Damming Gender and the

by Ratna

Depuis longtemps, la Banque mondiale subventionne desprojets & dbeloppement majeurs comme, entre autres, les digues de la vallke du Narmada en In&. Ces projets sont mis sur pied sans tenir compte &S effets dmtastateurs qu'ikr peuvent avoir sur

commissioned an independent review of the Photo: Elizabeth and irrigation projects in India. It found that the environmental impacts of the projects have not been adequately addressed and

CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/L,ES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME Women's Rights Narmada Valley Projects

Kapur that the resettlement and rehabilitation of those displaced by the project have not been properly considered, but the Bank intends to continue its funding of the projects (Letter from Bradford ~orse).~ There has been ample criticism of the projects and the fundamental human rights violations that are expected to result if they are completed (Kapur, 1990, 1992a). However, the discourse on Narmada is marked by a total negation of women's specific experience within both the project and the movement which opposes it. This raises As I build this dam serious questions about the legitimacy of the project on the one hand, and the movement I bury my life opposing it on the other hand, since both appear blind to gender issues. International aid, the Government of India, and the state governments who are involved have been The dawn breaks completely oblivious to questions of gender in the formulation and implementation of There is no flour in the the project. Similarly, this lapse seems to have reduced the Narmada Bachao Andolan- grinding stone. the movement opposing the construction of the dam-to a solely male discourse which operates within the logic of the system that it is trying to oppose. I collect yesterday's husk for International aid today's meal The sun rises The central role that international aid, and especially the World Bank, has played in And my spirit sinks. the Narmada Valley has been the focus of much discussion. Andolan activists and other Hiding my baby under a basket anti-dam proponents have condemned the World Bank in no uncertain terms, accusing And hiding my tears it of financing a project that is 'anti-people' and 'anti-environment' (Kothari; Bhavan). The bank has tried to rationalize its involvement in the Sardar Sarovar Project by I go to build the dam. stating that: (a) The project has the potential for generating long term socio-economic benefits on an unprecedented local, regional and national scale, in one of the world's The dam is ready neediest settings. (b) The planned objective is to satisfy the requirements for agriculture It feeds their sugarcane fields in the next century. (c) This project represents one of the best opportunities to achieve the Bank's objectives of setting standards for the modernisation of the Indian irrigation Making the crop lush andjuicy sector (World Bank Staff Appraisal ~eport)? But I walk miles through the Recent World Bank documents and reports have begun to address the growing forests opposition to the dam. The Bank has been forced to respond to some of the critiques of In search of a drop of drinking environmentalists and other activists (Alvares and Billorey; Sarangi and Billorey; water Singh; Dogra). Iwaterthe vegetation with drops Yet the Bank has consistently failed to address the issue of gender in any substantive way. References to women are frequently paternalistic. For example, in its paper on of sweat relocation, reference is made to the magnitude of the stress that compulsory removal As dry leaves fall and fill my could cause "especially in the case of women and the elderly" (Scudder, 2). The parched yard. statement is important insofar as it speaks about the differential effect of displacement on men and on women. Yet, it is also problematic. The grouping of women who are so A song by Daya Pawar sung by Dalit economically and socially central to tribal (and non-tribal) societies with the elderly- women in (V. Shiva, 195). a group that is clearly identified as having outlived their "utility"-is disturbing and inadequate, since it devalues women as well as the elderly.3 The Bank reports offer no critique of the exclusion of women from the resettlement and rehabilitation schemes. There is no critique even in the latest independent review of

VOLUME 13, NUMBER 3 The construction of the dam is resulting in environmental degradation and displacement, intervening in the relationship between women and the river and the surrounding for ests.

provide land for sons who have attained tion the exclusion of women from this partner and eloping among young couples the age of majority in families who are scheme or the fact that the scheme is is not frowned upon (Interview with ac- displaced from their lands.4 This entitle- designed to benefit "male-headed" house- tivist). ment fails to take into account that, at least holds. This position ignores the existence However, the situation of tribal women under the Hindu Succession Act, daugh- of "women-headed" households and their must not be glorified. The culturally ac- ters are entitled to a share in their parents' rights, accepting the concept that families cepted division of labour within the fam- property.5 and/or households are necessarily "male ily leaves the collectionof householdneeds Although the Bank has been forced to headed." The role and voice of women like fuel, fodder and water to women. reconsider its stand on different issues within these households is also ignored. Women's work is arduous, consisting of regarding the environmental destruction Rehabilitation is treated purely as an issue grinding wheat, making regular trips to and the dislocation of tribals and other between men, and women are conspicu- the river to get water, and looking after the groups resulting from the construction of ous by their absence (Vahini). livestock. Therefore, tribal women are the dam, it continues to remain insensitive Any reference to women has usually dependent on nature--the forests and the to the issue of gender. Even after assess- been within the context of the so-called river form the cultural parameters inwhich ing the impact of the dam on these differ- benefits that they can anticipate from the their lives are laid out (Fernandes and ent groups, the Bank remains ignorant of construction of the dam. The Menon, 8-9). Women are also responsible the specific impact of the dam on wom- Government has concentrated on their for looking after the house for two to three en's lives and women's rights. 'hard life', suggesting that resettlement in months of the year when the men are other areas would be better for the health involved in farming activities. The post- The government's role of tribal women since they would then harvest agricultural work is done mainly enjoy the advantages of urban life and by women. The Indian government has consist- modem medicine. But, as one activist has Several customary cultural practices are ently failed to address women's issues pointed out, the advantages of urban life particularly oppressive of women. For during the course of the formulation and accrue much more to the rich than to the example, bride price is common in many implementation of the projects. Its ne- poor (Interview with activist). The public tribes of and glect of the gender impact of the project is health system is in disarray in most places Maharashtra. This payment is given to the made explicit in its plans for resettlement and is an extremely alienating experience, father of the bride, and seems much like a and rehabilitation. especially for women who have lost their transfer of property (the women) from the Vahini, an organization working with important role as herbal experts within the father to the husband. the affected tribals of Gujarat, points out old system (M. Shiva). that rehabilitationhas been arbitrary. Even Impact of the dam on tribal culture though some broad policies regarding land Tribal society and women entitlement have been identified by the government, the people concerned have The problems of gender and the hard- The construction of the dam has not not been given information about the pro- ships and violations women experience only aggravated women's situation within visions of this policy. The "oustees" do are not only evident in the context of the tribal societies, but it has also eroded their not know that this entitlement is due to all dam. We also need to look at the position cultural patterns. They are finding little categories of "oustee" families, including of women within their own societies, both space to exist in the context of the emerg- landless families. What is even more dis- tribal and non-tribal. ing development pattern in India, and are turbing is the silence on issues concerning Amongst the Bhil and Bhipala tribes frequently exploited and further impover- women. The family which is entitled to that inhabit the region, tribal ished within that pattern (Bennett, 23; the land is defined as "male-headed!' women enjoy more privileges than women Rao and Bushan). Echoing this definition, the Morse report of the plains. They do not observepurdah The construction of the dam is resulting points out the failure of Madhya Pradesh (the veil), they address all men by their in environmental degradation and dis- and Maharashtra in providing a minimum names and speak to outsiders far more placement, thus directly intervening in of two hectares of land to each son of any easily than the women from the plains. the relationship between women and the landed family who has attained the age of The tribal community also provides more river and the surrounding forests, which majority in compliance with the terms of sexual freedom for women than feudal meet the water and fuel needs of the the 1979 Narmada Tribunal Award (V. society. As one activist pointed out, they household (Fernandes and Menon, 8-10; Shiva, xvii). Yet the report does not ques- have the right to choose their marriage Kulkarni; Agarwal). They will no longer

CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME live in proximity to the river and forests dowry and to sexual abuse-after the impact of the projects. The report con- that give them ready access to water and dharnas are over. cluded that "the projects as they stand are firewood. Displacement will only aggra- It is not enough to state that the imme- flawed, that resettlement and rehabilita- vate their work load, as they will have to diate objective of the movement is to stop tion of all those displaced by the projects travel longer distances and work for a the dam and that social change requires a is not possible under prevailing circum- longer period of time. The direct impact different strategy which is not currently a stances, and that the environmental im- of displacement on women's lives should priority. The movements opposing the pacts of the projects have not been prop- give them a right to make decisions about dam need to find ways in which gender erly considered or adequately addressed" whether they want to be displaced or can be integrated or else mobilization (Letter from BradfordMorse, xii). In spite not-and if they are displaced, what kind itself will remain incomplete. A perspec- of these findings and the increasing oppo- of conveniences they want and deserve tive that does not include the "voice- sition to the dam, the Bank and the GOV- (Fernandes). This right is denied to them consciousness" of women remains as ernment of India have indicated their in- since displacement decisions are being much a patriarchal project as the develop tentions to proceed with its construction. made without their consultation. ment project of the World Bank or the 2The World Bank has conducted some The older system of medicine is already Indian government. surveys and submitted reports to con- breaking down since women are losing vince the United States Congress of the access to forests and herbs, and are forced Conclusion viability of the dam (The Telegraph; to go to alienating public hospitals where Baxter). One report prepared a few years they are often given inadequate attention The Narmada Valley project is flawed ago, although sensitive to the critiques, and care (M. Shiva). The existing systems not only for all the reasons that have tends to homogenize the experiences of of community justice and control are also already been voiced by activists, and the the different third world countries regard- being threatened, and the tribals will be tribal affected populations. It is also going ing displacement due to large scale devel- forced to cope with an alien and modem to disrupt women's lives and violate their opmental programmes,without taking into legal system, which will be frequently rights. The World Bank and the Indian account the people's ethnic background inaccessible to them as it is to most non- Government have continuously failed to or government relocation programmes tribal women (Kapur, 1992b). take gender intoconsideration,even when (Scudder). the impacts of the projects have been 3~notherworld ~ankreport does recom- Gendering resistance to the dam reviewed. It is critical that the movements mend that action be taken by the Narmada opposing the construction of the dam un- Valley Development Project, Madhya If the movement resisting the construc- derstand this issue and integrate agendered Pradesh, in the areas of female literacy, tion of the dam is to be meaningful and perspective into their strategies. Only then family planning, child care and creche stronger, then it must address the issue of can both mobilization and resistance to facilities (Note circulated by Executive gender oppression, both within the com- the dam be complete-therwise both the Member). munity as well as in the context of the projects and the movement resisting their 4~heNarmada Water Disputes Tribunal dam. construction are bound to turn into yet was established to address the disputes Women have participated in the cam- another masculinist endeavour. that arose in relation to the division of the paign against the dam in large numbers. project costs and benefits amongst the This has given them enormous confidence Ratna Kapur isanAdvocate, Independent three states involved, Gujarat, because they have been able to break out Researcher, and VisitingFaculty member Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh. In of some patriarchal restrictions imposed of the National Law School of India Uni- 1979 it handed down its award. One of the on them--such restrictions on participat- versity. She would like to thankGeetanjali issues it addressed was the condition for ing in dharnas (protests). Coming into the Gangoli for her research assistance, and resettlement and rehabilitation of those public space can certainly be empowering Grace Domingo for her technical assist- who would be displaced by the submer- in a general way, but the movement needs ance. Thanks also to Brenda Cossmanfor gence area in Madhya Pradesh and to question whether this can lead to a her comments on earlier drafts. Thispa- Maharashtra. There has been some dis- fundamental change in the life-style of per formspurt of a larger study on Human pute over the meaning of the Tribunal women within the home. The impact of Rights, the Environment, and Develop- award as the states do not accept that they any movement that mobilizes women in ment, a South Asian study undertaken by are expected to give land to sons who have large numbers without addressing their the International Center for Law and attained the age of majority (V. Shiva, specific needs is flawed since it continues Development, with funding support from xvii). to operate within the patriarchal discourse SAREC. 5~urprisingly,it is an Indian government which it opposes. Although their partici- report which points out this anomaly and pation is in itself a step towards empower- lThe task of the committee was to con- states that the modality to be applied for ment, it is not informed by a women's duct an assessment of the measures being giving compensationto daughtersis yet to perspective, and hence, is defective. taken to resettle and rehabilitate the popu- receive "our conscientious attention" Women are forced to go back to their lation displaced or otherwise affected by (Gouraha). chulhas (kitchen stoves) and to repeated the project and of the measures being beatings by the men in their family, to taken to ameliorate the environmental

VOLUME 13, NUMBER 3 References ternational Bar AssociationConference, tion on Development, Planning and New York. Session on Human Rights Mega Projects in the Context of Morse Agarwal, Bina. "Rural Women, Poverty and the Rule of Law: Rights of Indig- Report. New Delhi, August 1- 2,1992. and Natural Resources Sustenance: enous People in the Development Proc- Shiva, Vandana. Staying Alive: Women, Sustainabilityand Strugglefor Change." ess. September 1990. Ecology and Survival in India. New E.P. W October 28,1989: WS 46 - WS . "Damming the Law in Narmada." Delhi: Kali for Women, 1988. 65. Legal Perspectives, Documentation File Vahini. "Sardar Sarovar Oustees: Which Alvares, Claude and Ramesh Billorey. No. 23. Legal Resources for Social Way to Go?" Activists' Dilemma (Sep Damming the Narmada. Dehradun: Action, 1992a. 13 -19. tember 1985). Natraj Publishers, 1988. . "From Theory to Practice: Reflec- The Bank Information Center. Funding tions on Legal Literacy Work with EcologicalandSocialDestr~~tions:The ." Legal Literacy4 WorldBankandthe InternationalMon- Tool for Women's Empowerment. etary Fund. Mapusa: The Other India Margaret Schuler and Sakuntala Press, 1991. Kadirgamar, eds. New York: UniFem, Baxter, M. "Reports on 1992b. Development (Gujarat) Sardar Sarovar Kothari, Smithu. "Foreign Assistance and and Power Project (LN 2497-N/CR Ecological Stability in India." Lokayan 1552-IN) and Sardar Sarovar Water Bulletin Mar-April 1991: 1-4. 1 new from broadview I Delivery and Drainage Project (CR Kulkarni, Sharad. "Women andEcology." 1552-IN)" Delhi: I.I.P.A., 26.8.1991. B.P. W. August 5,1989. Bennett, Lynn. "Women, Poverty and Letter from Bradford Morse, Chairman of Productivity in India." EDI Seminar Pa- Independent Review on Sardar Sarovar per Number 43. Washington: Economic Project, andThomas R. Berger, Deputy Development Institute of the World Chairman, to Lewis T. Preston, Presi- Bank, 1992. dent, The World Bank. June 18,1992. Bhavan, Max Mueller. Convention on Note circulated by Executive Member, Development, Planning and Mega Narmada Control Authority, Meeting. Projects in the Context of Morse Re- Allahabad, August 6, 1991. Delhi: port. New Delhi, August 1 - 2,1992. I.I.P.A. Dogra, Bharat. "World Bank's Poverty Rao, Nisha and Bharat Bhushan. "Dam IncreasingProjects-Suvarnarekha and Construction and Its Impact on Narmada." Social Change Paper 23, Women." Development Interventions 1990. and Environmental Issues. Hyderabad: Fernandes, Walter. "Development and Centre for Environmental Concerns, People's Participation: An Introduc- October 1985. Nineteenth-Century tion." Development with People: Ex- Sarangi, Satinath and Ramesh Billorey. Stories by Women periments with Participation andNon- "The Nightmare Begins-Oustees of Formal Education. Walter Fernandes, Indira Sagar Project." EPWXXIII (17) edited by Glennis Stephenson ed. New Delhi: Indian Social Institute, (April 23,1988): 829 - 830. A wide ranging anthology including both 1985.1 - 36. "Sardar Project: World Bank pleads with acknowledged major writers and newly Fernandes, Walter and Geeta Menon. U.S. Congress." The Telegraph Wash- rediscovered ones. Each selection is acco~npaniedby an introduction, Tribal Women and Forest Economy: ington, 19 Jan, 1990. photograph of the author, and explanatory Deforestation, -Exploitation andstatus. Scudder, Thayer. Relocation Component notes. New Delhi: I.S.I., 1987. in Connection with the Sardar Sarovar 1993 $16.95 Gouraha, Dr. N.K. Studies on Resettle- Project, Report based on a 20 day World broadview press ment Madhya Pradesh. 1988-89 Rec- Bank mission to India between P.O. Box 1243, Peterborough, Ont. K9J 7H5 ommendations. Sarhr Sarovar Dam. 24.9.1983-13.10.1983. Delhi: I.I.P.A. Tel: (705) 743-8990 Fax: (705) 743-8353 Delhi: I.I.P.A. Singh, Mridula. "Development Minus "In Sorrow and Anger-The Victims People-Narmada Project." Main- Speak." Based on a visit to the area to be stream Sept. 16, 1987. submerged by the Indira Sagar Project. "World Bank Staff Appraisal Report: In- Bhopal: Caisa, (no date). dia-Narmada River Development, Interview with activist of Narmada Bachao Gujarat, Sardar Sarovar Dam and Power Andolan. December 5,1991 Project." Feb. 12,1985. Report # 5107- Kapur, Ratna. "The Impact of Large Scale IN. Dam Construction In India on Indig- Shiva, Mira. Keynote speaker, Role of enous Peoples." Paper presented at In- MultilateralAgencies session. Conven-

64 CANADIAN WOMAN STUDIES/LES CAHIERS DE LA FEMME