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MULTIPLE CONTEXTS OF VIOLENCE IN THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENT FEMALES WHO HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE By Karen S. Joest Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Human Development April 8, 2003 APPROVED: Fred Piercy, Ph.D., Chair Lenore McWey, Ph.D. Sue Magliaro, Ph.D. Tammy Henderson, Ph.D. Joyce Arditti, Ph.D. Keywords: Domestic Violence, Adolescence, Multiple Contexts, Feminist Theory MULTIPLE CONTEXTS OF VIOLENCE IN THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENT FEMALES WHO HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE By Karen S. Joest Fred Piercy, Committee Chair Department of Human Development Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University ABSTRACT This study explored the multiple contexts of violence in the lives of female adolescents exposed to domestic violence. The research was guided by ecological, critical and postmodern feminist perspectives. Ecological theory embeds individual and familial experiences within the broader social and historical contexts. Critical theory questions often held assumptions and issues of power. Postmodern feminism extended this theoretical lens into a socio-political context that used gender, race, class, and marginalization as central lenses. This perspective emphasized the importance of context, processes, and the subjective experiences of girls. Qualitative methods and a constructivist epistemology were used to understand the experiences of six female adolescents, between 14 and 19 whose mothers had experienced domestic violence. I explored how participants reflected on and made sense of their exposure to violence in their families, the multiple contexts of violence to which they were exposed, and the protective factors they had or employed. Four interviews were conducted with each participant, totaling 24 interviews. Poetry was used to gain trust and begin the process of sharing intrapersonal feelings, to externalize thoughts and expressions, and share lived experiences. Two mothers completed lengthy questionnaires. Participants were recruited through an insider’s knowledge of multiple agencies, and using snowballing. No participants ever resided in a domestic violence shelter. This study contributed to our understanding of the lives of adolescent females exposed to domestic violence by elucidating the complexity of the experiences of participants and their families. It reminded us of the contextual importance of describing violence and the ever- changing experience of children exposed to domestic violence. Children learned to cope in multiple ways, but felt alone and powerless. Systems developed to assist youth and families were unable to intervene in a meaningful way, thus extending the feelings of abandonment and powerlessness. Children learned to hide from their feelings and put on a mask to the world. This mask hid the child safely beneath, and ultimately served to distance her from the realities in her midst. But, at what expense? I discuss findings in terms of current resilience theory and provide suggestions for future research and intervention based on these findings. iii To all the children who live in pain and fear... Raised outside the projects on the south side of town daily life of violence not a chance–left to drown We were the children thrown away no one seemed to care the cops would never come to us so few would even dare At nine I was a victim of sex, my neighbor’s lust At ten I watched my brother beaten down into the dust And then there was eleven in the schoolyard where we played my sister violently raped would we always be afraid? And then I turned twelve beaten and abused broken back and nearly dying god, I felt so used My family moved away in a ploy to save our lives for in the ghetto world so few of us survive... ...And somehow here I am Ph.D. nearly in hand But never will I forget This place where I began –Journal, February 6, 2003 iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As a child, I did not expect to live to adulthood. The violence my family and I experienced was pervasive and seemingly never-ending. Yet, I did survive and have even learned to thrive. This journey was not one of isolation however. There were many mentors, friends, and teachers, each with a lesson to be shared and a new tool with which I could learn to become the person I have and will become. I thank them all. I thank my parents, especially my mother who told me nearly everyday of my childhood that “you are going to college.” I thank my sisters, Jeannie, Donna, Cindy, Marie, Kristi and my brothers, Kevin, Mike and Tim. We survived. I thank Sister Marilyn, my third grade teacher, who taught me to arm-wrestle, Judy Newman, my childhood baseball coach, and Barbara Beadle, my high school basketball coach. Without these women, I am sure that I would never have learned that girls, women could be strong. The many mentors who have crossed my way are equally important. I heartily thank Catherine Burton and Barry Coyne who first taught me what it was to be a counselor. I thank those who encouraged me to be a better counselor with at-risk adolescents, Bob Sisk and Wally Scott. Through intentionality, I became much more effective. I also thank the many clients who really taught me how to be a counselor. I will never forget many of them, for they have shared so much of themselves with me. I thank the many friends who have taught me about humanity, love, and friendship; without them I would not be the person I am today. Thank you for entering my life, Tammy Beadle (Stultz), Lori Hickey, Karen Marini, Tina Manning, and Carrie Wiesner-Voss. To the many numerous friends who provided encouragement, support, and a sounding board throughout the process, Susan Garrison, Susie Shultz, Dawn Jones, and Meredith Tremel. Christine Fruhauf and Jennifer Lambert-Shute, my two sisters in the process, members of my dissertation group were a tremendous emotional support and offered many insights to the process. Without them...I would NEVER have actually finished. My doctoral committee were often inspirational and unfaltering in getting me through the process. My committee members, Fred Piercy, Lenore McWey, Sue Magliaro, Tammy Henderson, and Joyce Arditti. Katherine Allen and Melanie Uttech taught me so many lessons. v Katherine was not only a mentor and teacher, but the kind of instructor that I want to emulate. Thanks for everything. Lastly, this accomplishment would not have been possible without the support and love of my partner, Kathleen Dooley. Thank you for your endless reassurance, and the constant reminder of my vision and what could be. Thank you for the moratorium on our daily living. Without you, I would not be the person I am, and I certainly would not have finished this difficult process. You have taught me much about how to be the person I can be, and have often reminded me of what the world offers. Thank you for standing by me for nine years, and for encouraging me to leave a comfortable world and to enter a new world, with new possibilities. To Danielle, Victoria, Mary, Natalie, Machenzie, Mariah and two of their mothers, Claire and Maggie. I thank you for taking the time and emotional energy to talk with me, share with me, and offer me a glimpse into your worlds. You are all brave and I will never forget you. I hope that our conversations have somehow helped you to reflect on your strengths, and offered an avenue in which you could embrace the women you can and will become. Thank you for teaching me. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS I. Introduction Background of the Problem 1 Purpose of the Study 4 Definition of Terms 4 Research Questions 5 Theoretical Frameworks 5 Reflexive Narrative 11 Summary of Chapter One 17 II. Review of Literature Historical Overview 18 Defining Domestic Violence 18 Prevalence of Exposure to Domestic Violence 20 Exposure to Violence 23 Effects of Exposure to Violence 25 Coping with Exposure to Violence 26 Limitations of Research 27 Summary of Chapter Two 30 III. Methodology Overview 31 Participant Selection 34 Participant Overview 36 Procedures 37 Participant Descriptions 41 Analysis of the Data 53 Summary of Chapter Three 56 vii IV. Findings Overview 57 Expanding Perspectives on Violence 63 Multiple Contexts of Violence 70 Responses to Violence 88 Effects and Aftermath of Violence 96 Resilience and Protective Factors 109 V. Discussion Overview 118 Implications for Research 125 Implications for Practice 133 Reflections of the Researcher 136 Limitations 137 References 139 Appendices 150 A Informed Assent 151 B Informed Consents for Parents 154 C Informed Consent for Adult Participants 160 D Interview Guides 163 E Parent Questionnaire 171 F Resource List for Participants 175 G Coding Families and Categories 176 H Vita 177 viii MULTIPLE CONTEXTS OF VIOLENCE IN THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENT FEMALES WHO HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background of the Problem I had known children who had been overcome by their fears and anxieties, striking out in self- defense against a world that for many reasons was unbearable to them. (Axline, 1964, p. 21) The world in which we live is a world filled with violence. Millions of children are abused every year and varying statistics reveal that as many as one in three girls and one in six boys are sexually abused prior to the age of 18 (Bass & Davis, 1988). Media exposure to violence only perpetuates the problem. Children view nearly 16,000 simulated murders and 200,000 acts of violence by the time they reach 18 (American Psychiatric Association, 1998). Community violence is pervasive in urban areas, with urban schools indicating that it is highly unlikely not to have children who are exposed to chronic community violence, including the use of knives, guns, severe beatings, and other weapons (Osofsky, 1999).

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