwillingness to participate, parents’ unawareness of the opportunities to participate, etc have resulted in a decline in parental involvement. (Halsey, 2005). Some parents often feel excluded or not given a role, others complain that they were never given the opportunity in their local schools while others admitted lack of time as a barrier (Fege, 2000). All of these factors demonstrate a clear lack of or ineffective involvement of parents or community in schools administration.

A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDE OF PRINCIPALS TOWARD COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN OKRIKA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF RIVERS STATE 119

The principal’s attitude toward parental involvement may be the key determinant of the extent of involvement, parents demonstrate in school programmes (Peiffer, 2003; Lebahn, 1995). Even though many principals view parental involvement as desirable and necessary for a successful school climate, many do not actively support substantive parent involvement in school programmes, and the subsequent levels of parental involvement in a given school may be the result of the attitude of the principal toward the concept (Peiffer, 2003; Lacey, 1999; Osborne and de Onis, 1997). The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine principals’ attitudes toward community involvement in school administration in Okrika LGA and to identify potential challenges to community involvement from the perspective of the school principals. This study also sought to determine if attitudinal differences exist based on principals’ demographics such as sex, school section, years of experience and educational qualification. To adress these problems, the following three questions were posed for consideration: what is the attitude of secondary school principals towards community involvement school administration? what are the relative concerns of secondary school principals’ attitudes as they related to the following factors: capital projects matters, disciplinary matters, curriculum matters and financial matters? what are the differences in principals’ attitudes to community involvement based on principals’ (a) gender (b) school section (c) qualification and (d) experience?

Research Design

A simple survey design was found to appropriate as the attitudes of a known population of participants were studied and sampling errors were unlikely or minimal. The problem of the study was also clearly identifiable.

Population and Sample

The population of the study was all principals in secondary schools in Okrika LGA, six numbers. Given the relatively small population, all secondary school principals were engaged for the study. Therefore, sample of the study was 12.

Instrument One 20 item questionnaire entitled the Principal Attitude on Community Involvement in School Administration Questionnaire, PACISAQ, was designed by researcher. The questionnaire was comprised of two parts. Section A was designed to elicit the demographic data of the principals while section B presented 20 statements designed to quantitatively determine the attitudes of principals toward community involvement on the four independent variables: capital project, curriculum, discipline and finance. Respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they believed a statement to be true on a five-point Likert scale with 5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = undecided, 2 = disagree, and 1 = strongly disagree. Questionnaire was trial tested to ascertain its psychometric qualities. A reliability coefficient value of 0.56 was obtained indicating moderate reliability using Cronbach alpha and face validity was used to determine validity of questionnaire.

Christian, Mathew Data Collection and Analysis 120

Questionnaires were administered between 23rd-30th of April, 201l on all the principals in person in all the public schools at Okrika LGA. Completed questionnaires were collated for data analysis using SPSS version 15. Research questions 1 and 2 were addressed using weighted mean and standard deviation, as well as frequency counts and percentages while research question 3 was addressed using t-test statistic. All principals’ demographics were presented in dichotomous format such as gender: male and female; School section of Principal: JSS and SSS; years of experience was grouped: less than or equal to (≤) 5 years and greater than or equal to (≥) 6 years and principals’ educational qualification was grouped: first and post-first degrees.

Results Demographic data concerning personal and professional characteristics of the principals obtained were analyzed using frequency counts and percentages as presented in table 1.

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Frequency Percent Gender Male 8 66.7 Female 4 33.3 Section JSS 6 50.0 SSS 6 50.0 Qualification First Degree 6 50.0 Post-first Degree 6 50.0 Experience ≤5 years 1 8.3 ≥ 6 years 11 91.7 N = 12 Post-first = academic qualification above first degree

Table 1 shows that 66.7 % of the respondents were male, 50.0 % of them were in JSS, (i.e. 50.0 % in SSS) and 50.0 % of them hold first degree (i.e. 50.0 % hold post-first degree). More than 90.0 % of them were also found to have been on the job for 6 years and above as principals.

RQ1: what is the attitude of secondary school principals towards community involvement school administration?

Table 2: Strength of Principals’ Agree with Community Involvement SN PRINCIPALS’ ATTITUDE N M SD 1 Principal and community should be involved in supervision of 12 2.00 1.28 Govt. funded projects 2 Community need to know about all school projects 12 2.50 1.57 3 Community-Principal collaboration yield better results on disciplinary matters 12 3.08 1.73 4 Competent community members should be used as resource persons in need areas in Curriculum Implementation 12 1.42 0.52 5 Community should be involved in fund raising for schools 12 1.75 1.36 A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDE OF PRINCIPALS TOWARD COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN OKRIKA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF RIVERS STATE 121

Table 2 shows the attitudes of secondary school principals toward community involvement in school administration. The table shows that principals disagree in all five items except (item 3), Community-Principal collaboration yield better results on disciplinary matters, which is a disciplinary item (M = 3.08; SD = 1.73). However, the relatively high standard deviations on the positive agreements indicate clear lack of consensus among principals on this issue. The following trend in the attitude of principals can also be depicted: disciplinary matters > capital projects matters > financial matters > curriculum matters

RQ 2: What are the relative concerns regarding secondary principals’ attitudes as they related to the following factors: capital projects matters, disciplinary matters, curriculum matters and funds matters?

Table 3: Relative Concerns among Principals N M SD AGREE DISAGREE Capital projects 12 2.28 1.27 3.40(28.33) 8.60(71.67) Disciplinary matters 12 3.67 1.23 7.80(65.00) 4.20(35.00) Curriculum matters 12 2.22 1.03 3.40(28.33) 8.60(71.67) Financial matters 12 2.57 1.29 5.60(46.67) 6.40(53.33) Mean 2.69 1.21 5.05(42.08) 6.95(57.92)

Table 2 shows the mean and standard deviation as well as frequencies and corresponding percentages in parenthesis of principals’ responses to community involvement in school administration. The table also shows 65 % positive principals’ attitude toward community involvement only in the area disciplinary matters (M = 3.67; SD = 1.23), 72 %, negative attitude in capital project and curriculum matters and 53 % disagreement in financial matters. The table also shows an overall 58 % disagreement as against 42 % agreement. This translate to a negative attitude of principals’ toward community involvement in school administration (M = 2.69; SD = 1.21). However, the high overall standard deviation describes a lack of consensus in principals’ attitude. The following trend in the table 2: disciplinary matters > financial matters > capital projects > curriculum matters was observed.

RQ3: What differences in principals’ attitudes towards community involvement in school administration were based on principals’ demographic characteristics?

This research question sought to unravel conflicting respondent attitudes toward community involvement based on the independent variables including principals’ sex, school section, years of experience on the job, and educational qualification. Results of the analyses of the data generated for these variables are presented in tables 3.

Christian, Mathew Tables 3: Principals Attitude towards Community Involvement Based on Demographic Data

VARIABLES N Mean SD df t Sig. 122

Capital Gender Male 8 2.48 1.16 10 0.73 0.37 Female 4 1.86 1.20 Section JSS 6 1.84 1.32 10 0.64 0.62 SSS 6 2.07 1.08 Qualification First 6 2.17 1.26 10 -0.38 0.47 Post-First 6 2.40 1.24 Experience ≤5years 1 3.20 0.00 10 0.17 0.55 ≥6years 11 3.00 1.46 Discipline Gender Male 8 3.25 0.92 10 -0.52 0.36 Female 4 3.95 0.20 Section JSS 6 3.53 0.75 10 -0.29 0.24 SSS 6 3.80 1.44 Qualification First 6 3.47 0.97 10 -0.51 0.48 Post First 6 3.87 0.95 Experience ≤5years 1 2.60 0.00 10 -0.22 0.45 ≥6years 11 2.91 1.02 Curriculum Gender Male 8 2.25 0.68 10 -0.10 0.51 Female 4 2.30 1.31 Section JSS 6 1.70 0.71 10 0.08 0.60 SSS 6 2.23 1.20 Qualification First 6 1.87 1.31 10 -0.46 0.72 Post First 6 2.20 1.01 Experience ≤5years 1 2.40 0.00 10 -0.45 0.54 ≥6years 11 2.56 1.14 Finance Gender Male 8 2.80 1.35 10 -0.67 0.34 Female 4 3.30 1.05 Section JSS 6 2.30 1.40 10 -0.11 0.61 SSS 6 2.30 1.08 Qualification First 6 2.90 1.56 10 -0.07 0.56 Post First 6 3.03 1.31 Experience ≤5years 1 2.20 0.00 10 -0.66 0.44 ≥6years 11 3.04 1.29 t-values were non-significant @ p<0.05

Table 3 shows a t-test statistic analysis result of the effect of principals’ demographic characteristics on principals’ attitude toward community involvement in school administration. The table shows a consistent non-significant effect of the demographic characteristics on the attitudes of principals toward community involvement in school administration. All calculated t values were found in the region of (t = -0.29; p = 0.24 > 0.05) for principals’ school section on disciplinary matters to (t = -0.46; p = 0.72 > 0.05) for principals’ qualification on curriculum matters. This also implies that principals’ attitude toward community involvement in school A STUDY OF THE ATTITUDE OF PRINCIPALS TOWARD COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION IN OKRIKA LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF RIVERS STATE 123 administration was negative irrespective of their gender, school section, qualification or years of experience in Okrika Local Government Area.

Discussion Principals in secondary schools in Okrika LGA do not show positive tendencies to community involvement in school administration. This finding corroborates the findings of the work done on high school administrators in South Dakota (Lloyd-Smith and Baron, 2010) and Michigan (Peiffer, 2003). This study shows that the attitude of principals lack consensus even in disagreement to community involvement. This observation may not be unconnected to the principals’ personal leadership problems (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Atha, 1998; Fege, 2000; Sanders and Sheldon, 2009)

School discipline was one area of school administration; principals tend to agree on community involvement. This finding is supported by the work on African American Educational Leadership (Erkins, 2002; Brown & Beckett, 2006; Brown & Beckette, 2007). Involvement of school district (community) in disciplinary matters Cincinnati State in the early 1990s reduced suspension and expulsion of black students.

This study also shows that principals’ attitude was never influenced by principals’ gender, school section, qualification and experience. This finding does not agree with the works on effect of principals’ training-qualification and experience by (Khan, Ahmad, Ali & Rehman, 2011), principals gender (Lang, 1995) and on school structure by (Mohajeran & Ghaleei, 2008).

Conclusion Principals need not view community as appendages to school or meddlers in their work but, accept community involvement from rhetorical to practical point of view. The challenges associated with implementing effective community involvement strategies at the secondary level may be tasking. However, it is ultimately the principals’ responsibility to surmount obstacles to the effective implementation of community involvement strategies. Since the principal is the centre of all the activities, only the principal can fashion suitable school atmosphere to either encourage or discourage community involvement in school administration.

Recommendation This study has shown that community involvement in school administration is still a conceptual issue and that operationalization will require a serious collaborative effort amongst stakeholders. The principal’s position in the effort cannot be overemphasized and so, I wish to recommend in clear terms that the principal see to the need for the collaboration and the attendant benefits of the involvement in school administration of stakeholders herein called community. It is most important that the principal’s attitude is re-oriented to accept this fact as it relates to the issue of community involvement.

Christian, Mathew References

Ajayi, I. A. and Oguntoye, H. O. (2003). Motivation as correlate of teachers’ job performance in Ogun State Secondary Schools. UNAD Journal of Education. (3):155—162. 124

Akyeampong, A. and K. Asante (2006) Teacher Motivation and Incentives – a profile of Ghana. London: DFID.and M. O. Arikewuyo (eds) Educational Management: Thoughts and Practice. Ibadan: Codat Publications. 242-261

Atha, R. D. (1998). A comparison of perceived attitudes toward parent involvement among selected secondary level administrators, teachers, and parents with secondary age students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri–Kansas City). Pro Quest Digital Dissertations. (No. AAT 9830215)

Babayemi, A. (2006). Principalship. In J. B. Babalola, A. O. Ayeni, S. O. Adedeji, A. A. Suleiman and M. O. Arikewuyo (eds) Educational Management: Thoughts and Practice. Ibadan: Codat Publications. 242-261.

Berger, E. H. (1995). Parents as partners in education (4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Brown, L. H., & Beckett, K. S. (2006). The role of the school district in student discipline: Building consensus in Cincinnati. The Urban Review, 38, 235-256.

Brown, L. H and. Beckett, K. S (2007) Building Community in an Urban School District: A Case Study of African American Educational Leadership. The School Community Journal, Vol. 17(1) De Grauwe, A., Lugaz, C., Baldé, D., Diakhaté, C., Dougnon, D. Moustapha M, and Odushina, D. (2005). ‘Does decentralization lead to school improvement? Findings and lessons from research in West Africa,’ Journal of Education for International Development, 1(1)

Deslandes, R., Royer, E., Turcotte, D., and Bertrand, R. (1997). School achievement at the secondary level: Influence of parenting style and parent involvement in schooling. McGill Journal of Education, 32, 191-207.

Dornbusch, S. M., & Ritter, P. L. (1988). Parents of high school students: A neglected resource. Educational Horizons, 66, 75-77.

Eccles, J., & Harold, R. (1993). Parent–school involvement during the early adolescent years. Teachers College Record, 94(3), 568-587.

Ekundayo, H. T. (2010) Administering secondary schools in Nigeria for quality output in the 21st century: the principals’ challenge European Journal of Educational Studies 2(3), 2010

Epstein, J. (2007). Connections count. Improving family and community involvement in secondary schools. Principal Leadership, 8(2), 16-22.

Epstein, J. L., & Conners, L. J. (1994). School, family, and community partnerships in high schools (Report No. 24). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children’s learning.

Epstein, J. and Jansorn, N. R. (2004). Developing successful partnership programs. Principal, 83(3), 10-15. 125

Epstein, J.; Sanders, G.; Simon, B.; Salinas, K.; Rodriguez-Jansorn, N. and Van Vorris, F. (2002). School family and community partnerships: Your handbook for action. (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Erkins, E. K. (2002). A case study of desegregation in Cincinnati Public Schools: 1974 to 1994. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Cincinnati.

Ezekwisili O. (2007) Reinventing Education Vanguard Newspaper, Daily January 4, 2007, P. 47 Fan, X. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A growth modeling analysis. The Journal of Experimental Education, 70(1) 27-61.

Fege, A. (2000). From fund raising to hell raising: New roles for parents. Educational Leader- ship, 57(7), 39-43.

Flaxman, E., & Inger, M. (1991, September). Parents and schooling in the 1990s. ERIC Review, 1(3), 2-6.

Fobih, D, A., Akyeampong, A. & Koomson, A. K. (1999). Ghana Primary School Development Project. Final Evaluation of Project Performance. A Report Commissioned by the Ministry of Education. Accra: Ghana.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2004). National policy on education 4th ed. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Halsey, P. A. (2005). Parent involvement in junior high schools: A failure to communicate. American Secondary Education, 34(1), 57-69.

Henderson, A. T. & Berla, N. (1994). A new generation of evidence: The family is critical to student achievement. Washington, DC: Center for Law and Education. (ERIC Document No. ED 375 968)

Henderson, A. T. & Mapp, K. L. (2002). A new wave of evidence: The impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.

Hollifield, J. H. (1994). High schools gear up to create effective school and family partnerships. Baltimore, MD: Center on Families, Communities, Schools and Children’s Learning, Johns Hopkins University. (ERIC Document No. ED 380 229)

Horn, L., & West, J. (1992). A profile of parents of eighth graders: National education longitudinal study of 1988, statistical analysis report. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED350 341).

Igo, S. (2002). Increasing parent involvement. Principal Leadership (High School Ed.), 3(3), 10- 12.

Kerbow, D. & Bernhardt, A. (1993). Parent intervention in the school: The context of minority 126

involvement. In J. Coleman & B. Schneider (Eds.), Parents, their children, and schools (pp. 115-145). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Khan, M. F. ; Ahmad, S.; Ali, I. & Rehman, F.( 2011) The impact of school management trainings and principals’ attitude on students’ learning outcomes. African Journal of Business Management Vol.5 (7), pp. 2668-2678

Lacey, M. G. (1999). The study of the attitudes of junior high and middle-level principals toward parent involvement in Arkansas (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Arkansas at Little Rock.

Lang, M. (1995) Teachers, Supervisors, Principals: Gender Interplays. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education, Hobart, November 1995. The University of Newcastle

Lebahn, J. (1995). Education and parent involvement in secondary schools: Problems, solutions, and effects. Educational Psychology Interactive. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/files/parinvol.html

Leon, L. (2003). Parents and Secondary schools. Principal Leadership (High School Ed.), 4(4), 32-7.

Lloyd-Smith, L. & M. Baron (2010). Beyond Conferences: Attitudes of High School administrators Toward Parental Involvement in One Small Midwestern State. The School Community Journal, 20 (20).

McGrew-Zoubi, R. (1998). I can take care of it myself. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 65(1), 15- 20.

Mohajeran, B. & Ghaleei, A. (2008) Principal Role and School StructureInternational Journal of Human and Social Sciences 3(1).

Nichols-Solomon, R. (2001). Barriers to serious parent involvement. The Education Digest, 66(5) 33-37.

Obidoa, M. (2006). Enhancing the instructional supervisory skills of principals of secondary schools. Principals Year

Ojo, K. (1999). Administration and management of secondary education in Ekiti State—our experiences and anxieties. In D. Ajayi and S. Ibitola (eds) Effective management of secondary schools: the principal’s challenge. Ibadan: Adeose Publications. 9—20.

Osborn, S. & deOnis, A. (1997). Parent involvement in rural schools: Implications for educators. Rural Educator, 19(2), 20-25. Peiffer, P. (2003). An examination of attitudes of high school principals toward parental in- volvement in Michigan’s schools (Doctoral dissertation, Central Michigan University). Dissertations International Abstracts, 64(02), 63. 127

Sanders, M., & Sheldon, S. (2009). Principals matter: A guide to school, family, and community partnerships. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Sage.

Sayed, Y. & Soudien, C. (2005) ‘Decentralization and the construction of inclusion education policy in South Africa,’ Compare, 35(2): 115-125.

Shinn, K. (2002). Luring high school students onto our turf. The Education Digest, 67(6), 34-35.

Teicher, S. (2007) Schools strive for ‘no parent left behind.’ Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved from http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0215/p13s02-legn.htm, February 15

Uyanga, R. E. (2008). The principal and education reform agenda of the Nigerian economic empowerment development strategy (NEEDS) and the millennium developmental goals (MDGs). In P. N. C. Ngwu (ed.). The principal and education reforms in Nigeria. A publication of the Mandatory Continuing Professional Training (MCPT) programme of the All Nigerian Conference of Principals of Secondary Schools (ANCOPSS). 94—102.

Wheeler, P. (1992). Promoting parent involvement in secondary schools. NASSP Bulletin, 76(546), 28-35.

World Bank (2004) Books, Buildings and Learning Outcomes: An Impact Evaluation of World Bank Support to Basic Education in Ghana. Washington, DC: World Bank.

EVALUATION OF STUDENTS’ UTILIZATION OF LIBRARY FACILITIES IN TECHNICAL COLLEGES IN RIVERS STATE.

BY 128

Wordu, Chiduhiegem C.R. [email protected] 08037808940 Department of Technical Education Rivers State University of Education Port Harcourt.

Abstract:

This paper focused on evaluation of students’ utilization of library facilities in technical colleges in Rivers State. A total of 710 respondents (113 teachers and 547 students) were randomly selected from four technical colleges in Rivers State. A questionnaire containing 5 items on how provision of adequate library facilities could enhance students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State and 5 items on the relationship that exists between adequate library facilities and students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State was administered, out of which 660 were properly completed and retrieved. The data gathered were used to answer two research questions and analyze two hypotheses using simple mean, standard deviation and z-test statistical tools at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that virtually all the libraries of the sample schools just exist for existing sake with little or no textbooks and those found are out-dated. Based on the findings, some recommendations were made, among which are that parents and other philanthropists should be motivated to donate modern and up-to- date educative materials such as books, realia, teaching aids among others that could be used in the school library.

Keywords: Academic Performance, Technical Colleges, and Library facilities

Introduction: It was stated by Toby (2003) that library is an indispensable factor in a school system as it contributes to students’ academic performance. According to Toby, school library is a force and a source of education excellence. Library is a media resource, information, instructional, educational and cultural institution for the collection, preservation and transmission of human intellectual expression (Nwezeh, 2001). Library is therefore, defined as a room or building where library stocks such as books, pamphlets, magazine, newspapers, cassettes and videos are kept together for people to read or borrow usually without payment. In another dimension, Gates (1962) sees library as a foyer of living ideas that permeates and animates all aspects of national life. A library is defined by Omehia (1997) when citing Ikoku (1971) as a place where the dead may be said to be alive, that is; where ideas, knowledge and experiences of great men and women are fully documented and preserved and continue to move the world, even though these people may be no more. Reaffirming the opinion of Ikoku, Omehia (1997) noted that library is a collection of records of human culture in diverse formats and languages, preserved, organized and interpreted to meet broad and varying needs of individuals. The statement went further to state that no society can forge ahead without keeping records of the past and recent events. This means that the library is one of the major academic resources. Learning has moved from teacher-centred to child or student-centred and the full EVALUATION OF STUDENTS’ UTILIZATION OF LIBRARY FACILITIES IN TECHNICAL COLLEGES IN RIVERS STATE. benefit of this can only be achieved if pursued via library. For instance, Akinniyi (2003) noted that library is supposed to develop in pupils, the skills and habits in observing, listening, 129 communicating ideas and thinking which they will build on as they further their educational career, to achieve this, the children need to be exposed to a wide range of books. In buttressing the above, Kamm and Taylor (1968) stated that if children are to be encouraged to use books, opportunities must be created for them to see plenty of attractive and relevant ones. According to Akinniyi (2003) children should feel that books are indispensable to a full appreciation of life; they should be able to find them easily, handle them, look at them, read them and intimately study them. The Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004) in the national policy on education reflected the role of library by stating that it is one of the most important education services and that every state ministry of education needs to provide fund for the establishment of libraries in all educational institutions and also trains librarians for the services of library. Agreeing with the federal republic of Nigeria, Okedara (1983) by stated that library tends to promote the education process of the society, accelerate the translation of knowledge in action which enables the students or individuals to obtain spiritual, inspirational and recreational activities, preserve the cultural heritage and affects the transfer of knowledge from one generation to the next. In essence, libraries are repertoires of knowledge sourced by library users. Stressing further, Omehia (1997) buttressed the importance of the school library in a school system by stating the functions of school library as follows: - It supports teaching and learning within the school system. - It enriches the school curriculum. - It promotes the development of reading skills by providing variety of learning materials. - It stimulates research and independent study. - It promotes opportunities for further reading and use of materials other than prescribed classroom textbooks. - It provides up-to-date information to keep teachers and students abreast of new development. In conclusion, Omehia (1997) stated that if the school library can achieve these functions, it means that it has contributed to the intellectual development of the learner. Reaffirming the above, Ozzigi (1987) viewed the school library as the essential part of the school system and pointed out that the school library is an important department of the school which help to promote growth of knowledge. Stressing further on, a well-equipped library is a storehouse of knowledge and a centre of learning activities, if properly organized and utilized. According to Gates (1962) library moulds the information gathering of a student’s behaviour for the future and it plays a crucial role in readying him for an adult role in the society. That is why, Omehia (1997) still noted that a good library houses all types of materials and acquire, assemble and preserve all intellectual materials in a school system. Meanwhile, Baird (1994) observed that the school library supports the students’ studies. Accordingly, every library collection will have information that can improve students understanding of the subjects they learn at school, and increase their knowledge of the world. The statement went further to stress that library provides access to information as well as allows students to develop skills of searching for information on the their own; helps to develop a problem-solving and active approach to learning; encourages students’ interest and pride by

Wordu, Chiduhiegem C. R. exposing them to books. Finally, Baird noted that pupils who regularly look up for information in books would improve both their formwork and their reading skills. It was revealed in the study of Baird (1994), that school library also offers information on art, craft, culture, music and dance. It was further stated that, the school library has stock which can give students general and specific knowledge from textbooks and also provides explanations 130 about different aspects of knowledge and satisfies students’ curiosity and interest in life. Therefore, Baird finally observed that the school library is useful to both staff and students no matter their discipline as it improves their form of teaching and learning by using stock from the library. Earnestly, using the library stock will help teachers prepare their lessons better. It may also encourage teachers to give students project work that can persuade them go to the library and discover information for their form work. This will encourage the students to study, learn and achieve better results as well as give them the confidence to start looking for information on their own. Agreeing with Baird, Kennel (1995) holds the view that an education for life would include exposure to a wide range of subjects and sources as might be found in a modern school library collection. In the view of Clapp (1964), the school library aids students’ achievement in school system by encouraging their interest in reading and learning and also helps the staff in their teaching, research and professional development. In a study on the factors that affects use of library by students, Nwaodu (1978) pointed out those library facilities such as the reading bench and tables, book stock, and finance for library development were inadequate and the librarians lack a satisfactory orientation on the use of the library. Finally, Nwaodu noted that library also provide opportunity for self-education. Reaffirming the view of Nwaodu, Alokun (1995) ascertained that modern trend in education encourages self-learning and discovery rather than teacher-centred learning. Similarly, Odusanya (1998) opined that for a library to worth the name it must be well stocked with varieties of collections so that it will meet the demand of every child, whether the gifted, the average, the slow, the shy or the retarded. This will give all categories of students the opportunity to develop their knowledge and cultivate reading habit. It is therefore a clear fact that library facilities are crucial factor to be credited in students’ academic performance in achieving the technical education objective. Statement of Problem The library is expected to help in the development of students’ creative ability by exposing them to a wide range of instructional materials. This is one of the reasons why the federal republic of Nigeria (2004) in the national policy on education reflected the role of library by stating that it is one of the most important education services. Obi (1977) in his study stated that the number of books in the library would mean nothing if books are not in use, out-dated, unattracted or inappropriate. Nwaodu (1978) also in his study on the factors that affects students’ use of the library in some post-primary schools in selected local government area in Anambara state pointed out that library facilities were inadequate. This is seen as one of the major factors in recent time that has led to the dwindling academic performance of students of technical colleges in Rivers State as observed by NABTEB (2004). In the face of this obvious poor performance, the researcher decided to investigate on the evaluation of students’ utilization of library facilities in technical colleges in Rivers State. Research Question Two research questions aided the conduct of the study which stated thus: How does provision of adequate library facilities enhances students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State?

EVALUATION OF STUDENTS’ UTILIZATION OF LIBRARY FACILITIES IN TECHNICAL COLLEGES IN RIVERS STATE.

What is the level of relationship that exists between adequate library facilities and students academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State? Hypotheses 131

There is no significant difference in the mean responses of provision of technical students and teachers on how adequate library facilities enhance students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of technical students and teachers on the level of relationship that exists between adequate library facilities and students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State. Method Survey research method was utilized for this study to source data to answer the research question, which centered on the evaluation of students’ utilization of library facilities in technical colleges in Rivers State. Population and Sample The population for the study comprised all the technical teachers and mechanical students in the Rivers State Technical Colleges located at Ahoada, Ele-Ogu, Port Harcourt and Tombia. A sample of 710 (129 technical teachers and 581 students) was drawn using random sampling technique. Instrument for Data Collection The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire developed by the researchers titled “evaluation of students’ utilization of library facilities in technical colleges in Rivers State (ESULFTCRS)”.

Data Collection and Analysis Table 1. Students and teachers mean scores on the extent to which provision of adequate library facilities enhance students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State.

Students, N=547 Teachers, N=113 S Item / X SD Decision X SD Decision N 1 To what extent does school library 3.74 0.14 HE 3.89 0.80 ME stocked with up-to-date books and instructional materials enhance students’ performance. 2 To what extent does the 3.55 0.15 HE 3.42 0.70 HE accessibility to the school library i enhance students’ performance? 3 To what extent does furniture 3.84 0.16 HE 3.68 0.80 HE facilities provided in the school library enhance students’ performance?

Wordu, Chiduhiegem C. R.

4 To what extent does the School 3.87 0.16 HE 3.65 0.73 HE library stocked with textbooks enhance students’ performance? 5 To what extent do the textbooks in 3.88 0.16 HE 3.99 0.67 HE 132

the school library loaned out enhance students’ performance? Grand 3.78 0.16 HE 3.72 0.79 HE For provision of adequate library facilities, table 1 reveals that the students and teachers mean score on item 1,2,3,4 and 5 falls within 3.50-4.49 range of High Extent, giving the grand mean score as 3.78 and 3.72 respectively. Since 3.78 and 3.72 mean values falls within 3.50-4.49 range of High Extent, it was inferred that the students perceived the extent to which provision of library facilities enhance students academic performance as High.

Table 2: Students and teachers mean scores on the relationship that exists between adequate library facilities and students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State. Students, N=547 Teachers, N=113 S/N Items X SD Decision X SD Decision 6 What is the extent of relationship 3.70 0.15 HE 3.90 0.77 HE that exist between provision of adequate library facilities and the students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State? 7 What is the extent of relationship 3.77 0.15 HE 3.96 0.74 HE that exist between students’ access to library facilities and their academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State? 8 What is the extent of relationship 3.60 0.15 HE 3.48 0.93 ME that exist between students’ textbook loaning from library and their academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State? 9 What is the extent of relationship 3.79 0.16 HE 3.19 0.15 ME that exist between students’ proper utilization of provided resource materials in the school library and their academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State? 10 What is the extent of relationship 3.84 0.16 HE 3.96 0.53 HE that exist between students’ regular use of library facilities and their academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State? Grand 3.74 0.15 HE 3.70 0.62 HE EVALUATION OF STUDENTS’ UTILIZATION OF LIBRARY FACILITIES IN TECHNICAL COLLEGES IN RIVERS STATE.

For relationship that exists between adequate library facilities and students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State, table 4 reveals that students and teachers mean score on items 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 falls within 3.50- 4.49 range of High Extent, giving their grand mean score in tables 1 and 2 above as 3.76 and 3.71 respectively, it was inferred that students 133 and teachers perceived the extent relationship that exists between adequate library facilities and students academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State as High. Table 3: Z-test on perceptions of students and teachers on the extent to which provision of adequate library facilities enhances students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State.

RESPONDENTS N X SD P DF Standard Z- Z- Decision Error cal. crit. Students 547 3.78 0.16 0.05 658 0.07 0.86 1.96 Ho Teachers 113 3.72 0.74 Accepted From table 3, since the calculated value of Z-ratio (0.86) was less than the critical value of Z-ratio (1.96), the null hypothesis was accepted. Implying that the students and teachers perceived the extent to which provision of adequate library facilities enhances students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State in the same way. Table 4: Z-test on perceptions of students and teachers on the extent to which the relationship exist between adequate library facilities and students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State.

RESPONDENTS N X SD P DF Standard Z- Z- Decision Error cal. crit. Students 547 3.74 0.15 0.05 658 0.07 0.68 1.96 Ho Teachers 113 3.70 0.62 Accepted

From table 4, since the calculated value of z-ratio (0.68) was less than the critical value of z-ratio (1.96), the null hypothesis was accepted indicating that both the students and teachers perceived the extent to which the relationship exists between adequate library facilities and students’ academic performance in technical colleges in Rivers State the same way.

Discussion of Findings The research question on the provision of adequate library facilities yielded result that favoured the perspectives of both respondents at (3.76) and (3.71) grand mean of High Extent respectively. They significantly agreed that the relationship which exists between provision of adequate library facilities and students enhances their academic performance. This is in accordance with the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004) as enlisted in the National Policy on Education, which stated that libraries are one of the most important education services.

Wordu, Chiduhiegem C.R.

Conclusion and Recommendation It was revealed in the study of Odusanya (1998) that most of the technical colleges’ libraries are just existing but no current textbooks and other studying facilities to motivate students to develop more interest in their academic work. In the same vein, Odusanya also observed that it is a deserting thing seeing that the problem is still in existence because virtually all the libraries of the sample schools are just existing for existing sake with little or no textbooks and those found 134 are out-dated. Therefore, every ministry of education, philanthropists and organizations needs to provide funds for the establishment of libraries in all educational institutions and train librarians for the services on the provision of books for school library especially that of technical colleges. Parents should be properly educated on the importance of library in the educational achievement of their children thereby motivating them to make their contributions in terms of library development levy. They should also be encouraged to voluntarily donate educative materials such as books; realia and teaching aids will be highly appreciated. Finally workshops and seminars should be organized in schools to properly educate the students on the importance and the use of library in the school system. References

Akinniyi, A.R. (2003). Provision of library services in secondary schools in life east and central local government areas of Osun state Nigeria. Ife journal of theory and research in education. 1 (2), 41-42.

Alokun, N.A.T. (1995). The school library: an aid to high standard of education. Contemporary issues in the social sciences. Lle-Ife: Transeradle media. Pp. 14, 150.

Baird, N. (1994). Setting up and running a school library. Ibandan: Heinemann.

Clap, V. W. (1964). The future of the research library. Urbana: University of Illinois press.

Fayose, P.O. (1995). School library resource centres for educational excellence. Ibandan: AENL Educational Publishers.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education (4th ed. Riversed). Yaba Lagos. NERDC Press.

Gates, J.K. (1962). Guide to the use of books and libraries. New York: McGraw Hill.

Kennel, M. (1995). Policy for secondary school library provision in England and Wales: a historical perspective. Journal of liberianship and information science. 27 (1), 17-26.

Kamm, A. & Taylor, B. (1968). Books and the teacher. London: University of London Press.

National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB, 2004). Chief Examiner’s Report. Benin: Testa Printing Press Ltd.

Nwaodu, U.G. (1978). A Study of some of the factors that affects students’ use of the library in some post-primary schools in selected local government area in Anambara State. Unpublished B.Ed. thesis, UNN Nsukka.

Nwezeh, C. M. T. (2001). Libraries and literacy development: A librarian view. Ife journal of theory and research in education. 6 (1), 169 – 177.

Obi, S. D. (1977). A manual for school libraries on small budget. Ibadan: Oxford University Press. P. 54. 135

Odusanya, O. K. (1998). The role of the library in the effective implementation of national policy on education. Journal of Education Leadership (JOEL) 3 (1), 234-244.

Okedara, J. T. (1983). How library can promote adult education in Nigeria. Journal of library and information studies. 1 (1), 74-79.

Omehia, A. E. (1997). Library, concepts, practice and procedure. Port Harcourt: Ecolaw Publication.

Ozzigi, A. O. (1987). Handbook on school administration and management. London: Macmillan Education Ltd. P. 77.

Toby, M. (2003). Cognitive growth in college. Retrieved on May 8, 2008 From www.findaarticles.com/p/articles/mi-m/254/-D.33/ai-80089342-31k-concned.

QUALIFICATION OF TECHNICAL TEACHING PERSONNEL IN RELATION TO PERFORMANCE OF GRADUATES OF TECHNICAL COLLEGES

BY

Wordu, Chiduhiegem C.R. 136

[email protected] 08037808940

&

Igweagbara Silverline N. [email protected] 08037069223 Department of Technical Education Ignatus Ajuru University of Education Port Harcourt.

Abstract: The study was designed to investigate the extent of qualification of technical teachers towards product performance of graduate of technical colleges in Rivers State this is a survey design study which covers the four technical colleges in Rivers State of Nigeria. The population of the study was students and teachers of the technical colleges from which seven hundred and ten (710) were randomly selected, out of which 660 were properly completed and retrieved. One (1) research question and hypothesis were postulated for this study, five (5) items questionnaire titled “Qualification of Technical Teaching personnel in relation to performance of graduates of technical colleges (QTTPRGTC)” were used to collect information which was used to answer the research question and test the hypothesis. The mean (x) statistic was used to analyze the research question, while z-test statistical tool was used to test hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The result showed that students and teachers perceived the extent to which qualification of technical teaching personnel influence the performance of graduates of technical colleges in the same way. Based on these findings, qualification technical teaching personnel influence the performance of graduates of technical colleges to a great extent.

Keywords: Technical teaching personnel, qualification, performance, graduates and technical colleges.

Introduction Technical colleges are the principal vocational and technical institutions which give full vocational training and prepare students for entry into various occupations. It is noted that the quality of vocational and technical education depends upon the quality of its personnel which is seen as an indispensible tool for national development. Thus, the training of its teaching personnel deserves serious attention and must be seen as a continuous process from its initial through induction to continuing professional development. According to Ezeji (2001) teachers have very important role to play in facilitating the development of problem solving competencies in children and learning in general. In the same line of thinking, Ozuruigbo (1984) noted that teachers must use the correct instructional material to ensure that the psychomotor domain of educational objective is developed. Therefore, QUALIFICATION OF TECHNICAL TEACHING PERSONNEL IN RELATION TO PERFORMANCE OF GRADUATES OF TECHNICAL COLLEGES

Ozuruigbo suggested that in teaching technology education, students should be active and practice manipulative skills to become proficient in problem solving. However, Ali (1988) shared this view when he pointed out that how well a teacher performs in teaching depends on what the teacher was taught during the course. It was further observed by Ali that Progress is 137 only made when how to teach become part and parcel of the teachers and the use of the appropriate teaching aids and materials will enable the teacher to achieve the objective of the lesson. In the view of Okenth (2003), teachers should try as much as possible to sensitize and stimulate learning process by effective use of audio-visual materials and also engage the students in some kind of practical activities. Similarly, Ozuruigbo (1984) holds the view that in the process of learning, the students must practice something. It is necessary therefore, for the teacher to recognize that the amount of practice needed by the students varies because of difference in background, attitude, intelligence and the content of the lesson. That is why, Ibe-Bassey (2004) emphasized that for an effective learning to occur, there must be a systematic planning of the given instructional situation or process by the instructor who must integrate the several components of the given instruction and only a qualified teacher could achieve this. Reaffirming this, Ibe-Bassey stated that in lesson presentation, our professional and academic training encourages us to follow a certain dogma. That is, the lesson should be presented to the learners step by step through introduction, presentation, application and evaluation. No wonder Okwelle (2007) acknowledged that an effective industrial teacher arranges in advance the subject matter and method of teaching; thereby preparing, communicating and consolidating approach to teaching. It was further stated that teaching- learning transaction should be flexible to permit the use of various teaching techniques when appropriate. In addition, an effective teacher must pay serious attention to recapitulation, revision and examination to realize a successful teaching-learning transaction. In another dimension, Bossing (1988), pointed out that some of the teachers go to classroom to teach without lesson note and teaching aids. This attitude could as well have a lot of effect on the students’ performance. Buttressing this view of Bossing, Igwe (1992) observed that the quality of education in any school can never be higher than the quality of the teacher in that school. Reaffirming this, Ayodele (1983) holds the view that the quality of education in any country cannot rise above the quality of its teachers. For this reason, government both state and federal levels in Nigeria have proliferated teacher training institutions by establishing many colleges of education, believing that teachers are the hinges of education system. Despite this effort of the government, the problems of acute shortage of qualified technical teachers are persisting. This tells why Nwachukwu (2001) observed that there is a noticeable lack of teachers’ preparation and in-service training programme. Thus, there is difficulty in resulting well educated individual with competence in relevant occupation. Meanwhile, Okoro (2000) noted that the component of vocational/technical subjects are many but only few technical teachers can lay claims to the fact that they have good knowledge of various subject areas. Agreeing with Okoro, Balogun (1983) holds the view that teachers who use lecture and textbook methods are mostly teachers who are unqualified, inexperience, lack interest and motivation. It was pointed out that schools with better result in school certificate are those schools that have graduate teachers. Suggesting ways of improving learning, Balogun opined that well qualified and committed teachers in good number should be provided in technical schools.

Wordu, Chiduhiegem C. R. and Igweagbara, Silverline N. In the view of Banjo (1984), the success or failure of technical education depends on the quality of the teachers. Thus, teachers of technical schools should be able to perform the roles they are expected of in order to impart knowledge and skills to its recipient, knowing fully-well that technical education is performance oriented. It is therefore clear that the qualification of technical teaching personnel relates the performance of graduates of technical colleges in Rivers State. Statement of Problem. 138

According to National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB, 2004) students’ performance in technical courses in technical colleges has been dwindling in recent time and situation calls for immediate attention. Furthermore, Nwagwu (1988) observed that students who pass through technical school have only theoretical exposure, while lacking contact with science and technical subject. Thus, the students are only able to imbibe with the scientific attitude and outlook which are pre-requisite for technological development. This may be due to the lack of qualified technical teaching personnel in technical colleges; therefore there is need to mobilize the citizenry for science and technology education not only to produce people who possess the capacity to think critically, to evaluate perceptively and to learn cautiously. This can only be achieved if there are qualified teaching personnel to teach the students of technical colleges. Research Question One research question guided the conduct of the study. The research question is: to what extent does the qualification of technical teaching personnel influence the product performance of the graduates of technical colleges Hypothesis There is no significant difference in the response of technical teachers and students about the influence of technical teaching personnel on the product performance of the graduates of technical colleges

Method Survey research method was utilized for this study to source data to answer the research question, which centered on the qualification of technical teaching personnel in relation to product performance of the graduate of technical colleges. Population and Sample The population for the study comprised all the technical teachers and students in the Rivers State Technical Colleges located at Ahoada, Ele-Ogu, Port Harcourt and Tombia. A sample of 710 (129 technical teachers and 581 students) was drawn using random sampling technique. Instrument for Data Collection The instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire developed by the researchers titled “Qualification Technical Teaching personnel in relation to the product performance of graduates of technical colleges. (QTTPIRPPGTC)” with 5 items and 5-point scale of Very High Extent (VHE)……..4.50-5.00; High Extent (HE)……..3.50-4.49; Moderate Extent (ME) ……..2.50-3.49; Low Extent (LE)……..1.50-2.49 and Very Low Extent (VLE)……..1.00-1.49 was used for the study.

QUALIFICATION OF TECHNICAL TEACHING PERSONNEL IN RELATION TO PERFORMANCE OF GRADUATES OF TECHNICAL COLLEGES

Data Collection and Analysis The researchers personally went to the colleges used for the study and administered 710 copies of the questionnaire. 660 out of 710 were properly completed and retrieved on the spot but 50 suffered mortality due to wrong entry and partial existence of two (2) schools such as G.T.C. 139

Ele-Ogu and G.T.C. Tombia. This means (3.50 mean rating) was used to answer the research question while Z-test was used to test the research hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. Results Table 1 reveals that the students and teachers’ mean scores on the items fell within 3. 50-4.49 range of decision level as shown in the grand mean of 3.90 and 3.75 respectively. This implies that the students and teachers perceived the extent to which qualification of technical teaching personnel relates to the product performance of the graduates of technical colleges as High.

Table 1: Students and teachers mean responses on the extent at which the qualification of technical teaching personnel relates to the product performance of the graduates of technical colleges.

S/N Items Students, N=547 Teachers, N=113 X SD Decision X SD Decision 1 To what extent does the 4.40 0.18 HE 3.14 0.65 ME availability of OND influence students’ performance? 2 To what extent does the 3.54 0.15 HE 3.90 0.77 HE availability of NCE teachers influence students’ performance? 3 To what extent does the 3.94 0.16 HE 3.68 0.80 HE availability of B. Ed teachers influence students’ performance? 4 To what extent does the 3.88 0.16 HE 3.68 0.73 HE availability of M.Ed teachers influence students’ performance? 5 To what extent do the availability 3.83 0.16 HE 3.99 0.69 HE of Ph. D teachers’ influence students’ performance? Grand 3.90 0.16 HE 3.74 0.72 HE

From table 2 below, the calculated value of z-ratio (2.35) was greater than the critical value of z- ratio (1.96); the stated null hypothesis was rejected. This indicates that there is significant difference in the perception of students and teachers on the extent to which qualification of technical teaching personnel relates to the product performance of the graduates of technical colleges.

Table 2: Z-test on the perception of students and teachers on the extent to which qualification of technical teaching personnel relates to the product performance of the graduates of technical colleges.

Wordu, Chiduhiegem C. R. and Igweagbara, Silverline N. RESPONDENTS N X SD P DF Standard z- Z Decision Error cal. crit. Students 547 3.90 0.16 0.05 658 0.06 2.35 1.96 Ho Teachers 113 3.74 0.72 rejected

Discussion of Findings 140

The study revealed that the students and the teachers differ significantly at (3.90) and (3.74) grand mean respectively, with the calculated z-ratio (2.35) greater than the critical z-ratio (1.96), hence the null hypothesis was rejected. This result agreed with Fubara (2003) who observed that technical colleges suffer from shortage of qualified manpower to manage the workshop. This implies that something urgent must be done to increase the staff strength of technical schools that are qualified.

Conclusion Based on the analysis of the data that were gathered during investigation, the following conclusions were draw. The qualification of technical teaching personnel in relation the product performance of the graduates of technical colleges is at a High Extent. Thus, there was no significant difference in the respondent’s perceptions. The study established that for improving the performance of technical colleges’ graduates, qualified human resources are needed. Therefore, there is need to mobilize the citizenry for science and technology education not only to produce people who possess the capacity to think critically, to evaluate perceptively and to learn cautiously but to produce professionally trained, committed, motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers.

Recommendation Since vocational and technical education programme is capital intensive (FRN, 2004) therefore, in consonance with the above conclusion human and material resources should be provided for improving product performance of graduates of technical colleges in the area of increasing the numbers of qualified personnel by the government through creating employment opportunities so as to increase skilled manpower in the labour market.

References

Ali, A. (1988). Laboratory classes as motivated technique for teaching higher herald of biology in senior classes of secondary schools. Ilorin Journal of Education. 3. 108-144. 141

Ayodele, F. (1983, April 5). Motivating teacher for new education system. National Concord. P. 7.

Balogun, T. A. (1983). Science society and teaching effectiveness in Nigeria. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. 12 (1). 14 – 19.

Banjo, J. A. (1984). Re-shaping technical education in Nigeria, West Africa Journal of Education. 1 (2). 5 – 10.

Bossing, N. L. (1988).Teaching in secondary school. (3rd ed). Boston Hongs: Miffin Company.

Ezeji, S. C. O. A. (2001). Guidance and counselling in education. Nsukka: Chubson International Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education (4th ed. Revised). Yaba Lagos. NERDC Press.

Fubara, D. M. J. (2003). “Education, role and policy priorities for Rivers State and oil mineral areas development.” Education and National Development in Nigeria. Ugheli: Eddy-Joe Publishing.

Ibe-Bassey, G. S. (2004). Principles and Practice of Instructional Communication. Uyo. Akwa Ibom: Doranda Publishers 114-132.

Igwe, A. O. (1992). Industrial college lineage in vocational technical teacher education, problems and prospectus. Unpublished paper presented at the 7th annual conference of Nigeria Vocational Association at Federal College of Education (Technical) Umuzue.

Mbia, S.M. (2005). The pragmatic philosophical orientation of Nigerian education: a reflective analysis. Journal of pedagogy and education development. 2 (1), 20 – 25.

National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB, 2004). Chief Examiners Report. Benin: Testa Printing Press Ltd.

Nwachukwu, C. E. (2001). Designing appropriate methodology in vocational and technical education for Nigeria. Nsukka: Fulladu Press.

Nwagwu, N. A. (1988). The new national policy on education prospects for technological development. The Nigeria Principal Journal of ANCOSS.3 (1).

QUALIFICATION OF TECHNICAL TEACHING PERSONNEL IN RELATION TO PERFORMANCE OF GRADUATES OF TECHNICAL COLLEGES 142

Okenth, M. (2003). Multiple regressions of WJIII cognitive clusters. Retrieved May 8, 2008 from www.lasyccn.com/iaresearch.ntm-133k-canced.

Okoro, O. M. (2000). Programme evaluation in education. Orunowulu-Obosi: Pacific Publishers.

Okwelle, P. C. (2007). Industrial strategies for technology education teacher. Unpublished Monograph. Faculty of Technical and Science Education. RSUST, Port Harcourt.

Ozuruigbo, D. O. (1984). General principle of teaching and learning in technical and vocational education. Paper Presented at a Workshop in Owerri, August 19-20.

COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL IN SELECTED URBAN AND RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF RIVERS STATE.

*KALIO, G.A.1 CHRISTIAN, M.2 AND EGBAI, O.O.3

143

1Department of Agricultural Science, Rivers State University of Education, Ndele Campus, P.M.B 5047, Port Harcourt.; 2Department of chemistry, Rivers State University of Education, P.M.B 5047, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt; 3Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Calabar, P.M.B 1115, Calabar. *E-mail for correspondence: [email protected] Tel : 234-803-3000-589. ABSTRACT

A study was conducted using structured questionnaires to estimate the level of solid waste generation and disposal systems in selected secondary schools located in two distinct environments of Rivers State: urban and rural. Four secondary schools from each of these two environments were used as a representative sample to carry out this study. Results showed significant (P < 0.05) differences in the solid wastes generated in secondary schools located in these environments. The estimated mean daily solid waste generation rates for the schools in the urban and rural environments were 1.32tons (481.80 tons per year) and 0.74 tons (269.58 tons per year respectively). Variations in income levels of parents/guardians of students in these two distinct environments were observed as major contributory factors resulting to differences in solid waste generation that could cause pollution as well as affect effective teaching and learning. A complex heterogeneous mixture of solid waste materials were observed and it was revealed that about 50.91% of such constituents were composed of paper, paper packaging and nylon products within the secondary school premises. Information on the various waste disposal methods adopted in secondary schools revealed the popular use of open dumping and exposed burning methods. The recycling or resource recovery system is recommended as the most suitable, sustainable and cheap method of waste disposal for our secondary schools.

INTRODUCTION Man’s environment is simply described as the surroundings in which he lives, works and plays, which include the air he breathes, the water he drinks, washes with, bathes, the food he eats, the land on which he resides and grows food and the pollutants generated there from (Horsfall and Spiff, 2001). Wastes are residual materials generated in all stages of production of goods and services within our environment (Isirimah 2000). Similarly, they are any unavoidable material resulting from domestic or industrial operations for which there is no economic demand and which must be disposed off (Sridhar, 1996).

Key words: Solid waste generation, waste disposal, urban and rural environments, secondary schools.

COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL IN SELECTED URBAN AND RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF RIVERS STATE.

Wastes can be classified in a broader sense into solid and liquid (Taiwo, 1999). The waste materials produced by man in his environment are 90% solid (Isirimah 2000). 144

Solid wastes or refuse are man’s non-liquid and non-gaseous unwanted materials, which include putrescible solid wastes, metals, textiles, paper, glass, plastics, etc (Taiwo, 1999). These waste which are common sights in the form of litter materials, garbage heaps along our streets and roads have been reported to affect the aesthetics, health and socio-economic well-being of the populace (Uchegbu, 1998). However, when living standard improves, people consume more and waste more (Uchegbu, 1998). The rate of waste generation is a factor of per capita income, population density and technological advancement (Ojikutu, 1994; Ogwuru, 1995, Falomo, 1995; Uchegbu, 1998; Isirimah, 2000). Similarly, Uchegbu (1998) reported that, among the industrialized nations, USA is the world’s biggest waste maker. Furthermore, New Yorkers hold the record for producing the most garbage per person. In this report, cities in middle income countries: Cairo, Manila, Tunis and Hong Kong, for example, generate 0.5-0.85 kg/person/day, while large cities in low income countries such as Calcutta, Karachi and Jakarta, have the record of waste generation of about 0.05-0.6 kg/person/day. In Morocco, the urban waste collected ranges from 107tones/day in Marrakech to more than 963 tons/day in Casablanca. Whereas in Nigeria, the average amount of waste generated in big cities is 46 kg/person/day. Oluwande (1985) had earlier estimated a solid waste generation rate of 392, 938 tones/year in Port Harcourt city. Likewise, Taiwo (1999) recorded estimates of solid wastes generated from hospitals amounting to 802.95tones/year in Port Harcourt city. Solid wastes can adversely affect the physical environment by changing it in such a way as to make conditions unsuitable for life or unsuitable for the community present in the ecosystem at the time (World Bank, 1980; Isirimah, 2000). The generation of solid waste in a localized area (rural or urban environment) contaminates the atmosphere (air pollution), the waterways (water pollution) and the land (land pollution) (Horsefall and Spiff, 2001). The pollution of these media, affects human health and welfare (Lee, 1985). Hence, this paper focuses on solid waste generation rates in secondary schools which is hitherto an area not properly investigated hence, the dearth of sufficient literature on the popular menace of solid waste generation rates in secondary schools in Rivers State. It shall further investigate and identify possible reasons to whatever difference(s) that may be adduced thereto of the various types and quantities of solid wastes as well as the various methods of disposal utilized in these secondary schools located in either an urban or rural environment of Rivers State. MATERIALS METHODS STUDY AREA The study area covers two Local Government Areas representing an urban and a rural environment respectively. Port Harcourt and Okrika were selected for this study as typical urban and rural, Local Government Areas. In each of these environments, four secondary schools were randomly selected for the study. The selected schools in Port Harcourt Local

Kalio, G. A.1, Christian M2 and Egbai, O. O.3

Government Area (PHALGA) representing an urban environment were: Community Secondary School (CSS), Abuloma (located within the Trans-Amadi Zone); Holy Rosary Girls Secondary School (HRGSS) (located within the Diobu and D/Line Zone); 145

Government Girls Secondary School (GGSS), Habour Road (located within the old Port Harcourt Township Zone) and Enitonia High School (EHS) (located within the Borokiri Zone). The selected schools from Okrika Local Government Area (WALGA) representing a rural environment are: Community Secondary School (CSS), Kalio-Ama and Community Secondary School (CSS), Ogan-Ama (both located within the Okrika Island); Okrika Grammar School (OGS) and Okrika National Secondary School (ONSS) (both located within the main land).

DATA COLLECTION Questionnaire Distribution A total of one hundred and sixty (160) questionnaires were administered to twenty (20) students or officers in each of the schools within a particular environment (rural and urban), making a total of eighty (80) questionnaires for four (4) schools per environment. Waste Generation Rate Measurement This was done in mass and volume. For the latter, measurement was done in each school compound by locating their central collection points (CCPs). This area was found in the premises of each of the schools. A container of known volume was utilized. The period of data collection was according to those described by Taiwo (1999). The sample collection period took an interval of one week, which is about the length of time most schools dispose off their wastes from the CCPs. After the determination of waste generation by volume, the mass of the wastes was measured by emptying the known volume of waste in a sack bag, big enough to contain all the wastes. This bag and its wastes content were weighed using a spring balance. Composition of waste by mass in Percentage Wastes in a given CCP were assorted, separating biodegradable from non- biodegradable wastes. The percentage (%) composition of each sack bag of known mass was determined by sorting them out into different categories. Each of these sorted categories was packed in a sack, reweighed and the % constituent of wastes determined as follows: % constituent of waste = Mass of individual constituent x 100% Total mass of composite waste Data Analysis Waste generation data collected within and between schools investigated in the same environment were analyzed using Analysis of variance (ANOVA). The t-test was used as a comparative statistical tool to separate means of waste generated between the schools in the two environments.

COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL IN SELECTED URBAN AND RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF RIVERS STATE. 146

RESULTS Results of all data collected are presented as shown below:

Table 1: School enrolment or population Urban Student Rural Student Schools enrolment Schools Enrolment C.S.S 3,500 C.S.S. Kalio- 2,500 Abuloma Ama H.R.G.S.S, 7,650 C.S.S. Ogan- 2,000 P.H. Ama G.G.S.S, PH. 7,100 O.G.S. 4,300 Okrika E.H.S.,Borikiri 5,800 O.N.S.S. 2,550 Okrika Total 24,050 11,350 Mean 6,013 2,350 Source: Examination and Records Dept of Various schools (2000/2001 academic session)

Table 2: Daily, Weekly and Mean Weekly Solid Waste Generation in Urban and Rural Secondary Schools

SCHOOLS DAILY WASTE GENERATED (kg) Weekly Weekly URBAN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 total Mean (kg) (kg) CSS 200 250 270 190 300 210 220 1,640.00 234.29 Abuloma HRGSS PH 450 460 380 500 460 360 340 2,950.00 421.43 GGSS PH 390 400 360 450 370 290 380 2,640.00 377.14 EHS PH 290 380 400 260 280 390 360 2,360.00 337.14 RURAL CSS Kalio- 170 180 200 140 130 110 160 1,090.00 155.70 Ama CSS Ogan- 180 160 100 120 110 190 130 990.00 141.43 Ama OGS Okrika 200 260 280 290 210 230 240 1,710.00 244.29 ONSS 200 190 170 180 200 250 190 1,380.00 197.14 Okrika Significant differences occurred (P < 0.05) within the days of data collection as well as b/w the various schools in both urban and rural secondary schools in R/State.

Table3: Mean Daily waste generation in urban and rural schools 147

Days Urban schools (kg) Rural schools (kg) 1. 1330.00 750.00 2. 1490.00 790.00 3. 1410.00 750.00 4. 1400.00 730.00 5. 1410.00 650.00 6. 1250.00 780.00 7. 1300.00 720.00

Total 9,590.00 5,170.00 Mean 1370.00* 738.57+

Mean with different superscripts are significantly (P < 0.05) different Table 4: Mean Daily waste generation in urban and rural schools

Environmen Mean Mean Mean t populatio Waste waste n Generation Generated URBAN 6,013* 1370.00* 0.23* RURAL 2,838+ 738.37+ 0.26+

Mean with different superscripts are significantly (P < 0.05) different Table 5: occupational status of parents/Guardians of students 148

RESPONSE Urban Rural

SCHOOL Occupation-Urban SCHOOL Occupation-Rural CS PT O F T C PT OW F T W M O S M O CSS 10 5 5 - - CSSK 2 8 - 8 2 Abuloma HRGSS, 13 3 4 - - CSSO 3 5 - 10 2 PH GGSS, 9 6 5 - - OGS 7 6 3 4 - PH Okrika EHS, PH 14 4 2 - - ONSS 4 10 - 2 4 Okrika Total 46 18 16 - - Total 16 29 3 24 8 Mean 11. 4. 4 0 0 Mean 4 7. 0.7 6 2 5 5 5 5

CS= Civil servants; PT= Petty traders; OW = Oil workers; FM= Fisher men; TO = Transport operators

Table 6: Categorization of parents/Guardians in urban and rural environments Incom Occupation Urban % Rural % e level Low PT; FM 22.50 66.25 Middle CS; TO 57.50 30.00 High OW 20.00 3.75

CS= Civil servants;

Kalio, G. A.1, Christian M2 and Egbai, O. O.3 PT= Petty traders; OW = Oil workers; FM= Fisher men; TO = Transport operators

Table 7: Solid waste management and disposal methods in secondary schools located in urban and rural areas of the state

Urban Solid waste Rural Solid waste 149

Schools management Schools management methods Methods CSS Open dumping and CSS Kalio Open dumping for land Abuloma burning. fill. HRGSS, Open dumping for CSS Ogan Open dumping for land PH land fill. fill.

GGSS, PH Open dumping and OGS Composting in transportation to Okrika trenches and Open authorized dump dumping for land fill. sites or sanitary land fills EHS, PH Open dumping for ONSS Open dumping and land fill. Okrika burning.

Mean Daily Waste Generation in Urban and Rural environment STUDENTS ENROLMENT AND WEEKLY WASTE GENERATION ENROLMENT 2000 WW GEN./Kg 10,000 1500 urban 8,000 g K / 1000 6,000 e rural t s

a 4,000 W 500 2,000 0 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A S S S K O S S S S S H S S G S S G G E S S O N C R G C C O Days H

Figures 1: Waste Gen in urban and rural areas Figures 2: Enrolment/Waste Gen. in urban and rural areas

COMPARATIVE ESTIMATES OF SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND DISPOSAL IN SELECTED URBAN AND RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF RIVERS STATE. DISCUSSION School Enrolment or Population Students’ enrolment record as presented in Table 1 shows that during the year under investigation urban school enrolment of 6,013 was larger than those of the rural school enrolment of 2838. Statistical analysis shows that significant (P < 0.05) differences existed between these school enrolment figures. This may not be unconnected to the 150 influx of rural dwellers into the urban centers (rural/urban migration) in search of greener pastures or white collar jobs (Aluko, 1972). Waste Generation Rates The weekly mean of waste generation rate as presented in Tables 2, 3 and 4 for urban and rural schools also describes a similar trend as that of school enrolment. The weekly mean for the urban schools was 337.14 kg/wk. This was higher than the quantity generated in rural schools, 197.14 kg/wk. By these values an annual mean of 4045.68 kg for urban and 2365.68kg for rural schools would be recorded for the environments under investigation. Significant (P < 0.05) differences also existed within the various days of data collection amongst the schools in both environments. These differences may be attributed to the variations in the school enrolment figures as shown or presented in Table 4, which clearly indicates that the urban schools with higher enrolments had higher waste generation value (Uchegbu, 1998). Data collected from response to questionnaires as regards the occupational status and income levels of parents/guardians of students in urban and rural schools revealed that, a greater percentage of parents/guardians in the urban areas were of the middle income (57.50%) and high income class (20.00%) as compared to those in the rural areas (Tables 5 and 6). This observation suffice to say that parents in the urban areas earn more income, enjoy better standard of living as well as can afford to give their wards pocket money to buy edible packaged items such as, biscuits, ice cream, sweats, chocolates, etc for consumption. These can generate waste to cause nuisance to the environment (Uchegbu, 1998). These trends, similarly, are in agreement with the findings of Oguru, (1995) and Isirimah, (2000), who explained that waste generation is a factor of per capita income, population density and technological advancement. Interestingly, the estimated waste generated per student per day in the urban and rural school environments were 0.23 kg (8395 kg/student/year) and 0.26 kg (949kg/student/year) respectively. These values do not agree with the estimated values of 0.5 – 0.85kg/student/day in middle income countries like Cairo, Manila, Tunis and Hong Kong. These variations may not be unconnected with the high technological advancement of these countries than it is obtainable in Nigeria (Uchegbu, 1998). Solid waste management and Disposal methods Table 7 shows the different methods of solid waste management and disposal methods adopted in urban and rural secondary schools. All the secondary schools adopted or practiced the open dumping system as a refuse management or disposal method. These findings were in support of reports by Pickford (1977) and Uchegbu, (1998), who in their independent studies, recommended the open dumping method as the cheapest and easiest method of waste disposal mostly practiced in developing countries. This method was observed to be adopted mostly in schools (H.R.G.S.S, E.H.S, C.S.S. Kalio- ama and C.S.S. Ogan-ama) located at areas close

Kalio, G. A.1, Christian M2 and Egbai, O. O.3 to marshy mangrove or swampy areas for land reclamation purposes (land fill) (Nylec, 1974). The exposed burning method was also adopted in most of the schools. This method was used basically to reduce the volume of waste for compost production, which were subsequently used in their school farms. Conversely, the conventional controlled high temperature burning method (incineration) was not adopted in any of the schools, due to factors such as high construction cost, high operating and maintenance costs and the lack of skilled personnel to operate and maintain the plant (Taiwo, 1999). However, it was observed that the schools which operated the open dumping and 151 exposed dumping systems were faced with problems of air pollution resulting from unpleasant odours and smoke. This may have some deleterious effects on the health of the students at the long run. In addition the transportation process of the refuse by heavy-duty trucks from the dump sites in the various schools to sanitary landfills or authorized central collection points (CCPs) outside the school premises was reported to cause noise and air pollution through the loud sounds of the vehicle engines and carbon monoxide from the exhaust. This may affect effective teaching and learning, especially when such operations are carried out during lesson periods.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Man’s environment (urban or rural) is seen as an integral entity for his existence and solid wastes are a component of his environment. Solid wastes in secondary schools are a complex heterogeneous mixture comprising various forms of materials, especially paper, paper and nylon products. The generations of waste materials was observed to be a function of the students’ population, occupational status and income levels of their parents, as well as the presence or number of small and medium scale industries in the environments. Solid wastes generated are detrimental to the school environments because of their deleterious effects on students and indirectly as it affects effective teaching and learning. The unconventional open dumping and burning of waste disposal was widely used in most secondary schools in the urban and rural environments of Rivers State. These methods were reported to have some side effects of causing pollution. Having investigated the various unconventional systems of solid waste disposal in secondary schools of Rivers State, this research advocates the use of a conventional and cheap system of waste disposal. Therefore, the solid waste recycling or resource recovery method is recommended as a suitable, cheap, and most sustainable system of solid waste disposal system and should be adopted in secondary schools of Rivers State.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are most grateful to the Rivers State Ministry of Education and the Principals of the school in which this investigation was carried out for their support and understanding during the period of the study. We are also grateful to the students and staff that enabled us to gather information relevant to this study.

REFERENCES

Aluko, S.A. (1972) Industry in the Rural setting. In: Rural Development in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 1972 Annual Conference of the Nigeria Economic Society. p 213 – 214.

Falomo, A. A. (1995) City Waste as a Public Nuisance. A paper presented at the 1995 Conference of the Nigeria environmental society. Lagos. August. 152

Horsfall, M. (Jnr) and Spiff, A.I. (2001). Principles of Environmental Pollution (with physical, chemical and biological emphasis). Metroprint Publishers Ltd, Port Harcourt. Pp 317.

Isirimah, N.O (2000). Soil and Environmental Pollution Management. Nichdano Publishers, Owerri, Nigeria.

Lee J.A. (1985). The Environment, Public Health and Human Ecology: Considerations for Economic Development. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore Maryland USA. Pp 318.

Nylec, B. (1974). The Nature and Properties of soils. Macmillan Publishing Co, Inc. New York.

Ogwuru, I (1995) “Creating Wealth from Waste” An address at the 1 st 1995 Annual Lecture of the making of Wealth from Waste at the Kaduna State Environmental protection Agency Auditorium, Held on April 25th.

Ojikutu, R. (1994) Environment Nigeria: A long view. The African Guardian April 11th. Oluwande, P.A. (1985). “A case study of problems of solid waste management in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 14th International Seminar on Environment, Dublin, Ireland. Pickford, J. (1977). Solid wastes in hot climates. In: R. Feachem., M.McGarry and D. Mara (Eds). Water wastes and health in hot climates. New York.

Sridhar, M.K.C. (1996). Women in waste management. A Seminar paper sponsored by LHHP and the British Council for the Seminar on Educating Women for Sustainable Environmental Management, Owerri. March 5 – 7.

Taiwo, O. O. (1999) Pollution Abatement of Solid Hospital Wastes in Port Harcourt. M. Eng. Thesis, School of Graduate Studies University of Port Harcourt. Tchobanoglous, G., Theisen, H. and Vigil, H. (1993) Integrated solid Wastes Management Engineering Principles and management issues. McGraw Hill Publishers, New York. Pp 208.

Uchegbu, S.N. (1998) Environmental Management and protection.10 Precision Printers and Publisher, Enugu Nigeria. Pp187. World Bank Project (1980) Waste supply and Waste Disposal property and Basic Needs series. September, 1980. THE NIGERIAN STATE AND POLITICS OF CLEINTELISM

ABRAHAM T.O. STEWART DEPUTY VICE CHANCELLOR’S OFFICE IGNATIUS AJURU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION RUMUOLUMENI, PORT HARCOURT 153

ABSTRACT

Political parties have a most crucial role to play in any democracy. Not to have a properly functioning party system in supposedly democratic country like Nigeria is worse than tea without sugar; it is like trying to pass brown water as tea. It is obvious; therefore, that political parties constitute the heart of democracy, and the more vigorous and healthy they are the better assured is the health of the democratic process itself. This work seeks to establish that through political selection and sponsorship in Nigeria are instrumentalities of godfather and son- ship relation. One major character of political competition and struggle that has remained an underlying threat in the manipulation process is the clientele character of politics. The patron- client relationship has become the pattern of political struggle in Nigeria and has left the nation more crisis ridden as the elite intent in politics is to appropriate the political space and resources among themselves.

Keywords; Political Parties, Democratization, Politics of Clientelism

INTRODUCTION Political parties typically strive to gain or retain political power; in practical terms, this means capturing control of the government. Since, the right to rule in a constitutional democracy is determined by elections, political party in democratic states concentrate on winning elections. A political parties is a group of officials (or would be officials) who are linked with a sizable group of citizens into an organization; a chief object of this organization is to ensure that its officials attain power or are maintained in power. In simple language, a political party is a group of persons bonded in policy and opinion in support of a general political cause, which essentially is the pursuit, capture and retention, for as long as democratically feasible of government and its offices. In other words, “a political party is a group that seeks to elect candidates to public office by supplying them with a label – a party identification – by which they are known to the electorate”. A political party does at least three things to its members and on-lookers. It is a label in the minds of its members and the wider public, especially the electorate. It is an organization that recruits and campaigns for candidates seeking election and selection into public political office. It is a set of leaders who try to organize and control the legislative and executive branches of government. Ndoh (200:234) The number of political parties (party system) which operate in a state is normally prescribed by the laws of the given state. A political party is an instrument (Label) of identifying (an object) the party system in a state. for instance, the multiplicity of political parties in Nigeria indicates the (multi) party system operated in Nigeria; the openness or otherwise of admitting

THE NIGERIAN STATE AND POLITICS OF CLEINTELISM members and the ideologies or believes of political parties all point to the party system in operation in a country. A political party is a more or less organized group of citizens who act together as a political unit, have distinctive aims and opinions on the leading political question of controversy in the state and who by acting together as a political unit, seek to obtain control of the government. It is based on two fundamentals of human nature, man differ in their opinions and 154 are gregarious; they try to achieve by combination what they cannot achieve individually. Religious and communal loyalties and the attachment to a dynasty or leader, also help parties to develop party enthusiasm is maintained by such elements of human nature as sympathy, imitation and competition. Parties fulfill certain necessary functions, so necessary, indeed, that many competent thinkers consider them essential to the working of are representative government.

EVOLUTION OF PARTY SYSTEM IN NIGERIA: Basically, political party is therefore, a conglomeration of people and interest with a common goal of forming the government. The evolution of party system in Nigeria can be traced back to the colonial era. It was in 1922 that the Clifford constitution in Nigeria introduced the “Elective Principle” which stipulate that the election of Four Nigerians into the legislature (one from Calabar and three from Lagos). The introduction of the elective principle in 1922 led to the formation of the first indigenous political party in Nigeria. Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP) under the leadership of late Herbert Macaulary in 1923. Partly politics in the history of Nigeria has been greatly dominated by conflicts and crises. Various writers and commentators on Nigerian politics sought to explain this phenomenon as being directly related to the colonial situation. This assertion is valid judging from various political conflicts and crises that characterize the interaction of the political elites of the various component units of Nigeria prior to independence from colonial rule. Britain which was the former colonial master of Nigeria, established the country in such a manner that the component unites and their emerging elites (power brokers) hardly possessed sufficient breathing spaces to settle for an acceptable framework with a political formular that could guarantee stability and necessary integration. Okibe (2000:108)

Organization of Political Parties Political parties are organized according to their needs, levels and functions. The way a party is organized helps it to achieve its objectives for instance, every party aims at winning elections; this can only be achieved if credible candidates are nominated and the party has enough money at its disposal. In this instance, the functions of a party include among others, the nominations of candidate and raising money for elections; this can only be achieved where the structure (organization) has been put in place for the purpose. For example, the organization of a party would include taking care of fund raising, preparation of manifesto; nomination of candidates, publicity, campaign, guidance and discipline etc. Thus, in Nigeria, we can talk about the organization of a political party or divide the levels of its organization into: National Executive Committee State Executive Committee Local Government Executive Committee Ward Executive Committee Abraham T. O. Stewart Caucus Fund Raising Committee Disciplinary Committee etc Each structure or organ of a political party has specific duties which are aimed at aiding the party to achieve its goal of capturing political power.

It will, thus, be clear that political party without a well-knit organisation is nothing. It has neither the means to present nor to promote its programme. It has no national appeal to make 155 and no possibility to succeed in its political mission of winning elections and forming the government. The old conception that a political party is a group of men professing the same political doctrine is not the entirely truth now. The basic qualification any organization requires before it is termed a political party is as follows: Continuity in organization Manifest and permanent organization at the local level Self – conscious determination at both local and national levels to capture and hold the power of decision making alone or in a coalition with others and The organization is expected to seek followers at the polls or in some manner (strive) for popular support. According to Appadoral (2004:286) “The is no doubt that (political parties are) central to the longevity and vitality of democracy, and that (their) ability to aggregate freely, articulate, represent, and organize within set limits is what determines the extent and contours of accountability in public life, including access to and use of power, as well as political performance”. Political parties in a state is determined by the type of party system practice, which can be mass, elite, one, two and multi-party system etc. According to Sklar (1963: 55) Political parties perform the following functions: Representation Elite formation and recruitment Goal formulation Interest articulation and aggregation Socialization and mobilization Organization of government.

Clientelism and Prebendalism The clientelism and prebendal politics are interrelated though separate concepts.

Clientelism: As it involves a patron and a client, the patron sponsors the client into political office on certain conditions that the client is expected to oblige the patron with the benefit from the office of the state. In this case, the state office is usually appropriated to satisfy the condition of agreement for private economic benefit.

Prebendalism: Is a theory which tends to see public office as being synonymous with private interest. It shows a situation where an occupant of public office or leadership should first and foremost use the position to solve his or her private needs and those of his immediate relations before rendering service to the public. According to Ekekwe (1986:4) “It is essentially a function of the competition for and appropriation of the office of the state among the political elite”.

THE NIGERIAN STATE AND POLITICS OF CLEINTELISM

Prebendal behaviour is common among Nigerian politicians, Nigerian leaders exploit the office of the state for their personal and, some time community gains. For example, the relationship between Governor Chinwoke Mbadinoju and Emeka Offor who were godson (client) and godfather (patron) of Anambra State; also Governor Chris Ngige and Chris Uba as client and patron in Anambra State in 1999 and 2003 respectively as well as Alhaji Lamidi Adebibu and 156

Governor Rasshidi Ladoja of Oyo State in 2003-2007 find expression in the politics of clientelism. It is this character of political struggle that heat up the polity in intense conflict and violence in these states. Clientele and prebendal politics are engendered in Nigerian body politic due to the following: The absence of institutionalized regulations and procedures The struggle to increase power base and survival within the system. The central nature of the Nigerian state; The materialistic nature of the Nigerian state The level of pressure exerted on public office holder. Nigerian democratic transition from military to civil rule in 1999 was less. Violent and volatile compared to the realities in Anambra, Kwara, Enugu and Oyo States during the second phase of the Fourth Republic especially the 2003 transition where these state were turned to a new theatre of violence. These states recorded varied form of violence that is hinged on the relationship between the political patrons and the clients before, during and after the election. These violence has manifested in the view of Anifowose (2000:4) ……….the use of threat or physical act carried out by an individual or individual within the political system against another individual or individuals and /or property with the intention to cause injury or death to persons and/or demands or destruction to property and whose objective, choice or target or vision surrounding circumstance, implementation and effect, have political significance that it tend to modify the behaviour of others in the exiting arrangement of power structure that has some consequences for the political system’’. What is very central in political violence with particular reference to this article is that, they are election motivated violence carried out in the struggle for acquisition of political power with the intention to modify the behaviour of individuals and groups within a political system for some desired results. A retrospection of the activities of chief Adebibu in Oyo State and chief Chris Uba in Anambra State in the 2003 general election revealed that, very many today are orphans or widows, maimed with certain impairment as a result of the frictions that ensued between these political godfather/client (Chief Chris Ngige and Chief Rashidi Ladoja) in these two states and their godsons/Clients. Again, violence with a political undertone broke out between Governor Muhammed Lawal (godson) and his estranged god-father, Dr Oluola Saraki over the control of kwara state following the latter’s decision to impose his blood son Bukala saraki as the governorship candidate of the PDP in the 2003 election. Such proposal was conserved as a grand plan to frustrate his (Lawals) ambition for a second tenure of four years. The state thus became polarized along the path of the godfather and the godson. Similarly, when Governor Chimaroke Nnamani fall out of favour with his godfather chief Jim Nwobodo who claimed that the governor rode on his back to power, the latter, Chief Jim Nwobodo did everything to ensure that Nnamani lost the election for the second tenure. Both (the godfather and the godson) strategized but Nnamani survive the day. Abraham T. O. Stewart POLITICAL CLIENTELISM IN NIGERIA: Clientelism has remained a major and a fundamental element in the socio-political system which affects and often determines the allocation of public goods in Nigeria. Joseph (1991:49) succinctly explained clientelism as: ……..’’An individual seeks out patrons as he or she moves upwards socially and materially; such individuals also come to accept ties of solidarity from their won clients which they view as fundamental to the latter’s security and continued advancement as well as their own. 157

Clientelism is the very channel through which one joins the dominant class and a practice which is then seen as fundamental to the continued enjoyment of the prerequisites of the class’’. Joseph’s claim above gives an expression of the recent attitude and conduct of the political class toward the state and the political process in Nigeria.

In the words of Scott (1999:57) ………..’’the patron-client relationship, an exchange relationship between roles, may be defined as a special case of dyadic (two-persons) ties involving a largely instrumental friendship in which an individual of higher socio-economic status (patron) uses his own influence and resources to provide protection or benefit or both for a person of lower status (client) who, for his, reciprocates by offering general support and assistance, including personal service to the patron”.

REASONS FOR THE PREVALENCE OF POLITICAL CLIENTELISM IN NIGERIA. Having identified what clientele politics is and its prevalence in Nigerian politics, it is expedient for this paper to catalogue the possible reasons as well as conditions existing within the Nigerian state that are germane or congenial to the practice of clientele politics. The elite struggle to increase power base and survival within the system: The elite in Nigeria with their access to power, play considerable role in government and directly influence the exercise of power and control the behaviour of others. They do this to enjoy all the benefits that power brings. What is inherent in this individual access to power is struggle among the competing faction of the Elite. In the course of struggle the individual resort to desperate means. A close look at the nature of political competition in Nigeria shows that, political power has consistently oscillated within the political elite. It is in this light that some political writer noted that: Ekekwe (1986:6) …………’’ethnicity constitute the main force of political life in Nigeria. In addition, that ethnicity conditioned pattern of political competition is sustained by the system of patron-client relationship through which, the ruling parties and government makes it possible for their members to retain their client by a judicious allocation of public resource to their constituencies’’.

The logic and import of the statement above shows that, competition using any means including the patron-client, character of political competition is perhaps, the major means employed by the political elite to increase their power base and survival. Everything about human being centers on survival. One need to struggle and compete favourably in the face of opposition if the power base is to be increased and consolidated so as to be continuously relevant. While some resort to the mobilization of ethnicity in achieving this, other elite assumes a clientele character of politics and sponsor an individual to the state so as to appropriate the resources of the office to feather his own nest. The pervasive tendency toward clientele politics in the conduct of public affairs as

THE NIGERIAN STATE AND POLITICS OF CLEINTELISM a struggle for the control of power and survival in a heterogeneous society like Nigeria find credence in the position of Dudley (1982:130) that power become an end in itself, to be used mainly in the pursuit of the self interest of the political “ruling class”…… not a relation as it would be generally constricted to be put a properly for most Nigerians. The growing relevance and importance of power is x-rayed here and therefore a factor of intense struggle for survival among the Elite in which political clientelism is a strategy. 158

The materialistic nature of the Nigerian society: The materialistic nature of the Nigerian state is a correlate of the point above (power base and survival). It is the materialistic nature of the society that necessitate the thirst for increased power and survival. The materialistic nature of the Nigerian state tends to respect and worship those who are wealthy. The individual is highly regarded and reverenced in the society once the individual is able to mass wealth given the over emphasis or premium placed on money and wealth. Attractive titles and positions of responsibility are offered these benefactors even when the source of their sudden wealth is dubious or fraudulent. The individual in order to be materially balanced submit to the desire of the elite to run as client so as to be lifted from a life of poverty. In effect this tendency leads to a situation which Kousoulas (1975:61) described as: The privatization of the state, in which access to state resources through various forms of fraud is allowed to become endemic. It is the materialistic nature of the state that has necessitated the various drive and strategies by the individual to enhance his or her material condition. Clientele character of politics has resulted in the privatization of the state by the client in order to service the relationship between him and patrons. (c) The poor socio-economic background of most political leaders: It is a truism that most Nigerian leaders evolve from a very poor economic background family. Some were even bankrupt but go to high position through patronage in which case, a godfather who for one reason or the other feel may not be able to compete for elective position, front them in return for homage.The Anambra state episode is perhaps still very green in our memory. This is a situation where the stupendously rich Chris Uba realizing that, he hasn’t the personal charisma and followership to enable him stand for elective position sought and found Dr. Chris Ngige with requisite qualification for the elective position but lacked the financial muscle to do so. They entered into a covenant and the later was enthroned as the Governor of Anambra state in the 2003 general election. What is central to this claim is that, Ngige’s poor economic background prior to election coerced him to look for a patron and the only way to satisfy or meet his god-fathers demand as covenanted was to exploit or abuse his office for himself and the desires of his benefactor. (d) Lack of Autonomy on the part of the Nigerian State: The Nigerian state lacks autonomy and is amenable to the manipulation of a fraction of political elite. The Nigerian state just as I have stated earlier is enmeshed in the struggle of the political class to appropriate the political space for private economic benefit. The Nigerian state lacks relative autonomy to mediate the contestation among fractions of the dominant class/elite. The appropriation of the state to buster the individual’s unrestricted political and economic interest has resulted in various forms of crisis leading to an unquantifiable loss of life and property. The various regulatory institutions in Nigerian (both judicial and extra-judicial) are all at the dictate of the elite who dispense its functions and benefits without fear of prosecution and accountability, The question one may ask is this, has anybody been prosecuted for clientele politics that resulted in political violence in the state? If this question appears to be an abstract Abraham T. O. Stewart one, was there anywhere that Chris Uba was prosecuted in Nigeria for all the mayhem unleashed on Anambra state and its environs? We can see that the Nigerian state is vulnerable to the hegemonic politics of the dominant fraction of the political elite. POLITICAL CLIENTELISM AND POLITICAL VIOLENCE IN NIGERIA Clientelism has become an effective strategy by the political elite at enhancing their access to power which guarantees the allocation and distribution of values in the society. It has 159 been diagnosed to be directly responsible for the type of cut throat and desperate politics that has been witnessed in very recent time in the Nigerian political landscape and electoral process. Attempts at understanding political violence in Nigeria can only be meaningful if adequate investigation is made at understanding political clientelism and its reflections in our social life. Ake (1999:135) examine violence in the Nigerian post-military state and state thus: “The crux of the problem of Nigeria today is the over politicization of social life, we are intoxicated with politics, the premium on political power is so high that we are prone to take extreme measures to win and to maintain political power. As things stands now, the Nigerian state appears to intervene everywhere and to own virtually everything including access to status and wealth. Inevitably, a desperate struggle to win control to state power ensues since this control means for all practical purposes being all powerful and owing everything. Politics become warfare, a matter of life and death”.

The view above shows how enhanced economic condition can only be attained through access to state powers. Political clientelism has been much more manifest only in area of electoral politics. The various political violence induced by political clientelism includes the following: The destruction of property worth N450,000.00 in Oyo State House of Assembly on the 12th January 2006. This paralyzed government activities, as civil servants were too scared to go to work. The abduction of governor Chris Ngige on the 10th July 2003. This was described as a murderous character of politics state security collaboration and conspiracy under the leadership of AIG Raphael Ige allegedly acting the script of Chris Uba. (c) The siege of Awka the Anambra state capital and the consequent vandalization of equipment belonging to Anambra state Broadcasting service, the chasing away of the ABS media workers for broadcasting Anti-Uba reports, the razed down of the state Independent Electoral Commission in Awka; the vandalization of the vehicles and subsequent hostage taking of law makers in the legislative quarters for hours. Professor Chinua Achebe remarked that his state, Anambra have been taken over by a class of renegades. This was climaxed by his rejection of President Obasanjo’s national award. New magazine 20th December, 2004, page 21 There was another round of violence unleashed on Oyo state by the supporters of Adedibu following the victory of Ladoja in the Federal court of Appeal and the directive that he should be reinstated as the authentic governor of Oyo state, more than twenty lives were lost. Adedibu’s thugs crushed a civil protest against the questionable impeachment of Ladoja as Governor of Oyo state with lives and property lost. Ngige was abducted though he escaped later was waylaid on Enugu Onitsha expressway by suspected hired killers, the shoot-out and the consequent bombing of the governor’s residence in the state.

THE NIGERIAN STATE AND POLITICS OF CLEINTELISM

Adedibu was attacked and escaped assassination in a convoy by gun men Oyo state. Lateel Olaniyani, Taofeek Daropale and Adedibu’s driver were murdered while others were severely injured thus raising the temperature of the war brewing in Oyo State. 160

All these violence were induced on these states due to the strained relationship between their patrons and the clients over the control of the state machinery. New magazine 20 th December, 2004, page 51

CLIENTELISM AND THE CONSOLIDATION OF DEMOCRACY IN NIGERIA The immediate question one may ask bearing in mind the foregoing is, would Nigeria’s democracy survive? It is absolutely correct that Nigeria is said to have a rich tradition of struggle for democracy. The Nigerian electoral historicism shows a significant relationship between a culture of struggle and democracy. Experiences have revealed result showing that such struggle has failed to produce an enduring democratic rule. It was responsible for the sudden but not unexpected end of the first and second republic in Nigeria. Political and electoral violence that characterized clientele politics tilted the democratic project and became the bane of the establishment of a legitimate government in the country. The implication of all these for the consolidation of democracy is that if care is not taken the clientele character of politics may plunge the country into another era of military rule with its attendant problem of lawlessness and political underdevelopment of the nation and its citizenry.

Conclusion/Recommendations Political parties perform a necessary service in democratic consolidation. The crisis is party formation in Nigeria is as a result of the British system of divide and rule (through the creation of regions) which led to the subsequent formation of parties along tribal lines. Nigerians should not allow the formation or active participation in the activities of political parties to tear the nation apart. We should learn from the mistakes of our past and live together irrespective of tribe, sex, or religion. A political party by nature is supposed to be a unifying factor and not to cause chaos among the people. Nigerians should resolve to work with one another irrespective of the party they find themselves for the development of the country. Political party and clientele politics is as old as the Nigerian state. A historicism of electoral process as well as democratic struggle shows that, political clientelism is not peculiar to Nigeria. It is common in most democracies but, the net result of this character of political struggle among the elites in Nigerian differs significantly from other societies. The reality in the Nigeria state shows results that are not founded on the integrative ethos of justice, rationality, national integration and goodwill. It has remained a subject of intense contestation that end at the level of violence. These are strengthened by the attractive nature of the state, its materialistic nature thus, increasing the elite struggle for survival. Political clientsm is therefore whipped up as a strategy by the competing fractions of the political ruling elites to increase their power base. It is against this background that this work offers these recommendations to mitigate or curb further recourse to clientele politics in political struggle given the fact that, it has been diagnosed as a major source of political violence in Nigeria. In the first instance, the state regulatory institutions such as the judiciary should function in its expected and conventional way, by bringing defaulters to book without recourse to the individuals personality. By this, the judiciary should be very assertive. Abraham T. O. Stewart Secondly, the practice of true federalism is advocated. This will enable the Nigerian state to assume a character capable of asserting itself through its institutions, reduce or become less attractive and invariably reduce the struggle for power and national resources. Thirdly, and most importantly, the electorate should be able to effectively vote in a leadership that will understand, believes and appreciate the basic principle and tenets of democracy that will 161 defend the Nigerian constitution and pursue the promotion of the citizen’s collective joy and happiness. Without all these, no quantum or standard of recommendations made to strayed perverted, and evil minded leadership can rescue Nigeria from the doldrums of political clientelism and political violence with very negative implication for the consolidation of democracy.

References

Ake, C. (1991), Excerpt from the Presidential Address to the Annual Conference of the Nigerian Political Science Association, West Africa. May 1999, pp. 132-163.

Anifowose, R. & Enemuo, F. (2000) Elements of politics: Lagos, Malthouse Press

Anitowose, R. (1973), Violence and politics in Nigeria: Port Harcourt, NOK publishers International

Appadorai, A. (2004), The Substances of Politics: New Delhi, Oxford University Press.

Dudley, B. (1982) An Introduction to Nigerian Government and Politics: Nigeria, Macmillan.

Ekekwe, E. (1986), Class and State in Nigeria: Lagos, Longman

James Scott Cited in Richard Joseph (1999) Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria, the Rise and Fall of the Second Republic: lbadan, Spectrum Books Limited.

Joseph, R. (1991), Democracy and Predendal Politics in Nigeria; Ibadan, Spectrum Book Ltd.

Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principles of Political Science: India, Chand & Company Ltd.

Kousoulas, G. (1975), On Government and Politics: North Scituate, Duxbury Press.

Mfon Udokang, (2000), Foundations to the Study of Government and Politics: Lagos, Ventures Ltd.

Ndoh, C. A. (2002), Nigerian Government and Administration: Owerri, Achugo Publications.

Okeke M. “Who will Save Anambra State’ The Guardian Daily Newspaper Tuesday June 10 th 2003, p. 93.

THE NIGERIAN STATE AND POLITICS OF CLEINTELISM

Okibe, H. B. (2000), Political evolution and constitutional development in Nigeria: (1961- 1999), Enugu, Auto century publisher. 162

Phillips Shively, W. (2008), Power & Choice. An Introduction to Political Science: Japan, The McGraw Hill Company

Post, K. and Vilkers M. (1973), Structure and Conflict in Nigeria 1960-1966: London, Heinemann.

Sklar, R. (1963), Nigerian Political parties: New York, Nok publisher International.

Thomas, M. Magstadt, (2006) Understanding Politics Ideas, Institution & Issues: California; Thomson Higher Education. Sunday Champion June 8th 2003 p. 11

The Guardian Newspaper, Monday July 21st 2003 p. 8-9

Ibid p. 9; The Newspaper Magazine 29th November 2004 p. 18

The Source Magazine February 6th 2006 p. 43

The News Magazine 30th January 2006. - 25

The News Magazine 10th January 2006 p. 40

The News Magazine 29th November, 2006 p. 35

The News Magazine 20th December, 2004 p. 21

The News Magazine 29th August, 2005 p. 51

A STUDY OF YORÙBÁ STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE IN ERRORS WITH EMPHASIS ON FOCUS CONSTRUCTIONS: SOME WASC-SSC EXAMINATION SCRIPTS 163

DR. MERCY ’FUNMI ADESANYA-DAVIES

IGNATIUS AJURU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

PORT HARCOURT

RIVERS STATE

NIGERIA

E-MAIL: [email protected]

Abstract

Contrastive and error analysis are great tools in second language learning. The paper is concerned with these two methods of analysis with emphasis on focus constructions. A focused item is usually the structure given more communicative prominence than any other constituent in the same sentence. Focus reflects “the meaning which an expression conveys depending on how the speaker organises his message in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis” (Leech 1982:12). This paper is an extract from an aspect of data analysis from the researcher’s Ph.D Dissertation. Our data for this study was mainly drawn from the WAEC-SSCE scripts of Yorùbá students from ten Yorùbá-speaking states of Nigeria. The postulations and hypotheses testing on the rule of focus thus demonstrate the Yorùbá-speaking second language learners’ problems with the rules of focus construction by Yorùbá speakers. Findings are valuable to students, teachers and curriculum designers.

AN ANALYSIS OF YORÙBÁ -SPEAKING CANDIDATES’ ERROR PATTERNS IN WAEC-SSCE WRITTEN ENGLISH: EMPHASIS ON FOCUS CONSTRUCTIONS

Abstract 164

Contrastive and error analysis are great tools in second language learning. The paper is concerned with these two methods of analysis with special emphasis on focus constructions. A focused item is usually the structure given more communicative prominence than any other constituent in the same sentence. Focus reflects “the meaning which an expression conveys depending on how the speaker organises his message in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis” (Leech 1982:12). This paper is an extract from an aspect of data analysis from the researcher’s Ph.D Dissertation. Our data for this study was mainly drawn from the WAEC/SSCE scripts of Yorùbá students from ten Yorùbá-speaking states of Nigeria. The postulations and hypotheses testing on the rule of focus thus demonstrate the Yorùbá-speaking second language learners’ problems with the rules of focus construction by Yorùbá speakers. Findings are valuable to students, teachers and curriculum designers.

Introduction

The need for carrying out a study on grammatical errors in English language by speakers of different first languages (LIs) cannot be overemphasised. The issue of grammatical errors has persistently been of concern to teachers and learners of English as a second language (ESL) alike. The main goal of language learning is effective communication, and this is especially so in the case of English language learning in Nigeria. Errors, if serious, can cause a total breakdown in communication thereby destroying the whole purpose of language teaching and learning.

It is therefore very important to find means by which errors can be minimised so as to enhance effective communication. Errors can be prevented when their types and causes have been identified. This will also help to improve overall performance and competence in the language. In this study, data from focus constructions served as the basis for dealing with this topic in error analysis. Most works on focus constructions and related phenomena by linguists have been centered on the theory of such phenomena. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, not much investigation has been carried out to determine the extent of difficulties, the Yorùbá speakers of English encounter in their learning of English focus constructions. 165

This study which is based on contrastive and error analysis therefore answers among other questions, if the degree of difference between Yorùbá and English focus constructions has any significant effect on the level of difficulty experienced by Yorùbá students learning English focus constructions. As Guy and Seidlhofar (1995:28) rightly noted:

“In any discipline, there are easy options, one is separatism.

A second easy option is to establish. A third safe option is the divorce of

theory from practice. Theorists are heard to say that although their ideas

are significant for practitioners, it is not for them to interfere directly, while

practitioners refer disparagingly to theory as something disconnected

from their own concerns. Together these three options bring stability”.

The fact that the rule of focus has generated a lot of debate in Yoruba literature cannot be over-emphasised. Our effort here is to bridge the gap between theory and practice in the study of focus constructions by Yorùbá speakers. We believe that a study of this nature will be of interest to the theorists, teachers, curriculum designers and learners of English. We also hope that the study will help in solving the problems of some grammatical errors related to focusing of English structures not only by Yorùbá speakers of English, but also in the English of other L2 users of Nigerian English. It should be noted that the study spanned through a period of time and it is an abridged version.

Scope and Objective of the Study

The study is on contrastive and error analysis with special emphasis on focus constructions. When a speaker deliberately draws the attention of his addressee to a particular constituent of the sentence either by word order or by the use of certain prosodic devices, such as stress and intonation, the constituent in question has been focused. Thus, a focused item is usually given more communicative prominence than any other constituent in the same sentence. Focus reflects “the meaning which an expression conveys depending on how the 166 speaker organises his message in terms of ordering, focus and emphasis” (Leech, 1982:12).

Our data for this study is mainly drawn from WAEC-SSCE scripts of Yorùbá students from ten states of the federation as mentioned earlier.

Research Questions

This study on analysis of errors with special emphasis on focus construction in some

WAEC-SSCE scripts is designed to find out if,

a. The degree of difference between Yorùbá and English focus constructions has

any significant effect on the level of difficulty experienced by Yorùbá students learning

English focus constructions.

b. There is any relationship in the point of difference between Yorùbá and English,

on the one hand, and the point of interference for Yorùbá students learning English

focus constructions, on the other hand.

c. The student’s use of focus constructions in English is related to the structure and

complexity of focus constructions in Yorùbá.

d. Yorùbá students’ use of focus constructions displays more problems in the area

of grammar than in semantics and stylistics.

e. The percentage of Yorùbá students who experience difficulty in the use of focus

constructions is higher than the proportion of those who manifest no such difficulty.

Hypothesis

On the basis of the above stated objectives, and in order to guide the development of this study, the following hypotheses are formulated: 167

a. The degree of difficulty experienced by Yorùbá students learning English focus

constructions will depend on the degree of difference between the two languages.

b. The point of interference for Yorùbá students learning English focus

constructions will be at the point where the two systems differ.

c. The structure and complexity of focus constructions in the Yorùbá language will

have a direct bearing on the subject’s use of focus constructions in English.

d. Yorùbá students encounter more problems in grammar than they do in semantics

and stylistics in their use of focus constructions.

e. The proportion of Yorùbá students who manifest difficulty in the use of focus

constructions is greater than the proportion of those who manifest no such difficulty.

Population

The population sampled for this study comprised Yorùbá speaking students who sat for the

1996 WAEC-SSCE examination. The following are the Yoruba speaking states of the country sampled: Òyó (Òyó/Òsun), Òndó (Òndó/Èkiti), Ògùn, Òsun, Lagos (where Yorùbá is the MT) and some parts of Bendel (Delta/Èdó), Kwara (Kwara/Kogi) and states. (In line with the creation of the new states.)

Sample and Sampling Technique

The study focuses on students’ errors in written composition. The random and systematic sampling techniques were used to select the scripts of 25 students in each of the ten states indicated above, giving a total of one hundred and fifty (150) scripts. (We picked scripts from both

English and Government and between one to three sentences were sampled from each script (300 sentences). 168

Parallel with contrastive analysis predictions, some constructions, errors and observations related to focus constructions, among others, were identified in the selected compositions and then classified into groups and discussed to ascertain the causes as well as areas of problems in the learning process.

Construction and Validation of Instrument

The instrument used for the collection of data was the Dead Scripts of Yorùbá-speaking students who sat for the 1996 WAEC-SSC Examination. The choice of the instrument was validated by four experts in the area of study.

Data Collection and Presentation

The data for this study was drawn from some randomly selected WAEC-SSCE scripts of

Yorùbá students because this was expected to make enormous data available for analysis.

As shown below, 150 scripts were examined.

S/N STATES MAY/JUNE NOV/DEC SUBJECT

1. ÒYÓ 25 - ENGLISH & GOVT.

(ÒYÓ/Ọ SUN)

2. ÒGÙN - 25 ENGLISH & GOVT.

3. ÒNDÓ - 25 ENGLISH & GOVT.

(Òndó/Ekiti)

4. LAGOS 25 - ENGLISH & GOVT.

5. KWÁRÀ - 25 ENGLISH & GOVT. 169

(kwárà/Kogi)

6. BENDEL 25 - ENGLISH & GOVT.

(Edó/Delta)

75 75

TOTAL = 150 SCRIPTS (300 SENTENCES)

The scripts were on two subjects namely English and Government, (the choice of government were arbitrary); and between one to three sentences were sampled from each script,

15 each from English and 10 scripts each from the Government (total of 25 scripts), in each of the

10 states, making a total of one hundred and fifty scripts (300 sentences sampled from 150 scripts in all.)

Discussion of Research Questions and Hypothesis Findings

In order to measure the degree of differences in English and Yoruba focus constructions, we employed the contrastive analysis for the description of forms, constituents/units, elements of clause structure and syntactic structures thus identifying the points of interference. These results were employed to test hypotheses 1-2. Then, the analyses of the enormous data from the scripts were used to test the 3-5. The results of the hypothesis testing rather than data presentation and analysis are therefore our area of concentration in this synopsis.

Here, explore our research questions and hypotheses results: 170

1. The degree of difficulty facing a Yorùbá student learning English focus constructions will vary according to the degree of difference between the two languages.

The comparison of focus in spoken English and Yorùbá shows no similarities. Whereas focus in spoken English is mainly signalled by intonation, focus in spoken Yorùbá is only signalled by the use of “ni” (clefting) as in written Yorùbá. Based on this result of contrastive prediction, the assumption was verified. Focus in spoken English structures present learning difficulties to the

Yorùbá learners. The Yorùbá learners therefore assume the use of clefting device in the place of intonation in spoken English. In this respect, our findings agree generally with the previous studies in contrastive and error analysis by Othman (1971) and others, who all accept that differences inhibit learning.

2. The point of interference for Yorùbá students learning English focus constructions will be the point where the two systems differ.

The contrastive prediction shows that there is similarity in the form of a simple sentence in

English and Yorùbá. It was therefore assumed that focusing in the form of a simple sentence would not present a problem to the Yorùbá learners of written English. Contrary to this assumption, ‘focus in forms’ of a simple sentence did actually present problems to the Yorùbá learners. Also, the contrastive prediction showed that there were a lot of similarities in the focusing of constituent or unit in English by Yorùbá learners at the levels of morpheme, word and phrase. Thus, there might be problems mostly with the focus of clauses as this differs in the two languages. This assumption was also found to be true.

Again, from our contrastive prediction, there were similarities and differences in the focusing of elements of clause structure in English and Yorùbá. It is thus assumed on the basis of contrastive prediction that the subject complement at syntactic units might present problems to the

Yorùbá learners of English, while all others might not. This assumption was found to be true. 171

Also, from our contrastive prediction, there were similarities and differences in the focusing of clauses. Focus might thus present problem to the Yorùbá learners of English at all classes at syntactic levels except the lexical. This assumption was verified. Students were found to be quite comfortable especially with the use of nouns and adverbials. Focusing of adjectival, genitival and participial phrases, in which there are similarities, did not present much problems to the Yorùbá learners of English, while focusing of prepositional phrases presented problems because of their differences.

We observed from our contrastive analysis that, there were differences in the syntactic structure that can be focused in English and Yorùbá. We assumed on the basis of contrastive prediction that, the word class that may present problem in focus include the verb, adverb, adjective and interjection while focusing of noun and pronoun might not present any problem to the Yorùbá learners of English and this was similarly confirmed.

Our findings agree with Awóbùlùyi (1978) and Awóyalé (1983) when they noted that focusing “applies not only to the noun phrases and prepositional phrases, but also to predicate/verb phrases in Yorùbá.” This also confirms the hypothesis that the points of interference for Yoruba students learning English focus construction are mostly at the points where the two systems differ.

3. The complexities of sentences of Yorùbá speakers have a direct bearing on their use of focus constructions.

Our contrastive prediction showed that there were no similarities in the focusing of sentences in English and Yorùbá. Whereas focusing of the various sentence types would sound awkward in English. Focusing of the various sentence types was quite possible in Yorùbá. Focusing of English syntactic structure posed problems to the Yorùbá learners of English since in principle, many words, phrases and clauses could be focused in Yorùbá. The Yorùbá students assumed the use of sentence forms such as nominalisations, pro nominalisations, sentential subjects, self embedding, gerundivization, co-ordination, subordination, modification, phrasalisation, 172 passivisation, self-embedding, etc., in their English structures. This was verified by the nature of complex sentences exemplified in the corpus.

4. Yorùbá students had more problems in the area of grammar, than in the area of semantics and stylistics in their attempted focus constructions.

The problems we noted were rather grammatical than stylistic, although, there were also cases of semantic problems. Indeed, problems of grammaticality were actually more frequent than those of stylistic, acceptability and Nigerianisms.

5. The proportion of Yorùbá students who manifested difficulty in the use of focus constructions was larger than the proportion of those who did not manifest that difficulty.

In line with the fifth hypothesis testing, it was observed that focusing of most sentences were wrong and these findings can be generalized as the usual effects of L2 on L1. Overall, Yorùbá students who manifested difficulty in the use of focus constructions were larger than the proportion of those than those who did not manifest that difficulty.

Conclusion and Recommendation

The problems encountered by many students of English as a second language in the mastery and use of focus constructions are many, varied, and complex. In this study, a background contrastive analysis was used to determine the similarities and differences between

English and Yorùbá which was not overtly presented. Error analysis based on adequate data on these structures as were also observed to reveal areas that are difficult to students. Both findings in CA and EA reveal errors that may be entirely new to teachers and curriculum designers and the need for improving the students’ syllabus and teaching materials.

The answer to the research questions, postulation and discussion of hypothesis in this study determined as well as attested to the weaknesses and the strengths (competence) of the

Yorùbá learners in observing the rule of focus in English grammar. 173

We recommend that strict adherence to the fundamental principles and rules of grammar would go a long way towards the amelioration of the incidence of errors which occur in learners’ usage of the language. An applicable knowledge of the correct rules of this aspect of English grammar is necessary effective handling of conventional syntactic structures. Also, while learners should focus on their areas of incompetence, effective teachers also should focus on teaching areas of language where their students are likely to have problems and attempt to prevent them as soon as possible.

Lastly, our belief at this point is that our effort in this study had measured a level of linguistic competence. We do realise that our testing instruments had certain inherent strengths, for the fact that it was based on error analysis (EA) and contrastive analysis (CA). Furthermore, by analysing the WAEC-SSCE dead scripts of learners, we have been able to focus on the secondary school learner. Actually, in addition to our findings in this work, we fill fulfilled by our readiness to share our acquired data and full data analysis and results with other researchers when and if needed as they are rare to come by and too enormous to be presented in this abridged version. Our answers to the research questions and discussion of hypothesis results have been our area of concentration in this synopsis.

References 174

Adesanya, M.O. (2003). Error Analysis with Special Emphasis on the Focus Constructions of Yorùbá Speakers. Ph.D Dissertation. Port Harcourt, University of Port Harcourt.

Alo, M.A. (1995). Applied English Linguistics: An Introduction. Port Harcourt: Aeddy Link.

Awóbùlùyi, O. (1978). Focus construction in Noun phrases: A reply. Linguistic Analysis

4. 93-114.

Awóyalé, Y.(1983). Focusing of verbal constituents in Yorùbá serial verb constructions.

14th.Conference of African Linguitics. Madison, Winconsin.

Corder, S.P. (1984). Error Analysis and Inter-language. Oxford: University Press.

Guy and Seidlhofar eds. (1995). Principle and ractice in applied Linguistics. Studies

in Honour of H.G. Widdowson. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kleinjan, E. (1958). A descriptive study predicting interference for Japanese learning English

noun-head modification patterns. Ph.D Dissertation. Ann Arbour,

University of Michigan.

Leech, G. et. al. (1982). English Grammar for Today: A new Introduction. London:

The Macmillia n Press.

Lutgarda, M. (1962). Structural differences between English and Tagalog Verbs: A study

designed to improve the teaching of English to advance Filipino students. Ph.D

Dissertation. New York, Columbia University.

Othman, O.M. (1971). A Descriptive Analysis of English and Arab Verbs: A study 175

designed to improve the teaching of English to advance Arab students. Ph.D

Dissertation. New York, New York University.

Quirk, R and Greebuam, S. (1973). A University Grammar of English. Longman:

London.

Pascasio, Emy. (1960). Descriptive-comparative study predicting interference and

facilitation for Tagalog speakers in learning English noun-head modification

patterns. Ph.D Dissertation. Ann Arbour, University of Michigan.

Theivanathampillai, K (1965). An empirical test of contrastive analysis as applies to the

teaching of auxiliary verbs system to Tamil speakers. Ph.D Dissertation. Cambridge Graduate School of Education, Harvard University.

SELF CONCEPT AND HOME BACKGROUND VARIABLE AS

CORRELATES OF STUDENTS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

IN BASIC SCIENCE IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL 176

IN RIVERS STATE

BY

OKHAIFO VICTORIA KEHINDE

&

OSOKOYA MODUPE M.

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

AND

PEPPLE TAMUNOSISI FURO

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT

RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

PORT HARCOURT

E-mail: [email protected]

Tel: 08037073515, 07081085450

Science education at the secondary school level is expected to prepare the learners for useful living as well as preparing them for higher education. To achieve this aim is the inclusion of basic science which used to be taught as general science then later called integrated science while the separate basic science discipline (physics, chemistry, biology) are offered at the higher forms of secondary level. However the high percentages of students offering basic science at the junior secondary levels have low grades and this failure could be as a result of some factors like students’ self concept and home background variable (family size, parents’ education, parents’ occupation, home location, and type of home). The study sought to investigate self concept and home background variables as correlates of students’ academic achievement in junior secondary school (JSS) in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. The study comprise of two hundred and twenty four (224) students randomly drawn from seven schools, these are senior secondary one (SSI) students who have successfully completed the JSSCE examinations in basic science, three research questions were answered. A questionnaire containing self concept and home background scale (SCHBS) was used to collect data and the JSSCE examination result was used in the data analysis. The instrument was subjected to validity and reliability test and the data collected were analysed using frequency counts, percentages and multiple regression.

KEY Word: self concept, home background variable, JSSCE examination, Basic Science

The results of multiple R-value (0.24) and an adjusted R – value 0.003 which indicated 0.3% of the variance in basic science is accounted for by self concept parents’ qualification, parents occupation, home location and type of home. The F-value (1.077) is not significant at 0.05. The data value show that home location predicts achievement in basic science by the predictor variables follow the order in descending order of home location, type of home and mother qualification and family size. Others still in the same order father occupation and self concept and father’s academic qualification and mothers 177 occupation. In order to improve achievement in basic science in Nigerian schools, practicing teachers basic science should not discriminate or be biased in handling the issues of self concept and home background and family influence on students achievement. Attention should be given to the involvement of parents in the academic pursuit of their children and also in their socio economics status, the home environment has been found to be important to students achievement, therefore teachers of basic science should identify students based on their socio – economic background and self concept.

INTRODUCTION

Self-concept also called self-construction; self-identity or self- perspective is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics and non academics gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and many others (Emeke E. 1998)

The self-concept is an internal model which comprises self- assessments. Features assessed include but are not limited to: personality, skills and abilities, occupation(s) and hobbies, physical characteristics,

(Zimbardo A., 2002).

An important theory relating to self-concept is the self-categorization theory (SCT), which states that the self-concept consists of at least two “levels,” a personal identity and a social identity. In other words, people’s self-evaluations rely on both one’s self-perceptions and how one fits in socially. The self-concept can alternate rapidly between the personal and social identity, (Sandrine 2006)

Franken (1994) states that there is a great deal of research which shows that self-concept is perhaps the basis for all motivated behavior. It is the self-concept that gives rise to possible selves, and it is possible selves that create the motivation for behavior. Hamachek (1995) asserts that self- concept and school achievement are related. Research has shown close relations between academic self-concept and academic achievement 178

(Russell-Bowie, Yeung, & McInerney, 1999). House (1993) also found that students' self-appraisals of their overall academic ability were significantly related to grade performance in their science courses. The major issue here is the direction of the relationship, i.e., does self-concept produce achievement or does achievement produce self-concept? Marsh (1990) found support for both self-concept affecting achievement and achievement affecting self-concept.

Research has shown that students' attitude toward classroom science is shaped by such factors as teachers, learning environment, self- concept, peers, and parental influence. The nature of science instruction strongly affects students’ attitudes toward science; these attitudes, in turn, are strong predictors of achievement in science and science learning (Parker & Berger, 2000; Papanastasiou, 2002). Positive attitudes have long been believed to increase formal and informal science learning after the direct influence of the teacher has finished. Students' views of the role of science in the modern world are likely to have an effect on their attitudes and aspirations. Students who have positive views of science are likely to have positive attitudes towards science.

A student’s home environment can be seen as an agency that aids in the construction of student attitudes and school achievement. Many studies have in fact shown that there is a relationship between family background characteristics and students' achievement (Martin, 1996). Home is the backbone for children’s personality development, and influences children directly and indirectly through the kind of relationship the family members have among themselves as well as through helping them to get in contact with society (Weiss & Krappmann, 1993). The home background variables have a great influence on the students’ psychological emotional and 179 economic state. In the view of Ajila and Olutola (2000), the state of the home affects the individual since the parents are the first socializing agent in an individual’s life. This means the family background and context of-a child affect his reaction to life situations and his level of performance. Thus, Khado (1998), concluded that the environment in which the students comes from can greatly influence his performance in school. The family lays the psychological and moral foundations in the overall development of the child.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to investigate the effect of self concept and home background variables on students’ achievement in junior secondary school basic science

RESEARCH QUESTION

The following research questions were used for the purpose of this study

1. Do students have a pattern of self concept?

2. Does the composite factor of students’ self concept, parents education,

Parent’s occupation, parent’s socio – economic status and family size affect

Student’s achievement in junior basic science?

3. What is the relative contribution of students self concept, family size, parents qualification, parent occupation and socio-economic status on students achievement in basic science. 180

METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH DESIGN

This study adopted a correlational type of study.

SAMPLE:

The subject consisted of all senior secondary school (SS I) students who

Have completed their contents in junior secondary school three (JSS III). Basic science curriculum in Obio/Akpor Local Government of Rivers State. Thirty two (32) students each where randomly taken from seven school totaling two hundred and twenty four (224) students were use for the research.

INSTRUMENTATION

The instruments used in this study is self – concept and home background

Scale questionnaire (SCHBSQ) with reliability of 0.78 using cronbach coefficient

DATA COLLECTION

The investigation and two research assistants directly participated in data collection exercise. With the permission of the Principals and heads of the schools visited the questionnaire were administered to the students. The 181 result of students JSS III basic science score was collected from the schools. The administration of questionnaire took four weeks.

RESULT

RESEARCH QUESTION 1:

Table 1: Do students have a pattern of self concept

Self concept N Minimum Maximum Mean Std deviation scale

Self acceptance 210 0 150 85.65 14.863

Social confidence 210 0 40 16.42 5.631

Self security 210 0 40 18.21 5.655

School affiliation 210 0 40 16.21 6.084

Social maturity 210 0 40 15.69 5.821

The pattern of the self concept scale is such that the self acceptance scale has the highest mean of followed by self security which is 18.21, low than the maximum, then school affiliation 16.21, and social maturity and social confident all below the maximum score show very low self concept of the students. This implies that students self acceptance of themselves is very high, this can be attributed to their maturity considering their present class of SSI their perception of their physical and intellectual capacities. From the table self security which measures the emotional confidence and stability comes next, the students feel things are alright and will continue to be followed by the social confidence this implies that 182 students can handle social situations successfully, the students sees themselves as being respected and liked by others. The least of the scale is school affiliation, that means students view about influence of school in their lives is low they are not happy with many school activities including rules and regulations. They do not feel happy about their teachers.

RESEARCH QUESTION 2

Does the composite factor of students self concept, parents’ education, parents socio-economic status and family size affect students achievement in basic science.

Statistical analysis used is multiple regression.

Table 2: Regression summary of independence variables on student’s achievement in basic science.

Multiple R = 0.204

Multiple R2 = 0.041

Multiple R2 = 0.003

TABLE 3: Analysis of variance of multiple regression data

Model Sum of meandf Mean square F Sig squares

Regression 6.033 8 .754 1.077 .381

Residual 139.347 199 .700

Total 145.380 207

The R value from table (0.204) has an adjusted R2 (0.003) which indicates that 0.3% of the variance in achievement in basic science is 183 accounted for by self concept, fathers occupation, mothers occupation, home location and family size. The F value (1.077) is not significant at 0.05 (p > 0.05) this shows that there is no significant effect of self concept, fathers’ qualification, mothers’ qualification, fathers’ occupation, mothers’ occupation, home location and family size on students academic achievement.

RESEARCH QUESTION 3

What is the relative contribution of students self concept, family size, parents qualification, parents occupation and socio – economic status on students achievement.

Table 4: Relative contribution of student’s achievement in basic science

Unstandardized Coefficient Standard coefficient

Model β Std Error Beta T Sig

Constant 2159 0.504 4.280 .000

Self concept -.001 0.004 -.19 -0.259 0.796

Father -.006 0.055 -.010 -0.118 0.906 qualification

Mother 0.72 0.57 0.114 1.279 0.202 qualification

Father -0.034 0.082 0.031 -0.410 0.682 occupation

Mother 0.003 0.070 0.004 0.045 0.964 occupation

Home -0.207 0.097 0.167 -2.128 0.035 location

Type of home 0.105 0.063 0.128 1.66 0.097

Family size 0.095 0.095 0.073 1.003 0.317 184

The results from table 4 shows the unstandardized coefficient of the independent variables (self concept, father qualification, mothers’ qualification, fathers’ occupation, mothers’ occupation, home location, types of home and family size have both positive and negative relationships to students achievement in basic science.

Beta weights provide an indication of relative effect of contributions of each of the predictor variables on the prediction of students academic achievement. The beta value -0.019, -0.010, 0.114, -0.167, 0.128, and 0.073 respectively revealed that home location is the most potent contributor (β = 0.167, t = 2.128) p > 0.05 followed by type of home (β = 0.128, t = 1.66) followed by mothers qualification (β = 0.114, t = 1.279) followed by family size (β = 0.073, t = 1.003) then fathers occupation (β = 0.031, t = -0.4100 followed by students self – concept (β = -0.019, t = -0.259) then followed by father qualification (β = -0.010, t = -0.118) and mothers occupation (β = 0.004, t = 0.045) and lastly mothers 0.045 and lastly mothers’ qualification (β = 0.114, t = 1.279).

Discussion

The result of this study revealed the effectiveness of home background variables (family size, parents education, parents occupation and socio-economic status in predicting students academic achievement in basic science. This confirms the findings of Hummer (2003) that home environment is as important as what goes on in the school. In other word students achievement is not only about what goes on when a student get into the classroom, it also about happens before and after the school. 185

Also, the study shows the contribution of parent education qualification on the academic achievement of students. Students who came from educated parent are influenced by their parents who serve as their first teacher and model. Furthermore, parent involvement has also shown in other studies as having significant positive impact on students’ achievement throughout elementary, middle school and secondary years. Several of the studies indicated that parents/family involvement have a lasting effect throughout the educational careers of students (Trusty, 1999, Frendrich, 1999, Weissbery, 2001, Kasprow, 2001).

Morestill, the finding of this study agrees with Okujagu (2003) that the status of the family has been known to determine the type of education its children received and the child’s learning capability and emotional behavior as necessary ingredient for learning capabilities and emotional behavior of the child are greatly influenced by the type of family a child comes from.

Finally, the study does not find self concept as having significant effect on students academic achievement, although Tamunoimama (1999) identified that positive significant relationship exist between the academic performance of students and their concept of teachers opinion of them, a positive relationship exist between social self concept and academic performance

Recommendation

Based on the findings of this study the following recommendation are made

 Students self concept should be looked into by teachers of science in helping students develop good self concept of themselves 186

 The influence of home environment and socio-economic status has so much importance in ensuring students academic achievement, parents and teachers should work together to ensure that there is availability of resources for students to learn well.

REFERENCE

Ajila W and Olutola Wihals (1985). Patterns of relationship between home and school factors

and pupils’ learning outcome in Bendel Primary Science

Emeke E. (1998) Race and gender as components of the working self- concept."

The Journal of Social Psychology vol. 3(2) 419 – 422

Franken R. (1994). Human motivation (3rd Ed) CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.

Frendrich, B. (1999). Synthesis of Research on the effects of class size.

Educational Leadership

Hamachek, D. (1995). Self-concept and school achievement: Interaction dynamics

and a tool for assessing the self-concept component. Journal of Counseling ` & Development, 73 (4), 419-425.

House, J. D. (1993). Cognitive-motivational predictors of science achievement.

International Journal of Instructional Media, 20, 155-162.

Hummer W.G. (1999) “Classroom instrument” valdostra: Department of

Psychology Guidance and Counselling

Kasprow, DJ. (2001).The educated parent recent trends in raising children 187

Connecticut

Marsh, H.W. (1988). Causal effects of academic self-concept on academic

achievement. Journal of Experimental Education. 55, 100-104.

Marsh, H.W. (1990). The causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic

achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal path analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology. 82, 646-656.

Martin, M.O. (1996). Third International Mathematics and Science Study: Third

International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Technical Report, Volume 1: Design and Development. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston College.

Okujagu, T.N. (2003). Meaning and purpose of teaching practices. In Emiya

Deinye A and Asuru V.A. (eds) Readings in teaching practice. Port Harcourt: Chida Press (Nig).

Papanastasiou, C. (2002). School, teaching and family influence on student

attitudes toward science: Based on times data Cyprus. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 28, 71-86

Parker, V. and Berger, B. (2000). Effects of science intervention program on

middle-grade students achievement and attitude. School Science and Mathematics, 100 (5), 236-242

Russell-Bowie, M. (1999). Creative Arts Self-concept and Anxiety: Do Family

Backgrounds Matter? Paper presented at the Joint Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education and the New Zealand Association for Research in Education in Melbourne, Australia, 29 November - 2 December 1999. 188

Sandrine, N.(2006) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 90(2), 221-

242.

Tamunoimama F. (1999) Within-School Social Comparisons: How students

perceive the standing of their class predicts academic self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101 (4). 853-866.

Trusty I. (1999). Views from the classroom: Teachers’ opinions of statewide

testing program

Weiss S. and Krappmann F. (1993). Parental support and children’s social

integration. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, LA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 361 077)

Weissbery G. (2001). Identifying Effective Teachers using Performance on the job,

policy report, The Hamilton project, Washington DC Brooking Institute

Yeung A. and Mclnerney D. (1999). Comparison between self-concept and self-

efficacy in academic motivation research. Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 139-153.

Zimbardo A., P.G (2002) Psychology and life Glossary of psychological terms. Allyn and Bacon, Boston 189

Effect of English-Plus-Mother Tongue on the Mathematics Achievement Grade Profile of Basic 7 Students in Narrative Problem Solving Task Performance

Wonu, Nduka

Department of Mathematics/Statistics

Ignatius Ajuru University of Education

Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.

[email protected] 08037236497

&

Okpobiri, Nchelem Rosemary

Department of Mathematics/Statistics

Ignatius Ajuru University of Education

Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.

[email protected] 08038744877

Abstract

This study compared learning outcomes of basic 7 students in a narrative problem solving mathematics lesson that used English-Plus-Mother Tongue (L2+L1) to those in a English (L2) only word problem solving lesson in Emohua 190

Local Government Area of Rivers State. The quasi-experimental design was adopted. The sample consisted of 100 basic 7 students from 2 public coeducational junior secondary schools. From each of the schools selected, balloting was used to select one intact class of 50 students. Balloting was also used to assign the schools to treatment and control groups. The experimental group learnt narrative problem solving using English language (L2) supplemented with mother tongue (L1) while the control group was taught the same topic using English (L2) only. The two classes were assumed to have equal English proficiency level. The instrument for data collection was the Narrative Problem Solving Achievement Test (NPSAT) constructed by the researchers. This instrument was a 20-item multiple choice test with four options to measure pupils’ performance in narrative problem solving.

KEY WORDS: Mathematics, Language, Gender, Narrative, Problem, Problem Solving

This instrument was subjected to face and content validation. The reliability coefficient of 0.84 was obtained through the test-retest method. The mean, sandard deviation and percentageproportions were used to answer the research question. The 2-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses. The main finding was that the difference observed between the mean achievement scores of the treatment and the control groups was statistically significant in favour of the experimental group (F1, 95 = 26.523; p< 0.05); the difference observed in the mean achievement scores of male and female was not statistically significant (F1, 95 = 1.720; p > 0.05) and the interaction effect of approaches and gender on achievement was not found significant (F1, 95 = .464; p >0.05). The study recommended the use of English plus mother tongue in teaching mathematics to make clearer some very abstract mathematical concepts to the pupils at the UBE level; competent bilingual fluent teachers should be deployed to teach basic mathematics in their home towns.

Introduction

The researchers have personally observed the improvement in pupils’ understanding when mathematics is taught in English language (L2) and supplemented with their mother-tongue (L1). Moschkovich, (1999) established that students experience higher levels of success in secondary school mathematics courses that provide native language support. In line 191 with the foregoing, Bialystok (2001) concluded that bilinguals develop an enhanced ability to selectively attend to information and inhibit misleading cues.

Yet, there is a hoary myth in mathematics education that the level of English proficiency of students is not an issue in instruction because mathematics is a "universal language." As a result, many educators assume that a student’s English proficiency has a minimal effect on learning mathematics (Gutierrez, 2002). The language of mathematics (L3) is described as a “register” of words and meanings that differ from those of everyday language (Secada, 1992). For instance, the language of mathematics has specialised meanings for words and phrases such as “horizontal,” “vertical,” “subtract,” etc., that differ from the conversational and academic meanings (Khisty, 1995).

English language (L2) proficiency is vital for the understanding of mathematics. Mosqueda, and Téllez (2008) stated that English proficiency level of non-native English speakers is extremely important in predicting their achievement in mathematics. Gutierez, (2002) argued that having a low-level of English proficiency is considered a “deficit”. Recent research suggests that English proficiency plays a significant role in students learning of mathematics, particularly for ensuring that they are able to comprehend, and then apply complex mathematical concepts (Garrison & Mora, 1999). A lot of investigations have been done within the mathematics education community into the teaching and learning of mathematics in different multilingual contexts (Barwell, 2001;Moschkovich, 2000; Setati, 2003).

The observed relative predictive impacts of pupils’ English language proficiency and mother-tongue on mathematics learning necessitated the 192 thought towards the use of English- plus-Mother tongue ( L2+L1) in the teaching of narrative problem solving in mathematics in Emohua Local Government Area of Rivers State of Nigeria.

Literature reveals that, in Papua New Guinea, the teacher may speak the common student language if he/she comes from the same region, but will also be multilingual. Teachers are encouraged to use a mixture of languages if possible through years 3, 4 and even 5 (Clarkson, et al., 2001). However, Clarkson (2004) has indicated that classroom observations suggest that teachers seem to prefer English only when teaching mathematics because it seems that dealing with mathematical concepts is difficult in a local dialect. This is evident in the fact that not every teacher can translate all mathematical terms into the students’ dialect for a clearer understanding of what is taught. This may have prompted Malaysia government in 2003 to ensure that in the Malay schools the teaching of mathematics and science was reverted to English while the main teaching language remained Bahasa Malay since the beginning of 1970s.

Clarkson (2004) reported that in some European countries too, teachers are confronted with teaching many migrants. The ‘newcomers’ were made to learn the ways of the dominant society and integrate with it, as well as learn the use of the main language in the classroom as soon as possible and this new context is challenging other teachers to think deeply about their use of language in teaching mathematics.

In several areas of the Northern Territory in Australia the indigenous communities employed a different strategy. During the 1980s and early 1990s there was political support for the use of the people’s first language as the teaching language/language of instruction in classrooms. Also in 193

New Zealand, the indigenous Maori peoples have developed a small system of schools where only Maori is used for all communication while present in the school, though both students and teachers live in a dominant English speaking community. Mathematics is taught in Maori and the mathematics curriculum has been translated into Maori, with some changes to include some specific Maori mathematics (Clarkson, 2004).

The teacher, who views mathematics as a ‘language free zone’, will be less inclined to think about the role that the teaching language, or any other, has on the learning of mathematics. If, however, the teacher admits that the teaching language and students’ first languages impact on the learning of mathematics, he/she may consider which languages can be used in their classrooms and even of what mathematics can be taught. A teacher belongs to the dominant society and believes that teaching should be in the dominant language will have little inclination to explore any other language options.

Statement of the Problem

The main cause of the woeful performance of our students in both internal and external mathematics examinations may not be far from a poor foundation in the early years of mathematics. Mathematics content consist of hierarchical learning tasks (vertically integrated), so if the pre-requisite skills are not learned to effective level of mastery before entering into a new and higher learning situation, there is high likelihood of collapse in the learning process and the consequence may be jeopardizing to further progress. Pupils in the UBE school segments in Emohua are frequently faced with two key problems. Firstly, they struggle with understanding the English language (L2) used in teaching in the schools which is different from their extra- classroom discourse in their mother tongue (dialect, L1). 194

Secondly; they strive to understand the Mathematics language (L3) which is seldom translatable into L1. The effect of the instructional language and gender on mathematics narrative l problem solving achievement among basic 7 pupils in Emohua Local Government Area of Rivers State is under- investigated. A study like the present one is worthwhile and timely. In line with the foregoing, one may ask: what is the effect of instructional language (L1 or L1+L2) on the mathematics achievement grade profile?

Purpose of the Study

This study was intended to investigate the effect of gender and instructional language in solving narrative problems in mathematics among basic 7 students. In more specific terms, the objectives of the study included:

• To determine the difference in the mean achievement grades of basic 7 students taught mathematics narrative problem solving using the L2+L1 and those taught the same topic using L2 only? • To determine the difference in the mean achievement scores between the male and the female student groupings taught narrative problem solving using the L2+L1 approach and those taught the same topic using the conventional L2 approach only. • To determine the interaction effect between gender and teaching approaches on basic 7 students’ achievement in Mathematics word problem solving. Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study. 195

1. What difference exists in students’ narrative problem solving achievement when taught using English Language supplemented with mother tongue (L2+L1) versus English Language (L2) only? 2. What gender difference exists in students’ narrative problem solving achievement when taught using English Language supplemented with mother tongue (L2+L1) versus English Language (L2) only?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant difference in the mean mathematics achievement grades of basic 7 students taught mathematics narrative problem solving using the L2+L1 and those taught the same topic using the L2 only? 2. There is no significant gender difference in the mean mathematics achievement scores between basic 7students taught narrative problem solving using the L2+L1 approach and those taught the same topic using the conventional L2 approach only. 3. Teaching approaches do not interact significantly with gender to influence basic 7 students’ achievement in Mathematics word problem solving. METHOD

A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest-control-design was adopted for this study, since intact classes were used for the study. The sample consisted of 100 basic 7 students from 2 public coeducational junior secondary schools in Emohua Local Government Area of Rivers State( Nigeria). 196

Balloting was used to randomly select two intact classes of 50 students. Balloting was also used to randomly assign the schools to treatment and control groups. The experimental group was taught narrative problem solving using the L2+L1 approach while the control group was taught the same topic using the L2 approach only. The two classes were assumed to have the same levels in English proficiency. The treatment and control groups each comprised two intact classes of the same size.

The instrument for data collection was the Narrative Problem Solving Achievement Test (NPSAT) designed by the researchers. This instrument was 20-item multiple choice test with four options to measure pupils’ performance in narrative problem solving. This instrument was subjected to face and content validation by two mathematics educators and two measurement and evaluation experts. The reliability coefficient of 0.84 was obtained through the test re-test method using a sample of 20 pupils remote from the project location Local Government Area.

The researchers used the regular mathematics teachers of each school for the teaching. The researchers ascertained that the teachers were bilingual ( ie. fluent in L1 and L2). Their gender, teaching experience and educational qualification were considered during the selection of the arms of basic 7 classes used to minimise threat to experimental validity. A training programme was also organised for these teachers to acquaint them with the essential steps in teaching Mathematics word problem solving using L2+L1 approach (English plus dialect ) and conventional L2 approach (English only).

Treatment 197

The mathematical problem solving stages of defining the problem, planning, carrying out a plan, testing and checking a solution as outlined by Polya (1988) was religiously followed by the students during the instruction with the teacher as a guide. In order to define the process in the control group as well and to determine how different it is from the experimental group, the students in the control group were made to solve the same problems used in the experimental group but were not allowed to use their mother tongue to interact while solving the narrative problems. The teacher generally presented the problem to students, allowed time for solution and then guided students through the solution and asked the students to control their solutions. They were given NPSAT in both the pretest and post-test versions. The normal 40 minutes duration was observed per lesson supervised by the researchers. This experiment lasted for three weeks. The NPSAT was administered to each group before and after the teaching experimental as pretest and posttest respectively. Scripts were collected, marked and scored over hundred for both pretest and posttest.

Data Analysis

The mean, standard deviation and percentage proportions were used to answer the research questions. The 2-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 alpha level. The ANCOVA was used in an attempt effect statistical control to compensate for nonrandom assignment of subjects to groups. Since consideration is on intact groups (Adetula, 2010).

Results and Discussion

Research Question 1: What difference exists in students’ narrative problem solving achievement when taught using English Language 198

supplemented with mother tongue (L2+L1) versus English Language (L2) only?

Table 1: Gain score of students’ word problem solving achievement when taught using English Language supplemented with mother tongue (L2+L1) versusEnglish Language (L2) only.

Group N Pre- SD Post- SD Mean % test test Gain Gain − − X X L2 only 50 41.46 8.79 54.56 8.60 13.10 31.60 L2+L1 10.0 10.2 20.86 47.73 50 43.70 9 64.56 5

L2: English language only L2+L1: English Language supplemented with mother tongue 199

Figure 1: A Plot of Percentage Gain Vs Approaches in a Word Problem Solving Instruction

100 L2 90 L2+L1 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 L2 L2+L1 Approach

Table 1 and figure 1 show the mean pretest, post-test and gain scores of the students in narrative problem solving instruction when taught using

L2+L1 versus L2 only approaches. It was obvious that the students mean gain score in the L2 group (13.10, 31.60%) was lower than that of their

L2+L1 counterparts (20.86, 47.73%). This indicated that the L2+L1 group benefited more by the experimental treatment than those in the L2 group.

Research Question 2: What gender difference exists in male and female students’ narrative problem solving achievement when taught using English Language supplemented with mother tongue (L2+L1) versus English Language (L2) only?

Table 2: Gender difference in the male and the female students’ narrative problem solving achievement when taught using English 200

Language supplemented with mother tongue (L2+L1) versus English Language (L2) only.

Pretest Posttest

− − Mean Group Gender N X SD X SD gain % gain

L2 only Male 21 39.43 7.44 55.14 9.11 15.71 39.86

Female 29 42.93 9.50 54.14 8.35 11.21 26.10

L2+L1 Male 23 45.87 7.64 66.74 12.58 20.87 45.50

Female 27 41.85 11.61 62.70 7.51 20.85 49.82

L2: English language only L2+L1: English Language supplemented with mother tongue

Table 2 shows that the difference between the mean gain in the learning

outcomes of the male and the female students in the experimental (0.02,

4.33%) and control (4.50, 13.75%) groups was not large. The experimental

group proved to be more gender unbiased than the control group based on

the mean difference in the gain scores between the sexes which was

considerably low (0.02).

Test of hypotheses.

Table 3: ANCOVA results of post-test NPSAT

Source of Sum of Mean Variation Squares df Square F Sig. Decision

Corrected Model 2735.401 4 683.850 7.608 .000 S

Intercept 14740.454 1 14740.454 163.989 .000 S

Pre-test 20.845 1 20.845 .232 .631 NS 201

Approaches 2384.044 1 2384.044 26.523 .000 S

Gender 154.612 1 154.612 1.720 .193 NS

Interaction 41.672 1 41.672 .464 .498 NS

Error 8539.239 95 89.887

Total 366014.000 100

Corrected Total 11274.640 99

S= Significant p<.05 NS= Not Significant p>.05

Table 3 shows the results of the test of hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 respectively. It specifically shows that the difference observed between the mean achievement scores of the treatment and the control groups was statistically significant and this was in favour of the experimental group (F1, 95 = 26.523; p< 0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis had to be rejected. This difference observed in the mean achievement scores of male and female was not statistically significant (F1, 95 = 1.720; p > 0.05) as seen in Table 2. The null hypothesis was accepted. Interaction effect of approaches and gender (Table 2) on achievement was not significant (F1, 95 = .464; p >0.05). The last null hypothesis was again accepted. Teaching approaches (languages of instruction) did not interact significantly with gender to influence basic 7 pupils’ achievement in mathematics narrative problem solving. This finding was judged consistent with Moschkovich (1999) who established that students experience higher levels of success in secondary school mathematics courses that provide native language support. 202

Figure 2: A Plot of Interaction between Gender and Group on Post-test mean scores

67.50 Gender 65.00 female male

n 62.50 a e

M 60.00

57.50

55.00

Control (L2) Experimental(Experimental L2+L1) (L1+L2) Group

Furthermore, Figure 2 shows that the difference in the mean achievement scores between the treatments were almost the same across gender and this indicated the non existence of any significant interaction effect. The means of the two levels of both the treatments and gender show a consistent trend. Although there was no significant interaction, the effect of the experiment was found to enhance achievement in mathematics narrative problem solving in favour of the male students. However the mathematics achievements mean scores of the male students was higher than that of the females in all respect.

Conclusion 203

Basic 7 students significantly differed in their mathematics narrative problem solving in favour of the experimental group. No significant gender differences were observed in students’ achievements due to the experiment and the interaction between treatments and gender. The effect of the experiment was found to improve achievement in mathematics narrative problem solving in favour of the female students but the achievement mean scores of the male students was higher than that of the females in all respect. The use of students’ mother-tongue plus English impacted positively on their achievement in mathematics.

Recommendation

Based on the findings of the study it was recommended that:

• Students’ mother tongue and English should be used in teaching mathematics to make clearer any very abstract mathematical concepts at the UBE level. • Competent bilingual fluent teachers should be employed to teach basic mathematics in their home towns. • The male and the female students should be equally involved in mathematics lesson development progress.

REFERENCES 204

Adetula, L.O. (2010). Statistical Tools for Mathematical Science Education Research: Paper Presented At The Workshop For Lecturers of Mathematical Sciences In Tertiary Institutions, National Mathematical Centre Kwali, Abuja. 20th-25th June

Bialystok, E. (2001).Bilingualism in development: language, literacy and cognition.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Barwell, R. (2001) Investigating mathematical interaction in a multilingual primary school:finding a way of working. In van den Heuvel- Panhuizen, M. (Ed.) Proceedings of PME 25, vol. 2, pp. 97-104.

Clarkson, P. C. (2004) Bilingual students learning mathematics in Australia: A review. In Dhindsa, H., Cheong, I., Tendencia, C. & Clements, M. (Eds.) Realities in science, mathematics and technical education, pp. 266-275. Brunei Darussalam: Universiti Brunei Darussalam.

Clarkson, P. C., Owens, K., Toomey, R., Kaleva, W. & Hamadi, T. (2001) The development of a process for the evaluation of teacher education. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Australian Association of Research for Education.

Garrison, L. & Mora, J. K. (1999). Adapting Mathematics Instruction for English Language Learners: The Language Concept. In L. Ortiz- Franco, N. G. Hernandez, & Y. De La Cruz. Reston (Eds.), Changing the Faces of Mathematics: Perspectives on Latinos. VA,National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Gutierrez, R. (2002). "Beyond Essentialism: The Complexity of Language in Teaching Mathematics to Latina/o Students." American Educational Research Journal 39(4), 1047-1088. 205

Hofmannová, M., Novotná, J., & Moschkovich, J (2004). Proceedings of the 28th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, 2004 Vol I pp 227–256

Khisty, L. (1995). Making Inequality: Issues of language and meanings in mathematics teaching with Hispanic Students. In W. G. Secada, E. Fennema, & L. B. Adajian (Eds.), Mosqueda and Téllez

Moschkovich, J. N (1999b). Understanding the Needs of Latino Students. In L. Ortiz-Franco, N. G. Hernandez, & Y. De La Cruz Reston (Eds.), Changing the Faces of Mathematics: Perspectives on Latinos. VA, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

Moschkovich, J.N. (2000) Learning Mathematics in two languages: Moving from obstacles to resources. In Secada, W. (Ed.), Changing Faces of Mathematics (Vol. 1): Perspectives on multiculturalism and gender equity. Reston, VA: NCTM.

Mosqueda, E and Téllez, K. (2008). Teachers' attributions of language proficiency, mathematics achievement, and school context measures: an exploratory study. PME 32 and PME-NA XXX

Polya, G. (1988). How To Solve It. New Jersey, NJ: Princeton University Pres.

Secada, W. G. (1992). Race, Ethnicity, Social Class, Language, and Achievement in Mathematics. In D. A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: McMillan Publishing Company. 206

Setati, M. (2003) Language use in a multilingual mathematics classroom in South Africa: A different perspective. In Pateman, N. A., Dougherty, B. J. & Zilliox (Eds.) Proceedings of PME 27, vol. 4, pp. 151-158. 207

SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION AND ANTIMICROBIAL STUDIES OF VO(IV), Cu(II), AND Zn(II) COMPLEXES OF 3(-1-(4-METHOXY-6-METHYL)- 2- PYRIMIDINYLIMINO) METHYL-2-NAPHTHOL.

* FESTUS, C. AND NWOKE, I. B.

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT, IGNATIUS AJURU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, PORT-HARCOURT, NIGERIA.

e-mail: [email protected] 07037213412.

ABSTRACT

Metal (II) (Cu, Zn and VO) complexes of the Schiff base, 3(-1-(4-methoxy-6-methyl)-2- pyrimidinylimino) methyl-2-naphthol (HF) derived from 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde and 2- amino-4-methoxy-6-methyl pyrimidine have been synthesized and characterized. (Metal (II) = Cu, Zn and VO(IV)). All were characterized by infrared, percentage metal analysis, melting points, and electronic spectral measurements. The infrared spectra of the compounds showed that the ligand is bidentate and coordinates through the imine –N and enol –O atoms. The electronic spectra measurements indicate a tetrahedral geometry for ZnF2, a square planar geometry for CuF2 and VOF2 is 5-coordinate square pyramidal. The metal complexes showed better antibacterial activity than the ligand due to chelation. CuF2 exhibited a broad spectrum activity towards Bacillus sp, Salmonella sp and E. Coli with inhibitory zones in the range 7 – 10 mm.

Keywords; Schiff base ligand, Metal(II) complexes, Pyrimidine, and Antimicrobial activities 208

INTRODUCTION

Schiff bases are products of condensation reaction between primary amines and carbonyl compounds (Mahmood, et al, 2005). Schiff bases have often been used as chelating ligands in the field of co-ordination chemistry, due to the hydroxyl functional group some bear near co-ordination sites, forming a five or six membered chelate ring upon reaction with a metal ion (Kolawole, 1979). Schiff base complexes of transition metals and their adducts are renowned for their various biological activities which include antibacterial (Karia and Parsania, 1999), anticancer (Chagas da Silveira et al, 2008), anti-inflammatory and analgesic activitiess (Thangadurai, 2001; Osowole, 2010) and catalysts (Shalin et al, 2009).

The study of pyrimidinyl Schiff bases have recently gained research interest due to their broad spectrum activities in the treatment of cancer, solid tumors and their low toxicity in the body (Puccetti et al, 2005). In this paper, the synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial studies of VO(IV), Cu(II), and Zn(II) complexes of 3(-1-(4-methoxy-6-methyl)-2-pyrimidinylimino) methyl-2-naphthol are for the first time.

Experimental Procedures Matherials Reagent grade 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde, 2-amino-4-methoxy-6-methyl pyrimidine, zinc (II) acetate dihydrate, vanadium sulphate trihydrate and copper (II) chloride dihydrate were all from Aldrich and British Drug Houses (BDH) and used same as received. Solvents were dried and distilled using standard methods.

Methods

Synthesis of Ligand, HF

To a solution of 2.5 g (0.015 mol) of 2-hydroxy-1-naphthaldehyde in 50mL of hot methanol, 1.79 g (0.014 mol) of 2-amino-4-methoxy-6-methyl pyrimidine was added slowly while stirring. To the resulting homogeneous solution, 8 drops of acetic acid were added, and the mixture were refluxed for 6 hr. The bright golden yellow crystals of the ligand were filtered, washed with ethanol, recrystallized twice to ensure the purity of the synthesized Schiff base and then dried over silica gel. 209

H N CH3 C= N N OH OMe HF

Figure 1: Structure of the Schiff base, HF.

Synthesis of M(II) Complexes (M = Cu, Zn and VO)

Each metal(II) complex was prepared by the addition of 0.6 mol of the metal salt into a hot stirred methanol (30ml) containing the ligand (3 g, 0.01 mol). The resulting coloured homogeneous solution was buffered with 0.2 mL of triethylamine [(C2H5)3N] and then refluxed for 6 hr. The precipitates formed were filtered under suction, washed with 20 mL of methanol, recrystallized from methanol and dried over anhydrous calcium chloride. The reactions of the metal(II) ions with the synthesized Schiff base (see figure 2) was in the ratio 1:2 (Ali et al; 2005).

M(OAc)2. xH2O + 2HF → MF2 + 2HOAc + xH2O ………………… (i)

(when M = Zn, x = 2).

M(Cl)2. xH2O + 2HF → MF2 + 2HCl + xH2O ……………………... (ii)

(when M = Cu, x = 2).

M(SO4). xH2O + 2HF → MF2 + H2SO4 + xH2O …………………... (iii)

(when M = VO, x = 3 ).

Metal Analysis

The percentage metal in Cu(II), and Zn(II) complexes were determined by complexometric titration with EDTA to a purple end point using murexide indicator in the case of Cu while the Zn(II) complex whose indicator was solochrome black T showed blue end point. The values obtained were compared with the theoretical percentage metal. The results are presented in Table 1. 210

Physical Measurements

The melting points of the ligand and the metal complexes were determined using Electro-thermal Temp-Mel melting-point model machine. The solubility test of the prepared compounds were carried out in six(6) different solvents, namely: distilled water, methanol, ethanol, dichloromethane, dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO), and dimethylformamide(DMF). Results are presented in Table 2.

Spectral Measurements

The infrared, ultraviolet and visible spectra of the ligand and its metal complexes were recorded on a PERKIN ELMER FT-IR SPECTRUM BX and PERKIN ELMER LAMBDA 25 UV/VISIBLE spectrophotometers respectively at the ‘Multidisciplinary Research Laboratory’ of University of Ibadan, Ibadan. The relevant band positions and their assignments are presented in Table 3 while Table 4 contains the electronic spectral data of the compounds.

Antimicrobial Studies

Laboratory strains of Escherchia coli, Bacillus sp, and Salmonella sp were used for screening. The antimicrobial experiments were done at the department of ‘Food and Industrial Microbiology, University of Ibadan’, Ibadan.

Antimicrobial susceptibility tests were performed using the agar diffusion technique. The surface of Muller Hinton’s agar in petri dish was uniformly inoculated with 0.3 mL of 18 hr old bacteria/fungus cultures. 10 mg/mL solution of each compound in methanol was added to a 6 mm well bored unto the agar. The plates were allowed to stand on the bench for 30 min. before incubation at 37oC for 24 hr after which inhibitory zones were observed in mm as a measure of antimicrobial activity.

Results and Discussion

The ligand exhibited a yellow shade and VOF2, CuF2, and ZnF2 possessed various shades of green. The prepared complexes and ligand have sharp melting points between 199 –

o o 260 C with the exception of ZnF2 which melted in the range 99 – 102 C. The results of the percentage metal analysis of the complexes were in close agreement with theoretical values.

The complexes exhibited good solubility in all the solvents used with exception of water. CuF 2 211 was soluble in all the solvents with the exception of DMSO and water. On the contrary, VOF2 is soluble only in CH2Cl2. The insolubility of VOF2 in other solvents used is attributed to its polymeric nature.

TABLE 1: Analytical Data for Prepared Compounds

PROPERTY/ COLOUR MOLECULAR % METAL MELTING POINT(OC) COMPOUND MASS Expermenta Theoretical l

HF Golden Yellow 293.118 - - 199 – 202

C17H15O2N3

VOF2 Green 651.195 ND ND 235 – 237

VO[C34H28O4N6]

CuF2 Kahki Green 647.806 10.02 10.32 259 – 262

Cu[C34H28O4N6]

ZnF2 Deep Army 649.636 10.53 10.09 99 – 102

Zn[C34H28O4N6] Green

ND: Not Determined. NDb = complex insoluble in DMSO

TABLE 2: Solubility Table For The Prepared Compounds

SOLVENT/ DMSO DMF MeOH EtOH DISTILLED CH2Cl2

COMPOUND H2O

HF S S S S NS S

VOF2 SS SS SS SS NS S

CuF2 SS S S S NS S

ZnF2 S S S S NS S

NB: S = Soluble, NS = Not Soluble, SS = Slightly Soluble.

Infrared Spectra of Compounds 212

Observed bands’ frequencies for the ligand and its metal complexes are presented with their respective assignments. The band at 3450 cm-1 in the free ligand is attributed to ѵOH of the enolic OH of the Schiff base while the broad bands at 3500 cm-1 in the metal complexes are assigned to coordinated water molecules (Raman et al, 2007). The former band disappeared in the complexes which is indicative of deprotonation and coordination of the enol oxygen atom to the metal ions. The bands observed in the regions 1250 – 1530 cm-1, and 2900 – 3050 cm-1 in the compounds are assigned to ѵC–H of the methyl groups and ѵC–H of the aromatic groups respectively.

The ѵC=N vibration of the imine band occurred coupled with C=C stretching vibration of the aromatic system between 1730 – 1630 cm-1 in the free ligand and its bathochromic shift to 1680 – 1590 cm-1 in the complexes is indicative of the involvement of the nitrogen atom of the imine group in coordination. The vanadyl complex exhibited a very sharp and strong band at 980 cm-1 attributed to V=O frequency. The strong bands at 850 - 750 cm-1 in both the free Schiff base and metal complexes were assigned to δC–H vibrations of the aromatic systems while bands between 590 – 528cm-1 which were not found in the free Schiff base, is attributed to the ѵM–N of the metal complexes. The bands appearing between 490 – 420cm-1 in the metal complexes are assigned to ѵM – O stretching vibration (Raman et al; 2001).

TABLE 3: Infrared Spectral Data For The Prepared Compounds

COMPOUNDS υ(0H) υ(C=N)+ υ(C-H OF υ(C-H in υ(V=O) δ(C-H) υ M-N υ M-O

(C=C) AROMATIC) CH3)

HF 3450s 1730s 2930s 1250s - 850s, - -

1630s 1430s 760s

VOF2 3500 b 1680 2900m 1460s 980vs 750s, 590b 420s

1590m 1250 s 830s

CuF2 3500b 1630m 2900m - 1370m - 750s 528s 490s

1590m 3050m 1400b 860s 590s

ZnF2 3490b 1600m 3060m 1530s - 830 m 580s 430s

1330s 480 s 750 m

NB: vs = very strong, s = Strong, m = Medium, b = Broad, w = weak

Electronic Spectra of Compounds 213

The ultraviolet spectra of the compounds are characterized by three bands between 26.40 – 28.30 kK, 23.33 – 32.10 kK and 42.00 – 44.40 kK assigned to n → π*, π → π* and charge transfer transitions respectively (Osowole, (2010). The solution spectra of the oxovanadium (IV) Schiff base complex (VOF2) showed three absorption bands at 13.00 kK, 16.00 kK and 20.00 kK respectively, consistent with five coordinate square pyramidal geometry

2 2 2 2 2 and are assigned to B2 → e*π (band I), B2 → B1 (band II) and B2 → A1 (band III) respectively (Osowole, 2008).

CuF2 displayed two absorption bands at 14.60 kK and 23.60 kK consistent with four

2 2 2 2 coordinate square planar geometry and are assigned to B1g → A1g and B1g → E1g transitions (Singh et al 2001). The spectra of Zn(II) complex showed only charge transfer transitions from metal-to- ligand, at 13.15 and 22.17 kK respectively as no d-d transition is expected. The bands at 32.10 kK, and 45.00 kK are assigned to π → π* and charge transfer transitions respectively (Chohan, 2001).

TABLE 4: Electronic Spectra Data For The Prepared Compounds

COMPOUNDS ABSORPTION MOLAR BANDS TENTATIVE BANDS (Ѵ) ABSORPTION ASSIGNMENT GEOMETRY

kK = 1000 cm-1 (L mol-1 cm-1)

HF 42.70, 37.60, 40000, 10000, Charge transfer

32.10, 23.30 3500 π → π

VOF2 42.00 250000 Charge transfer

31.30 150000 π → π*

27.10 10000 n → π*

2 2 20.50 400 B2 → A1

2 2 16.00 300 B2 → B1 Square

2 2 13.00 400 B2 → e* ( E) Pyramidal

CuF2 42.20 270000 Charge transfer

30.40 150000 π → π* Square

26.40 60000 n → π* Planar

2 2 23.60 300 B1g → E1g

2 2 14.60 4000 B1g → A1g 214

ZnF2 44.40 30000 Charge transfer

32.10 35000 π → π* Tetrahedral

28.30 20000 n → π*

22.17 4000

13.15 700 (M – L).

H MeO N C N N CH O 3 M

O H3C N N C N OMe H

Figure 2: Proposed structure of the Metal (II) complexes

Antimicrobial Activity

The results of antimicrobial activities of the compounds against gram positive bacterium Bacillus sp. and gram negative bacteria Salmonella sp. and E. Coli are presented in Table 5 and Figure 3. The metal(II) complexes are generally more active than the free Schiff base ligand. The effectiveness of the metal(II) complexes is attributable to “chelation” which reduces the polarity of the metal atom, resulting from partial sharing of its positive charge with the donor groups of the ligand and possible π – electron delocalization over the aromatic rings. This apparently increases the lipophilic character of the complexes, favouring its permeation through lipid layers of the bacterial membrane (Singh et al, 2001. and Osowole et al, 2005).

A critical examination of Table 5 reveals that most of the complexes (CuF 2 and ZnF2) generally had inhibitory zones of 7 - 10 mm while VOF2 had the inhibitory zones of 9 – 20 mm. A general observation is that the metal complexes are more susceptible to the gram negative organisms than the gram positive organism due to the thin layer nature of the cell wall of the former.

Specifically, CuF2 is the only complex that was active against the three organisms used with inhibitory zones of 7 - 10 mm. Consequently, it has a broad-spectrum activity. The other 215 complexes were active against two organisms only, i.e VOF2 was effective against Salmonella sp. and E.Coli with inhibitory zone of 9-20 mm respectively while ZnF2 had antimicrobial activity against E. Coli and Bacillus sp. with inhibitory zones of 8 and 7 mm respectively.

If the activities of the complexes against each organism is ranked and the ranking is added , an activity sequence can be deduced in the order, ZnF2 < VOF2 < CuF2. CuF2 is ranked highest than the other complexes since it is the only complex that is active against all the screened organisms.

The antimicrobial activities of these complexes were compared to that of gentamycin (a standard antibiotic), and CuF2 exhibited a board spectrum activity against the organisms used proving its potential usage as a board spectrum antimicrobial agent.

TABLE 5: Antimicrobial Data For Ligand and Complexes

COMPOUNDS Salmonella Sp E. coli Bacilus Sp

HF R R R

VOF2 9.0 ± 2.1 20.0 ± 0.1 R

CuF2 7.0 ± 0.3 10.0 ± 0.1 7.0 ± 0.1

ZnF2 R 8.0 + 0.6 7.0 ± 0.2

Gentamycin + 35.0 ± 1.3 45.0 ± 1.2 28.0 ± 1.2

DMSO * R R R

NB: R = Resistance, + = Positive standard and * = Negative standard. 216

Figure 3: The histogram of the activities of the ligand and complexes against three bacteria

Conclusion

From the infrared spectral data of the prepared compounds, the ligand was bidentate and coordinates to the metal ions through the enol oxygen and the imine nitrogen atoms. The electronic spectral measurements indicate a tetrahedral geometry for ZnF2, a square planar geometry for CuF2 and VOF2 is 5-coordinate square pyramidinyl. Cu(II) and Zn(II) dimethylsulphoxide soluble complexes were non-electrolytes.

The metal complexes showed better antimicrobial activities than the uncoordinated ligand

due to chelation. Notably, CuF2 exhibited a broad spectrum activity towards all the screened bacteria with inhibitory zones in the range 7 – 10 mm, proving its potential usage as a broad spectrum antimicrobial agent.

REFERENCES. 217

Ali, A. K; Kamellia, N. and Zolfaghar, R.(2005). Synthesis, Characterization and Study of the use of Co(II) Schiff base complexes as catalysts for the oxidation of styrene by molecular oxygen. Molecules. 10: 301-311.

Chagas da Silveira, V; Luz, J. S; Oliveira, C. C; Graziani, A. R; Ciriolo, M. R. and Ferreira, A.

M. (2008). Double strand DNA cleavage induced by oxindole Schiff base Cu(II) complexes with potential antitumor activity. J. Inorg. Biochem, 102(5-6), 1090-1103.

Chohan, Z. H. (2001). Synthesis, Characterization and Biological properties of bivalent transition

Metal complexes of Co(II), Cu(II), Ni(II), and Zn(II) with some acylhydrazine derived from furanyl and thienyl ONO and SNO donor Schiff base ligands. Synth.React. Inorg.Met.- org Chem. 31(1), 1-6.

Karia, F.D. and Parsania, P.H. (1999) Asian J. Chem. 11(3) 991.

Kolawole, G.A. (1979). Synthesis and Characterization of Schiff complexes of oxovanadium

(iv)’ Ph.D Thesis University of Ibadan, Ibadan (unpublished).

Mahmood Payehghadr, Ali Akbar Babaei, Lot Fali Saghat Foroush and Fraydoun Ashrafi (2005): Spectrophotometric and Conductometric Studies of the Thermodynamics Complexation of Zn2+, Cu2+, Co2+, Ni2+ and Cd2+ ions with a new Schiff base ligand in acetonitrile solution. African Journal of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 3(5),92-97.

Osowole, A.A. Kolawole, G.A. and Fagade, O.E. (2008): Synthesis characterization and

Biological studies of unsymmetrical Schiff base Ni(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II) complexes and adducts with 2, 21-dipyridyl and 1, 10-Phenanthroline. J. coord. Chem. Vol.23, 193-196.

Osowole, A.A. (2010): Synthesis, Magnetic, Spectral and Thermal properties of some M(II)

Complexes of Chromenol Schiff base. Int. journal of chem. 5,1.

Osowole, A.A. Kolawole, G.A. and Fagade, O.E. (2005): Synth. React. Inorg.met-Org.

Chem.,Nano-Metal Chemistry, 35,829.

Puccetti, L; Fasolis, G; Vullo, D; Chohan, Z. H; Scozzafava, A; and Supuran, C. T. (2005). 218

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: Inhibition of cytosolic/tumor associated carbonic aromatic sulfonamide moieties and their zinc complexes. Bioinorg. Med chem Lett; 15, 3096- 3101.

Raman, N. Dhaveethu, J. Raja and Sakthivel, A. (2007) Synthesis and Spectral Characterization

of Schiff Base Transition Metal Complexes. DNA Cleavage and Antimicrobial Studies. J. Chem. Sci. Vol. 119, No. 4 Pp 303-10.

Raman, N. Raja, Y.P. and Kulandaisamy, A. (2001): Synthesis and Characterization of Ni(II),

Cu(II), Zn(II), Mn(II), and VO(II) Schiff base complexes derived from o-phenylenediamine and acetoacetanilide. Proc india. Acad. Sci. Sci. Chem.sci. Vol.113, No.3. P183-189.

Shalin, K. Durga, N.D. and Saxena, P.N. (2009): Application of metal complexes of Schiff

bases. A Review. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. Vol.68. 181-187.

Singh, K.N. Singh, D. K. and Singh, S. B. (2001). Synthesis, Characterization and Biological

studies on Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), and Zn(II) complexes with N-picolinoyl-N-thiobenzoyl hydrazine. Synth.React. Inorg.Met.-org Chem.32(4), 703-720.

Thangadurai, T.D. and Natarajan. K. (2001): Trans. Met.Chem. 26. 219

Electronic Payments System as a Veritable Tool for Financial Sector Reforms in Nigeria

BY

WOSU CHIDI

Economics Department

Ignatius Ajuru University of Education

Rumuolumeni Port Harcourt.

[email protected].

08037435600, 08070788889

And

Macaulay, Egbo Dick

Accounting Education

Federal College of Education, (Tech) Omoku

PMB 11, Omoku

Email: [email protected]

08034914003

Abstract

The financial institutions such as the banks are the financial hub of the economy since every economic, social and political actions hover around the banking system in terms of the stability, sustainability, safety, efficiency and reliability of the payment system in the economy. This paper is driven by the Federal government order on Central Bank of Nigeria to stop the chequeing system and to replace it

Keyword; Banks, Economy, E-payment and Federal government. 220

with the electronic payment, effective from Jan 1, 2009 and the effectiveness upon implementation of the payment system vision 2010. The paper concludes that the sudden change without its planning will spell doom on the system in the short run since people are resistant to change, considering the fact that the rural poor constitute about 60% of the total population in Nigeria who patronize exchange based on cash. The paper recommends customer education on the user, usage and importance of a cashless economy by embracing the reforms towards a cash-free economy. Further security measures should be adopted to checkmate fraud in the E-payments system.

INTRODUCTION

The financial sector has faced a lot of improvement in recent time especially as it relates to electronic payment system, a wave which the entire banks in the world is experiencing with Nigeria inclusive. Electronic payment is a new phenomenon and is relatively being enforced in the Nigerian banks by the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in 2010 with Lagos being the first state to practice the cashless economy. Over the years in the economy of the world and that of Nigeria, banks’ operations in terms of money deposit or withdrawal were done with the use of cheques for small or large amount of money from the banks. Being the only medium, through which cash can be exchanged, enough cash was made available in the economy exacerbating a lot of macroeconomic problems such as inflation experienced in the economy – (CBN, 2010; Cronin, 1997; and Crede, 1998). By 2010, the central bank Governor, Sanusi Lamido Sanusi brought in radical changes that transformed the banks in Nigeria to a near world class bank. The various policies of central bank were geared towards consolidating the banks and then ensure a steady reduction in the use of cheques as means of transactions of money between the banks and the supposed customers. To ensure that there was a change for better, the central bank directed all banks not to allow any customers or individuals to exceed N150,000.00 in withdrawals, N500,000.00 for corperate bodies’ etc but later changed the policy such that individuals were allowed to withdraw N500,000.00 and corperate bodies above millions etc (Ingesoll, 1977; Kilonzo, 2007; Tar & Teo 2000; CBN, 2010; and Slater, 2000). This policy was to be implemented in other banks by 2010 in Nigeria to reduce the cash circulation in the economy. To overhaul the system, central bank approved 16 mobile payment schemes to launch mobile payments services and issued the regulatory framework for mobile payments services to address the technology- driven payment. The CBN went further to draft guidelines on electronic payment taxes, payment 221 of salaries with more than 50 employees and securities settlement. Further development in the payment system was the directives by CBN to all banks to migrate all their cards from magnetic stripe technology to chip + PIN, effective October 1, 2010. It equally directed all complaints related to electronic cards to be resolved within 72 hours, fast track the resolution and monitoring of the e-cards within 72 hours, coordinate and integrate all switches with the National central switch to address the issues of inter-connectivity and inter-operability of different networks and established a payments system policy for effective monitoring of existing and planned payments system initiative (CBN, 2010; Ngerebo-a, 2012; Tan & Teo, 2000; Boni & Traver, 2007; Landon & Traver, 2003; Leon, 1998; and Kalinzo, 2007).

Evolution of E-payments System in Nigeria

E-payments system evolution is a trace of the development of payments system in the world. The barter system of exchange in the mediaeval time was the order of the day in payment. The barter system then was the means of exchange acceptable in the economy. This grew through the exchange of goods for goods and this guaranteed exchange leading to the development of the banking system in terms of payment (Crede, 1998). The cumbersomeness of the system as regards to exchange or payment led to the search of an acceptable medium of exchange hence the gradual shift from Cowries, gold, silver into paper money such as currency notes, letters of credit, cheques and bills of exchange (Ngerebo-a, 2002; Gbosi, 2000; Taiwo, Tajudeen & Ebenezar, 2011).

E-payment was introduced because government was worried by the mounting levels of allegations of corruption in the Federal civil service, thus a circular reference No. TRY/A8 & B8/2008 of October 22, 2008, was issued to the Central Bank of Nigeria that effective from Jan 1, 2009, all funds of the government accounts with banks should be transacted electronically. This include payments to ministry, Departments and paratatals or agencies (MDAS) to eliminate necessary delays in the chequeing system and frauds associated with the former system. The new system involves MDAS using cheque for payments to contractors, non-chequeing system of all government accounts with banks, mandates to pay contractors, contractors to indicate their current account numbers, FGN or government employees to have accounts with banks for salary payment, and that no Central Pay Officers (CPO) should pay cash on behalf of government (CBN, 222

2010; Crede, 1998; Kilonzo, 2007 and Leong, 1998). The payment system has gradually moved from letters of credit and currency paper to other forms of technologically based instruments for payment settlement known as E-banking system or the internet banking. The prepaid payment mechanism uses the instruments of payment electronically which include the use of physical exchange of cash, payment order or near money such as cheques, drafts, credit cards, money or postal orders (letters of credit) and electronic payments such as the Automated Teller Machine (ATM) and the Point of Sales (P.O.S) terminals (Boni & Tsekeris, 2007; Tan & Teo, 2000; Kilonzo, 2007; Cronin, 1997; Gbosi, 2000; Ngerebo-a, 2012; CBN, 2010; Livingstone, 1990 and Crede, 1998). E-payment or fund transfer (ETF) is the electronic exchange or transfer of money from one account to another either within a single financial institution or across multiple institutions through computer-based systems. It is a product of payment patterns that enables customers to pay for goods and services electronically without the use of cash. The value or the worth of goods will e-transfer into your e-wallet or account with the banks. E-payments covers such concepts as cardholder which is a kind of transaction where a cardholder makes use of a payment card. Payment can also be made by direct deposits pay roll payment for a business for its employees via pay roll service beareau. In E-payment, there are e-checks for which a business debits the customers banks account for payment of goods and services often called direct debits payments. E-payments encompasses e- bill payment in online banking which is normally delivered by E-transfer fund (ETF) or paper check. Transactions could involve stored value electronic-money (E-money), possibly in private currency. E-payment transactions involve wire transfer via international banking network. E- transfer fund acts was passed in 1978 by the United States America to establish the rights and liabilities of all participants in E-transfer fund activities (Kilonzo, 2007; Leong, 1998 and CBN, 2010).

Structure of Electronic Banking (E-banking) in Nigeria

E-banking simply refers to a form of banking that allows customers of a financial institutions to carryout transactions on a website which is operated by the banks on a retail or commercial bank, credit union etc. To be able to access fund in such a bank online facility, a customer should have personal internal access registers with the institutions for the provision of the service and then set up some password for the customers verification. The access password is routinely allocated to the customers whether they want to access their E-account or banking facility online or not. 223

Online e-account holders are linked to their accounts by cheque, savings, credit or other forms of account. In order to access the account, the customer is required to visit any stand of the Automated Teller Machine (ATM) or the Point of Sales (P.O.S) terminals. The card is inserted and the secret four degits pin used before money can be accessed. The volume and value of e-card transactions increased significantly by 70.6% and 66.3% to 195, 525, 568 and N1,072.88 billion, compared with 114, 592, 669 and N645.0 billion in 2009. The use of the various channels of e- payment grew significantly as available data indicated that ATM remained the most patronized, accounting for 95.2% of the total e-payment transactions in terms of volume at the various e- payment channels while the P.O.S terminal was the least with 8.0%. By December, 2010, ATM transactions stood at 186, 143 and N954.04 billion reflecting on increase of 70.5% and 73.9% respectively compare to the volumes recorded in 2009. The development reflected on overwhelming confidence increase on the part the public in the e-payment system adopted having addressed the fraud syndrome (CBN, 2010 and Accenture, 2003).

The use of mobile payments is still at infancy stage in Nigeria since they were recently licensed to operate. It’s transaction volume declined by 36.1% to close at 1,156.533 while its value decreased by 429.1% to N6.65 billion (CBN, 2010).

Table 1.0: Market share in the e-payment market in 2008 – 2010.

E-payment Volume (Millions) Value (N Billion)

Segment 2008 2009 2010 2008 2009 2010

ATM 60.11 109.6 186.2 399.7 548.6 954.0

( (91.0) (95.3) (95.2) (90.5) (85.1) (88.9)

WEB 1.6 2.7 7.2 25.1 84.2 (84.2) 99.5

(INTERNET) (2.4) (2.3) (3.7) (5.7) (13.0) (9.3)

P.O.S 1.2 0.9 1.1 16.1 11.0 12.7

(1.8) (0.8) (0.5) (3.7) (1.7) (1.2)

MOBILE 3.2 1.8 1.2 0.7 1.3 6.7

(4.8) (1.6) (0.6) (0.1) (0.2) (0.6) (0.6)

Figure in brackets are percentage share of total.

Features of E-banking (online) 224

In recent time, it has been noted that the online banking transactions introduced in the various branches of the commercial banks in Nigeria offered to customers appear to be unique in terms of its features and capabilities as some also are application specific. Among the features is the performance of non-transaction operations using ATM cards to check the balance in your account, view recent transactions, download bank statement, view images of paid cheques and place order for cheque book.

Other major functions that e-banking offers is that it transfers funds between customers linked accounts, payment to third parties which include bill payment e.g (BPAY) or the wire transfers. It include loans applications and transactions such as repayments of enrollments, offers personal management support in terms of importing data into personal accounting software. Customers are allowed to monitor all their accounts in one place whether in the banks or outside the banks and finally the e-banking offers financial institutions administration, transactions approval process, and the management of multiple users having varying degrees of authority. All the above are a reflection of the fact that e-banking is gaining a wider acceptability among office holders, merchants, ministries and the general public who reside in cities (CBN, 2010; Gandy, 1995 and Cronin, 1997).

Instruments of E-payments System

The operability of the e-payment can not be sustained without certain instruments which enables customers to withdraw or deposit or transfer money from one account to the other. The instruments are the ATM cards, the POS, Credit/Debit cards, master card, visa, Etranzact, interswitch and mobile money (CBN, 2010).

ATM has become the most popular towards the policy of cashless economy. It is easy and simple to carry from place to place and each bank have their name inscripted on the ATM card. The popular role of ATM card as an instrument of e-payment the society knows is the withdrawal of money from ATM stand. However, recent development shows that ATM card can be used to recharge phone from any network available in Nigeria. Other features of ATM card includes cash transfer, bills payment and balance inquiry. V–pay, interswitch, Etranzact and quick cash are leaders in ATM deployment in Nigeria. Interswitch allows all banks to be connected making it possible for customers to use the ATM card in any branch of any bank in Nigeria. Interswitch supports visa and master card on ATM. The use of ATM card over the periods have not helped in achieving the goal of the cashless economy. Apart from the rampart “no network” in the system 225 which poses temporary setbacks, it has remained the cheapest means of withdrawing money thereby making cash available in the economy. People who have up to ten accounts can withdraw ten times from the different ATM cards to meet up the daily cash withdrawal limit of N500,000.00 and N150,000.00 (CBN, 2010).

The point of sales (POS) terminal is a very portable device that enables shoppers to pay for goods with e-payment cards like ATM cards, debit card, credit cards etc. POS can be stored in offices, stores, supermarkets, boutiques and customers with e-payment cards such as master card, visa, etranzact etc, can pay for goods through it. POS terminal are connected to individual accounts and can be used to buy recharge cards especially when it is a current account (CBN, 2010).

Mobile money is part and parcel of e-payment in which case money is stored up in the mobile phone for payment of goods bought. Most shops and business outlets accepts it as it can be integrated into POS terminals. The mobile phone allows the bearer details of what he intends to pay to be entered into the phone. The cost of the goods will be provided alongside the merchant identity which is also entered on the mobile phone enter-face or enterpin and authorization to pay certain amount or the cost of purchase is given. The moment the amount is e-transferred, a confirmation appears on the device.

In nut shell, the upsurge in the use of ATM increased in volume and value during the second half of 2010 till date. The volume and value of transactions amounted to 102, 608, 918 and N546.55 billion, a figure which reflected increases of 22.82 and 34.13% over the volume and value of 83, 544, 224 and N407.48 billion during the first half of 2010. Mobile phone, following the issuance of the framework for mobile payments, 16 mobile payment service operators were granted approvals-in-principle during the period. The volume and value of payments through mobile telephones increased by 79.46 and 96.88% from 413, 839 and N2.24 billion at end – June 2010 to 742, 694 and N4.41 billion by end – December, 2010. Overall, e-payment cards volume and value in terms of transactions increased from 88, 785, 746 and N462.67 billion in the first half of 2010 to 106, 739, 822 and N610.22 billion in the second half of 2010, reflecting increases of 20.22 and 31.89%. The increases were attributed to enhanced confidence in electronic card payment (CBN, 2010).

The Challenges of the E-payments System in Nigeria 226

Like in any change, challenges are bound to occur. The e-payment system is not an exceptions. Some of the major challenges confronting the e-payment are:

1. Ensuring the security of customers deposit is one of the major challenges confronting e-payments. To reduce unauthorized access to customers account, secure website is adopted using single password authentication though highly secured enough.

2. Another means is the use of the PIN/TAN system where the PIN represents a password used for the login and TANS represents one – time passwords to ensure authenticity of the password. TANS can be distributed by sending a list of TANS to the online banking user by postal order and it is the most popular means.

3. High transaction costs, High dependence on cash transactions and High level of illiteracy.

4. Low level of Internet access, inadequate inter-connectivity and inter-operation, high cost of deployment and maintenance of the payments infrastructure, Low level of public awareness of the existence of some non-cash payment products resulting in under-utilization of e-payments solutions.

5. Concentration of e-payment facilities in urban centres, the entrenched problem of excess liquidity in the system, serious infrastructural constraints, putting in place a comprehensive and enabling legal framework, including sanctions, to guarantee the reliability of non-cash substitutes and settlement finality, and the diligent enforcement of the dishonoured cheques Act of 1977.

6. The large size and continued growth of the informal sector where cash is the only acceptable means of payment and contending with money laundering risks and vulnerabilities.

7. The trapping down of ATM cards most times by the machine is a challenge to the e-payment. If the ATM card is trapped in Access bank, when the ATM card you carry is of United Bank for Africa (UBA), the Access bank will write to UBA informing them of a trapped ATM card of UBA with them. This may take days especially when the banks are not closer.

8. The issue of “out of network” or “No network” has been a common language since the introduction of e-payment. People stand in queues waiting when signals returns to the bank before money can be withdrawn. Login data can be stolen and valid TANS. Two known attacks are the phasing and phrasing. Cross-site scripting and key logger/Trojan horses can also be used to steal login information. Signature based online banking can be attacked by manipulating the software such that correct transactions are shown on the screen and fake transactions are signed in the 227

background. In 2008, incidences of fraud list 536 cases of computer intrusion compiled. Other factors or challenges are ignorance and illiteracy, attempts to control the banks by few persons or family, government regulation or legislature’s oversight functions on banks, lack of banks in rural areas, corruption, lack of confidence and suspicion in banks transactions.

The U.S Federal Deposits Insurance cooperation technology incident Report on Banks files quarterly and the average loss per incidence being in the neighbourhood of US$30,000.00. This adds to nearly US$16million loss in the second quarter of 2007. It later increased by 150% of computer intrusion i.e related cases in the last quarters of 2007. In 80% each of the cases, i.e the intrusion, the source has remained unknown but occurred during online banking (Tan & Teo, 2000).

The man in the browser is another form of attack or challenges faced by e-payment. In this case, the login horse permits a remote attacker to modify the destination account number and also the amount (Boni & Tsekeris, 2007: Crede, 1998; Mikkelson, 1981; Stoll, 2006; and Slater, 2000).

Recommendation/Measures to Check E-payment Fraud

1. In an attempt to checkmate the activities of fraudsters in e-payment, digital certificates aimed against phising and pharming was adopted. Class – 3 card readers can be used to avoid a manipulation of transactions by the software in signature based online banking variants. To protect the system against Trojan horses, avoid the use of virus scarners and be careful with down loaded software or e-mail attachments. In 2001, the United States Federal Financial Institutions Examination council issued guidance for multifactor authentication (MFA) and required all banks to put it in place by 2006. The same should be adopted by Nigeria banks.

2. No pin should be shared with any body and report any cases of stolen POS or fraud to the branch bank immediately. Account defaulting should equally be reported to the branch bank.

3. Banks should always advise for the change ATM pin at the point of collection and your personal ATM pin should be used.

4. There should be no e-mandate which means issuing orders to people through your ATM card to help you withdraw money.

5. The formation of Nigeria fraud forum will help check e-payment menace. 228

6. Card trap should be reported immediately to your bank.

Conclusion

From the e-payment areas covered, it is recommended that the new directives by CBN limiting customers not to withdraw certain amount should be encouraged. This will enhance the achievement of the cashless economy envisaged in the economy. The CBN through it’s supervisory role should ensure that the message is passed on to the rural poor who transact and conduct money outside the banking system.

The policy of banks not to allow the withdrawal of amount less than one hundred thousand, (N100,00.00) through cheques from one’s account should be encouraged by customers but adequate security should be mounted in and around the ATM stand to avoid stealing from customers.

The enforcement of the possession of ATM card by all is a step in the right direction. However, the problems of ignorance or illiteracy on how to operate the machine will pose a problem for bank customers. Customers are advised to go for its education at any branch of the bank for safety of money. The rural dwellers who are subsistence farmers need banks around their environment to enable them save money to reduce the flow of cash in rural areas. The terms POS, master card, ATM card, value card, credit or debit card, interswitch etc are all forms of e-payment that can be used in the settlement of debts or payment for purchases but all they understand is the paper money. Cheques which has existed over a decade now are still at their infancy of acceptance at the rural areas as some would reject it atrightly because it is not a means of exchange. Curriculum should be developed for all that e-payment encompasses to make it work both in the cities and in the rural areas to reduce technophobia. Again an effective fraud management system should be evolved to check e-payment menace, inform banks early enough on fraud cases, no pin sharing and ATM card trap should also be made known to the bank.

Finally, cashless economy is possible as the gains overwhelm the losses. This is because millions can be carried about by ATM card or POS object or any e-payment instrument thus paving way for a cashless economy in Nigeria. POS terminals should be available in shops and super markets etc. There should be general one card pin which can be used for any transactions e.g Jamb, WAEC, Universities, Power Holding etc all having different pins. This is cumbersome to carry plenty of cards. 229

References

Accenture (2003) Delivering a World class Payment Environment Retrieved May 4, 2011 from http://www.isc. ie/downloads/payments.pdf.

Accountant General of the Federation Treasury (2008) Circular No. TRY/A8 & B8.

Boni, K. & Tsekeris, C. (2007) Electronic Banking in Ritzer, G. (ed), Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, Blackwell Reference Online.

CBN. (2010) Annual Report December 31, 2010. 57 – 61.

CBN. (2010) Financial Stability Report. December, 2010. 51-56.

Crede A. (1998) Electronic Payment System, Electronic Money and the Internet: The United Kingdom Experience to Date. Retrieved from www.susx.ac.uk /spru.

Cronin, M.J. (1997) Banking and finance on the Internet, John Willy and Sons. ISBN 0471-29219. 41-43.

Gandy, T. (1995) “Banking in e-space”, The Banker, 145, (838), 74-76.

Gbosi, A.N. (2000) Banks Financial Crisis and Implications for the Nigerian Macroeconomic Environment, FBN, B1-Annual Review Lagos.

Ingesoll, J.E (1977) An Examination of Corporate Call Policies on Convertible Securities. Journal of Finance, 32, 463-479.

Kilonzo, K.D. (2007) An Analysis of the Legal Challenges Posed by Electronic Banking. Kenya Law Review, 1(323), 323-343.

Landon, K. & Traver, C. (2003) E-Commercial Business Technology, Society. Second Edition, Addison Wesley. 230

Leong, A. (1998) Paper, Plastic and Now, Electronic: A Survey of Electronic Payment System, Retrieved 21-04-012 from. www.euromoney.com.

Livingston, M. (1990) Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work. Journal of Finance, 25, 383-417.

Mikkelson, W.H. (1981) Convertible Calls and Security Returns. Journal of Economics, 9, 237 – 264.

Ngerebo-a, T.A. (2012) Concepts in Nigerian Financial Systems. Port Harcourt, Sabcos Publishers. 280-302.

Slater, D. (2000) What is E-Commerce. Retrieved February2, 2012 from www.darwinmag.com.

Stoll, H.R. (2006) Electronic Trading in Stock Markets. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20, 153 – 174.

Taiwo, O.A, Tajudeen, J.A and Ebenezar, Y.A. (2011) Electronic Payment System in Nigeria: Implementation, Constraints and Solution: Journal of Management and Society, 1(2), 16 – 21.

Tan, M & Teo, T.S. (2000) Factors Influencing the Adoption of Internet Banking. Journal of Association for Information Systems, 1(5), 1- 42.

COMMUNICATION:

A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVE CRIME CONTROL IN NIGERIA

BY 231

OKPO, FERDINARD JUSTICE

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

IGNATIUS AJURU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

ABSTRACT:

Crime control in Nigeria has had a lot of challenges, one of which is lack of effective communication system among and within the law enforcement system. Lack of modern communication gadget amongst security agents has adversely affected the war against crime and criminality in Nigeria. This paper examines the challenges of crime control using communication as the focus. Solutions to tackle the associated challenges were also recommended.

INTRODUCTION

Today, crime ranks number one on the list of challenges Nigeria is contending with. Crimes like kidnapping, terrorism, armed robbery, arson, housebreaking etc occur frequently and the perpetrators are hardly fished out and brought to book.

This study seek to explore communication as a means of combating crime in Nigeria, it will highlight the causes of crime and the obstacles of crime control in Nigeria using communication as our focus; surveillance cameras.

The thrust of this study is to reduces crime in Nigeria and provide a pathfinder to crime control with the use of communication gadgets.

CRIME

Concise Oxford Dictionary (2007:347) defines crime as on “act (usually, grave offence) punishable by law”. Hartjen (1978) cited in Iwarimie-Jaja (1999:28) sees crime as those activities that break the law of the land, and are subject to official punishment, a behaviour can only be considered a crime if it is contrary to any laws of society; thus in societies where there is the existence of laws, 232 behaviours such as prostitution, alcoholism, stealing, embezzlement, suicide, arson, assault, etc that go contrary to such laws are seen as criminal offence likely to be prosecuted. In this paper crime is define as any specific act of commission or omission that violates the law of a state, which a punishment is specified for such violation on conviction by a court of competent jurisdiction.

COMMUNICATION

Communication is a veritable tool in directing a group, and the ability to communicate is the lifeblood of any organization. Pfiffner (1958) cited in Ekwealor (2007:161). The managerial process of planning, organizing, directing and controlling depends largely on effective communication. Communication flows in various directions: downward, upward, diagonal and horizontal. Ekwealor opt cited defines communication as exchange of thoughts, message or information to achieve a desired objective. Continuing, communication is the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver with the information being understood by the receiver. Communication integrates the managerial functions.

This paper conceived communication as the transmission of information, feelings, symbols, facts, from one source to another with the receiver being able to understand and interprets the message.

THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

This paper shall adopt general theory of crime. In a general theory of crime, Travis Hirschi and Gotthedson (1989) cited in Adler et’ el (2006:93) in providing a pathfinder to combating crime proposed a new model of personal and social – one designed to explain an individual’s propensity to commit crime, Hirschi and Gotthedson claim that their model, unlike earlier conceptualizations, explains the tendency to commit all crimes from crimes of violence (such as robbery, sexual assault) to white – collar crimes such as mail fraud and federal securities violation. This “general theory” of propensity to commit crimes shown in figure1 below assumes that offenders have little control over their own behaviour and desires as the need for momentary pleasure and immediate gratification out- weighs long-term interest crime occurs. In short, crime is a bye-product of poor self control.

Criminal Acts Ineffective child- raising practice and Poor inadequate Self socialization Control 233

Figure 1. Non Criminal Acts that result in harm (Drinking and Accidents)

The Hirschi and Gottfredson’s model assumes that poor self control is an intervening veritable that explains all crime as well as differences in crime rates, age, gender and race. What leads to poor self control? Inadequate socialization and poor child- rearing practices. When this is joined with poor attachment, it increases the probability of impulse and uncontrolled acts. According to Hirchi and Gothfredson’s (1989), individuals with low self control also tend to be involved in non-criminal events that result in harm as such as drinking, smoking and most types of accidents including auto crashes, household fires and unwanted pregnancies.

CAUSES OF CRIME

This is no agreement amount scholars on the causes of crime in any society. The mode of distribution of the wealth of the nation could engender crime. Gana (1985) cited in Okpo (2005:15) argued that crime is a product of unequal distribution of the common wealth and the dehumanizing nature of means of production.

Beyond the mode of distribution of common wealth, the prevalence of poverty also leads to frustration and desperation. Dambazau (2007:87) observes that the increase in crime is highly associated with poverty, frustration and desperation. He stresses the social and economic condition to crime as they limit, constrain and narrow the choice available.

Beyond poverty there is the failure of social control, the absence of strong legal deterrence, lack of respect for authority and law. Ekpeyoung (2000:27) have attributed the increase in crime to failure of social control and crime prevention programme.

Beyond social control/failure of enforcement there is peer group influence Iwarimie-Jaja (1999:69) has argued that crime results from criminal association 234 when individuals learn from people who are the carries of criminal norms, value and beliefs through interactions.

OBSTACLES TO CRIME CONTROL IN NIGERIA

These are factors that limit the success of crime control effort they include:

Inadequate Funding:- Poor funding of security operations by the federal and State and other stake holders in security have adversely affected the effort aimed at crime control. Lack of modern communication gadgets, deplorable barrack accommodation for security personnel, insufficient serviceable vehicle to convey men from one location to another has constrained crime control effort of the security personnel, for instance in the area of tools of work, the security have been known for their outdated arms and ammunition which readily place them at the mercies of criminals who are armed with modern sophisticated security gadgets, good weaponry, and serviceable vehicles.

Low morale of security personnel: The civil society despises the security personnel. Nobody wants to have anything to do with them yet nobody can do without them. The civil populace does not see security as a collective responsibility which all well meaning citizens must participate; the society is hostile to security personnel. This hostility was due mainly to the regularity with which security personnel conduct their duties and visible communication gab between the security personnel and members of the public

Misuse of Personnel:- Apart from security man deployed on strategic beats and public places some are deployed as personal orderlies to dignitaries or as guard of numerous private premises in areas which could have collectively been guarded with less number. This situation is exacerbated in a democratic dispensation as security personnel are deployed to political bureaucrats. These deployments affected the number of personnel on actual crime control operation.

POOR ROAD NETWORK

Crime control efforts. Presently many security patrol team do not have access to some parts of the country due to poor network, coupled with the ricketary condition of most security patrol vans. Criminals reside in most of these areas and commit crime as security patrol vans and surveillance can hardly go after them. 235

LACK OF NETWORKING AMONGST SECURITY AGENCIES

Lack of affective networking of security agencies has limited crime control effort. in Nigeria, it has become obvious that the various security agencies function in dependently thus limiting crime control efforts. Ahme Adoke [email protected], have argued that the failure of security agencies to control crime despite yearly budgetary allocation to them is due largely in the are of intelligent gathering and sharing of such intelligent report with other relevant securities for proper implementation.

CORRUPTION

Closely followed is the prevalence of corruption amongst the high echelon of power in the security agencies. fund budgeted for security operations are diverted to personal use leaving little or nothing left for security operations Anamndu (2000:27) have argued that on a visit to a police station, to lodge a complaint, one is made to buy a biro before his statement would be taken, fuel the patrol van before the van can move, that he wondered where the security hierarchy keeps the budget and how they operates the budgets. In a situation where there is pervasive corruption most security personnel are frustrate to fight crime.

COMMUNICATION AND CRIME CONTROL IN NIGERIA

Communication is vital for effective crime control; A crime prone society requires that communication be immediate and informal. Crime control is the constitutional responsibility of the government-run security organizations e.g the Nigeria Police, the State Security Service, the armed forces and other para military agencies. These security agencies have various means of communication peculiar to their need. Of particular importance is one-to-one communication such as radio message/walkie talkie.

However in as much as global communication and information network and system have peaked, there is need for the procurement and installation of security communication equipment which is lacking in the security system that will assist in crime control. 236

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION / EQUIPMENT THAT WILL ASSIST IN CRIME CONTROL IN CONTROL

1. Computer Surveillance:- Is a communication equipment used in monitoring data and traffic in the internet; it can also be used in reading electromagnetic emanations from computing devices in order to extract data from them at a distance of hundred of metres. These equipment can assist in crime control as it identifies suspicious individuals and groups before they can execute their plans

2. Mobile phone: Is communication equipment used to collect location data and thus the person carrying it can be determined easily using a technique known as multi-leration.

3. Surveillance Cameras: Surveillance cameras are video cameras used for the purpose of observing an area; they are often connected to a recording device, internet publication network, and / or watched by security personnel. It can monitor security threat and thus help the security personnel to be proactive in their operations.

THE WAY FORWARD:

1. Every street, avenue should have a surveillance camera that will monitor and report security threat to security formation

2. Mobile phone providers should be mandated to monitor suspicious transactions in their system and report same to the security agencies.

3. Each security personnel should be motivated and provided with modern means of communication at government cost to enhance their operations. Such as: one security personnel to Four Hundred members of the public as recommended by United Nations.

4. Since most crimes are associated with poverty, desperation and frustration, government at all levels should formulate and implement policies that would reduce poverty.

5. The numerical strength of the security personnel should be increased and they be provided with modern crime fighting equipment. 237

6. Active participation of members of the civil society through provision of timely and accurate information to security agents for prompt action.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The increase in crime has led to loss of lives and properties which have resulted in an unsafe environment with adverse effect on the rate of domestic and foreign investment. We have also been able to state clearly that without adequate care for the security operatives no meaningful result would be achieved as far as crime prevention and control is concern.

The study concludes that the used of modern crime fighting equipment such as computer surveillance, camera would assist the security personnel to be more proactive in the discharge of their duties as they will able to monitor and identify crime before such crime will be committed.

REFERENCES

Anamndu, E. 2000: The nigeria police force and the way forward: Human Rights defender Vool. 3 No.1 1ST quarter

Adler, F. et’el (2006) Criminal justice an introduction New York MC Craw Hill Companies INC 238

Adoke, A. (2012) Intelligent gathering – bane of nigeria security agencies. Retrieve from [email protected] p 1

Dambazan, A B 2007 Criminology and criminal justices: spectrum books Ibadan

Ekpeyoung, S. (2000) “Diseased mega cities: the centre’s of fear” University of Port Harcourt in augural lecture series No. 22

Ekwealor, F. E (2007) Fundamentals of public administration Abbot books Onitsha

Iwarimie – Jaja, D. (1999) Criminology: the study of crimes L.I.J Publisher’s Port Harcourt2nd education.

Travis, H and Gottfredson, M. (1989) “The significance of white – collar crime for a general theory of crime” Criminology 27

Okpo, F. (2005) The challenges of managing urban crime and violence in Nigeria MPA Dissertation unpublish ESUT. Enugu

Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary 7th Edition.

STRATEGIES OF MANAGING CONFLICTS IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS IN NIGERIA

ABRAHAM T.O. STEWART DEPUTY VICE CHANCELLOR’s OFFICE IGNATIUS AJURU UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION RUMUOLUMENI, PORT HARCOURT 239

ABSTRACT

In the local government system, like in all organizations, the human element is the pivot of all activities. There is no organization, local government inclusive, that can do without the work force which gives impetus and relevance to the organization. It is through the social relationships, which exist among the people in the organization that brings about conflict. There are also cultural influences that surround the environment will directly or indirectly affect their behaviour in the workplaces. As they interact, work, take decision, implement them, their actions and decisions could result to conflict manifesting in the form of strikes etc. There also exist different methods of settling these conflict. This work shall be treating the various methods of settling conflicts (both voluntary and statutory) in the local government system in Nigeria.

Keywords: Conflicts, Local Government Councils, conflict resolution.

Introduction

Conflict resolution refers to the effort to positively deal with the issues, which bring about conflict. When there is a conflict, it implies that there is a dispute, a struggle against something undesirable by the persons expressing opposing views or claims. Before, discussing settlement of conflict, it is pertinent to understand what constitute or attribute of conflict in organization (Local government councils) 240

In the local government system there are several sources of conflicts ranging from political instability, poor financial base, incessant demand for increase in wages, fringe benefits, regular payment of salaries, the distrust between the chairman and councilors etc. There are also legal and structural perspectives of the conflicts. In fact, there are many sources of conflict in the local government system which could generate tension and dispute between the management and the workers in the local government system.

What is Local Government?

Ugwu (2000:87) define local government as “the third tier level of government (related for the purpose of efficient and effective administration of the localities” Odenigwe (1984):15) perceived local government as “that part of government of a nation or state which deals mainly with matters of concern to the people of a particular place”. The 1976 local government reform conceived local government as government at the local level exercise through representative councils established by law to exercise specific powers within defined area.

For the purpose of this work, local government as a unit of government established by act of law to administer the functions of government and see to the welfare and interest of the local dwellers under the local government system.

Sources of Conflict in Local Government Councils

(1) Abuse of Office

In a local government council where some principal officers abuse their powers, conflicts may arise between them and staff of the. Some top officers can decide to sit on the promotion of deserving staff or allowances accruing to them and other fringe benefits. Public funds could be diverted to private 241 use, and contracts awarded without recourse to due process of the law. All these can result in conflicts in the local government.

(2) Lack of Effective Communication

When there is no effective communication over issues or absence of proper organizational framework to handle grievance workers may feel despondent and aggrieved. This can bring about mistrust, misinformation and crisis.

(3) External Control

The relationship between local government and higher organs of control notably the federal and state agencies, the Department of Local Government Matters in the office of the Vice-President and local government service commission could also precipitate conflicts in Local Government Councils. More often than not, these higher authorities send directives and circulars to local governments which when complied with pitches the local government political office holder against the career officials. Some of these directives or circulars often lead to the violation of the financial memoranda and other regulations and administrative procedures. This constitute a source of conflict in the Local government system.

(4) Poor Financial Base

This is inevitable in an environment of scarcity, which implies that the desires of the parties (workers and management) are more or less unlimited, while the means of satisfying them are limited. This reflects the pattern of the relationship between labour and top executives in the local government.

Apart from labour – management relation, also paucity of funds creates conflict between the councilors and the Chairman of local 242 government. Very often, the councilors accuse the Chairman of starving them of fund by not paying their allowances promptly, and not allowing them to attend conferences and seminars. Inequity in the remuneration of political office holders due to poor financial base results in conflicts. It also brings about irregular payment of salaries and allowances which can easily lead to strike by workers in the local government.

(5) Top Political Actors Disposition

Conflict can arise in the local government as a result of the overbearing personality of top officers such as the chairmen, councilors, treasurers, supervisors, and secretary. For example, workers and principal administrators in the local government with positive disposition are more considerate when dealing with others. Such personality characteristics are to some extent neutralizers or tranquilizers Obasi; (1998:10), However, where the opposite is the case, it results in conflict, intimidation, character assassination, rumour mongering, petition writing, bad blood etc.

(6) Unhealthy Rivalry

Cases abound in the local government especially in the present dispensation, where some categories of officers have exhibited unhealthy power tussle in the implementation of policies and programmes. Such unhealthy situation have been noticed between secretaries of local government and heads of personnel department. Supervisors and heads of department, and Senior Special Assistant, Special Assistant and Personal Assistants.

(7) Political Instability 243

Political instability is a very serious issue in the local government system according to Obasi (1998:6) this is because the Nigerian political and economic system for a long time have been characterized by unstable political climate and economic recession. Consequent upon this high rate of instability in the political sub-system, local governments have experienced a lot of changes that are generating conflicts among the political actors.

Across the country today, many chairmen of local government are pitched against their vice chairmen and councilors For example, there have been cases of suspensions, impeachments, attempted impeachments, litigations among the political actors since the handover of power from the military to the civilians in May, 1999. This is as a result of the new provision in the 1999 constitution and the various Local Government Laws passed be the state Houses of Assembly throughout the federation. There have been conflicts over the interpretation of the relevant provisions of the 1999 constitution and the Local Government Laws. Some examples of states where there have been conflicts in the local government include, Lagos, Akwa Ibom, Rivers, Enugu, Anambra and Imo States to mention but a few.

Occasional causes of industrial conflict in Nigeria

(1) Unfair labour practices – Wrongful Dismissal: By unfair labour practices, it refers to the unfair labour practices which some employers inflict on their employees. This work has chosen to discuss only one of them, which is ‘wrongful dismissal”. An employee is said to be wrongfully dismissed from his employment when he is removed for an unjust cause, without proper notice and by not following the statutory procedure (1976:127).The Labour Act, cap. L1, laws of the Federation 244

of Nigeria, 2004 provides that either party to a contract of employment may terminate the contract on the expiration of notice given by him to the other party of his intention to do so.

The pattern of notice is as enumerated below:

(a) One day, where the contract has continued for a period of three months or less.

(b) One week, where the contract has continued for a period of one year but less than two years.

(c) Two weeks, where the contract has continued for a period of two years but less than five year and;

(d) One month, where the contract has continued for five years or more. Moreover, any notice for a period of one week or more shall be in writing.

(2) Redundancy

In a situation of ‘redundancy’ that is, the dismissal of an employee or group of employees as a result of a re-adjustment of the operational manpower requirements of an organization, the employer reserves the right to dismiss an employee. With regard to this, the Nigeria labour Act 2004 provides in section 1 subsection 1 and 2 that” in the event or redundancy:-

(a) The employer shall inform the trade union workers representatives concerned of the reason for and the extent of the anticipated redundancy.

(b) The principle of “last in, first out” shall be adopted in the discharge of the particular category of workers affected, subject to all factor of relative merit including skill, ability and reliability, and 245

(c) The employer shall use his best endeavours to negotiate redundancy payment to discharged workers who are not protected by regulations made under subsection 2. Then, subsection 2, provides that the Minister may make regulations providing, generally or in particular case, for the compulsory payment of redundancy allowances on the termination of a worker’s employment because of his redundancy”.

(3) Denial of Fringe Benefits

G.L. Reid and D.J Robertson (1968:164) define fringe benefit as “the supplements to wages and salaries which are part of total labour cost but do not constitute a direct reward geared to the output effort and merit of an employee”. It becomes a conflict in relation to its installation and withdrawal in an organization.

(4) Breakdown in Communication

Daniel Katz, and Robert L. Kahn (1978:426) suggest that ----- “communication – the exchange of information and the transmission of meaning – is the very essence of social system of an organization”. moreover H. Koontz, et al define communication as “the transfer of information from the sender to the receiver with the information being understood by the receiver”. (Koontz, Donnel, and Weirich, 1981:688) Having seen the above definitions, we shall therefore, say that communication can largely be regarded as the process of establishing a commonness of thought between a sender and a receiver.

The breakdown in communication as one of the causes of industrial Conflicts, shall be discussed in relation to management “Transaction Analysis” (TA) which was originated by Eric Berne and popularized by Tomas Harris. At the beginning it was a method of psychotherapy, but later, it became a useful tool to improve human relations and communication in business. More recently, “TA” has also been linked directly to the managerial Analysis “TA”, was brought in order to enable me explain a 246 situation in relation to communications between managers, supervisor and their subordinates. There are some situations in which the supervisors give order to carry out a particular task in the industry without minding or regarding the other workers as fellow human beings and worker.

An example of such a situation is where a supervisor orders, “Johnson fix the engine right away and do not ask any question”. The subordinate may respond, “you mind your own business I will do it where I have time”. This is what is referred to as “Cross Transactional analysis.

CROSS TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

Figure 1 P P Stimulus

A A

Response

C C

Source: H Koontz, C.O. Donnel and H. Weihrich, management 7th ed. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd, 1981 p. 589 The above diagram shows that, this type of transaction usually stops for the communications and it brings about a breakdown in communication between supervisors and the subordinate workers and will eventually lead to either individual or collective conflicts. Communication filtering make most employees to be annoyed, more especially when reprimanded by their supervisor concerning a particular job done wrongly. 247

STRATEGIES IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION/MANAGEMENT IN THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT COUNCILS According to Ojielo (1999:33) The president of the centre for conflict resolving and peace advocacy (CCRPA), “conflict resolving giving value for money, being accountable, modeling for courtesy, care and common sense, not repeating the same mistake over and over again, addressing problems, and providing hope and vision to the people”. The above characteristics are imperative in all government, organisations and institutions in order to ensure industrial peace and harmony. There are several strategies by which conflicts could be resolved at the local government level. (1) Collective bargaining Collective bargaining as a process of settling conflicts, is a vast process in industrial relations, involving many aspects of labour – management relationships in the areas of wages, working conditions, terms of employment, as well as agreements on procedures for settling labour disputes between employers and employees. Collective bargaining embraces the democratic ideal and applies it concretely, specifically and effectively, at the place of work. In collective bargaining, labour and management at the local government level meet and negotiate the issues that are responsible for the conflict and iron them out amicably. This will go along way in reducing conflicts, in the local government. In the procedure of collective bargaining, certain actions and steps should be put into consideration regarding the two parties involved in the process. Such steps may be:- (a) Pre-negotiation phase (b) Selection of negotiators (c) Strategy of bargaining (d) Tactics of bargaining. 248

It is important to look at the above steps and how they are applied to settle conflict in organizations. (a) Pre-negotiation phase: Here both parties are charged with the duty of studying and collecting data regarding the issues and labour organization involved. The management representatives will have to study carefully the labour organization (workers) with which they are to bargain. This involves studying the objectives of union as well as the analysis of its powers. Also management representatives are asked to look into the background, and personality and other particulars of the union negotiators. The union representatives will also do the same on the company representatives. (b) Selection of negotiators: On this, management may select two or more persons to represent it. It may be the public relation officer, personnel manager, executive deputy director or the organization lawyer. In most cases, lawyers are given such opportunities to participate, in that they have skills particularly those of evaluating the acts and statements of the labour representative(s) which might be of great importance to the management. However, the organization representatives must check with top management regarding labour demands. (c) Strategy of bargaining: Both parties map out plans and basic policies to be followed during bargaining process. On their part the organization, its representatives will establish the strategic plans which they will use. These include the point of departure of their offer and their last point of “take-it-or-leave-it” (that is, the point at which they will not be ready to go further in their offer) This is geared towards the accomplishment of company’s objectives. The union on the other hand will have similar strategic plans and tactical action which will also promote the achievement of the union’s objectives. In most cases, the union may file their demands with the employers in advance before the first bargaining meeting. With this, management may start early to 249

look into them. It happens sometimes that before the management negotiators enter the conference room, some elements of their plans must have been worked Figure 2. Bargaining Over Pay increase percentage

16 Union demand

15 14

13 12

Management maximum 11 10 Union demand (will take strike if more) 9 8 (Will strike if less) 7 6

Management offer 5 4

3 2

Source: E.B Flippo, op.cit p. 1396

(d) Tactics of bargaining: Here there is a calculated trick of knowing how the other party may react to their actions. Having discovered that, they will proceed to bluff and convince each others. Where the other party understands their tricks, they will reply with theirs. However, tactics are the particular actions that are taken while at the bargaining table. Sometimes management negotiators may use the tactics of being “firm” and fair”, that is setting out a number of offers and sticking to them regardless of the length and intensity of negotiation meeting. Some use “haggling-for- haggling’s sake”/bluff and counter bluff” which involves the holding back of the party’s maximum concessions until the very last moment, where the situation comes to an impasse, the company’s negotiations normally adopt the tactics of “take-it-or-leave-it”, where the union follows their tactics of “no contract, no work”, more especially where it concerns a contract dispute. After these actions, they will still calm down and talk. For instance, if the union’ initial demand is 10% increase, the company’s negotiators are likely to resist even if it is within their adaptable range. 250

(2) Constitutional Amendment: There is the urgent need to amend the relevant structural weaknesses as identified in the 1999 constitution as it affects the local government. The provisions in the constitution could not make clear the actual position of local government. It also fails to streamline the accounting officer in the local government. There is also the overwhelming influence of the state government over the local government. These have to be constitutionally dealt with to ensure a functional conflict free local government system. (3) Joint Consultation: Usually, committees are set up comprising all shades of opinion and expert to exchange ideas, information and make suggestions for the mutual interest of management and the workers. Discussions and deliberations of this group done in a conducive atmosphere devoid of tension, and emotions are often observed during collective bargaining (Okere: 1998:13)

(4) Improve the Financial Base: There is need to improve the financial base of local government to enable it carry out her functions with special reference to rural development and general welfare of the officials in the system. For without adequate fund, conflicts will continue to arise as demands and expectations of the people are continuously increasing.

(5) Correcting the structural defect: One of the major area of conflict is structural weakness. It is necessary to correct the structural weakness of the new structure by clearly specifically outlining the roles of various political office holders and that of the career officers in the local government to avoid or reduce the areas of conflicts in the system. 251

(6) The cultural Aspects of Conflict management, (mediation, conciliation and Arbitration). Apart from the above mentioned procedures, there exist the “informal” (traditional) ways of settling industrial disputes. These are the methods by which the parties concerned call in some distinguished elders and experts in the community and organization to help resolve the dispute. However, these methods are adopted only if the parties concerned find it difficult to agree and resolve the dispute by negotiated agreements. In majority of the cases it is the small-scale enterprise (private organizations) that employ these traditional ways of settling industrial disputes. On the other hand, if there are union representatives in the enterprise, they usually co-operate with other intermediaries in resolving the industrial disputes within the lower level of the enterprise’s hierarchy of authority structure. The method of calling in a third party in the first instance, is known as traditional mediation. In Nigeria, mediation is a voluntary method of settling disputes before it was recently included as one of the statutory procedures of settling disputes.

Conclusion and Recommendations The purpose of this study is to critically evaluate conflict in the local government councils, and how such conflicts can be managed to ensure peace and harmonious relationship exist among all categories of staff in the local government. Management is getting things done through others, and is a task which requires managers and chief executives communicate properly with other people. It is established that we often communicate unconsciously as others may observe from us that we are unhappy or happy as the case may be. This is as a result of the fact that we all send and receive communications, written or oral. The lack of understanding and acceptance and the wealth of confusion and disagreement often noticed in local government councils indicate that the information being communicated is not received in the form intended by the sender. Managers should therefore make their 252 communication simple, and ensure that they are in two ways formats namely, “vertical from top to the bottom, and from bottom to top” Politics in Nigeria should be made less lucrative, it is the over valuing of public office that is responsible for major conflicts among the political class in Nigeria. In Nigeria hardly do people enter politics for public service, as the driving force is usually the desire for self aggrandizement, and wealth, and grandeur, and prestige that come with it. The fighting in the legislative chambers between different groups of assembly men, the spate of impeachments of Governors, speakers, the forceful ejection of local government chairmen by councilors and the squabbles between the Assembly and the state governors are nothing more than wrangling over a share of the booty of politics. There should be a total re-orientation of Nigerian politicians to understand that holding public position is an opportunity for service to public and humanity, not an avenue for self-enrichment. The enhancement of financial rewards and fringe benefit will to a greater extent minimize conflict. In a situation where management does not reward workers according to the ongoing inflationary trend and outright refusal to implement agreement reached with union is bound to bring conflict.

Recommendation Despite its pervasive and endemic nature, the fact remains that conflict in Local government is man-made, and consequently such organizational conflicts can be resolved. From this study, and the above observations the following recommendations are hereby made:

1. Management and those in position of authority should respect the collective agreement reached with the unions. 2. The 1999 constitutional provision in respect of local government should be amended, and appropriate demarcation established on the powers, 253

functions and responsibilities of career, office holders and political appointees, which must be strictly followed. 3. There should be total overhauling of the relationship mechanism between management and Labour Unions toward establishing a good rapport.

References Anikpo, M.O.C, (1984), “Identifying the needs of the works, managing the Nigeria worker. Nigerian Longman Publishers. Giddens, A., (1974), The class structure of advanced Societies, London, Hutechinson. Port Harcourt. Baridam D.M (1993) Organisational theory, University of Port Harcourt Nigeria Press. Burawoy, M. (1985) The Politic of Production London: Verso Ltd. Coser, L.A. (1968), Conflict and social aspects International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences vol 3. New York. P. 160. Dahvendorf, R. (1959), Class and class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford, University Press. Dublin R. (1968) Human Relations in Administration. MacGraw-Hill Inc Toronto p. 87. Daniel, w.w. (1972), The Right to Manage London: Mac Donald. Eric Rhenman; (1971), Conflict 1 and co-operation, London: John Wiley & Sow Limited. Emiola, A. (1982) Nigerian Labour – Law, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Fashoyin T. (1980) Industrial Relations in Nigeria, London: Longman. Odenigwe (1984), Comparative Local Government, Harmons worth: Penduin Books Ltd. 254

Okoroafor, C.U. (2000) The composition of Industrial Conflicts The case of Nigeria Owerri: Enda-Ben Publishers. Ubeku, A.K. (1983) Industrial Relations in Developing Countries; The Case of Nigeria. London: Macmillan. Ugwu, S.C (2003) Issues in Local Government and Urban Administration in Nigeria, Enugu: Academic printing press. Ugwu, N., (2000), Local Government Administration in Nigeria, Onitsha: Abbot Publishers. Wogu, A. (1969) Trade Union Movement in Nigeria, Benin city: Ethiopia Publishing Corporation.

The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Labour Act, Cap L1, Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004.