Ecological Questions 30 (2019) 3: 79–86 http://dx.doi.org/10.12775/EQ.2019.023

Major challenges and issues related to wildlife management LQ.DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUN,QGLD

Vivek K. Panwar*, Pradeep Chaudhry

Indian Institute of Forest Management, Nehru Nagar, *e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Received: 21 February 2019 / Accepted: 28 May 2019

Abstract. .DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUN .13 LVUHJDUGHGDVRQHRIWKHROGHVWDQGILQHVWZLOGOLIHSURWHFWHGDUHDVLQ,QGLD7KRXJKWLJHUGHQVLW\ LQ.DQKD7LJHUUHVHUYHLVKLJKHVWLQFRPSDULVRQWRPRVWRIRWKHUWLJHUUHVHUYHVRIWKHFRXQWU\HJ7DGRED0HOJKDW3DQQD3HQFK DQG5DQWKDPERUHWLJHUUHVHUYHV\HW.DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUN7LJHUUHVHUYHLVPRUHNQRZQIRU+DUGJURXQG%DUDVLQJKDFRQVHUYDWLRQ .DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUNLVRQHRIWKHILQHVWSURWHFWHGDUHDLQ,QGLDEXWWKHPHQWLRQHGSUREOHPVLQWKHSDSHUFDQQRPRUHEHLJQRUHG1R doubt park authorities have done very well in management and growth of endangered but now new challenges have emerged. Improvements can only be done if we know about the list of problems. In the present article, we have discussed the various chal- OHQJHVLQZLOGOLIHFRQVHUYDWLRQLQ.DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUNOLNHKHUELYRUHVSRSXODWLRQJUDVVODQGPDQDJHPHQWSRDFKLQJIHQFLQJFRU- ridor development activities etc. Significant successes and notable failures on the part of park administration have been discussed.

Key words: Grassland, , Ungulates, Protection camps, , Forest Corridor Development, Human wildlife Conflict, Development committees, Endangered Species, Non Timber Forest Products, Protected Area.

1. Introduction area of 22.57 km2, not included in the core but technically still a national park, is occupied by villages. The core or When became independent in 1947, it had less than the critical habitat is almost completely surrounded by the half a dozen protected areas (Guha, 1997); currently, there buffer zone barring part of the eastern boundary running are over five hundred protected areas in India, i.e. national along the - interstate border. parks, wildlife sanctuaries, conservation reserves, commu- It is one of the most important reserves of India and nity reserves and biosphere reserves. Situated in the is situated in prime Sal forest well known for its rich di- DQG%DODJKDWGLVWULFWVRI0DGK\D3UDGHVKVWDWHWKH.DQKD versity of endemic and birds (Thakur, 2011). The 1DWLRQDO3DUN .13 LVUHJDUGHGDVRQHRIWKHROGHVWDQG Park .is situated at about 22°45’ N. latitude and 80° 45’ E. ILQHVWZLOGOLIHSURWHFWHGDUHDVLQ,QGLD.DQKDZDVRQHRI longitude with elevation varying between 535 m to 880 m. the first nine protected areas to be brought under the ambit The landscape and the valleys are open. The average an- of the launched by the Government of India nual rainfall is about 180 cm. The maximum temperature LQ.DQKDLVRQHRIWKHULFKHVWELRGLYHUVLW\DUHDVLQ in shade is about 40°C in hot season and the minimum India with around 22 species of mammals and 300 species temperature is 5°C in winter (Chhotani, 1977). There are of birds (Rathore et al., 2012). The tiger reserve (2074 km2) three distinct seasons, summer, rains, winter in the national consists of two conservation entities, namely, the core zone park. These seasons greatly vary in temperature, humidity, (917.43 km2) and buffer zone (1134 km2). The remaining wind velocity and precipitation, and these factors serve as 80 Vivek K. Panwar, Pradeep Chaudhry

regulators of vegetation and habits of wild in the and moisture regime. The various topographic features of reserve. the protected area command special vegetation character- As per the bio-geographic classification of India, the istics. As per Champion and Seth (1968) forest classifica- national park lies in zone- 6E- Deccan Peninsula- Cen- WLRQ.13VXSSRUWVWKUHHW\SHVRIIRUHVWVLHPRLVWSHQ- tral Highlands. The Halon and Banjar valleys, forming the insular high level Sal and Moist peninsular low level Sal eastern and the western parts, two ecological units, of the forests (Fig. 1), Southern tropical moist deciduous mixed core zone respectively, are connected by a narrow ridge/ forests and Southern tropical dry deciduous mixed for- corridor known as chicken’s neck. There are six forest ests. Most common associate of Sal is Saja (Termina- ranges in the core zone and six in the buffer. The Phen lia tomentosa), while other species of core (upper areas) wildlife sanctuary, a satellite micro-core, of 110.74 km2, include Achar (Buchanania lanzan), Aonla (Phyllanthus is also under the tiger reserve management. Legally, how- emblica), Tendu ( melanoxylon), Terminalia che- ever, the sanctuary has its own status as a protected area. bula and Terminalia bellerica. Depressions, along rivers, The objectives of this study are to provide in- have Mango, Jamun and Arjun. Dendrocalamus strictus is sights about the various issues and challenges faced by the main bamboo species. Mahul (Bauhinia vahlii) is the .DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUNDXWKRULWLHV.13LVRQHRIWKHILQHVW most common tree climber crowning tree species and span protected area in India but the mentioned problems in the the space between . Open areas and affected by fire SDSHUFDQQRPRUHEHLJQRUHG1RGRXEW.13KDVGRQH have more proportion of hardy species like Palas (Butea very well in management and growth of endangered spe- monosperma), Tendu (D. melanoxylon) and Lendia (Lager- cies but now new challenges have emerged. Improvements stroemia parviflora). can only be done if we know about the list of problems. We have also tried to put some light on good activities and SURFHGXUHVIROORZHGE\.13DVZHOOVRWKDWYDULRXVRWKHU 2. Importance of being Kanha national parks around the world can learn and know about the management of protected areas. Though tiger density (over 10 per 100 km2 LQ.DQKD7LJHU This protected area is a fine representative of central reserve is highest in comparison to most of other tiger re- highlands Sal and mixed woodland and grassy expanses. serves of the country e.g. Tadoba, , Panna, Pench It is rich in the typical floral attributes of the central Indian DQG5DQWKDPERUHWLJHUUHVHUYHV .DUDQWKHWDO \HW highlands. This can be attributed to a number of beneficial .DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUN7LJHUUHVHUYHLVPRUHNQRZQIRU+DUG factors including the combination of landforms, soil types ground Barasingha conservation. Therefore, a special at-



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tention is paid to Hard ground Barasingha or Central Indian tall grasses. Maintenance of tall grass cover is required as Swamp ( duvauceli branderi) management in fawning cover for this species. This is important as fawns the present article while discussing various wildlife man- (newly born) of this species need 24 to 48 hours to stand DJHPHQWLVVXHVLQ.DQKD'XULQJRQO\LQGLYLGXDOV and walk in jungle whereas newly born in case of other ZHUHOHIWLQ.13 6LQJKHWDO 6SHFLDOFRQVHUYDWLRQ deer like spotted deer and sambar start walking within one measures were under taken by the park management to re- KRXURIWKHELUWK6RPHKRZXSWLOOQRZ.DQKDDGPLQLVWUD- verse the declining trend, and due to these efforts there are tion is successful in preservation and growth of Barasingha now around 475 animals in the park (Prakash et al., 2012). but keeping future needs in mind, this grassland cover is Moreover, Central Indian Swamp deer is among four most going to be inadequate and so better and out of the box highly endangered ungulate species of India, which need thinking in grassland management is required right now. special attention for conservation (Daniel, 1991). Deer population – There are lot of spotted deer, sambar and barking deer in the national park (Table 1 and Fig. 2). 7KLVLVDYHU\KXJHQXPEHU.HHSLQJJUDVVODQGVDQGHDWLQJ 3. Issues and Challenges resources in mind, grasslands are inadequate. These num- bers can become unsustainable in future in lack of proper Grasslands – .DQKDKDVJUDVVODQGVLQRILWVWRWDODUHD management (Fig. 3). Such large number of spotted deer and This is very important keeping in view the management sambar can create problem in management of Barasingha and of Barasingha. This species of deer mainly prefers eating other species like Indian mouse deer ( meminna), grasses and aquatic (Schaller, 1967; Martin, 1977; and black buck (Antilope cervicapra). Barasingha only eats Schaaf, 1978; Singh, 1984; Moe, 1994; Qureshi et al., 1995; grasses and that grass should be of certain height to provide Pokharel, 1996 and Tewari & Rawat, 2013), remains close fawning cover. So these spotted deer can create food issues to water bodies most of the time, where other herbivores for Barasingha as they will not allow grass to grow to reach like spotted deer, barking deer, Sambar can eat anything up to a certain height. National parks and nearby sanctuar- like tree leaves, twigs etc. Actually well established stand- ies like Manas in face shortage of spotted deer and ards say to have 15% grasslands (personal communication sambar causing narrowing down of the prey base for tiger, ZLWKSDUNDXWKRULWLHV EXW.DQKDLVODFNLQJRQWKLVIURQW hence there is an immediate requirement to shift these deer It is a big challenge to keep so many ungulates (mainly to areas like Manas. In other words, herbivore population GHHUV LQDQDWLRQDOSDUN .13KHUH ZKHQJUDVVODQGVDUH management requires a large-scale approach, management of limited and much below the standard (Table 1). Barasin- herbivore impacts on vegetation may require a much more gha require specific conditions in grassland. It requires flexible and site-specific approach (Gordan et al., 2004).

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40000 . 30000

20000

10000 Population No 0 Sambar Wild Barking deer Core Zone 29253 8037 5311 6383 2162 Buffer Zone 6876 1690 440 4260 1608 Species [82]

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Protection camps – .DQKDLVNQRZQIRULWVJRRGPDQ- poaching. Fencing acts as primary resistance for the people agement activities (Fig. 4). But there are some issues re- IURPRXWVLGHDVZHOODVIRUWKHDQLPDOV.DQKDDGPLQLV- garding management and use of protection team camps in tration is thinking about this particular issue but it will be the national park. Many camps do not have required guards better if they do it in mission mode and complete the work in night. Absence of guards in night is not a healthy sign as soon as possible. for that particular area particularly in sensitive buffer ar- Forest Corridor development and management – eas with respect to past poaching cases. Although various Development of corridors is very general thing nowadays. PRELOH DSSOLFDWLRQV KDYH EHHQ GHYHORSHG E\ .DQKD DG- 7KHUHDUHFRUULGRUVDURXQG.DQKDZKLFKFRQQHFWLWZLWK ministration for guards but still adoption of technology in other forest areas such as , Nagzira ti- management of park and use by forest guards is somewhat ger reserve, Nawegaon tiger reserve, Bhoramdeo wildlife lacking. sanctuary and Achanakmar tiger reserve. But these corri- Poaching – There are stray incidents of poaching in dors have been developed keeping in mind the movement the park. Although numbers are very less (27 cases in last RIWLJHU1RZ.DQKDDGPLQLVWUDWLRQDOVRSD\LQJDWWHQWLRQ two years i.e. 2017 and 2018 as per personal communica- about the movement of Barasingha. So some adjustments tion with park authorities) but still loopholes are there. As or development of these corridors is required by remov- mentioned above, forest guards are not available at certain ing villages from these areas. This task is not going to be SODFHV.DQKDRIILFHUVKDYHGHYHORSHGDUREXVWV\VWHPWR simple in a democratic and heavily populated country like catch the culprits but that hardly matters to an animal that India but still beginning and rethinking has to be done. is already dead due to the negligence of forest department Management of other species- .DQKD LV NQRZQ IRU DW ILUVW SODFH .DQKD KDV VRPH VHQVLWLYH SRLQWV IURP WKH management activities for tiger and Barasingha but there YLHZ SRLQW RI SRDFKLQJ .DQKD DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ QHHGV WR are other as well such as black buck take care of those specific points. and mouse deer. Park is taking no initiative for such spe- Fencing of the park – .DQKDGRHVQRWKDYHFRPSOHWH FLHV.DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUNKDVUHVRXUFHVDQGH[SHUWLVHLQ fencing. This is one of the reasons for the stray incidents of management of vulnerable species. So efforts should be

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PDGH E\ .DQKD DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ IRU SUHVHUYDWLRQ RI VRPH 4. Discussion and Conclusion other species as well. Human wildlife conflict in buffer areas- There are some incidents of such conflicts in buffer areas. According .DQKDQDWLRQDOSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQKDVVXFFHVVIXOO\WUDQV- WRORFDOYLOODJHUVOLYLQJLQQHDUE\YLOODJHVRI.13OHRSDUG located many species from this park to others in past two was the most common agent for livestock damage whereas years e.g. reintroduction of 50 Gaur into the Bandhavgarh for human casualty (Ahmed et al., 2012). Ac- 7LJHU5HVHUYHIURP.DQKD7LJHU5HVHUYHUHLQWURGXFWLRQRI cording to authors, such conflicts create negative impact EODFNEXFNVLQ.DQKD7LJHU5HVHUYHIURPRWKHUUHJLRQV on local community but still they have positive attitude VXFFHVVIXO WUDQVORFDWLRQ RI  %DUDVLQJKD IURP .DQKD WR WRZDUGVFDUQLYRUHFRQVHUYDWLRQ.DUDQWKHWDO  UH- 9DQ9LKDU1DWLRQDO3DUN%KRSDOVXFFHVVIXOWUDQVORFDWLRQ ported that carnivores were not viewed with more hostility RI%DUDVLQJKDIURP.DQKDWLJHUUHVHUYHWR6DWSXUD7LJHU than crop raiding wild animals like wild boars and deer by 5HVHUYHVXFFHVVIXOWUDQVORFDWLRQRIWLJHUIURP.DQKDWR WKHORFDOKRXVHKROGVQHDU.13ZKRVKRZHGPRUHLQFOLQD- . tion to kill herbivores destroying crops but not carnivores .DQKDSDUNDGPLQLVWUDWLRQKDVEHHQFRQGXFWLQJDZDUH- SUH\LQJRQOLYHVWRFN.DQKDDGPLQLVWUDWLRQVKRXOGVROYH ness programmes/camps to nearby school children e.g. 10 above mentioned issues to reduce such conflicts in future. such camps were arranged for school students (around 240 .DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUNSURYLGHVFRPSHQVDWLRQIRUDQ\ORVV numbers) of buffer villages during the year 2016-17 (Fig. GXHWRVXFKFRQIOLFWVEXW.13VKRXOGPDNHHIIRUWVWRH[- 5), which includes jungle excursions, trekking and stay. pand awareness regarding the use of resources in buffer Important information related to forest, wildlife and nature areas. “Chicken’s neck” is specifically critical from the conservation is provided to the students in such camps. point of view of such conflicts. So extra care in those ar- There are 140 Eco Development Committees (EDCs) eas should be taken by people as well as forest department. in buffer zone of the park formed under joint forest man-

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agement resolution of Government of Madhya Pradesh. always inadequate (Jha & Chaudhry, 2018). Establishing Annual meetings of General bodies are held under the and maintaining Protected Areas (PA) require both politi- chairmanship of Field Director of the park. Proposals like cal and financial commitment in the long term (Bruner et approach roads, bio gas plants, wells, school building, al., 2004). A major reason for this is that the benefits to community centers, hand pumps installation are discussed society from PAs are often grossly underestimated, and the and approved in the villages out of total revenue received immediate costs of protection appear large in comparison. through gate fee, which is about Rs. 75 million per year Some researchers have tried to estimate such intangible now. Medical facilities through health camps are provid- benefits to society from PAs. For example, economic valu- ed to villagers. Provision of soft loan for starting small ation of tiger reserves, invariably National Parks in India, EXVLQHVVHVLVDOVRWKHUH.DQKD9LNDV1LGKL 'HYHORSPHQW may provide the economic rationale for such resources IXQG LVWKHUHRXWRIRYHUDOOUHYHQXHHDUQHG.DQKDSDUN and support biodiversity conservation and human wellbe- management always encouraged local tribes to maintain ing. Some however argue the contrary, that there are social cultural identity. Money is also provided to EDCs for pur- costs incurred by the dislocated people due to formation of chasing musical instruments, dresses for folk dances. Near- PAs (Menon & Rai, 2017). One study examined six tiger by hoteliers arrange special ethnic dances for the visitors. reserves of India in different landscapes and found that Managing this tiger reserve has been a great learning the flow benefits from these reserves ranged from 50,000 process for the park administration. On one side, reserve INR/ha/year (769 US$/ha/year) to 190,000 INR/ha/year management can boast of many successes, it had to taste (2,923 US$ /ha/year). The lower value was of a reserve in some failures also. Notable successes include effective the tropical dry deciduous forest region, where Rantham- conservation of the highly endangered population of tiger bore Tiger Reserve, is located while the higher (48 in 1976 to 80 plus now), building up of prey base value was of a reserve in the tropical moist evergreen for- for sustaining a viable population of tiger and other co- HVWUHJLRQZKHUH3HUL\DU7LJHU5HVHUYH.HUDODLVORFDWHG predators (i.e. wild ungulates), successful conservation 9HUPDHWDO 7KHUHIRUHQHDUO\RI,QGLD¶VJHR- of Barasingha in the park, overall water availability in graphical area covered by PAs is responsible for providing lean season was improved, effective protection by differ- ecosystem services or benefits flow worth millions annu- ent means including intelligence gathering was improved. ally. This shows the huge significance of these areas for the Successful relocation of 28 villages from core area of the ecological and social security of society and other living park and vacated village sites were metamorphosed into systems of the country. beautiful heterogeneous grasslands, effective fire protec- .DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUNHDUQVWRWDOUHYHQXHRIDURXQG5V tion involving fire squads, fire towers, fire maps and fire 75 million annually; it has best officers of forest depart- area kept below 2 % of total area, development of effec- ment. These challenges and issues could be solved if ad- tive intelligence network for pre-empting and countering ministration pays attention and pursues matter of impor- wildlife offences, no epidemic/mass mortality of animals tance with government. For each issue some steps can be recoded since 1976, regular cattle immunization in nearby taken. Solution of one issue will help in solution of another YLOODJHV HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI .DQKD9LNDV 1LGKL 'HYHORS- issue. Like extra number of spotted deer could be trans- ment fund) for socioeconomic upliftment of nearby village located to other places like in Assam people, and promotion of awareness among stakeholders WRUHGXFHELRWLFSUHVVXUHLQ.DQKD6LPLODUO\WHFKQRORJ\ for conservation. could be used in management of park as well to check po- Notable failures include that seven forest villages sitions of guards in night. Ex-servicemen can be recruited which were relocated to near periphery of park, still exert for better management of sensitive points because poachers pressure on the park for firewood and non timber forest enter in the park through those places. For management of products (NTFP) collection. Actually these should have other species like black buck, the infrastructure created for been shifted 7-8 km away but not done. People in relocated Barasingha could be used. There is no simple rule for con- villages are not satisfied with facilities provided e.g. agri- servation objectives with local species. What has worked cultural land is rocky and stony (Jha & Chaudhry, 2018). in one Protected Area (PA) may not have worked in an- Smokeless Chullahs (stoves) promoted by management other. Understanding the unique characteristics of each PA have not been accepted by people, however Gobar (cow- and the animal species who live in is vital for the success dung) gas plants are popular (pers. comm. with the Baiga of each PA’s conservation program. tribe, a local community inthe locality). Although there is widespread agreement on the impor- tance of maintaining natural areas and their associated flora References and fauna, the total amount of area given protected sta- tus is frequently insufficient in developing countries, and $KPHG5$3UXVW\.-HQD-'DYH&'DV6.56DKX the level of funding provided for management is almost +. 5RXW6'3UHYDLOLQJKXPDQFDUQLYRUH 86 Vivek K. Panwar, Pradeep Chaudhry

FRQIOLFWLQ.DQKD$FKDQDNPDUFRUULGRU&HQWUDO,QGLD Pokharel C.P., 1996, Food habit and habitat utilization of World Journal of Zoology 7(2): 158-164. swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli) in Royal Bruner A.G., Gullison R.E. & Balmford A., 2004, Finan- Bardia National Park, . M.S. thesis, Tribhuvan cial costs and shortfalls of managing and expanding 8QLYHUVLW\.LUWLSXU1HSDO protected area systems in developing countries. BioSci- 3UDNDVK51D\DN.3DQGH\5.6KXNOD5+RPNDU ence 54(12): 1119-1126. 86DLQL6.-DLQ5+DOGNDU91HPD6'HVKPXNK &KDPSLRQ+* 6HWK6.$5HYLVHG6XUYH\RI 6 7KDNUH 5  .RVKWD $  +DELWDW 9LDELOLW\ Forest Types of India. Manager Publication, New Del- Analysis for the Proposed Reintroduction Site for the hi, India. Hard-ground Barasingha (Cervus duvauceli branderi) &KKRWDQL 2% 7HUPLWHV RI .DQKD 1DWLRQDO 3DUN in the , Satpura Tiger Reserve Madhya Pradesh, India. Records of the Zoological Sur- (Madhya Pradesh). Report by State Forest Research In- vey of India 72: 367-378. stitute, (M.P.), India. Daniel J.C., 1991, Ungulate conservation in India - prob- 4XUHVKL46DZDUNDU9% 0DWKXU3.(FRORJ\ lems and prospects. Applied animal behavior science and management of swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli) in 29(1-4): 349-359. , U.P (India). Project Report, Gordan I.J., Hester A.J. & Festa-Bianchet M., 2004, The Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, India. management of wild large herbivores to meet econom- Rathore C.S., Dubey Y., Shrivastava A., Pathak P. & Pa- ic, conservation and environmental objectives. Journal WLO 9 2SSRUWXQLWLHV RI +DELWDW &RQQHFWLYLW\ of Applied Ecology 41: 1021-1031. (https://doi.org/10. IRU 7LJHU 3DQWKHUDWLJULV  EHWZHHQ .DQKD DQG 3HQFK 1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00985). National Parks in Madhya Pradesh, India. PLoS Guha R., 1997, The Authoritarian Biologist and the arro- ONE 7(7): e39996. (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. gance of anti-humanism conservation: Wildlife conser- pone.0039996). vation in the third world. The Ecologist 27(1): 14-20. Schaaf C.D., 1978, Population size and structure and habi- -KD.. &KDXGKU\38QUDYHOOLQJWKH&RPSOH[- tat relation of the swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli du- ity of Protected Area Management in Two Developing vauceli) in Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Ph.D. Countries: Issues of Human Displacement and Wildlife thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA. Conflict, [in:] Martin O’Neal Campbell (ed.), Geomat- Schaller G.B., 1967, The Deer and the Tiger. Chicago Uni- ics and Consrvation Biology. Nova Science Publishers, versity Press, Chicago, Ill, USA. New York, USA. Singh C.P., Chauhan J.S., Parihar R.P. & Shukla R., 2015, .DUDQWK.81LFKRODV-'.XPDU16/LQN:$  Using environmental niche modelling to find suitable Hines J.E., 2004, and their prey: Predicting car- habitats for the Hardground Barasingha in M P, India. nivore densities from prey abundance. PNAS (Proceed- Journal of Threatened Taxa 7(11): 7761-7769. ings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U S 6LQJK 93 %LRHFRORJLFDO VWXGLHV RQ &HUYXV GX- of America) 101(14): 4854-4858. vaucelii duvaucelii, swamp deer (barasingha) in Dud- .DUDQWK .. 1DXJKWRQ7UHYHV / 'HIULHV 5 KZDIRUHVWQHDU,QGR1HSDOERUGHU3K'WKHVLV'$9 GopalaswamyA.M., 2013, Living with wildlife and &ROOHJH.DQSXU8QLYHUVLW\,QGLD mitigating conflicts around three Indian protected are- Tewari R. & Rawat G.S., 2013, Studies on the food and as. Environmental Managemen 52(6):1320-1332. (doi: feeding habits of Swamp deer ( duvaucelii du- 10.1007/s00267-013-0162-1). vaucelii) in Jhilmil Jheel conservation reserve, Haridwar, Martin C., 1977, Status and ecology of the barasingha Uttrakhand, India. ISRN Zoology, Hindawi Publishing &HUYXV GXYDXFHOL EUDQGHUL  LQ .DQKD 1DWLRQDO 3DUN Corporation. (http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/278213). (India). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 7KDNXU6$QRWHRQVQDNHVRI.DQKD1DWLRQDO3DUN 74: 60–132. and surrounding areas. REPTILE RAP # 11: 02-05. Menon A. & Rai N.D., 2017, Putting a price on Tiger re- 9HUPD01HJDQGKL'.KDQQD&(GJDRQNDU$'DYLG serves. Creating conservation value or green grabbing? $.DGHNRGL*&RVWDQ]D5*RSDO5%RQDO%6 Economic and Political Weekly 52(52): 23-26.