Notes

P reface: Pardon My Sarong—Dorothy Lamour’s Legacy

1 . People , October 7, 1996. 2 . Salt Lake Tribune , September 23, 1996. 3 . Fort Worth Star-Telegram , September 22, 1996. 4 . Honolulu Star-Bulletin , October 2, 1996. 5 . Salt Lake Tribune , September 23, 1996. 6 . “Stanley,” “Grass Skirts and Romance,” HMAS Mk. III (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1944), 176. 7 . “Stanley,” “Grass Skirts and Romance,” 176. 8 . “Stanley,” “Grass Skirts and Romance,” 177. 9 . Hugh Laracy, “World War Two,” in Tides of History: The Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century, ed. K. R. Howe, Robert C. Kiste, and Brij V. Lal (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1994), 166.

I ntroduction: The Wartime Search for the South Seas

1 . C i t e d i n BP Magazine , 1(2) March 1929, 44. 2 . Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (1890; Charleston, SC: Forgotten Books, 2007), 376. 3 . Peter Hopton to his father, December 31, 1942, PR000587, Australian War Memorial, Canberra. 4 . Frank R. Corkin, Jr., Pacific Postmark: A Series of Letters from Aboard a Fighting Destroyer in the War Waters of the Pacific (Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, and Brainard, 1945), 8, 22. 5 . Peter Schrijvers, The Crash of Ruin: American Combat Soldiers in Europe during World War II (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 4, 206. 6 . Debbie Lisle, “Consuming Danger: Reimaging the War/Tourism Divide,” Alternatives 25, (2000): 91, 111. See also Richard White, “Sun, Sand, and Syphilis: Australian Soldiers and the Orient, Egypt, 1914,” Australian Cultural History 9, (1990): 49–80; Richard White, “The Soldier as Tourist: The Australian Experience of the Great War,” War and Society 5, (1987): 63–77; David Farber and Beth Bailey, “The Fighting Man as Tourist: The 182 NOTES

Politics of Tourist Culture in Hawaii during World War II,” Pacific Historical Review 65, (1996): 641–60; Bertram M. Gordon, “Warfare and Tourism: Paris in World War II,” Annals of Tourism Research 25, (1998): 616–38. 7 . Robin Gerster and Peter Pierce, On the War-Path: An Anthology of Australian Military Travel (Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2004), 1. See also Sean Brawley and Chris Dixon, “Colonel Zimmer’s Sea Shell Collection: Souvenirs, Experience Validation, and American Service Personnel in the Wartime South Pacific,” in Coast to Coast and the Islands in Between: Case Studies in Modern Pacific Crossings , ed. Prue Ahrens and Chris Dixon (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010), 77–87. 8 . Gordon, “Warfare and Tourism,” 617. 9 . An exception is Rebecca L. Stein, “Souvenirs of Conquest: Israeli Occupations and Tourist Events,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 40, (2008): 647–69. 10 . Elizabeth Richards, “The Australians in France, 1916–19: Towards a Social History,” in Ranging Shots: New Directions in Australian Military History , ed. Carl Bridge (London: Sir Robert Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, 1998), 19–34; James Curran, “‘Bonjour Paree!’: The First AIF in Paris, 1916–1918,” Journal of Australian Studies 60, (1999): 18–26; Sean Brawley and Chris Dixon, “‘Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels and Brown Buddies’: An Exploration of Australian and American Perceptions of New Guinea Natives during the Pacific War,” International Journal of Historical Studies 1, (1988): 7–26; Brawley and Dixon, “The Hollywood Native: Hollywood’s Construction of the South Seas and Wartime Encounters with the South Pacific,” Sites: A Journal for South Pacific Cultural Studies 27, (1994): 15–29; Brawley and Dixon, “War and Sex in the South Pacific, 1941–1945,” Australasian Journal of American Studies 18, (1999): 3–18; Brawley and Dixon, “Colonel Zimmer’s Sea Shell Collection,” 77–87; James Wieland, “There and Back with the Anzacs: More than Touring,” Journal of the Australian War Memorial 18, (1991): 49–56; Bart Zino “A Kind of Round Trip: Australian Soldiers and the Tourist Analogy, 1914–1918,” War and Society 25, (2006): 39–52. 11 . See, for example, David R. Woodward, Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2006), 7; Janet Butler, “‘Very Busy in Bosches Alley’: One Day of the Somme in Sister Kit McNaughton’s Diary,” He alth and History 6, (2004): 18–32; Nathan Wise, “A Working Man’s Hell: Working Class Men’s Experiences with Work in the Australian Imperial Force during the Great War,” PhD Thesis, University of New South Wales, 2007; Peter Dean, “The Making of a General: Lost Years, Forgotten Battles: Lieutenant General Frank Berryman, 1894–1941,” PhD Thesis, University of New South Wales, 2007; Jeff Kildea, Anzacs and Ireland (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2008). Richard White’s impact has also moved beyond Australia; see Mario Ruiz, “Manly Spectacles and Imperial Soldiers in Wartime Egypt, 1914–19,” Middle Eastern Studies 45, (2009): 351–71. NOTES 183

12 . Barthes, cited in Malcolm Crick, “Tourists, Locals and Anthropologists: Quizzical Reflections on ‘Otherness’ in Tourist Encounters and in Tourism Research,” Australian Cultural History 10, (1991): 6. 13 . Charles Allan Fraser to Elsie Halsi, June 5, 1943, Fraser Family Papers, MS 2269, Folder 7, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. 14 . Leslie C. Schneider to Mrs. Schneider, February 10, 1943, Folder 19, Box 20, MS 1881, World War II Collection, Special Collections, University of Tennessee, Knoxville (Tennessee Collection). On this issue of traveling shap- ing the national self, see E. Ann Kaplan, Looking for the Other: Feminism, Film, and the Imperial Gaze (New York: Routledge, 1997), 5–6. 1 5 . E d w a r d S a i d , Orientalism (1978; New York: Vintage Books, 1979); K. R. Howe, Nature, Culture, and History: The “Knowing” of Oceania (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000), 1–2. See also Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific, 1768–1850: A Study in the History of Art and Ideas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960). 1 6 . D e a n M a c C a n n e l l , The Tourist: A New Theory ofe th Leisure Class (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1976), 91–96. See also Eric Cohen, “The Study of Touristic Images of Native People,” in Tourism Research: Critiques and Challenges , ed. Douglas G. Pearce and Richard W. Butler (London: Routledge, 1993), 36. 1 7 . S e e J o h n U r r y , The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies (London: Sage, 1990), 9; Malcolm Crick, cited in David Engerman, “Research Agenda for the History of Tourism: Towards an International Social History,” American Studies International 32, (1994): 11. See also Crick, “Representations of International Tourism in the Social Sciences: Sun, Sex, Sights, Savings, and Servility,” Annual Review of Anthropology 18, (1989): 307–44. 18 . Engerman, “Research Agenda for the History of Tourism,” 11. 19 . Lisle, “Consuming Danger,” 95. 20 . Gerster and Pierce, On the War-Path , 2. 21 . Crick, “Tourists, Locals and Anthropologists,” 12. 22 . See Brawley and Dixon, “Hollywood Native,” 15–29. 23 . See MacCannell, The Tourist. 2 4 . N e i l R e n n i e , Far-Fetched Facts: The Literature of Travel and the Ideas of eth South Seas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 1–45. 2 5 . J o h n T r u m p b o u r , Selling Hollywood to the World: U.S. and European Struggles for Mastery of the Global Film Industry, 1920–1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), xiii. 2 6 . K e r r y S e g r a v e , American Films Abroad: Hollywood’s Domination of the World’s Movie Screens from the 1890s to the Present (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1997), 12, 66. On the American influence on the Antipodean film market, see also Tom O’Regan, “Australian Cinema as National Cinema,” in Film and Nationalism , ed. Alan Williams (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 92; Diane Collins, Hollywood Down Under: Australians at the Movies, 1896 to the Present Day (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1987). 184 NOTES

27 . Glenn K. S. Mann, “Hollywood Images of the Pacific,” East -West Film Journal 5, (1991): 16. See also Norman Douglas, “Electric Shadows in the South Seas: The Pacific Islands in Film—A Survey,” in Moving Images of the Pacific Islands: A Guide to Films and Videos , ed. D. Aoki (Honolulu: Center for Pacific Island Studies, 1994), 3–19. 28 . Sarina Peterson, “Darkness and Light: Dusky Maidens and Velvet Dreams ,” Camera Obscura 20, (2005): 185. This notion of texts being “haunted” by the works of earlier writers is borrowed from Dennis Porter, Haunted Journeys: Desire and Transgression in European Travel Writing (Princeton, NJ:, Princeton University Press, 1991), 12. 29 . See Janet Staiger, Interpreting Films: Studies in the Historical Reception of American Cinema (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992). Reception history has been derived from reception theory in literary stud- ies and has been extended to other cultural productions. See, for example, Cristle Collins Judd, Reading Renaissance Music Theory: Hearing with the Eyes (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); John Butt, Bach: Mass in B Minor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). An example of a reception history aligning with the study of the tourists and tourism is Joshua Hagen, Preservation, Tourism and Nationalism: The Jewel of the German Past (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006). 30 . See Marty Zelenietz, “Villages without People: A Preliminary Analysis of American Views of Melanesians during World War II as Seen through Popular Histories,” in Remembering the Pacific War , ed. Geoffrey M. White (Honolulu: Center for Pacific Islands Studies, 1991), 188–98. Most of the historiography devoted to the Pacific War continues to reflect the tradi- tional emphasis on operational matters. In the Australian context, that emphasis has been exemplified by the publication of the Official History of Australia in the War of 1939–1945, which ran to 22 volumes and which continues to hold a special place for Australians in the historiography of World War II. In the United States, the closest equivalent would be Samuel Elliot Morrison’s fifteen-volume History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, although that collection did not have the imprimatur of “official” history. Various branches of the United States armed forces also published “official” histories covering operations during the Pacific War. 31 . A fine example of social military history is Mark Johnson, At the Front Line: Experiences of Australian Soldiers in World War II (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 32 . For recent surveys of military history in the United States and Australia, see Wayne E. Lee, “Mind and Matter—Cultural Analysis in American Military History: A Look at the State of the Field,” Journal of American History 93, (2007): 1116–42; Jeffrey Grey, “Cuckoo in the Nest?: Australian Military Historiography: The State of the Field,” History Compass 6, (2008): 455–68. For an excellent introduction to cultural history as a subject and an approach to the study of the past, see the introductory essay in Hsu-Ming Teo and Richard White, “Introduction,” Cultural History in Australia , ed. Hsu-Ming Teo and Richard White (Sydney: University of New South Wales, NOTES 185

Press, 2003), 1–21. Examples of studies that have applied the “cultural turn” to the history of warfare include Joanna Bourke, An Intimate History of Killing: Face-to-Face Killing in Twentieth-Century Warfare (London: Granta Books, 1999); and John A. Lynn, Battle: A Cultural History of Combat and Culture (Boulder: Westview Press, 2003). Reflecting on the Pacific War, Mark R. Peattie has noted that one of his objectives was to consider “the meaning it came to have for its principal participants.” Peattie’s essay is brief, but his omission of any reference to the indigenous peoples of the Pacific is nonetheless symptomatic of a wider neglect. The phrase “participant” thus refers to the Allies and the Japanese; Islanders remain historiographi- cally invisible. See Peattie, A Historian Looks at the Pacific War (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 1. 33 . See, for example, Geoffrey M. White and Lamont Lindstrom, The Pacific Theater: Island Representations of World War II (1989; Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1990); White and Lindstrom, Island Encounters: Black and White Memories of the Pacificr Wa (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990); White, ed., Remembering the Pacific War (Honolulu: Center for Pacific Islands Studies, 1991). 34 . See, for example, Lin Poyer, Suzanne Falgout, and Laurence Marshall Carucci, The Typhoon of War: Micronesian Experiences of the Pacific War (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001). 35 . See Schrijvers, Bloody Pacific: American Soldiers at War with Japan (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 31–32. Bloody Pacific was a reprinted edi- tion of The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II (New York: New York University Press, 2005). 36 . See Richard Slotkin’s trilogy, Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600–1860 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1973); The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization (New York: Atheneum, 1985); Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Atheneum, 1992). 3 7 . J u d i t h A . B e n n e t t , Natives and Exotics: World War II and Environment in the Southern Pacific (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009), 16, 37. 38 . Ian Tyrrell has noted this oversight. See Tyrrell, “Epic of the Wartime Pacific: Environment and Military Conflict,” Journal of Pacific History 46, (2011): 122. See also Patricia O’Brien, The Pacific Muse: Exotic Femininity and the Colonial Pacific (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006); Michael Sturma, South Sea Maidens: Western Fantasy and Sexual Politics in the South Pacific (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002); Schrijvers, GI War against Japan ; Mann, “Hollywood Images of the Pacific,” 16–29. 39 . See Zelenietz, “Villages without People,” 188–98. 4 0 . S e e O ’ B r i e n , Pacific Muse; Sturma, South Sea Maidens. 4 1 . T h o m a s O . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co, 1946); Michener, Tales of the South Pacific (New York: Macmillan, 1946). 42 . For an examination of the range of cultural productions produced by both the Allies and the Japanese during the Pacific War, see Sean Brawley, Chris 186 NOTES

Dixon, and Beatrice Trefalt, Fighting Words: Competing Voices from the Pacific War (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press/ABC Clio, 2009). 43 . Farrell, cited in Undated Report, United States Military Censorship, Base Section No. 2, Box T-1418, RG338, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NACP). 4 4 . Monthly Bulletin, No. 4, May 28, 1943, Field Security Wing, 54 175/3 423/11/161, AWM. 45 . Theater Censor Report, August 15, 1942, United States Military Censorship, Base Section No. 2, Box T-1419, RG338, NACP. 46 . Robert J. Dermott to parents, May 21, 1944, Folder 3, MS-1230, Robert J. Dermott Papers, Tennessee Collection. 47 . Ralph Noonan to his wife, May 23, 1942, Ralph Noonan Papers, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania. 4 8 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark , 33. 4 9 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , Censorship and Security in New Guinea: An Explanatory Booklet (New Guinea: GSI New Guinea Force, 1944) in John Land Papers, MSS 631, Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales. 50 . See United States Military Censorship Report, Base Section No. 2, Box T-1419, RG338, NACP. 51 . Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, ed., Love, War and the 96th Engineers, (Colored): The Word War II New Guinea Diaries of Captain Hyman Samuelson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 291. 52 . Brawley, Dixon, and Trefalt, Competing Voices , 56. 53 . Aaron Moore, “The Perils of Self-Discipline: Chinese Nationalist, Japanese and American Servicemen Record the Rise and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1937–1945,” PhD diss., Princeton, 2006, 10.

1 Through Hollywood’s Lens: Prewar Visions of the South Pacific

1 . Henry Fairfield Osborn, The Pacific World: Its Vast Distances, Its Lands and the Life upon Them, and Its Peoples (New York: W. W. Norton, 1944), Foreword. 2 . See Carol Grant Gould, The Remarkable Life of William Beebe: Explorer and Naturalist (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2004). 3 . William Beebe, “Introduction,” in Osborn, The Pacific World , 1. 4 . Beebe, “Introduction,” in Osborn, The Pacific World , 1–2. 5 . Beebe, “Introduction,” in Osborn, The Pacific World , 1–2. 6 . X. Theodore Barber, “The Roots of Travel Cinema: John L. Stoddard, E. Burton Holmes, and the Nineteenth-Century Illustrated Travel Lecture,” Film History 5, (1993): 68. 7 . Alison Griffiths, “‘To the World We Show’: Early Travelogues as Filmed Ethnography,” Film History 11, (1999): 282. By examining the South Seas NOTES 187

in natural and ethnographic terms, and explaining them to their audiences using accessible scientific language, National Geographic and Nature had played important roles in stimulating popular interest in the South Seas. 8 . Griffiths, “To the World We Show,” 282–307. 9 . Andrew Pike and Ross Cooper, Australian Film, 1900–1977: A Guide to Feature Film Production (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1980), 57. 1 0 . Galveston (TX) Daily News , December 19, 1915. 11 . See Kerry Howe, The Quest for Origins: Who First Discovered and Settled the Pacific Islands? (Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003), 46; J. MacMillan Brown, Maori and Polynesian: Their Origins, History and Culture (London: Hutchinson and Co, 1907), 96. 12 . For an example of the repudiation, see Asia , January 1923, 24. See also Frederick O’Brien, White Shadows in the South Seas (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1919). 13. Patricia Johnston, “Advertising Paradise: Hawaii in Arts, Anthropology, and Commercial Photography,” in Colonialist Photography: Imag(in)ing Race and Place, ed. Eleanor M. Hight and Gary David Sampson (New York: Routledge, 2002), 212. 1 4 . Photoplay , June 1920. 15 . John W. Burton and Caitlin W. Thompson, “Nanook and the Kirwinians: Deception, Authenticity, and the Birth of Modern Ethnographic Representation,” Film History 14, (2002): 74. 16 . Richard Barsam, The Vision of Robert Flaherty: The Artist as Myth and Filmmaker (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 16. 17 . Frances Hubbard Flaherty, “Setting up House and Shop in Samoa. The Struggle to Find Screen Material in the Lyric Beauty of Polynesian Life,” Asia (August 1925): 639–711. 18 . See Lewis Jacobs, The Documentary Tradition, from Nanook to Woodstock (New York: Hopkinson and Blake, 1995), 25. 1 9 . C i t e d i n P a u l R o t h a , Robert J. Flaherty: A Biography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), 68–69. 2 0 . R u d y B e h l m e r , e d . , Memo from David O. Selznick (New York: Viking Press, 1972), 15. 2 1 . M a r k A . V i e i r a , Irving Thalberg: Boy Wonder to Producer Prince (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009), 84. 22 . Van Dyke to Josephine Chippo, December 10, 1927, Folder 16, Josephine Chippo Papers, Margaret Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Los Angeles (AMPAS). 23 . Van Dyke to Josephine Chippo, December 24, 1927, Folder 16, Chippo Papers, AMPAS. 24 . Priscilla Peña Ovalle, Dance and the Hollywood Latina: Race, Sex, and Stardom (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011), 1–2, 7. 2 5 . White Shadows in the South Seas, Promotional Booklet (New York: MGM, 1928), held in Folder 8, Chippo Papers, AMPAS. 2 6 . Stage and Screen Evening Herald , July 28, 1928. 188 NOTES

2 7 . San Francisco Examiner , March 10, 1928. 2 8 . White Shadows in the South Seas , Promotional Booklet. 29 . Lotte H. Eisner, Murnau (London: Secker & Warburg, 1973), 210. 30 . Cited in Eisner, Murnau , 208. 31 . Cited in Eisner, Murnau , 207. 32 . Cited in Eisner, Murnau , 208. 33 . Fatimah Tobing Rony, The Third Eye: Race, Cinema, and Ethnographic Spectacle (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996), 253; Jeffrey Geiger, Facing the Pacific: Polynesia and the U.S. Imperial Imagination (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007), 228. 34 . J. A. Vizzard, Memorandum “Tabu,” June 7, 1950, Tabu , Motion Picture Association of America/Production Code Administration (MPAA/PCA) Files, AMPAS. 35 . James B. M. Fisher, Review Tabu , March 24, 1931, MPAA/PCA, AMPAS. 36 . R. E. Plummer, Review Tabu , March 19, 1931, MPAA/PCA Files AMPAS. 37 . Stephen S. Joy to Paramount, April 22, 1931, Tabu , MPAA/PCA Files, AMPAS. 3 8 . Hollywood Reporter , January 21, 1931. 39 . Ray Greene, “Sorry Sarong Number. Murnau’s 1931,” Village View , May 15–21, 1992. 4 0 . Wisconsin State Journal, April 16, 1931. The film saw a number of cuts required due to dancing and swimming scenes. See Stephen S. Joy to Irving Thalberg, April 18, 1931, and R. E. Plummer, Code Report, “Never The Twain Shall Meet,” May 11, 1933, Never The Twain Shall Meet , AMPAA/ PCA, AMPAS. 41 . Susan Courtney, Hollywood Fantasies of Miscegenation: Spectacular Narratives of Gender and Race, 1903–1967 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), 127. 4 2 . C o u r t n e y , Hollywood Fantasies, 127; Burlington (NC) Daily Times , July 6, 1931. 43 . Uncited newspaper clipping, May 19, 1932, Thomas J. Geraghty Collection, AMPAS. 44 . For a critique of the film and Del Rio’s role, see Joanne Hershfield, The Invention of Dolores del Rio (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 29. 4 5 . Chicago Tribune , March 11, 1871. 46 . Started as a mail order company in 1926, by 1929 the Book-of-the-Month Club had over 110,000 members. See Janice A. Radway, A Feeling for Books: The Book-of-the-Month Club, Literary Taste, and Middle-Class Desire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 261. 47 . Michael Sturma, South Sea Maidens: Western Fantasy and Sexual Politics in the South Pacific (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002), 52. 4 8 . Hartford Courant , November 3, 1935. 4 9 . G r e g D e n i n g , Mr. Bligh’s Bad Language: Passion, Power, and Theater on the Bounty (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 350. 5 0 . Lewiston (ME) Daily Sun , November 19, 1935. NOTES 189

5 1 . Lewiston (ME) Daily Sun , November 19, 1935. 5 2 . Chicago Tribune , November 24, 1935. 5 3 . Hartford Courant , November 3, 1935. 5 4 . Washington Post , November 18, 1935. 5 5 . Deseret (UT) News , January 14, 1938. 56 . John Hammel to Joseph E. Breen, January 13, 1937; Breen to Will H. Hays, October 31, 1936, The Jungle Princess, AMPAA/PCA, AMPAS. 57 . A.H., “Memo for Files,” July 24, 1936, The Jungle Princess, AMPAA/PCA, AMPAS. 5 8 . J a y J o r g e n s e n , Edith Head: The Fifty-Year Career of Hollywood’s Greatest Costume Designer (Philadelphia: Running Press, 2010), 48. 59 . Joseph E. Breen to Samuel Goldwyn, April 8, 1937, The Hurricane, MPAA/ PCA Files, AMPAS. 6 0 . Film Daily , November 10, 1937; Variety , November 5, 1937. 6 1 . Variety , November 5, 1937; Motion Picture Herald , November 10, 1937. 6 2 . Coquille (OR) Valley Sentinel , June 13, 1940. 6 3 . O l g a M a r t i n , Hollywood’s Movie Commandments: A Handbook for Motion Picture Writers and Reviewers (New York: H. W. Wilson, 1937), 178. 6 4 . T o b i n g , “ R o b e r t F l a h e r t y ’ s Nanook of the North,” in Rony, The Third Eye , 303. 6 5 . New York Times , April 14, 1938. 6 6 . Variety , April 26, 1940. 6 7 . St. Petersburg (FL) Times , June 9, 1940. 68 . Tom Brislin, “Exotics, Erotics, and Coconuts: Stereotypes of Pacific Islanders,” in Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media , ed. Paul Martin Lester and Susan Dente Ross (Wesport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 106. 69 . Vasey, “Foreign Parts: Hollywood’s Global Distribution and the Representation of Ethnicity,” in Movie Censorship and American Culture , 2nd ed., ed. Francis G. Couvares (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006), 223. 70 . Ellen Christine Scott, “Race and the Struggle for Cinematic Meaning: Film Production Censorship, and African American Reception, 1940–1960,” PhD Diss, Harvard University, 2007, 437. 7 1 . C o u r t n e y , Fantasies of Miscegenation , 136.

2 W artime Tourists on a Hollywood Jungle Set: Anticipating the South Seas and Encountering the South Pacific

1 . The elder Nordhoff, also named Charles, had written Stories of the Island World (New York: Harper, 1857) and Northern California, Oregon and the Sandwich Islands (1874; Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1974). 2 . See Paul L. Briand, In Search of Paradise: The Nordhoff-Hall Story (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1966). 3 . J a m e s N o r m a n H a l l , Lost Island (Garden City, NY: Sun Dial Press, 1945), 13. 4 . Salvatore Lamangna, 43rd Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, United States Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania 190 NOTES

(MHI). See also Mary Webster Wilson Diary, August 20, 1943, Mary Wilson Webster Diary, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand (Alexander Turnbull). Although Judith Bennett agrees that Allied service- men’s expectations of the South Pacific had been informed by Hollywood, she has contended that most “Pacific islands were little-known to their war- time invaders.” Many Allied service personnel, however, believed they knew about the “real” South Pacific and were determined to preserve those impres- sions and perceptions. See Bennett, Natives and Exotics: World War II and Environment in the Southern Pacific (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009), 11. 5 . Nelson Huren, “The Fita Fita of Samoa,” Leatherneck , August 1931, 9. 6 . Robert J. Dermott to his parents, May 11, 1943, Robert J. Dermott Papers, Folder 3, MS-1230, World War Two Collection, Special Collections, University of Tennessee (Tennessee Collection). 7 . See John F. Kennedy to Joseph Kennedy Sr., May 14, 1943, Box 5, Personal File 1943–1949, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston (JFK Library). 8 . 125th Quartermaster Yearbook 1944, Ralph Noonan Papers, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 9 . Arthur Guarenti, a military policeman traveling to the Pacific with the Americal Division, noted in February 1942 that the trip was “getting mono- tomous [sic]” “Wish the hell we would land soon,” he remarked with exas- peration in his diary. See Guarenti Diary, February 2, 1942, Private Papers of Arthur Guarenti, Americal Division, Army Service Questionnaire, MHI. Australian Lieutenant Colonel W. N. Parry-Okeden referred to the “enjoy- able” journey to New Guinea. See Parry-Okeden, Unpublished Memoir, 6, PR00321, Australian War Memorial, Canberra (AWM). On the wartime appropriation of the P & O Line’s cruise ships, see Ngaire Douglas and Norman Douglas, “P & O’s Pacific,” Journal of Tourism Studies 7, (1996): 4. 1 0 . D a n L e v i n , From the Battlefield: Dispatches of a World War II Marine (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1995), 7. 11 . Master Sergeant John Brown, cited in R. C. Muehrcke, Orchids in the Mud: World War II in the Pacific—Pain, Boredom, Adventure: Guadalcanal, New Caledonia, Fiji, Bougainville, Philippines, Japan. Personal Accounts by Veterans of the 132nd Infantry Regiment (Oak Brook, IL: R. C. Muehrcke, 1985), 46, 49. 12 . Darwin Edmundson to Joyce Lobrer, February [?], 1943, Letters of Darwin Edmundson, Operational Archives Branch, Naval Historical Center, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, DC (OAB/NHC). 13 . Oliver Robinett to Parents, February 4, 1943, in World War II Letters, 1936–1948 (C2219), Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri (WHMC). 14 . See John F. Kennedy to his Parents, May 14, 1943, in Lines of Battle: Letters from American Servicemen, 1941–1945, ed. Annette Tapert (New York: Times Books, 1987), 90. NOTES 191

15 . Darwin Edmundsen to Joyce Lobrer, February [?], 1943, Letters of Darwin Edmondson, OAB/NHC. See also Dan Levin, Mask of Glory (New York: Whittlesey House, 1949), 130. 16 . The certificates are held in Box 74, Pre-Presidential Papers, Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, Austin, Texas (LBJ Library). 17 . M. Farber to wife, June 23, 1942, US Forces Far East, G-2, Theater Censors, Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–1944, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1421, RG338, National Archives and Record Administration, College Park, Maryland (NACP). 18 . Oliver Robinett to parents, February 4, 1943, World War II Letters, WHMC. 19 . Ritchie Garrison, “A Story of a South Pacific Advanced Base during World War II, Efate, New Hebrides,” 6, Unpublished Memoir, MHI. 20 . Captain M. Farber to wife, June 23, 1942, US Forces Far East, G-2, Theater Censors, Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–1944, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1421, RG338, NACP. 2 1 . F r a n k R . C o r k i n J r . , Pacific Postmark: A Series of Letters from Aboard a Fighting Destroyer in the War Waters of the Pacific (Hartford, CT: Printed by the Case, Lockwood & Brainard Co., 1945), 6. 22 . David Farber and Beth Bailey, “Fighting Man as Tourist: The Politics of Tourist Culture in Hawaii during World War II,” Pacific Historical Review 65, (1996): 641. 23 . Farber and Bailey, “Fighting Man as Tourist,” 644. 24 . Rob Wilson, Reimagining the American Pacific: From South Pacific to Bamboo Ridge and Beyond (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000), xiv; Wilfred G. Burchett, Pacific Treasure Island: New Caledonia. Voyage through Its Land and Wealth, the Story of Its People and Past (Melbourne: F. W. Cheshire, 1941), 11. 25 . “Sun Fun in Hawaii,” c. 1940, Frank and Nell Kernowlski Papers, Folder 4, Box 2 MS 1230, Tennessee Collection. 26 . James Cupp, Unpublished Memoir, 13, 6A33, United States Marine Corps History Division, Quantico, VA (USMCHD). 27 . Morris L. Atkinson Papers, 321st Infantry Regiment, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 2 8 . H a l l , Lost Island , 49. 29 . Wayman to “Mother,” June 27, 1944, Wayman Papers, MHI. 3 0 . L e v i n , From the Battlefield , 7. 31 . Bill Dorman to Harry Stone, October 14, 1944, Harry A. Stone Papers, MS9101, Australian Archives, Canberra. 32 . Charles Walmsby Diary, June 17, 1943, PR00742, AWM. 33 . Ralph Noonan to Louise Noonan, March 25, 1942, Noonan Papers, MHI. 3 4 . L e v i n , From the Battlefield, 8; 1st Lieutenant Bernstein to friend, July 18, 1942, APO 922, US Military Censorship, Base Section No. 2, Box T-1419, RG338, NACP. 3 5 . Boston Evening American , September 1, 1942. 192 NOTES

3 6 . Boston Traveler , August 11, 1942. 37 . Johnson to parents, March 4, 1942, US Military Censorship, Base Section No. 2, Box T-1419, RG338, NACP. Johnson’s letter was detained because it was mailed through the Australian civilian mail rather than the American military mail system. 38 . Ralph Noonan to Louise Noonan, April 5, 1942, Noonan Papers, MHI. See also Donald Preston Ward to “Ma and Lo,” March 24, 1945, Donald Preston Ward Papers, Ms.00.0207, Institute on World War II and the Human Experience, Florida State University, Tallahassee. 39 . “Some Unsung Heroes of the Mountain Battle,” in On Target: With the American and Australian Anti-Aircraft Brigade in New Guinea (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1943), 87. 4 0 . S e e E d g a r W a l l a c e , Sanders of the River, http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks08 /0801131.txt (accessed October 22, 2011). 4 1 . B i l l K e n n e d y , Fearless Warrior: A Gunner’s Mate on the Beach at Guadalcanal (Jefferson, NC: McFarland Co., 1991), 51–52, 80, 84–85; Harry James, Sleepy Lagoon , 1942. 42 . Griswold Diary, May 19, 1943, O. W. Griswold Papers, MHI. 43 . Mayfield to Corwin, January 28, 1945, 370/35/3, 2–5 Red 182 ComSoPac, Box 6779, RG313, NACP. 44 . Alan Hooper to Nancy Hooper, May 13, 1944, PR00630, AWM. 45 . Sir John Grace, Diary, entries for March 16, 1942, and March 22, 1942, Sir John Grace Papers, Imperial War Museum, London. 4 6 . B i l l E d g a r , Warrior of Kokoda: A Biography of Brigadier Arnold Potts (St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen and Unwin, 1999), 132. 47 . Thomas E. Serier, Diary January 25, 1943, Diary of Thomas E. Serier, PC # 743, Loc 1A33, USMCHD. 48 . Walmsby Diary, July 18, 1942, PR00742, AWM. 4 9 . Boston Traveler , August 11, 1942. 50 . Major Joseph H. Griffith, Diary May 27, 1942, IB26, USMCHD. 51 . The postcards are held in Box 74, Pre-Presidential Papers, LBJ Library. 52 . Robert J. Dermott, Folder 3, MS-1230, Tennessee Collection. 5 3 . SALT , 5 (October 5, 1942): 19. 54 . An example is the photograph of war cameraman Damien Parer taken by an Australian commando near Salamaua, New Guinea. See Neil McDonald and Peter Brune, 200 Shots: Damien Parer, George Silk, and the Australians at War in New Guinea (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1998), 5. 55 . J. C. Ross, Diary, January 2, 1944, Papers of J. C. Ross, PR00635, AWM; Peter Hopton to his mother, December 31, 1942, PR000587, AWM. 56 . Karl M. Dreier to Miss Lena Reynolds, Ellicottville, New Jersey, July 22, 1944, Leah and Lena Reynolds Papers, MHI. 57 . John F. Kennedy to Joseph Kennedy Sr., September 12, 1943, JFK Library; Robert C. Richardson to Douglas MacArthur, July 4, 1942, General Richard J. Marshall Papers, MHI. 58 . Oliver Robinett to “Dearest Mother and Dad,” December 21, 1943, World War II Letters, WHMC. NOTES 193

59 . “Bell and Hughes,” “Life of B Battery in New Guinea,” in On Target , 145. 60 . E. C. Lecky to Home, December 8, 1942, Edmund Crawford Lecky Collection, 3DRL/7816, AWM; Lieutenant Colonel W. N. Parry-Okeden, Unpublished Memoir, 6, PR 00321, AWM. 61 . Jack Poulton to Jane Poulton, December 21, 1942, in A Better Legend: From the World War II Letters of Jack and Jane Poulton , ed. Jane Weaver Poulton (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993), 19; Jesse Henry Gardner, Beachheads and Black Widows: A South Pacific Diary (1995), 87. 62 . Wayman to her mother, June 27, 1944, MHI. 63 . Edward G. Harris to Mother, November 27, 1944, Folder 1, Papers of Edward G. Harris, Tennessee Collection; Noonan to Louise Noonan, May 16, 1942, Noonan Papers, MHI. 64 . “Bell and Hughes,” “Life of B Battery in New Guinea,” in On Target , 145. 6 5 . J a c k D . C o o m b e , Derailing the Tokyo Express: The Naval Battles for the Solomon Islands That Sealed Japan’s Fate (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1991), 7. 66 . Olson to future wife, Ruth, December [?], 1943, William Robert Henry Olson Papers, PR 90/094, AWM. See also Henry Berry, Semper Fi, Mac: Living Memories of the U.S. Marines in World War II (1982; New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1987), 59; William Bruce Johnson, The Pacific Campaign in World War II: From Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal (New York: Routledge, 2006), 201; Derrick Wright, To the Far Side of Hell: The Battle for Peleliu, 1944 (2002; Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005), 45; Edward C. Raymer, Descent into Darkness: A Navy Diver’s Memoir (Novato, CA: Presidio, 1996), 175. 67 . Vaughan Meeks, Diary, March 9, 1944, Folder 8, Box 7, Ms 1298, Tennessee Collection. 6 8 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark, 20; Gibbon to his aunt, reprinted in Boston Evening American, September 1, 1942; Oliver Robinett to his parents, October 27, 1943, World War II Letters, WHMC. 69 . Ralph Noonan to Louise Noonan, May 8, 1942, Noonan Papers, MHI. 70 . Edmund Clark to his Parents, [no month, no date] 1944, Edmund Clark Papers, MHI. 71 . Edmund Clark to his Parents, November 23, 1944, Edmund Clark Papers, MHI. 7 2 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark , 18. 73 . Morale Reports, Military Censorship Detachment, Office of the Theater Censor, GHQ, SWPA, 290/45/12/4–5, Box T-1433, RG338, NACP. 74 . Clark to parents, November 21, 1944, November 23, 1944, Edmund Clark Papers, MHI. 75 . See Eichelberger to wife, September 18, 1942, Box 6, Robert Eichelberger Papers, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, William R. Perkins Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. 76 . For an example of a censor’s intervention in removing details of a service- man’s location from his correspondence, see Peggy Carson to James Jones, January 1, 1943, Folder 472, Box 34, James Jones Papers, YCAL MSS 23, Bienecke Library, Yale University. 194 NOTES

77 . Robinett to his father, August 24, 1943, World War II Letters, WHMC. 7 8 . Oakland (CA) Tribune Magazine , August 1, 1943, 45. 79 . Shearer Diary, May 11, 1943, Papers of D. Shearer, PR 91/138, AWM. 80 . Diary of Sergeant Robert D. Burns, January 13, 1942, to January 1943, Undated Entry, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire Files, MHI. 81 . Ralph Noonan, Diary, March 12, 1942, Noonan Papers, MHI. 82 . Ralph Noonan to Louise Noonan, May 16, 1942, Noonan Papers, MHI 83 . Ralph Noonan to Tommy Noonan, March 1, 1944, Noonan Papers, MHI. 84 . Dave Shearer Diary, May 11, 1943, Dave Shearer Papers, PR91/138, AWM. 8 5 . A l f r e d S . C a m p b e l l , Guadalcanal Round-Trip: The Story of an American Red Cross Field Director in the Present War (Lambertville, NJ: privately printed, 1945), 47. 8 6 . A l a n H o o p e r , Love, War, and Letters: Papua New Guinea, 1940–45. An Autobiography, 1940–1945 (Coorparoo, Queensland: Robert Brown and Associates, 1994), 22; Veitch, May 1, 1943, Private Papers of H. C. Veitch, MS 2259, Alexander Turnbull.

3 “Dorothy Lamour Syndrome”: South Seas Dreams and South Pacific Disappointments

1 . Bruce Robinson, Record of Service: An Australian Medical Officer in the New Guinea Campaign (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1945), 1–3. 2 . Peter Dornan, The Silent Men: Syria to Kokoda and on to Gona (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1999), 91–92. 3 . G e o r g e J o h n s t o n , New Guinea Diary (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1943), 22. 4 . See, for example, P. B. Sutker, A. N. Allain, and D. K. Winstead, “Psychopathology and Psychiatric Diagnoses of World War II Pacific Theater Prisoner of War Survivors and Combat Veterans,” American Journal of Psychiatry 150, (1993): 240–45; Graham W. Mellsop, Vesanthi Duraiappah, and Jo-Ann Priest, “Psychiatric Casualties in the Pacific dur- ing World War II: Servicemen Hospitalized in a Brisbane Mental Hospital,” Medical Journal of Australia 163, (1995): 619–21; Anne-Marie Condé, ‘‘‘The Ordeal of Adjustment’: Australian Psychiatric Casualties of the Second World War,” War and Society 15, (1997): 61–74; Peter Hobbins “‘Living in Hell but Still Smiling’: Australian Psychiatric Casualties of War during the Malaya-Singapore Campaign, 1941–42,” Health and History 9, (2007): 28–55; William Bruce Johnson, The Pacific Campaign in Worldr Wa II: From Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal (New York: Routledge, 2006), 272–76. Josephine Bresnahan’s doctoral dissertation explores the phenomena of combat fatigue. See Bresnahan, “Dangers in Paradise: The Battle against Combat Fatigue in the Pacific War,” PhD Diss., Harvard University, 1999. 5 . Eric Hammel has noted that it was during the New Georgia campaign that “combat fatigue” was “first defined and widely diagnosed.” See Hammel, NOTES 195

Munda Trail: The New Georgia Campaign (New York: Orion Books, 1989), xiv. See also Simon Wessely, “Risk, Psychiatry and the Military,” British Journal of Psychiatry 186, (2005): 459–66. 6 . S e e J o h n D o w e r , War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1987), esp. 144; Eric Bergerud, Touched with Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific (New York: Viking, 1996), esp. 54, 96–99; and Joanna Bourke, An Intimate History of Killing: Face-to-Face Killing in Twentieth-Century Warfare (London: Granta Books, 1999), esp. 248. 7 . Robert Eichelberger, “Report of the Commanding General, Buna Forces on the Buna Campaign,” undated, 64, Reel 1, Box 33, Robert Eichelberger Papers, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, William R. Perkins Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. 8 . Bresnahan, “Dangers in Paradise,” 2. An Australian study completed in June 1944 suggested that 7 percent of all hospital admissions in New Guinea were “Psychotic Casualties.” See Captain David Ross, “Psychotic Casualties in New Guinea,” undated, in “Psychiatry in the Australian Army: Case Studies and Reports, 1939–1945,” 54 804/1/4, Australian War Memorial, Canberra (AWM). 9 . A. J. M. Sinclair, “Psychiatric Casualties in an Operational Zone in New Guinea,” Medical Journal of Australia 11, (1943): 453–54. See also Reg S. Ellery, Psychiatric Aspects of Modern Warfare (Melbourne: Reede and Harris, 1945), 82–83. 10 . Sinclair, “Psychiatric Casualties in an Operationsal Zone,” 454. 1 1 . “ N e w s a n d N o t e s , ” American Journal of Psychiatry 102, (1945): 133. A 1944 United States War Department study on morale in the Pacific touched on the issue when it identified “unfamiliar surroundings” and the “strange customs of native populations” as contributing to poor morale and reduced combat efficiency in many units. See War Department, Technical Bulletin, March 15, 1944, 54, 804/1/4, AWM. 1 2 . S e e a l s o J u d i t h A . B e n n e t t , Natives and Exotics: World War II and Environment in the Southern Pacific (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009), 68–69. 13 . Warwick Anderson, “The Trespass Speaks: White Masculinity and Colonial Breakdown,” American Historical Review 102, (1997): 1343–70. 14 . One of the earliest South Seas films to explore the beachcomber type was Hobart Bosworth’s The Beachcomber (Hobart Bosworth Productions, 1915). 15 . See Sean Brawley and Chris Dixon, “The ‘Hollywood Native’: Hollywood’s Construction of the South Seas and Wartime Encounters with the South Pacific,” Sites: A Journal for South Pacific Cultural Studies 27, (1994): 24; Michael Sturma, “South Pacific,” History Today 47, (August 1997): 25–30; Greg Jericho, “War in the Tropics” etropic: electronic journal of studies in the tropics 4, (2005), http://www.jcu.edu.au/etropic; (accessed September 4, 2011). 16 . See P. Mariani and J. Carey, “In the Shadow of the West: An Interview with Edward Said,” in Discourses: Conversations in Postmodern Art and Culture, ed. Russell Ferguson et al. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 196 NOTES

94; and Marcia Tucker, “Mechanisms of Exclusion and Relation: Identity,” in Ferguson et al., Discourses , 92. See also Susan E. Edwards, “Photography and the Representation of the Other: A Discussion Inspired by the Work of Sebastiao Salgado,” Third Text 16/17, (1991): 157–72. 17 . K. R. Howe, “The Intellectual Discovery and Exploration of Polynesia,” in From Maps to Metaphors: The Pacific World of George Vancouver , ed. Robin Fisher and Hugh J. M. Johnston (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1993), 262. 18 . “Morale Report,” November 1943, APO 923, Military Censorship Detachment, Theater Censor, GHQ, SWPA, 290/45/12/4–5 Box T-1433, RG338, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NACP). 19 . Oscar Griswold, Diary, July 12, 1943, O. W. Griswold Papers, Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania (MHI). See also Bresnahan, “Dangers in Paradise,” 104. 20 . David Rothschild, “Review of Neuropsychiatric Cases in the Southwest Pacific Area,” American Journal of Psychiatry 102, (1946): 456; A. J. M. Sinclair, “Psychiatric Aspects of the Present War,” Medical Journal of Australia 1, (1944): 501. 2 1 . A l a n D a w e s , Soldier Superb: The Australian Fights in New Guinea (Sydney: F. H. Johnston Publishing Company, 1943), 57. 22 . Darwin Edmundsen to Joyce Lobrer, February [?], 1943, Letters of Darwin Edmundson, Operational Archives Branch, Naval Historical Center, Washington Navy Yard, Washington DC (OAB/NHC). Future President George H. Bush realized how “lucky” he was to be “aboard” a naval vessel, with all the “comforts which a ship affords.” For Bush, those comforts, and the relative security of being based on an aircraft carrier, outweighed the perils associated with his role as a naval aviator. See George Bush to par- ents, July 19, 1944, WWII Correspondence, Box 2, George Bush Presidential Library and Museum, College Station, Texas. 23 . John F. Kennedy to Joe Kennedy Sr., May 14, 1943, Personal File, 1943–1949, Box 5, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston. 24 . Walter Lee to Aunt Bat, March 4, 1944, MS 1764, Folder 17, Box 12, Special Collections, World War Two Collection, University of Tennessee, Knoxville (Tennessee Collection). 25 . Bill Olson to Ruth, January 2, 1944, William Robert Henry Olson Papers, PR90/095, AWM. 26 . For an examination of nineteenth-century literature on New Guinea, see Nigel Krauth, “The New Guinea Experience in Literature: A Study of Imaginative Writing Concerned with Papua New Guinea, 1863–1980,” PhD Thesis, University of Queensland, 1983. 2 7 . B i l l K e n n e d y , Fearless Warrior: A Gunner’s Mate on the Beach at Guadalcanal (Jefferson, NC: McFarland Co., 1991), 51–52, 80, 84–85. 28 . G. E. Tomlinson, “Pacific Pebbles,” Unpublished Memoir, Acc 814041000, Loc 5A47, United States Marine Corps History Division (USMCHD); Robert Leckie, Strong Men Armed: The United States Marines against Japan NOTES 197

(New York: Random House, 1962), 28–29. General George Kenney joked that a mosquito had landed one evening at an American airfield and was so big that “the emergency crew refueled it with 20 gallons of gasoline.” See Kenney, Diary, July 30, 1942, General George C. Kenney Diaries, Jean MacArthur Research Center, MacArthur Memorial, Norfolk, Virginia. 29 . “Somewhere in Guadalcanal,” J. Terry Papers, 25th Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI; “Life in Guadalcanal,” Jim Eppeison Papers, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 3 0 . B r e s n a h a n , “ D a n g e r s i n P a r a d i s e , ” 1 4 9 . 31 . Rothschild, “Review of Neuropsychiatric Cases,” 456. 3 2 . R . C . M u e h r c k e , Orchids in the Mud: World War II in the Pacific—Pain, Boredom, Adventure: Guadalcanal, New Caledonia, Fiji, Bougainville, Philippines, Japan. Personal Accounts by Veterans of the 132nd Infantry Regiment (Oak Brook, IL: R. C. Muehrcke, 1985), 89. 33 . Colonel George de Graaf to Mr. and Mrs. William Dwight, January 29, 1943, Theater Censors’ Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–44, US Forces Far East, G-2, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1419, RG338, NACP; William L. Ruff, undated note, Jonathon M. Wainwright Papers, MHI. Noting that the “savage environment shaped every facet of the land war in the South Pacific,” Eric Bergerud has contended that “in order to fight each other, the armies involved first had to do battle with the land.” See Bergerud, Touched with Fire , 54. 3 4 . O s m a r W h i t e , Green Armor (New York: W. W. Norton, 1945), 10. 35 . Ralph Noonan, Diary, December 6, 1944, Ralph Noonan Papers, Americal Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 36 . Ralph Noonan to Tommy Noonan, January 18, 1944, Noonan Papers, MHI. See also Bresnahan, “Dangers in Paradise,” 63–64. 37 . Darwin Edmundson to Joyce Lobrer, July 8, 1943, Edmundson Letters, OAB/NHC. 38 . Joseph E. Zimmer to Maude Baird, December 24, 1945, Joseph E. Zimmer Papers, 43rd Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 39 . Karl M. Dreier to Lena and Leah Reynolds, December 11, 1944, Lena and Leah Reynolds Papers, MHI. 40 . Morale Report, June 1943, APO 923, Military Censorship Detachment, Theater Censor, GHQ, SWPA, 290/45/12/4–5 Box T-1433, RG338, NACP. 41 . Morale Report, November 1943, APO 923, Military Censorship Detachment, Theater Censor, GHQ, SWPA, 290/45/12/4–5 Box T-1433, RG338, NACP. 42 . Noonan Diary, December 11, 1944, Noonan Papers, MHI. 43 . Joseph Griffith to Mary, July 12, 1943; Griffith Diary, August 1, 1943, Major Joseph H. Griffith Papers, Private Papers Section, IB26, United States Marine Corps History Division, Quantico, VA (USMCHD). 44 . Griffith Diary, June 23, 1942, Griffith Papers, USMCHD. 45 . Lee N. Minier to mother, January 20, 1943, Private Papers Lee N. Minier, USMCHD. Minier was killed on Guam in July 1944. 46 . Francis Forde (Minister for War) to Percy Spender, August 4, 1944, 76/1/53, Australian Archives (AA); Harry John Bell, Diary, August 16, 1945. Privately held by the authors. 198 NOTES

47 . Private Gerald Soller to Mrs. Fred Soller, undated 1944, Theater Censors’ Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–44, US Forces Far East, G-2, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP; Private Travis Dixon to Fred Dixon, January 5, 1943, Theater Censors’ Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–44, US Forces Far East, G-2, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1419, RG338, NACP. 48 . Joseph E. Zimmer to Maude Zimmer, May 6, 1943, Zimmer Papers, MHI. 49 . Minoru Hara, unpublished memoir, 6th Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 5 0 . S a m C l a g g , The Marine Way (West Virginia: Parsons, 1989), 271. 5 1 . Times News , Twin Falls, Idaho, August 17, 1945. 5 2 . S e c o n d M a r i n e D i v i s i o n , Follow Me! The Story of the Second Marine Division in World War Two (New York: Random House, 1948), 17. 5 3 . Boston Traveler , September 18, 1944, Noonan Papers, MHI. 5 4 . Valley Morning Star (Harlingen, TX), May 4, 1944. 5 5 . Life , June 7, 1943. 56 . Admiral William F. Halsey to Fleet Admiral Chester E. Nimitz, June 29, 1943, Papers of William F. Halsey, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress (LOC). Finding the censorship so strict, some Australian journal- ists returned to Australia in protest. See Kingsley Wood, “From our corre- spondent,” unpublished manscript, MSS 0748, AWM. 5 7 . Time , June 14, 1943. 5 8 . Milwaukee Journal , September 3, 1943. 5 9 . Yank , February 9, 1945. 60 . “I Really Love New Guinea,” September 19, 1944, Private Papers of Martha A. Wayman, Women’s Army Corps, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 61 . Moresby Round-Up Broadcast by Frederick Morrison for the ABC, February 2, 1944, SP3000/3/0, AA. 62 . “The Boys Who Know,” Letter to Editor, Life magazine, May 28, 1943, in Noonan Papers, MHI. 63 . Richard Kearns, Diary, December 3, 1942, PR 82/41, AWM. 64 . Joseph Adams to his parents, July 1, 1944, Joseph Q. Adams Papers, 43rd Infantry Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 65 . Bell and Hughes, “Life of B-Battery in New Guinea,” in On Target: With the American and Australian Anti- Aircraft Brigade in New Guinea (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1943), 146. 66 . Alan Hackett to Maureen Bradley, January 1, 1943, Private Papers of Alan Francis Hackett, PR 90/88, AWM. 6 7 . D o n a l d J a c k s o n , Tarokina: A Wartime Memoir, 1941–1945 (Aimes: Iowa State University Press, 1989), 44; Swanke to Wife, May 15, 1944, US Forces Far East, G-2, Theater Censors’ Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–44, US Forces Far East, G-2, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP. 68 . R. S. Shelby to Miss Violet Smith, January 24, 1944, “Condemned Letters,” Personnel Letters Held by the Theater Censor Box, US Forces Far East, G-2, Box T-1440, RG338, NACP. NOTES 199

69 . “Morale,” draft typescript, Records of the Naval Operating Forces, Historical Files, 1939–1945, 376/35–36, Box 6788, RG313, NACP. 70 . Varnell Claude and Barbara Young, Bushmaster (Privately Published, 1990), 12; Diary of David Tratten, August 31, 1943, Private Papers of David Tratten, PR00218, AWM. 71 . E. P. S. Roberts, “Some Unsung Heroes of the Mountain Battle,” in On Target, 87. For a discussion of the “Trope of Infantilization,” consult Regis Stella, Imagining the Other: The Representation of the Papua New Guinean Subject (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007), 101–5. 7 2 . A l f r e d S . C a m p b e l l , Guadalcanal Round-Trip: The Story of an American Red Cross Field Director in the Present War (Lambertville, NJ: privately printed, 1945), 47. 73 . Vaughan Meeks, Diary, July 25, 1944, Folder 8 Box 7, MS 1298, Tennessee Collection. 74 . G. E. Tomlinson, “Pacific Pebbles,” Unpublished Memoir, Acc 814041000, Loc 5A47, USMCHD. 75 . Howard Moore to Editor of the Ovid Gazette , February 13, 1944, Department of Manuscripts, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, held in S. E. Mekeel Collection, MS 1355, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. 7 6 . W h i t e , Green Armour , 112. 77 . Otto von Petr, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 78 . See Frederick O’Brien, White Shadows in the South Seas (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1919). 79 . David Tratten, undated diary entry, Tratten Papers, PR00218, AWM. 8 0 . F r a n k R . C o r k i n J r . , Pacific Postmark: A Series of Letters from Aboard a Fighting Destroyer in the War Waters of the Pacific (Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, and Brainard, 1945), 162. 81 . “Meeting the Papuans,” Salt , (4) July 27, 1942. 82 . Undated Report Wallis Island, Douglas Rubb Papers, OAB/NHC. 8 3 . E . J . K a h n , G.I. Jungle: An American Soldier in Australia and New Guinea (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1943), 105. 84 . Report “Jockforce,” A. J. “Jock” Marshall Papers, MS 7173 Box 30, National Library of Australia. 85 . See Herbert E. Beros, The Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels and Other Verses (Sydney: F. H. Johnston, 1944), 10. For a critique of the construction of the Fuzzy Wuzzy Angel, consult Stella, Imagining the Other , 110–11. 8 6 . M i l i t a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e D i v i s i o n , The Papuan Campaign: The aBun Sananda Operation, 16 November 1942–23 January 1943 (1944; repr. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, US Army, 1990), 22. See also Australian Army, K haki and Green: With the Australian Army at Home and Overseas (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1943), 43; Rev. Eric Ure, “Brown Buddies,” cited in C. Bernard Crockett, Australians, Americans, and Fuzzy Wuzzies: Christian Missions Help to Save the Pacific (Sydney: published 200 NOTES

privately, 1945), 8–9; J. Tudor, “Overdue Praise for New Guinea Boys,” Pacific Islands Monthly , October, 1942, 40. 8 7 . The Black Pirates: Southwest Pacific, 1942–1944 (Sydney: John Sands, 1946), 49. 88 . B. R. White, United States Naval Reserve Motor Torpedo Boat Flotilla One Intelligence Officer, “Narrative on Sinking of P.T. 109 and Rescue,” August 22, 1943, Correspondence 1942–52, Personal File, Box 6, OAB/NHC. 89 . “Salute to the Boong,” Salt 5 (13), March 1, 1943. 90 . George, “Kokoda Trail,” in K haki and Green , 158; Ure, “Brown Buddies,” in Crockett, Australians, Americans, and Fuzzy Wuzzies , 9. 91 . “Salute to the Boong,” Salt 5, March 1, 1943. 92 . D. Tratten, undated diary, Tratten Papers, PR00218, AWM. 9 3 . P e t e r W o r s l e y , The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of ‘Cargo’ Cults in Melanesia (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), 39. 94 . See, for example, “Memo for Australian and American Troops on Melanesian Stations,” Pacific Islands Monthly , October 1942, 14. 95 . R. W. Robson, “Our Umbrella, New Guinea,” SALT , 3, June 8, 1942, 10–14. 96 . R. W. Robson, “Fuzzy Wuzzy Fetish,” SALT 6, August 16, 1943, 46.

4 “ T hat Gal’s Getting Whiter Every Day”: Servicemen’s Encounters with Islander Women

1 . F r a n k C o o z e , Kiwis in the Pacific (Wellington, N.Z.: A. H. and A. W. Reed, 1945), 13, 25. 2 . Newsreel footage contained in the documentary In One Life Time: A Celebration of Australian Life in the 20th Century, Showboat Entertainment, Centaur Pictures, 1997. 3 . William Robert Olson to his fiancée, January 2, 1944, PR90/094, Australian War Memorial, Canberra (AWM). 4 . Cited in John Costello, Virtue Under Fire: How World War II Changed Our Social and Sexual Attitudes (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1985), 101. 5 . On Pacific Island women as “a beautiful backdrop,” see Margaret Jolly, “From Point Venus to Bali Ha’i: Eroticism and Exoticism in Representations of the Pacific,” in Sites of Desire, Economies of Pleasure: Sexualities in Asia and the Pacific , ed. Lenore Manderson and Margaret Jolly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 113. 6 . See Marlene J. Mayo, “Introduction” to War, Occupation, and Creativity: Japan and East Asia, 1920–1960 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001), 42. Much of what has been written during recent decades about gen- der relations during war has concentrated on the political and economic nature of gender relations and how they were affected by conflicts such as the World Wars. Historians who have considered interpersonal issues have often focused on romantic love—“GI brides” in Australia, New Zealand, or Great Britain during the Second World War, for instance—rather than on sexual relations. Exceptions include Penny Summerfield and Nicole Crocket, “‘You Weren’t Taught That with Welding’: Lessons in Sexuality NOTES 201

in the Second World War,” Women’s History Review 1, (1992): 435–54; and Sonya O. Rose, “Girls and GIs: Race, Sex, and Diplomacy in Second World War Britain,” International History Review 19, (1997): 146–60. Studies focusing on romantic love include Rosemary Campbell, Heroes and Lovers: A Question of National Identity (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1989) and Annette Potts and Lucinda Strauss, For the Love of a Soldier: Australian War Brides and Their GIs (Crows Nest, N.S.W.: ABC, 1987). 7 . S e e G e r a l d L i n d e r m a n , The World within War: America’s Combat Experience in World War II (New York: Free Press, 1997), 191; Eric Bergerud, Touched with Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific (New York: Penguin Books, 1997), 475. Notwithstanding his general assertion that “sex and sexuality in all its guises and complexities played an extensive role in the war expe- rience,” John Costello’s “sexual history” of World War II focuses princi- pally upon the war in Europe and North Africa, and implies that the nexus between war and sexual activity was somehow broken in the combat zones of the South Pacific. See Costello, Virtue Under Fire , 1. 8 . See Peter Schrijvers, Bloody Pacific: American Soldiers at War with Japan (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 151. 9 . Paul Shankman, “Interethnic Unions and the Regulation of Sex in Colonial Samoa, 1830–1945,” Journal of the Polynesian Society 110, (2001): 119; Herman J. Hiery and John MacKenzie, “Introduction” to European Impact and Pacific Influence: British and German Colonial Policy in the Pacific Islands and Colonial Response , ed. Hiery and McKenzie (London: I. B. Taurus, 1997), 3; Jolly, “From Point Venus to Bali Ha’I,” 99–122; Michael Sturma, South Sea Maidens: Western Fantasy and Sexual Politics in the South Pacific (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002); Patricia O’Brien, The Pacific Muse: Exotic Femininity and the Colonial Pacific (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006). 10 . See Sean Brawley and Chris Dixon, “‘Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels and Brown Buddies’: An Exploration of Australian and American Perceptions of New Guinea Natives during the Pacific War,” International Journal of Historical Studies 1, (1988): 7–26; Brawley and Dixon, “The Hollywood Native: Hollywood’s Construction of the South Seas and Wartime Encounters with the South Pacific,” Sites: A Journal for South Pacific Cultural Studies 27, (1994): 15–29; Brawley and Dixon, “War and Sex in the South Pacific, 1941–1945,” Australasian Journal of American Studies 18, (1999): 3–18; Judith A. Bennett, Natives and Exotics: World War II and Environment in the Southern Pacific (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009). 11 . Peter Christie, “The Final Frontier?” The Local Historian 28, (1998): 54. 12 . On the relative merits of various forms of “private” records, such as diaries and correspondence, see Thomas P. Lowry, The Stories the Soldiers Wouldn’t Tell: Sex in the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1994), 9. 13 . Major Harold W. Bauer to Colonel A. Larken, July 12, 1943, PC649, Box 1, LOC 4B17, United States Marine Corps History Division, Quantico, VA (USMCHD); Anon., “History of Tongatabu,” 143, ms. in Records of the Naval Operating Forces, Historical Files, 1939–1945, 313/376/35–36, Box 202 NOTES

6788, RG313, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NACP). 14 . Captain Arthur J. Thompson (Surgeons’ Section), Venereal Disease: South Pacific Section, (n.d.), 2–3, 5, in the Dr. Maurice Pincoffs Papers, Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania (MHI). See also William J. Dunn, Pacific Microphone (College Station, TX: Texas A & M University Press, 1988), 211; W. E. H. Stanner, South Seas in Transition: A Study of Post- War Rehabilitation and Reconstruction in Three British Pacific Dependencies (Sydney: Australasian Publishing, 1953), 327; Brij V. Lal, Broken Waves: A History of the Fiji Islands in the Twentieth Century (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992), 114; Shankman, “Interethnic Unions,” 119–47. 15 . Charles J. Weeks Jr., “The United States Occupation of Tonga, 1942–1945: The Social and Economic Impact,” Pacific Historical Review 56, (1987): 399–426. 16 . War Department, Sex Hygiene and Venereal Disease (Washington, DC: War Department, 1940), 5. 17 . Weeks, “United States Occupation of Tonga,” 417. 18 . Ernest Stanhope “Stan” Andrews Diary, December 25, 1943, December 26, 1943, Ernest Stanhope Andrews Papers, 93–320–1/04, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand (Alexander Turnbull). 19 . Diary of Sergeant A. J. Traill, August 17, 1942, 1942, PR00051, AWM. 20 . Joseph Adams to Mrs. J. Adams, July 2, 1944, Private Papers of Joseph Q. Adams, 43rd Infantry Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI; Richard Kearns, diary entry, March 16, 1942, PR 82/41, AWM. 21 . Bruce Robinson, Record of Service: An Australian Medical Officer in the New Guinea Campaign (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1945), 8. 22 . Private Charles F. Stewart, 27th Infantry Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. See also Ensign J. C. Cunningham to Lt. Com. John Burke, February 28, 1946, Administrative History Appendices, No 34 (19) (A), Operating Archives, Naval Historical Center, Washington Navy Yard (NHC). On the use of native women laborers, see Neville Robinson, Hanuabada in the War (Np; nd), 20; Suzanne Falgout, “Lessons from Pohnpei,” in Remembering the Pacific War, ed. Geoffrey M. White (Honolulu: Center for Pacific Islands Studies, 1991), 125. On relations between Pacific Islanders and Japanese in Micronesia, see Mark R. Peattie, Nan`yo: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885–1945 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988). See also Hisafumi Saito, “Barefoot Benefactors: A Study of Japanese Views of Melanesians,” in White, Remembering the Pacific War , 207–12. 23 . “Notes for Platoon and Section Leaders: Operations. Supplement to Military Training Pamphlet,” Allied Forces in the South-West Pacific Area (np. nd.), 9. 2 4 . L i e u t e n a n t F r a n k R . C o r k i n J r . , Pacific Postmark: A Series of Letters from Aboard a Fighting Destroyer in the War Waters of the Pacific (Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, and Brainard, 1945), 90. 25 . “Troop Instructions,” undated, Private Papers of David H. Rosenthal, PC11735 Loc. 1A11, USMCHD. NOTES 203

2 6 . A l a n E . H o o p e r , Love, War, and Letters: Papua New Guinea, 1940–45. An Autobiography, 1940–1945 (Coorparoo, Queensland: Robert Brown and Associates, 1994), 22. 27 . Corporal Salvatore De Gaetano, First Cavalry, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 28 . Allied Geographical Section, Southwest Pacific Area, You and the Native: Notes for the Guidance of Members of the Forces in their Relations with New Guinea Natives (Brisbane: Allied Geographical Section, Southwest Pacific Area, 1943), 7. 29 . Allied Geographical Section, “Getting About: New Guinea,” A9716/1 1566, Australian Archives (AA). 3 0 . J o h n B u r g a n , Two Per Cent Fear (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Co, 1947), 86. 3 1 . A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , You and the Native , 8. 3 2 . A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , You and the Native , 8. 33 . Appendix C, Monthly Bulletin No. 4, May 28, 1943. Field Security Wing, 54 175/3 423/11/161, AWM. 3 4 . I r a W o l f e r t , An Act of Love (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1948), 30–31. 3 5 . A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , You and the Native , 8. 36 . Charles Allan Fraser to Cousin Hugh, April 23, 1943, Fraser Family Papers, Folder 6, MSS 2269, Alexander Turnbull. 37 . Unidentified female friend to James A. Michener, undated 1947, Box 2, Papers of James A. Michener, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress (LoC). 3 8 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark , 158. 3 9 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark , 22. 40 . William Manchester, G oodbye Darkness: A Memoir of the Pacific War (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1979), 84. 41 . Arthur Guarenti, Diary, February 6, 1942, Americal Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 42 . Frank Tolbert, “Sick Indian,” Leatherneck , August 1942, 22; Unpublished Memoir, Private Papers of Nolan V. Marbrey, PC 2072, 2B44, USMCHD. 43 . Jo s e p h S y k e s , 2 7 t h I n f a n t r y D i v i s i o n , A r m y E x p e r i e n c e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , MHI. 44 . Joseph H. Griffith, Diary entries for May 27, 1942, July 26, 1942, July 15, 1942, Private Papers of Joseph H. Griffith, 1B26, USMCHD. 45 . Joseph H. Griffith, Diary, August 1, 1942, Griffith Papers, USMCHD. 4 6 . 125th Quartermaster Yearbook 1944, Ralph Noonan Papers, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 47 . Ira Reader Steed, 227th Regiment, Army Service Experince Questionaire, MHI. There were limits to servicemen’s interest in Fijian women: “As regards my coming home with a Fijian wife,” wrote one New Zealander, “I have changed my mind entirely[.] [It is] not for me.” See Ray A. Neal to Gordon and Pat Cole, February 18, 1842, MS Papers 4598, Alexander Turnbull. 48 . Cole and Elbert, “The Samoan Story,” unpublished manuscript, USMC, 1944, 1, MCHC. 49 . William Henry Bracht, “Memoirs in Peace and War,” 61–62, MSS1576, AWM. 204 NOTES

50 . General Louis Metzger, “Duty Beyond the Seas,” Marine Corps Gazette 66, (1982): 32. Jeannette Marie Mageo has examined the impact of these rela- tions on Samoan society. See Mageo, Theorizing Self in Samoa: Emotions, Genders, and Sexualities (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998), 155–58. Writing of Samoa, Paul Shankman has contended that interethnic unions “became most common and most visible” during World War II. See Shankman, “Interethnic Unions,” 136. 51 . Margaret Jolly has suggested that “Polynesian eroticism was not a figment of the European imagination” and that Dorothy Lamour’s South Seas was a pseudo-Polynesia, where the women were essentially European if somewhat more “dusky” in complexion. See Jolly, “From Point Venus to Bali Ha’i,” 100. 52 . “Bell and Hughes,” “Life of B Battery in New Guinea,” in On Target , 145. 53 . Lt. Commander John Burke, Staff Historical Officer, South Pacific Force and Fleet, “Solomon Island Sketches,” 370/35–36/35–01/5–01, Box 6792, RG313, NACP. 54 . Ben Ray Redman, Saturday Review of Literature 26, (1943), 153. Judith Bennett has also noted that Allied servicemen were disappointed by the appearance of Melanesian women. See Bennett, Natives and Exotics , 37. 55 . Joseph E. Zimmer to Maude Baird, June 20, 1943, Joseph E. Zimmer Papers, 43rd Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 56 . Zimmer to Maude Files Baird, June 20, 1943, Joseph E. Zimmer Papers, 43rd Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 57 . Leslie F. Robertson to William G. McNeel, July 24, 1944, World War II Letters, 1940–1946, Folder 2512, C0068, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri (WHMC). 58 . E. P. S. Roberts, “Some Unsung Heroes of the Mountain Battle,” in On Target , 87. 59 . Frank D. Miller to Miss Louis A. Miller, August 20, 1943, File 1966, C0068, World War II Letters, WHMC. 60 . Johnson to William G. McNeel, June 21, 1945, File 1578, C0068, World War II Letters, WHMC. 6 1 . E . J . K a h n J r . , G.I. Jungle: An American Soldier in Australia and New Guinea (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1943), 102–3, 134. See also Richard E. Ziegler’s letter to the editor, Life , March 22, 1943. 62 . Edmundson to Miss Lobrer, October [?], 1943, Letters of Darwin Edmundson, Operational Archives Branch, Naval Historical Center (OAB/ NHC). See also John Field, “Joe Foss: No. 1 Ace,” Life , June 7, 1943, 91. 63 . Derek Plank to Marjorie Plank, September 21, 1943, Private Papers Sergeant D. L. Plank, PR90/182, AWM. 64 . Zimmer to Maude Files Baird, June 20, 1943, Private Papers of Joseph E. Zimmer, MHI. 65 . Karl M. Dreir to Lena and Leah Reynolds, February 6, 1945. Reynolds Papers, MHI. 6 6 . Pacific Island Monthly, October 1942, 14. See also Lamont Lindstrom and Geoffrey M. White, Island Encounters: Black and White Memories of the Pacific War (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990), 180. NOTES 205

67 . See the cartoon reprinted in Robinson, Record of Service , 18. 68 . Robson, “Our Umbrella, New Guinea,” SALT, June 8, 1942, 10. For more on women suckling pigs, see also White, Green Armor , 57. 6 9 . Time , June 14, 1943. See also Lindstrom and White, Island Encounters , 179. 7 0 . M a n c h e s t e r , Goodbye Darkness, 83. 7 1 . Edwardsville (IL) Intelligencer, September 13, 1943. See also Bennett, Natives and Exotics , 34. 72 . “Morale,” Draft typescript, 331, Records of the Naval Operating Forces, Historical Files, 1939–1945, 376/35–36, Box 6788, RG313, NACP. 73 . Hollis L. Peacock, 24th Infantry Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 7 4 . Yank , March 3, 1944, 10. 7 5 . B u r g a n , Two Per Cent Fear , 186–88. 76 . David A Gadel, Diary, September 10, 1943, MS 583, Alexander Turnbull. 77 . Richard Kearns, Diary, December 2, 1941, PR 82/41, AWM. 78 . Samuelson, April 10, 1943, in Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Love, War, and the 96th Engineers (Colored): The World War II New Guinea Diaries of Captain Hyman Samuelson (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 169, 173–74. 79 . Henry S. Miller, Diary, May 18, 1943, LO 5B21 Acc No 881455 Folder 2, USMCHD. 8 0 . R o g e r O . E g e b e r g , The General: MacArthur and the Man He Called ‘Doc’ (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1983), 11. 8 1 . SEAC , 20 January, 1944. At one stage during World War II, there were 20,000 requests from servicemen, each week , for photographs of Betty Grable; by war’s end over 5 million pictures of Grable had been distributed. See Robert B. Westbrook, “‘I Want a Girl, Just Like the Girl That Married Harry James’: American Women and the Problem of Political Obligation in World War II,” American Quarterly 42, (1990), 596. For one serviceman’s rejection of Esquire magazine’s use of images of “naked women and cartoons,” see D. H. Edmundson to Miss Lobrer, October 19, 1943, Private Papers of Darwin Edmundson, OAB/NHC. John Burgan’s 1947 novel, Two Per Cent Fear , based in part on his experiences in the wartime Pacific, also alluded to service- men’s abiding interest in women and sex. As one character in Burgan’s novel commented after watching a movie, the “only importance the film had for anyone. . . .was the woman. . . .Everybody waited, as they always did, for the woman to come on.” See Burgan, Two Per Cent Fear , 22. 82 . Charles A. Henne, 37th Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. For a brief discussion on venereal disease in the South Pacific, see Schrijvers, Bloody Pacific , 153. 8 3 . R o b i n s o n , Record of Service , 8. 84 . Adjutant General to Commanding General, I Corps, January 8, 1943, Records of the Office of Surgeon General (Army), Entry 75–2, Box 432, RG112, NACP. 85 . Undated Situation Report held in the Private Papers of Douglass C. Rubb, OAB/NHC. 206 NOTES

86 . Anon., “Take Care in the Tropics,” SALT , (2) January 12, 1942, 23; Thompson, Venereal Disease , 2–3, 9, Pincoffs Papers, MHI. See also Diary of Captain Henry S. Miller, May 18, 1943, Miller Papers, USMCHD; Burgan, Two Per Cent Fear , 86; Bennett, Natives and Exotics , 66–67. 87 . Precise details of the number of children born to Island women and American servicemen in the Pacific during World War II are predictably elusive, but one of the goals of the “Mothers’ Darlings” project, currently underway at the University of Otago, New Zealand, is to relate the stories of those children and their mothers. 88 . David Tratten, Diary, undated, Private Papers of David Tratten, PR00218, AWM. 8 9 . A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , You and the Native , 7–8. 9 0 . A l e x E . P e r r i n , c o m p . , The Private War of the Spotters: A History of the Air Warning Wireless Company, February 1942–April 1945 (Foster, Victoria: A. E. Perrin, E. D. Cosstick, and M. J. Lindsay, 1990), 116. 91 . See Bronislaw Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1922). 92 . See Hemery, “Landing in the Trobriands: A Dispatch from Peter Hemery,” Clement John Peter Hemery Papers, PR00451, AWM. 93 . See Gordon Saville, with John Austin, K ing of Kiriwina: The Adventures of Sergeant Saville in the South Seas (London: Leo Cooper, 1974), 27. 94 . See Stanton, diary entries for May 5, 1942, May 20, 1942, in The War Diaries of Eddie Allan Stanton: Papua, 1942–45, New Guinea, 1945–46 , ed. Hank Nelson (St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin, 1996), 15, 23–24, 33–34. For another expression of the view that the Trobrianders’ attitude toward sex was “free” before marriage, but “rigid taboo afterwards,” see Tratten Papers, PR00218, AWM. 95 . See Allan Stanton, Diary, June 16, 1942, in Nelson, The War Diaries of Eddie Allan Stanton , 33–34. 9 6 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark , 90. 9 7 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark , 158. 9 8 . C o l i n K e n n e d y , Port Moresby to Gona Beach: 3 rd Australian Infantry Battalion 1942 (1942; Canberra: The Practical Group, 1991), 21. 99 . “Willo,” “Native Dance,” in On Target, 87. For further references to indig- enous women “getting whiter,” see Robinson, Record of Service, 8; Kennedy, Port Moresby to Gona Beach , 21.

5 Combating South Seas Disillusionment: A South Pacific Education

1 . A l a n E . H o o p e r , Love, War, and Letters: Papua New Guinea, 1940–45. An Autobiography, 1940–1945 (Coorparoo, Queensland: Robert Brown and Associates, 1994), 22. NOTES 207

2 . E . J . K a h n J r . , G.I. Jungle: An American Soldier in Australia and New Guinea (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1943), 65, ix. 3 . Such evidence offers further weight to Eric Bergerud’s assessment that none of the major combatants in the Pacific War were prepared for a major war in the South Pacific. See Bergerud, Touched with Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific (New York: Viking, 1996), 57. 4 . Transcript, Oral History Interview (1977), 182–83, Rear Admiral Charles Adair, United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland. 5 . Ritchie Garrison, “A Story of a South Pacific Advanced Base during World War II, Efate, New Hebrides,” Unpublished Memoir, Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania (MHI). 6 . Herchel McFadden, 132nd Infantry Regiment, Army Service Experience Questionaiire, MHI. 7 . F r a n k R . C o r k i n J r . , Pacific Postmark: A Series of Letters from Aboard a Fighting Destroyer in the War Waters of the Pacific (Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, and Brainard, 1945), 19. 8 . Arthur Guarenti, Diary, February 2, 1942, Arthur Guarenti Papers, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 9 . Ralph Noonan to his wife, May 8, 1942, Ralph Noonan Papers, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Qustionnaire, MHI. 10 . Wilfred G. Burchett, Pacific Treasure Island: wNe Caledonia. Voyage through Its Land and Wealth, the Story of Its People and Past (Melbourne: F. W. Cheshire, 1941). 11 . The book is held in the Ralph Noonan Papers, MHI. 12 . Ralph Vanderbee, Americal Division, Army Service Experience Qustionnaire, MHI. 1 3 . B u r c h e t t , Pacific Treasure Island , 18 1 4 . B u r c h e t t , Pacific Treasure Island , 138–39, 82. 1 5 . S i d n e y R e i c h e n b a c h , All You Want to Know about New Caledonia (Sydney: W. C. Penfold, 1944), 17. 1 6 . R e i c h e n b a c h , New Caledonia , 6. 17 . For example, the book is held in the private papers of Marine Captain David H. Rosenthal, PC1735 Loc 1A11, United States Marine Corps History Division, Qantico, VA (USMCHD). See also Leno H. Voita, Americal Division Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 1 8 . L u c i e n V i b e r t , New Hebrides (Sydney: W. C. Penfold, 1942); R. C. Laycock, Pearls of the South Seas: The Solomon Islands (Noumea: Pentecost, 1944); Andrée Quin, The Solomons: Stepping Stones in the Pacific (Sydney: Les Editions du Courier Australien, 1943); and T. Lefaud’s ‘Nil Desperandum’: The Story of an Outcast in New Caledonnia (Sydney: George A. Jones, 1943). 1 9 . V i b e r t , New Hebrides , 13–14. 20 . Ralph Noonan to wife, March 6, 1942, Noonan Papers, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 21 . The papers of anthropologist William Duncan Strong, held in the National Anthropological Archives in Washington, DC, detail his, and 208 NOTES

the Smithsonian Institution’s Ethnogeographical Board’s, relations with the military in providing raw material as well as finished work. See Papers of William Duncan Strong, Box 49, Folder 1 Ethnogeographical Board, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. 22 . “Sailing Directions, No 165,” held in Ritchie Garrison Papers, MHI. 2 3 . Sydney Morning Herald , January 21, 1941. 2 4 . S e e J a c k H . D r i b e r g , The Savage as He Really Is (London: Routledge, 1929); Tom Harrisson, Savage Civilization (New York: Knopf, 1937); Margaret Mead, G rowing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education (New York: W. Morrow, 1930). 25 . “Pacific Islands Preview,” SALT 3, (July 17, 1942), 45–46. 2 6 . “ N e w G u i n e a : I t ’ s P o s s i b i l i t i e s , ” Current Affairs Bulletin 2, (October 12, 1942); “New Guinea: It’s Problems,” Current Affairs Bulletin 2, (October 26, 1942). 27 . “Past and Present of Britain’s South Sea Centre,” SALT 3, (April 13, 1942), 25–27. 28 . Allied Geographical Section: General Records, 290/44/8/6, Box S-451, RG338, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland. 2 9 . A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , Souvenir Book, undated, 1945, M2105/1 8, Australian Archives. 30 . Department of Defence, Minute Paper, December 28, 1942, 54 506/1/1, Australian War Memorial, Canberra (AWM). 31 . Cited in Geoffrey G. Gray, A Cautious Silence: The Politics of Australian Anthropology (Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2007), 173. 3 2 . A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , You and the Native: Notes for the Guidance of Members of the Forces in Their Relations with New Guinea Natives (Brisbane: Allied Geographical Section, Southwest Pacific Area, 1943), 2–4, 15. 33 . Special Service Division, Services of Supply, United States Army, A Pocket Guide to New Caledonia (Washington, DC: War and Navy Departments, 1943), 25. 34 . For example, a copy is held in the Private Papers of Richard F. Lyons, PC1020, Loc 2 A13, Acc 780003, USMCHD. 35 . Richard Kearns, Diary, December 2, 1941, PR 82/41, AWM. 36 . Richard Kearns, Diary, February 27, 1942, PR 82/41, AWM. 37 . Bruce Robinson, Record of Service: An Australian Medical Officer in the New Guinea Campaign (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1945), 8, 153. See also Thomas Lauder, “Meeting the Papuans,” SALT 4, No 4, July 27, 1942. 3 8 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark , 157. 39 . Henry Charles Veitch to “Ish,” May 1, 1943, Private Papers of H. C. Veitch, MS 2259, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand (Alexander Turnbull). 40 . Joseph Adams to Mrs. J. Adams, July 16, 1944, Private Papers of Joseph Q. Adams, 43rd Infantry Division, Army Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 41 . James M. Henninger, “Psychiatric Observations in a Combat Area in the South Pacific,” American Journal of Psychiatry 101, (1945): 824. NOTES 209

42 . Merrill Moore, “Occupational Therapy in the Southwest Pacific,” News and Notes, American Journal of Psychiatry 101, (1944): 125–31. 43 . Sean Brawley and Chris Dixon, “Colonel Zimmer’s Sea Shell Collection: Souvenirs, Experience Validation, and American Service Personnel in the Wartime South Pacific,” in Coast to Coast and the Islands in Between: Case Studies in Modern Pacific Crossings , ed. Prue Ahrens and Chris Dixon (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010), 77–87. 4 4 . C o r k i n , Pacific Postmark, 8. Wartime novelists, too, noted the significance of the grass skirt as a powerful symbol of South Seas sexuality. See Abraham L. Furman, Air Force Surgeon (New York: Sheridan House, 1943), 16; Ira Wolfert, Act of Love (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1948), 5, 14. 4 5 . S a m E . C l a g g , The Marine Way (West Virginia: Parsons, 1989), 271. On servicemen’s recognition that grass skirts were often “not worn” by indig- enous women but were instead “manufactured strictly for service person- nel,” see George E. Tomlinson, “Pacific Pebbles,” Unpublished Memoir, Acc 81041000, LOC5A47, USMCHD. 46 . Mary Webster Wilson Diary, October 16, 1943, Mary Wilson Webster Diary, Alexander Turnbull. 47 . Karl M. Dreier to Lena and Leah Reynolds, February 6, 1945, Lena and Leah Reynolds Papers, MHI. 48 . Lamont Lindstrom and Geoffrey M. White, Island Encounters: Black and White Memories of the Pacific War (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990), 172. 4 9 . R o b i n s o n , Record of Service , 18. 5 0 . A . N . T u r r e l l , Never Unprepared: A History of the 26th Australian Infantry Battalion (AIF) Sandringham, Victoria: Llenlees Press, 1992), 27. 5 1 . J o h n B u r g a n , Two Per Cent Fear (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Co., 1947), 193. 52 . Fernando Vera, “Perils of Pauline,” April 1943, Fernando Vera Papers, 182nd Infantry Army Service Experience Questionnaire, MHI. 53 . Martha Wayman to Her Mother, July 12, 1944, Martha Wayman Papers, MHI. 5 4 . A l f r e d S . C a m p b e l l , Guadalcanal Round-Trip: The Story of an American Red Cross Field Director in the Present War (Lambertville, NJ: Privately pub- lished, 1945), 52. 5 5 . W i l l i a m M a i e r , Pleasure Island (New York: Julian Messner, 1949), 59, 143–44. 5 6 . E d w a r d M a r o l d a , FDR and the U.S. Navy (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 25. See also Lawrence H. Suid, Sailing on the Silver Screen: Hollywood and the U.S. Navy (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1996), 3, 44; Robert A. Nusbaum, Once in a Lifetime: A World War II Memoir (Bennington, VT: Merriam Press, 1999), 56; Bruce Linder, The Navy in San Diego (Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub., 2007), 57; Evan Thomas, Sea of Thunder: Four Commanders and the Last Great Naval Campaign, 1941–1945 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006), 326–27. For an early critique of the Navy’s construction of the South Seas, see “With the St Louis on the Fiji Islands,” Our Navy 4, (September 1910): 1. 210 NOTES

57 . An example of the postcard is held by the Naval Historical Center, image NH76123. Munson’s cartoons were regularly published in naval publica- tions. See, for example, September 1942 editions of Our Navy . 58 . Ne l s o n H u r o n , “ T h e F i t a F i t a o f S a m o a , ” Leatherneck, (August 1931), 9, 45–46. 59 . Frank Tolbert, “Sick Indian,” Leatherneck , (August 1942), 22; Unpublished Memoir, Private Papers of Nolan V. Marbrey, PC 2072, 2B44, USMCHD. 6 0 . War Diary USS Alabama, 1942–1944 (Privately Published, 1944), the National Museum of the Pacific War, Fredericksburg, Texas. 6 1 . Army Talk , Fact Sheet 56, January 27, 1945. 62 . See Jonathan M. Weisgall, Operation Crossroads: The Atomic Tests at Bikini Atoll (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1994), 111. 6 3 . Honolulu Advertiser , October 1, 1943. The work was recognized by Admiral Chester E. Nimitz. See Nimitz to Peter H. Buck, September 15, 1943, Folder: Publications, 1942, Bishop Museum Institutional Records, Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu. 6 4 . K e n n e t h P . E m o r y , Castaway’s Baedeker to the South Seas (Honolulu: United States Navy, 1943). 65 . Kenneth P. Emory, “Every Man his Own Robinson Crusoe,” Natural History 52, (1943): 8–15. 66 . Kenneth P. Emory, South Seas Lore (Honolulu: The Museum, 1944). 67 . “Meet the Marshalls,” All Hands , (March 1944): 7. 6 8 . M a i e r , Pleasure Island , 59, 143–44. 69 . Josephine Bresnahan, “Dangers in Paradise: The Battle against Combat Fatigue in the Pacific War,” PhD Diss., Harvard University, 1999, 47. Servicemen themselves contributed to this picture. As Gerald Linderman has observed, when writing to loved ones soldiers tended to choose “reas- surance over realism.” See Linderman, The World within War: America’s Combat Experience in WWII (New York: Free Press, 1997), 1. 7 0 . B r e s n a h a n , “ D a n g e r s i n P a r a d i s e , ” 1 8 0 . 7 1 . American Weekly , February 6, 1944. 7 2 . Life , June 26, 1944. 73 . Special Service Division, A Pocket Guide to New Guinea and the Solomons (Washington, DC: War and Navy Departments, 1944), 10. 7 4 . Pocket Guide to New Guinea , 2. 75 . Information and Education Division, Army Service Forces, Pocket Guide to Hawaii (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1944), 17–18. 7 6 . “ H o l l y w o o d I d e a s G o n e , ” Army Talk 68, (April 21, 1945), “Supplementary Material, EM4: The Islands of the Pacific,” in the New York Public Library. 7 7 . Port Arthur (FL) News, July 25, 1943; Lima (OH) News, July 25, 1943; Sandusky (OH) Register Star-News , July 23, 1943. 7 8 . Pocket Guide to Hawaii , 36–37. 79 . See David H. Price, “Lessons from Second World War Anthropology: Peripheral, Persuasive, and Ignored Contributions,” Anth ropology Today 18, (2002): 15. Interestingly, anthropologists of the Pacific had been among the last to accept Boaz’s ideas. See Thomas C. Patterson, A Social History of Anthropology in the United States (New York: Berg, 2001), 61. NOTES 211

80 . For a discussion of anthropology and the OSS, consult David H. Price, Anthropological Intelligence: The Deployment and Neglect of American Anthropology in the Second World War (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008), 220–61. 81 . Emory, “Every Man his Own Robinson Crusoe,” 11–12. 82 . Matthew Stirling, The Native Peoples of New Guinea (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1943). 83 . See Royal Australian Air Force, The Native Peoples of New Guinea , RAAF, Educational Service Issue No. 8, 1944, 3. 84 . Morale Services Division, United States Army, “Pacific Area: Peoples and Countries,” Army Talk , (April 1945). 85 . Sloan Wilson, Voyage to Somewhere (New York: A. A. Wyn, 1946), 47. 8 6 . Wellsboro (PA) Gazette , March 2, 1944. 8 7 . Ogden (UT) Standard-Examiner , April 30, 1945. 8 8 . San Antonio Express , March 5, 1945.

6 “Solitary Jewels” or “Brazen, Shameless Hussies”? Allied Women in the Wartime Pacific

1 . Corporal Lois E. Smey to her parents, December 27, 1944, File 2760, C0068, World War II Letters, 1940–1946, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-Columbia, Missouri (WHMC). 2 . Lieutenant Alice E. Travers, cited in the Boston Herald , September 7, 1942. 3 . A l i c e B o w m a n , Not Now Tomorrow = Ima nai ashita: Australian Civilian Nurses–Prisoners of the Japanese 1942–1945 (Bangalow, N.S.W.: Daisy Press, 1996), xv. 4 . S e l e n e H . C . W e i s e , The Good Soldier: The Story of Southwest Pacific Signal Corps WAC (Shippensburg PA: Burd Street Press, 1999), 36. 5 . W e i s e , The Good Soldier , 40. 6 . Donald J. Mrozek, “The Habit of Victory: The American Military and the Cult of Victory,” in Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940, ed. J. A. Mangan and James Walvin (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), 220. 7 . Marilyn Lake and Joy Damousi, “Introduction: Warfare, History and Gender,” in Gender and War: Australians at War in the Twentieth Century , ed. Joy Damousi and Marilyn Lake (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 3. 8 . See Karen Anderson, Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women during World War II (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981), 23–65; William H. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920–1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), 135–95. See also D’Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984); Susan M. Hartmann, The Homefront and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston: Tawyne, 1982); Judy Barrett Litoff and David C. Smith, American Women in a World at War: Contemporary Accounts from 212 NOTES

World War II (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1997), 35–36; Doris Weatherford, American Women during World War II: An Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2010), xxx. 9 . L e i s a D . M e y e r , Creating GI Jane: Sexuality and Power in the Women’s Army Corps during World War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 72. See also Anne Bosanko Green, One Woman’s War: Letters from the Women’s Army Corps, 1944–1946 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1989), xi. 10 . See Hyman Samuelson to Dora Samuelson, May 17, 1943, in Love, War, and the 96th Engineers, (Colored): The World War Two wNe Guinea Diaries of Captain Hyman Samuelson, ed. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 198. 11 . Veitch Diary, July 12, 1943, Private Papers of H. C. Veitch, MS 2259, Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand (Alexander Turnbull). 1 2 . J a m e s T . F a h e y , Pacific War Diary, 1942–1945 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992), 97. See also Jesse Henry Gardner, Beachheads and Black Widows: A South Pacific Diary (Pittsburgh: Herrmann Printing & Litho, 1995), 83; Harry Waterman Diary, March 4, 1944, Waterman Family Papers, MS3907, Alexander Turnbull. 1 3 . I r e n e B r i o n , Lady GI : A Woman’s War in the South Pacific. The Memoir of Irene Brion (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1997), 75; Dee Diary, November 20, 1944, Dee Family Papers, MS 6841, Alexander Turnbull. 14 . M. N. Dickson to Harvey E. Rowland, April 26, 1945, File 716, C0068 World War II Letters, 1940–1946, WHMC. 1 5 . J o h n B u r g a n , Two Per Cent Fear (New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Co., 1947), 42. 1 6 . W e i s e , Good Soldier , 55. 1 7 . B r u c e R o b i n s o n , Record of Service: An Australian Medical Officer in the New Guinea Campaign (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1945), 122. See also Frank Cooze, Kiwis in the Pacific (Wellington, New Zealand: A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1946), 46. 18 . “The nurses are sure swell,” wrote one soldier. “They do more for a sol- dier’s health than all the medicine they could poke down him.” See “Morale Report,” APO 926, April 1, 1944, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1433, RG338, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NACP). 19 . Lieutenant J. Baranowski to Miss Ann Baranowski, n.d., and Second Lieutenant Donald C. Bradley, n.d., both in Theater Censors’ Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–44, US Forces Far East, G2, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 2 0 . M e y e r , GI Jane, 5. On the contradictory constructions of, and responses to, women’s sexuality on the American home front during World War II, see Marilyn E. Hegarty, Victory Girls, Khaki-Wackies, and Patriotutes: The Regulation of Female Sexuality during World War II (New York: New York University Press, 2007). 21 . Report of the Chief Surgeon, June 18, 1944, Maurice C. Pincoffs Papers, Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania (MHI). NOTES 213

22 . James A. Boutilier, “European Women in the Solomon Islands, 1900– 1942: Accommodation and Change on the Pacific Frontier,” in Rethinking Women’s Roles: Perspectives from the Pacific, ed. Denise O’Brien and Sharon W. Tiffany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 199. 23 . G. Habinger “Inseln der disillusion: Weibliche Blicke auf die Südsee,” in Gender and Power in the Pacific: Women’s Strategies in a World of Change , ed. Katarina Ferro and Margit Wolfsberger (Vienna: OSPG, 2003), 223. See also Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa: A Psychological Study of Primitive Youth for Western Civilization (New York: W. Morrow, 1928). 2 4 . M e y e r , GI Jane , 139, 101. 2 5 . Twin Ocean Gazette , February 1942, Sergeant Arthur Guarenti Papers, Army Service Experience Questionnaire, Americal Division, MHI. 26 . “Women and Military Etiquette,” All Hands , Bureau of Naval Personnel Information Bulletin, January 1943, 36. 27 . Captain Edward M. C. Barraclough, Royal Navy, “I Was Sailing; An Old Sailor Remembers,” unpublished memoirs (1978), 147, Imperial War Museum, London. 2 8 . B r i o n , Lady GI , 79. 29 . Ralph D. Watts to Linn V. Phillips, n.d., Report Office of the Theater Censor, APO 501, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP. 30 . Ray Haskel to Miss Myrtle Ristenport, March 26, 1944, Condemned Letters Theatre Censor, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1441, RG338, NACP. 3 1 . M a t t i e E . T r e a d w e l l , United States Army in World War II: Special Studies. The Women’s Army Corps (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1954), 421. 3 2 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps , 425–26. 33 . Martha Wayman to Mother, June 27, 1944, Wayman Papers, MHI. 3 4 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps , 425–26. 3 5 . W e i s e , Good Soldier , 50, 59, 70. 36 . Department of the Army, Minute Paper, December [?], 1944, File 339/1/559, Box 823, J. 27, MP742, National Archives of Australia, Melbourne. 3 7 . J e a n B e v e r i d g e , AWAS: Women Making History (Chevron Island, Queensland: Boolarong Publications, 1988), 46. 38 . Edna Crustan to her sister, October 20, 1944, File 620, C0068, World War II Letters, 1940–1946, WHMC. 3 9 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps , 421. 4 0 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps , 445. 41 . Oliver Eugene Robinett to his parents, April 19, 1943, World War II Letters, 1936–1948, WHMC. 4 2 . B r i o n , Lady GI , 84. 43 . Margaret A. Carlson to Henry R. Josten, July 17, 1945, File 432, C0068, World War II Papers, WHMC. 44 . Martha Wayman, Vmail to mother, July 4, 1944, Wayman Papers, MHI. 45 . Winnie K. Goodheart to Alice Corll, January 28, 1945, File 1061, C0068, World War II Papers, WHMC. 214 NOTES

4 6 . N a n c y D a m m a n n , A WAC’s Story: From Brisbane to Manila (Sun City, AZ: Social Change Press, 1992), 27–28, 30. 4 7 . M a r g a r e t P a t o n - W a l s h , Our War Too: American Women against the Axis (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002), 194. 48 . Velma D. Kettle to her mother, September 10, 1944, File 1620, C0068, World War II Papers, WHMC. 4 9 . B r i o n , Lady GI , 60, 73–74. 5 0 . W e i s e , Good Soldier , 44, 47–48, 55, 58; Brion, Lady GI , 78–79. 51 . Wayman to mother July 4, 1944, Wayman Papers, MHI. See also James A. Michener, Tales of the South Pacific (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 46. On servicewomen’s wartime experiences in Hawaii, see Joy Bright Hancock, Lady in the Navy: A Personal Reminiscence (1972; Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2002), 205–6. 52 . Dee Diary, November 20, 1944, Dee Family Papers, MS 6841, Alexander Turnbull. 5 3 . W e i s e , Good Soldier , 50. 5 4 . Our Navy , March 1, 1943. 5 5 . T h o m a s O . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co, 1946), 198. 5 6 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps, 446; Report, HQ 5203rd WAC Detachment, Major Margaret Craighill Collection, MHI. See also Meyer, GI Jane, 107–10. 57 . Undated WAC Dispensary Report, Craighill Collection, MHI. 5 8 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps , 447. 59 . On the United States Army’s venereal disease policies, see Meyer, G I Jane , 101–7. 60 . See Robinett to his parents, April 3, 1943, April 10, 1944, April 19, 1944, Robinett to “Aunt Opal,” March 7, 1945, World War II Letters, WHMC. 6 1 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps , 427. 6 2 . B r i o n , Lady GI , 83–84, 103. 6 3 . B u r g a n , Two Per Cent Fear , 42. 64 . Carlson to Henry R. Josten, July 17, 1945, File 432, C0068, World War II Letters, WHMC. 6 5 . M i c h e n e r , Tales of the South Pacific , 43, 46, 48, 95. 66 . Captain David R. Weir to his parents, March 20, 1943, Theater Censor Summaries, Box T-1419, RG338, NACP. 6 7 . Yank Down Under , March 24, 1944. 6 8 . J o h n C o s t e l l o , Love, Sex, and War: Changing Values, 1939–1945 (London: Collins, 1985), 74. 69 . Cited in Treadwell, Women’s Army Corps , 447. 7 0 . W e i s e , Good Soldier, 39–40. See also Meyer, GI Jane, 155; Treadwell, Women’s Army Corps , 441. 7 1 . B e v e r i d g e , AWAS: Women Making History , 49. 7 2 . SALT, (1944): 1–5, reprinted in Ruth Ford, “Lesbians and Loose Women: Female Sexuality and the Women’s Services during World War II,” in Damousi and Lake, G ender and War , 81. 73 . Ford, “Lesbians and Loose Women,” 81–85. See also Meyer, GI Jane, 6, 43, 148–78. NOTES 215

7 4 . C o s t e l l o , Love, Sex, and War , 92. 7 5 . C o s t e l l o , Love, Sex, and War, 92; William John Marck Jr., World War II Files, 3938, MHI; Draft of untitled manuscript, Chapter XI, page 353, Records of the Naval Operating Forces, Historical Files, 1939–1945, 313/376/35–36, Box 6788, RG313, NACP. 7 6 . D a m m a n n , A WAC’s Story , 27, 47. 7 7 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps , 447. 7 8 . M e y e r , GI Jane , 122. Some African American servicemen were also con- vinced that “nurses were available as companions for officers.” See Herbert S. Ripley and Stewart Wolf, “Mental Illness among Negro Troops Overseas,” American Journal of Psychiatry 103, (1947): 503. See also typescript draft of an untitled manuscript, 353, Records of the Naval Operating Forces, Historical Files, 1939–1945, 313/376/35–36, Box 6788, RG313, NACP. 79 . Pelletier to Corporal L. Balestrieri, n.d., Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 80 . Sergeant Evan A. Bain to his wife, October 16, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 81 . Hovorko to Florence Hovorko, October 3, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. See also Corporal Robert W. Bruggemeyer to his wife, July 26, 1944, and Second Lieutenant E. C. Campbell to “a friend,” July 22, 1944, both in Report Office of the Theater Censor, APO 501, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP. 82 . Naumean to Miss Lila Audenberg, October 7, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 83 . Watts to Flight Officer Linn V. Phillips, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 84 . Baranowski to Miss Ann Baranowski, n.d., Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422 RG338, NACP. 85 . Holt to Miss Louise M. Edwards, October 4, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP; and Avery to Miss Lara Avery, n.d., Report Office of the Theater Censor, APO 501, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP. 86 . Kliston to Mrs. T. Kliston, October 13, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 87 . Second Lieutenant Donald C. Bradley to the Laird Family, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 88 . Studwell to his parents, October 29, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP. 89 . Strejan to Private William Salistean, September 14, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, T-1420, RG338, NACP. On “comfort women,” see George Hicks, The Comfort Women (Tokyo: Yenbooks, 1995); Yoshiaki Yoshimi, Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military during World War II , trans. Suzanne O’Brien (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). 90 . Perdue to his wife, October 29, 1944, Report Office of the Theater Censor, APO 501, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP. See also Second Lieutenant Donald C. Bradley, n.d., to the Laird family, Theater Censor 216 NOTES

Summaries, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. There was ample evidence, reported Colonel Joseph E. Zimmer, “that the Japs have women with them, snipers that we have shot have been women. Soldiers by day, and for the pleasure of the officers after.” See Zimmer to Maude Baird, April 15, 1943, Joseph E. Zimmer Papers, MHI. 91 . Kliston to Mrs. T. Kliston, October 13, 1944, Shroeder to Private Roland Larson, November 11, 1944, both in Theater Censor Summaries, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 92 . Pelletier to Corporal L. Balestrieri, n.d., Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 93 . Naumean to Miss Lila Audenberg, October 7, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 94 . Bain to his wife, October 16, 1944, Theater Censor Summaries, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 95 . Lieutenant J. Baranowski to Miss Ann Baranowski, n.d., and Second Lieutenant Donald C. Bradley, n.d., both in Report Office of the Theater Censor, APO 501, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1420, RG338, NACP 96 . “Morale Report,” January 1944, file Theater Censor APO, SO1/501, Theater Censor, GHQ, SWPA, 290/45/12/4–5, Box T-1433, RG338, NACP. 97 . Cited in “Morale Report,” September 15, 1942, Theater Censor APO 926, GHQ, SWPA, 290/45/12/4–5, Box T-1433, RG338, NACP. 98 . Diary of Major Joseph H. Griffith, Private Papers Section, 1B26, Marine Corps Historical Center, Quantico, Virginia. 99 . Patricia Johnston has suggested that American women, informed by the images of eroticized Islander women in a range of cultural productions, fantasized about embracing the Islander guise. See Johnston, “Advertising Paradise: Hawaii in Arts, Anthropology, and Commercial Photography,” in Colonialist Photography: Imag(in)ing Race and Place , ed. Gary David Sampson (New York: Routledge, 2002), 188–226. 100 . Corkin, Pacifi c Postmark, 8. Note also Sally Hitchcock Pullman’s reference a native woman’s attempt to sell her a “gaudy red and green hemp” skirt. See Pullman, Letters Home: Memoirs of One Army Nurse in the Southwest Pacifi c in World War II (1997; Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2004), 139. 101 . Our Navy , December 1, 1941. 102 . Robinson, Record of Service, 18. Writing from the Solomons, American John Rockwood noted that the “natives have become pretty shrewd and the prices on grass skirts goes up each week.” See Rockwood to Jane Brunkow, June 30, 1944, John Rockwood Papers, Ms.99.0321, Institute on World War II and the Human Experience, Florida State University, Tallahassee. 103 . Martha A. Wayman to her mother, September 8, 1944, September 19, 1944, Wayman Papers, MHI. 104 . Morris’s Diary, entry for June 9, 1941, in the Papers of Major General B. M. Morris, File 419/73/10, Australian War Memorial, Canberra. 1 0 5 . T r e a d w e l l , Women’s Army Corps, 608–9; Captain Lawrence E. Viola, “Comparative Study of Dispensary Dispositions—Female versus Male Personnel at Intermediate Section HQ, Oct.–Nov. 1944,” Craighill Collection MHI. NOTES 217

106 . Department of the Army, Minute Papers, December [?], 1944, December 20, 1944, File 339/1/559, Box 823, J. 27, MP742, National Archives of Australia, Melbourne. 107 . HQ, United States Army Services of Supply, “Health of Nurses in the Tropics and Sub-Tropic Areas,” October 30, 1943, Craighill Collection, MHI. 108 . See Allan S. Walker, Th e Island Campaigns (Canberra: Australian War Memo- rial, 1957), 286. 109 . Typescript draft , untitled manuscript, 344, Historical Files 1939–1945, Records of the Naval Operating Forces, Box 6789, RG313, NACP. 110 . Julia M. H. Carson, Home Away from Home: Th e Story of the USO (1946), repr. in American Women in a World at War: Contemporary Accounts from World War II , ed. Judy Barrett Litoff and David C. Smith (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1997), 102–3. 111 . See, for example, “Something Beats Nothing. . . . All To Hell,” in Th ird Marine Division’s Two Score and Ten History (Paducah, KY: Turner Publishers, 1992), 80. 112 . Cited in “Morale Report,” December 1943, APO 923, Military Censorship Detachment, Th eater Censor, GHQ, SWPA, 338 290/45/12/4–5, Box T-1433, RG338, NACP. 113 . For a characteristically laudatory account of Eleanor Roosevelt’s visit to the South Pacifi c, see Fahey, Paci fi c War Diary , 51. 114 . Oliver Eugene Robinett to his parents, October 3, 1943, World War II Letters, WHMC. 115 . Yank Down Under , September 24, 1943.

7 “ Black White Men”: African American Encounters with the Wartime Pacific

1 . W a l t e r W h i t e , A Rising Wind (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran and Co., 1945), 144. 2 . W . E . B . D u B o i s , The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1903), 3. 3 . African Americans remain largely invisible in historical and popular accounts of the Pacific War. In the movie version of South Pacific , for exam- ple, there is just “one lonely” African American soldier. The principal scholar of African Americans’ experiences in the Pacific War is Robert Jefferson, and Michael Cullen Green has examined the experiences of African American military personnel stationed in the Asia-Pacific region during the early years of the Cold War. See Robert F. Jefferson, Fighting for Hope: African American Troops of the 93rd Infantry Division in World War II and Postwar America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008); Jefferson “Making the Men of the 93rd: African American Servicemen in the Years of the Great Depression and the Second World War, 1935–1947,” PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1995; Green, Black Yanks in the Pacific: Race in the Making of American Military Empire after World War II (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University 218 NOTES

Press, 2010). See also John Burgan, Two Per Cent Fear (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Co., 1947), 78, 88; Donald Jackson, Torokina: A Wartime Memoir, 1941–1945 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1989), 60; Margaret Jolly, “From Point Venus to Bali Ha’i: Eroticism and Exoticism in Representations of the Pacific,” in Sites of Desire, Economies of Pleasure: Sexualities in Asia and the Pacific, ed. Lenore Manderson and Margaret Jolly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 116. 4 . See also Neil A. Wynn, “War and Racial Progress: The African American Experience during World War II,” Peace and Change 20, (1995): 348–63. 5 . Japanese soldiers noted occasionally that they were confronted by a “great number” of black troops. See Diary of Nebu Tatsuguchi, May 5, 1943, Ruth B. Harris Papers, Folder 21, Box 1, World War II Collection, Special Collections, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 6 . 2nd Lt. Albert Evans, cited in The Invisible Soldier: The Experience of the Black Soldier, World War II , comp. and ed. Mary Penick Motley (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1975), 99; Walter White to Franklin D. Roosevelt, February 12, 1945, cited in Lee Finkle, Forum for Protest: The Black Press during Worldr Wa II (Canberry, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1975), 189. See also Elliot W. Converse, et al., The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II. The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation’s Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1997), 139. 7 . Baltimore Afro-American , December 25, 1943. 8 . Baltimore Afro-American , March 13, 1943. For contrasting appraisals of African Americans’ fighting prowess, see Eddie Allen Stanton, diary entry for July 12, 1943, in The War Diaries of Eddie Allan Stanton: Papua, 1942–45, New Guinea, 1945–46 , ed. Hank Nelson (St. Leonards, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin, 1996), 159–60; Baltimore Afro-American , July 10, 1943, August 28, 1943, November 4, 1944. 9 . Margaret Mead stated that the “idea of a ‘strike’” among indentured workers in Rabaul had come from “American Negro seamen.” One wartime report noted that in 1931 a group of African Americans who had arrived in Rabaul aboard a merchant ship had precipitated a race riot that left several whites and a larger number of natives dead. See Mead, New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformations–Manus, 1928–1953 (1956; New York: William Morrow and Co., 1966), 80; Robert L. Ghormley, “Psychology of Solomon Islanders,” October 7, 1942, 370/35–36/35–01/5–01, Box 6786, RG313, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland (NACP). 10 . See, for example, Chicago Defender , February 14, 1942. 11 . Adolph W. Newton noted that when he saw New Guinea, he “saw a very beautiful deep green,” and Baltimore Afro-American correspondent Vincent Tubbs referred to the “vista” in Papua as being “like paradise.” Conversely, Howard Hickerson, serving with the 93rd Division, remembered the South Pacific as “always hot and always wet,” and Adolph Newton listed the potential dangers to unwary Americans: “Japanese, wild boar, black widow NOTES 219

spiders, natives,” and “the biggest snakes in the world.” See Newton, Better than Good: A Black Sailor’s War, 1943–1945 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1999), 48; Baltimore Afro-American , July 17, 1943; Hickerson, cited in Fighting in the Jim Crow Army: Black Men and Women Remember World War II , ed. Maggi M. Morehouse (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000), 139. 1 2 . Chicago Defender , October 10, 1942. See also “Beauty Plays Beast in ‘Wild Woman,’” Baltimore Afro-American , August 28, 1943. 1 3 . B i l l D o w n e y , Uncle Sam Must Be Losing the War: Black Marine of the 51st (San Francisco: Strawberry Hill Press, 1982), 167. 14 . See, for example, Baltimore Afro-American , September 4, 1943. 1 5 . Baltimore Afro-American , February 20, 1943. 1 6 . Baltimore Afro-American , August 7, 1943. 1 7 . S e e D a v e n p o r t , “ Taemfaet : Experiences and Reactions of Santa Cruz Islanders during the Battle for Guadalcanal,” in The Pacific Theater: Island Representations of World War II , ed. Geoffrey M. White and Lamont Lindstrom (1989; Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1990), 271; Neville K. Robinson, Villagers at War: Some Papua New Guinea Experiences in World War II (Canberra: Australian National University, 1979), 172. 1 8 . M o r e h o u s e , Jim Crow Army , 145. 1 9 . N e w t o n , Better than Good , 48. 2 0 . N e w t o n , Better than Good, 51; Baltimore Afro-American, September 11, 1943. 2 1 . N e w t o n , Better than Good , 51. 2 2 . Baltimore Afro-American , July 18, 1942. 2 3 . Chicago Defender , March 3, 1943. 2 4 . Chicago Defender , September 4, 1943. 25 . Tubbs, “Flesh Show in the Pacific,” in This Is Our War: Selected Stories of Six War Correspondents Who Were Sent Overseas by the Afro-American Newspaper (Baltimore: Afro-American Company, 1945), 53–56. 2 6 . N e w t o n , Better than Good, 51–52. 2 7 . Baltimore Afro-American , August 22, 1942. 2 8 . N e w t o n , Better than Good, 69. 2 9 . Chicago Defender , September 11, 1943. 3 0 . Baltimore Afro-American , October 1, 1943. 3 1 . Baltimore Afro-American , October 1, 1943. 3 2 . Baltimore Afro-American , November 11, 1944. 3 3 . Chicago Defender, May 1, 1943. 3 4 . Baltimore Afro-American , June 19, 1943. See also Chicago Defender , August 21, 1943. 3 5 . Chicago Defender , July 10, 1943. 3 6 . Chicago Defender , July 10, 1943. 3 7 . Chicago Defender , September 25, 1943. 3 8 . Chicago Defender , August 28, 1943. 3 9 . Chicago Defender , August 28, 1943. 220 NOTES

4 0 . Chicago Defender , March 28, 1942. 41 . Vincent Tubbs described Papua as “the last of all lands to be brought under the influence of civilization.” See Chicago Defender , September 4, 1943. 4 2 . Chicago Defender , July 18, 1942. 4 3 . Chicago Defender , September 5, 1942. 4 4 . Chicago Defender , August 28, 1943. 4 5 . Chicago Defender , January 2, 1943. 4 6 . Chicago Defender , July 10, 1943. 4 7 . Chicago Defender , October 9, 1943. 4 8 . Chicago Defender , August 21, 1943. 4 9 . Baltimore Afro-American , January 16, 1943. 50 . African American reporters were not averse to exploiting biological argu- ments concerning black Americans’ abilities to handle adverse climatic con- ditions. It had “definitely been proven by health authorities,” wrote Fletcher Martin, that “Negro troops” had “stood up under the intense heat far better than other American troops.” See Chicago Defender , December 11, 1943. 5 1 . Baltimore Afro-American , January 16, 1943; A. Russell Buchanan, Black Americans in World War II (Santa Barbara, CA: Clio Books, 1977), 90. 5 2 . Yank Down Under , September 24, 1943. 5 3 . Baltimore Afro-American , October 16, 1943. See also Baltimore Afro- American , February 19, 1944. 5 4 . Baltimore Afro-American , March 28, 1942. 5 5 . Baltimore Afro-American , August 22, 1942. 5 6 . D o w n e y , Uncle Sam Must Be Losing the War , 170. 5 7 . Baltimore Afro-American , August 28, 1943. 58 . Notwithstanding the warm welcome that was reportedly accorded to American troops by “friendly people” of that “quite strange land” of New Guinea, the Afro-American reported that “none of the fighters wanted to live” there. See Baltimore Afro-American , August 22, 1942. 5 9 . W h i t e , A Rising Wind , 147–50. See also Thomas Dyja, Walter White: The Dilemma of Black Identity in America (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2008), 167. 60 . On black Americans’ responses to United States foreign policy, see Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997) and Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996). 61 . Jesse W. Arbor, cited in The Golden Thirteen: Recollections of the First Black Naval Officers, ed. Paul Stillwell (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1993), 186. 6 2 . Baltimore Afro-American, June 5, 1942. Using an identical phrase, a sub- sequent report also commented that Canadians serving in the Pacific were impressed by African Americans, who they judged “more polite and less cocky” than white Americans. See Baltimore Afro-American , June 19, 1943. 6 3 . Baltimore Afro-American , June 19, 1943, August 7, 1943. Concerning the relative prosperity of African Americans, Ted McCullough noted that in one unspecified area where he served, the “Australians had been paying” the NOTES 221

natives “about 75 cents a day.” After McCullough and his black compatriots “started paying them about two-and-a-half dollars,” they were blamed for “ruining the economy in that place.” See McCullough, cited in Morehouse, Jim Crow Army , 153. 64 . Vandercock to Frank E. Mason, Special Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy, August 12, 1942, 370/35–36/35–01/5–01, Box 6786, RG313, NACP. 6 5 . L i n d s t r o m , The American Occupation of the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) (Christchurch, N.Z.: Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury, 1996), 7, 37. Neville Robinson suggested that while there were reports that “village men” in New Guinea “did not particularly admire the black troops,” others “saw the black Americans as big brothers.” See Robinson, Villagers at War , 172, 186. 66 . See Robinson, Villagers at War , 103. 6 7 . M e a d , New Lives for Old, 168–69, 173. See also Hugh Laracy, “World War Two,” in Tides of History: The Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century , ed. K. R. Howe, Robert C Kiste, and Brij V. Lal (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1994), 162; Peter Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of ‘Cargo’ Cults in Melanesia, 2nd ed. (New York: Schocken Books, 1968), 172; Jonathon Fifi’i, “World War II and the Origins of Maasina Rule,” in Bikfala Faet: Olketa Solomon Aelanda rimembarem Wol Wo Tu = The Big Death: Solomon Islanders Remember World War II (Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1988), 224. 6 8 . M e a d , New Lives for Old, 173; Lindstrom and White, “War Stories,” in White and Lindstrom, Pacific Theater , 22. See also Marty Zelenietz and Hisafumi Saito, “The Kilenge and the War: An Observer Effect on Stories from the Past,” in White and Lindstrom, Pacific Theater, 174–75; David Counts, “Shadows of War: Changing Remembrance through Twenty Years in New Britain,” in White and Lindstrom, Pacific Theater , 197–98; Maria Lepowsky, “Soldiers and Spirits: The Impact of World War II on a Coral Sea Island,” in White and Lindstrom, Pacific Theater , 218; David W. Gegeo and Karen Ann Watson-Gegeo, “World War II Experience and Life History: Two Cases from Malaita, Solomon Islands,” in White and Lindstrom, Pacific Theater , 364–65; Lindstrom, “Working Encounters: Oral Histories of World War II Labor Camps from Tanna, Vanuatu,” in White and Lindstrom, Pacific Theater , 412. 6 9 . R o b i n s o n , Villagers at War , 172. 7 0 . M a t t i e E . T r e a d w e l l , United States Army in World War II: Special Studies. The Women’s Army Corps (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1954), 450. See also Herbert S. Ripley and Stewart Wolf, “Mental Illness among Negro Troops Overseas,” American Journal of Psychiatry 103, (1947): 499; Judith A. Bennett, Natives and Exotics: World War II and Environment in the Southern Pacific (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009), 37–38. 71 . Boyle to Lieutenant Barbara Berens Hall, n.d., United States Forces Far East, G2 Theater Censors’ Summaries of Censorship Violations, 1942–44, 290/45/12/2–3, Box T-1422, RG338, NACP. 222 NOTES

72 . Hickerson, cited in Morehouse, Jim Crow Army , 149. 7 3 . G r e e n , c i t e d i n M o r e h o u s e , Jim Crow Army , 150. See also Newton, Better than Good , 68. 74 . Lou Potter, Liberators: Fighting on Two Fronts in World War II (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1992), 144. 7 5 . F i n k l e , Forum for Protest , 170–72. 76 . Translation of interview with Christian L’Aigret, December 16, 1943, Secret General Administration Files, Records of the Naval Operating Forces, File A14, Box 6782, RG313, NACP. 7 7 . Baltimore Afro-American , January 1, 1944; Newsweek , January 3, 1944. 78 . Copy of undated telex, File A14, Box 6782, RG313, NACP. 79 . Copy of telex, December 23, 1943, File A14, Box 6782, RG313, NACP. 8 0 . Baltimore Afro-American , January 1, 1944. 8 1 . Time , January 3, 1944. 8 2 . Newsweek , January 3, 1944. 83 . Arthur I. Thompson, “Venereal Disease–South Pacific Area,” Pincaffs Papers, Military History Collection, Fort Carlisle, Pennsylvania; Copy of telex, December 23, 1943, File A14, Box 6782, RG313, NACP. On the wider incidence of venereal disease among black troops, see Ulysses Lee, Employment of Negro Troops (Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, 1966), 278. See also L. E. Denfeld, “Memo from Chief of Naval Personnel, to Commandants, All Naval Districts with Continental U.S.,” in Blacks in the United States Armed Forces: Basic Documents. Volume VI: Blacks in the World War II Naval Establishment , ed. Morris J. MacGregor and Bernard C. Nalty (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1977), 271.

8 Rainbow Island: Wartime Hollywood and the South Seas

1 . J a m e s A . M i c h e n e r , Tales of the South Pacific (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 160. 2 . New York Times , August 28, 1941. 3 . Pittsburgh Post-Gazette , September 20, 1941; Montreal Gazette , August 30, 1941. 4 . Cumberland (MD) Sunday Times , July 12, 1942. 5 . Cumberland (MD) Sunday Times , July 12, 1942. 6 . Hollywood Reporter , February 4, 1942. 7 . St. Petersburg (FL) Times , June 24, 1943. 8 . Sydney Morning Herald , January 31, 1944. 9 . Universal Studios to Will Hays, September 7, 1943, Cobra Women , Motion Picture Association of America/Production Code Administration (MPAA/ PCA) files, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Los Angeles (AMPAS). 1 0 . Sydney Morning Herald , April 13, 1942. NOTES 223

11 . Betty Grable, “Down on Ami Ami Oni Oni Isle,” 1942, Bregman, Vocco & Conn. 1 2 . Baltimore Afro-American , June 12, 1943. 1 3 . L u i s I . R e y e s , Made in Paradise: Hollywood’s Films of Hawaii and the South Seas (Honolulu: Mutual Pub. Co., 1995), 272–74. 1 4 . Hollywood Reporter , April 20, 1945. 1 5 . Cumberland (MD) Sunday Times , July 12, 1942. 1 6 . Salt Lake Tribune , April 8, 1943. 17 . See Philip Leibfried and Jasmine Sabu, Star of India: The Life and Films of Sabu (Albany, GA: Bearmanor Media, 2010); E. J. Fleming, Carole Landis: A Tragic Life in Hollywood (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2005), 110. 18 . Joseph Breen to Maurice Pivar, October 28, 1942, MPAA/PCA files, AMPAS. 19 . Joseph Breen to Maurice Pivar, May 14, 1943, October 28, 1942, MPAA/ PCA files, AMPAS. 20 . Certificate of Approval, Song of the Sarong, January 24, 1945, MPAA/PCA files, AMPAS. 2 1 . Motion Picture Daily , March 17, 1942. 22 . For a further discussion, see Michael S. Shull and David E. Wilt, Doing Their Bit: Wartime American Animated Short Films, 1939–1945, 2nd ed. (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004), 112. 2 3 . New York Times , May 18, 1943. 2 4 . New York Times , April 26, 1943. 2 5 . Sydney Morning Herald , September 27, 1943. 2 6 . Sydney Morning Herald , January 31, 1944. 2 7 . Hollywood Reporter , April 21, 1944. 2 8 . New York Times , May 18, 1944. 2 9 . Motion Picture Daily , April 24, 1945. 3 0 . Racine (WI) Journal-Times , May 29, 1943. 31 . “The Wolf” was created by Staff Sergeant Leonard Sansome and was dis- tributed to American service newspapers around the world. See Life , July 31, 1944. 32 . “She Is the No. 1 Pin-Up Girl of the US Army,” Life , July 7, 1941. 3 3 . Life , July 28, 1941. 3 4 . Life , February 15, 1943. See also Adelaide Mail , June 5, 1943. 3 5 . Adelaide Mail, May 25, 1940. See also Australian Women’s Weekly , January 15, 1942. 3 6 . New York Times , July 8, 1945. 3 7 . Ogden (UT) Standards Examiner , April 5, 1942. 3 8 . Panama City (FL) News Herald , August 9, 1942. 3 9 . Spokane (WA) Spokesman Review , October 1, 1942. 4 0 . Hutchinson (KS) News-Herald , May 15, 1944. 4 1 . Oakland (CA) Tribune Magazine Pictorial , August 1, 1943. 4 2 . Council Bluffs (IA) Nonpareil , May 6, 1944. 4 3 . Los Angeles Times , November 4, 1942; New York Times , October 31, 1942. 224 NOTES

4 4 . New York Times , October 31, 1942, August 3, 1942. 4 5 . New York Times , September 10, 1943. 4 6 . Bismarck (ND) Tribune, October 24, 1944; Kingsport (TN) Times-News , February 4, 1945. 4 7 . Cumberland (MD) Sunday Times , April 16, 1944. See also Bismarck (ND) Tribune October 24, 1944. 4 8 . Chicago Daily Tribune , September 17, 1944. 49 . Dorothy Lamour, as told to Dick McInnes, My Side of the Road (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980), 138. 5 0 . Chicago Tribune , December 11, 1944. 5 1 . New York Times , October 26, 1944. 5 2 . Sydney Morning Herald , October 23, 1944. 5 3 . Ames (IA) Daily Tribune , November 4, 1944. 5 4 . Port Arthur (TX) News , November 14, 1943 5 5 . Hutchinson (KS) News-Herald , December 10, 1944. 5 6 . Daily Huronite (SD), November 5, 1944; Joplin (SD) Globe , December 31, 1944. 5 7 . Kingsport (TN) Times-News , February 4, 1945.

9 South Seas Savior: James A. Michener and Postwar Visions of the South Pacific

1 . J o h n S t e r l i n g , Essays and Tales, by John Sterling, Collected and Edited, with a Memoir of his Life, by Julius Charles Hare , 2 vols. (London: J. W. Parker, 1848), I: xx. See also Bernard Smith, European Vision and the South Pacific, 1768–1850: A Study in the History of Art and Ideas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1960), 109. 2 . F e l i x M . K e e s i n g , The South Seas in the Modern World (London: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1942), 293. 3 . New York Times , December 6, 1956. 4 . Thomas O. Heggen, Mister Roberts (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co, 1946). 5 . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts , 53. 6 . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts , 40–47. 7 . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts , 135. 8 . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts , 148. 9 . John Mason Brown, “Foreword,” Thomas Heggen and Joshua Logan, Mister Roberts: A Play (New York: Random House, 1948), ix. 1 0 . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts , 39. 11 . Thomas Heggen and Joshua Logan, “Mister Roberts,” Theatre Arts , March 1950, 82. 12 . Heggen and Logan, “Mister Roberts,” 82. 1 3 . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts , 142. 14 . Heggen and Logan, “Mister Roberts,” 87. 1 5 . New York Times , April 25, 1948. 1 6 . H e g g e n , Mister Roberts , xi. NOTES 225

1 7 . T h i s n o t i o n t h a t Mister Roberts was essentially a tale of “well-intentioned people trapped in the absurdities of military conditions” and therefore a precursor to Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 has been explored by Philip D. Beidler. See Beidler, “Mr . Roberts and American Remembering; or, Why Major Major Looks Like Henry Fonda,” Journal of American Studies 30, (1996): 47–64. 18 . Leland Hayward to Joshua Logan, June 10, 1947, Box 25, Papers of Joshua Logan, Manuscripts Section, Library of Congress, Washington, DC (LoC). 19 . Heggen to Logan, November 23, 1947, Box 25, Logan Papers, LoC. 20 . Logan to Hayward, June 10, 1947, Box 25, Logan Papers, LoC. 21 . Ray Parker to Josh Logan, June 8, 1951, Box 116, Logan Papers, LoC. 22 . Henry Fonda to Joshua Logan, December 6, 1950, Box 22, Logan Papers, LoC. 2 3 . Newsweek , March 1, 1948. 2 4 . New York Times , April 25, 1948. 2 5 . F r o m D e f o e ’ s Robinson Crusoe to Melville’s Typee and beyond, realist styles have been a defining characteristic of South Seas fiction. 2 6 . Newsweek, March 1, 1948. 27 . Hayward to Logan, September 6, 1954, Box 25, Logan Papers, LoC. 2 8 . J o h n P . H a y e s , James A. Michener: A Biography (Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill, 1984), 77. 2 9 . F r e d e r i c k N o l a n , The Sound of Their Music: The Story of Rodgers & Hammerstein (New York: NY Applause Theatre & Cinema Books, 2002), 145. 30 . Michener to Harold Latham, vice president Macmillan, August 7, 1945, Container I:1, Box 25, Papers of James A. Michener, Manuscripts Section, LoC. 3 1 . G e o r g e J . B e c k e r , James A. Michener (New York: Frederic Ungar Publishing, 1983), 29. 32 . The idea would later find voice in his collaboration with A. Grove Day, Rascals in Paradise (New York: Random House, 1957). 33 . Michener to Richard B. Harwell, December 22, 1948, Box 2, Michener Papers, LoC. 34 . Michener to Cynthia Walsh, October 18, 1946, Part I, Box 1, Michener Papers, LoC. 3 5 . M i c h e n e r , Tales of the South Pacific (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 1. 3 6 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 132. 3 7 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 116–17. 3 8 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 135. 39 . Michener to Cynthia Walsh, October 18, 1946, Part I, Box 1, Michener Papers, LoC. 4 0 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 160. 4 1 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 160. 4 2 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 67. 4 3 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 113. 4 4 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 160. 4 5 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 148. 4 6 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 151. 226 NOTES

4 7 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 151. 4 8 . M i c h e n e r , Tales , 151–52. 49 . George Brett to Mother Margaret, Selwyn School for Girls, May 19, 1945, Container I:1, Michener Papers, LoC. 50 . George Brett to Michener, May 17, 1945, Container I:1, Michener Papers, LoC. 51 . Michener to Mr. Scott, April 6, 1946, Container I:1, Michener Papers, LoC. 52 . George Brett to Michener, May 17, 1945, Container I:1, Michener Papers, LoC. 53 . George Brett to Michener, May 17, 1945, Container I:1, Michener Papers, LoC. 54 . Martin Summers to Michener, October 11, 1946, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 55 . Michener to William J. Holt, November 11, 1946, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 56 . Michener to William J. Holt, November 18, 1946, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 57 . “Jan” to Michener, March 18, 1947, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 58 . Peter Moore to Michener, February 27, 1947, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 59 . Edward H. Bell to Michener, June 28, 1949, Box 3, Michener Papers, LoC. 60 . Alfred C. Borie to Michener, March 24, 1947, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 61 . Frederic S. Wicks to Michener, [?] 5, 1948, Box 2, Michener Papers, LoC. 62 . Michener to Alfred C. Borie, April 9, 1947, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 63 . Alfred L. Cassidy to Michener, [?], 1948, Box 3, Michener Papers, LoC. 64 . Michener to Martin Summers, October 9, 1946, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 65 . Michener to William J. Holt, November 18, 1946, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 66 . C. A. Whyte to Editor, Saturday Evening Post, January 23, 1947, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 67 . Martin Summer to C. A. Whyte, February 5, 1947, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 68 . Michener to C. A. Whyte, February 7, 1947, Box 34, Michener Papers, LoC. 69 . For recent examinations of the musical South Pacific , consult Jim Lovensheimer, South Pacific: Paradise Rewritten (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010); Carolyn O’Dwyer, “American Identity across the Pacific: Culture, Race and Sexuality in South Pacific and Tales from the South Pacific ,” Antithesis 7, (1995): 123–37. 7 0 . N o l a n , The Sound of Their Music , 145. 7 1 . N o l a n , The Sound of Their Music , 145. 7 2 . R o n a l d L . D a v i s , Mary Martin: Broadway Legend (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008), 123. 73 . For reasons that are not clear, this vignette was excised from many paper- back versions of the book. See Geoffrey Block, The Richard Rodgers Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 135. NOTES 227

7 4 . H u g h F o r d i n , Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II (New York: Ungar Publishing, 1986), 260. 7 5 . N o l a n , The Sound of Their Music , 145. 7 6 . New York Times , April 3, 1949. 7 7 . A l y s o n M c L a m o r e , Musical Theater: An Appreciation (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2004), 149. 78 . Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein, Joshua Logan, and James A. Michener, Rodgers and Hammerstein’s South Pacific (New York: Williamson Music, 1956), 17–18. 79 . Leland Hayward to Joshua Logan, May 20, 1948, Box 25, Logan Papers, LoC. 8 0 . Life , April 18, 1949. 8 1 . F o r d i n , Getting to Know Him, 280–82; Patricia O. McGhee, “South Pacific Revisited: Were We Carefully Taught or Reinforced,” Journal of Ethnic Studies 15, (1998): 125; unidentified clipping in Logan Papers, Box 124. 82 . McGhee, “South Pacific Revisited,” 126. 83 . Oscar Hammerstein to Joshua Logan, July 11, 1949, Box 24, Logan Papers, LoC. 84 . Yvonne Cody to Joshua Logan, July 16, 1949, Box 20, Logan Papers, LoC. 85 . “Member of the public” to Joshua Logan, August 1, 1949, Box 22, Logan Papers, LoC. 86 . Joshua Logan to Kenneth Cole, May 1, 1957, Box 20, Logan Papers, LoC. See also Margaret Jolly, “From Point Venus to Bali Ha’i: Eroticism and Exoticism in Representations of the Pacific,” in Sites of Desire, Economies of Pleasure: Sexualities in Asia and the Pacific, ed. Lenore Manderson and Margaret Jolly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 116. 87 . James A. Michener, Return to Paradise (1951; reprint New York: Fawcett Crest, 1982), 7. 8 8 . D r a f t I n t r o d u c t i o n , Return to Paradise , Container I:94, Michener Papers, LoC. 8 9 . T h e Racial Prejudices project was a planned collaboration with Pearl Buck and Oscar Hammerstein. See Container I: 82, Michener Papers, LoC. 90 . Guerric Debona, “The Politics of Redeployment: Hollywood and the Literary Canon, 1934–1951 (Film, Aesthetic, Literary Adaptation),” PhD diss., Indiana University, 1996: 1. 9 1 . R o b W i l s o n , Reimagining the American Pacific: From South Pacific to Bamboo Ridge and Beyond (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000), 165 92 . Michener to Cynthia Walsh, October 18, 1946, Part I, Box 1, Michener Papers, LoC. 93 . See Patricia O’Brien, “The Pacific Muse: Colonial Stereotypes of Indigenous Women in the Pacific,” PhD Thesis, Department of History, University of Sydney, 1998. 94 . Rob Wilson, “Bloody Mary Meets Lois-Ann Yamanaka: Imagining Hawaiian Locality from South Pacific to Bamboo Ridge and Beyond,” in Inside Out: Literature, Cultural Politics, and Identity in the New Pacific, ed. Vilsoni Hereniko and Rob Wilson (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), 363. 228 NOTES

Conclusion: The Queen of the Hollywood Islands

1 . Ethan de Seife, “What’s Sarong with this Picture?: The Dvelopment of the Star Image of Dorothy Lamour,” Senses of Cinema 22 (2002) http://www .sensesofcinema.com/2002/22/lamour/ (accessed November 21, 2011). 2 . Dorothy Lamour, “Queen of the Hollywood Islands,” Q ueen of the Hollywood Islands , CD, (Sepia Records), 2005. 3 . Winnipeg Free Press, January 9, 1953. See also Oakland Tribune, December 9, 1955. 4 . San Mateo (CA) Times , March 19, 1951. 5 . Bakersfield Californian , May 28, 1959. 6 . Grand Prairie , November 1, 1956. 7 . See Koichi Iwabuchi, “Complicit Exoticism: Japan and Its Other,” Continuum 8 (1994): 49–82; Tony Mitchell, “Self Orientalism, Reverse Orientalism and Pan-Asian Pop Culture Flows in Dick Lee’s Transit Lounge,” in Rogue Flows: Trans-Asian Cultural Traffic , ed. Kōichi Iwabuchi, Stephen Muecke, and Mandy Thomas (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004): 95–118; Greg Umbach and Dan Wishnoff, “Strategic Self Orientalism: Urban Planning Policies and Shaping of New York City’s Chinatown, 1950–2005,” Journal of Planning History 7 (2008): 214–38. For a discussion of contemporary South Pacific tourism and the legacy of the South Seas, see C. Michael Hall and Stephe J. Page, eds., Tourism in the Pacific: Issues and Cases (London: International Thomson Business Press, 1996) and Norman Douglas “They Came for Savages: A Comparative History of Tourism Development in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, 1884– 1984,” PhD Thesis, University of Queensland, 1994. Bibliography

Archival Sources

This project has exploited a wide array of archival sources, ranging from personal papers (listed individually, by repository) to official military and other govern- mental records.

U nited States of America

Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii

Institutional Records

Bienecke Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut

Jones, James

George Bush Presidential Library and Museum, College Station, Texas

The World War II Correspondence held in the collection was examined.

I nstitute on World War II and the Human Experience, Florida State University, Tallahassee

Lee, Walter Rockwood, John Ward, Donald Preston

Jean MacArthur Research Center, MacArthur Memorial, Norfolk, Virginia

Kenny, George C. MacArthur, Douglas Sutherland, Richard K. 230 BIBLIOGRAPHY

John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston, Massachusetts

The wartime letters from Kennedy’s Personal File 1943–1949 (Box 5) were examined.

Library of Congress, Washington, DC, Manuscripts Division

Halsey, William F. Logan, Joshua Michener, James A.

Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, Austin, Texas

The Pre-Presidential Papers held in the collection were examined.

M argaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Los Angeles, California

Josephine Chippo Papers Motion Picture Association of America/Production Code Administration Files Thomas J. Geraghty Collection

M arine Corps History Division, Quantico, Virginia

Bauer, Harold W. Cupp, James Griffith, Joseph H. Lyons, Richard F. Marbrey, Nolan V. Miller, Henry S. Minier, Lee N. Rosenthal, David H. Serier, Thomas E. Sykes, Joseph Tomlinson, George E.

M ilitary History Institute, United States Army, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania

The Military History Institute (MHI) holds invaluable private paper collections, the Oral History Survey Project, and the very useful records of the Army Service Experience Questionnaire survey. As a consequence of American veterans com- pleting that survey, the MHI acquired further collections of private papers. The BIBLIOGRAPHY 231 collections of the following individuals—as private papers in their own right, as materials donated as part of the Army Service Experience Questionnaire, as responses to the survey, or as oral transcripts—were examined: Adams, Joseph Q. Allison, William J. Atkinson, Morris L. Baker, Carl Arthur Bean, John C. Blair, Thomas Burns, Robert D. Callaghan, Edward Jerome Clark, Edmund Condon, Emmet Craighill, Margaret De Gaetano, Salvatore Eppeison, Jim Garrison, Ritchie Goodman, Reynold H. Griswold, O. W. Grossman, Paul Guarenti, Arthur Helena, Cecil C. Henne, Charles A. Hoffman, George A. Hoffman, Ronald Kramer, R. C. Marck, William John Marshall, Richard J. McFadden, Herchel McNeil, Donald Noonan, Ralph Peacock, Hollis L. Petr, Otto von Pincoffs, Maurice Reynolds, Leah and Lena Ruff, William L. Steed, Ira Reader Stewart, Charles F. Terry, J. Tredennick, Donald C. Vanderbee, Ralph Vera, Fernando Voita, Leno H. Wainwright, Jonathon M. Wayman, Martha A. Zimmer, Joseph E. 232 BIBLIOGRAPHY

National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC

Strong, William Duncan

National Archives and Record Administration, College Park, Maryland

A range of American government files were examined for this project; detailed identification can be found in individual footnotes. Materials in the following archival series were consulted: RG112: Records of the Office of the Surgeon General (Army) RG313: Records of Naval Operating Forces RG338: Records of US Army Operational, Tactical, and Support Organizations (World War II and Thereafter)

National Museum of the Pacific War, Fredericksburg, Texas

Amstead, Margaret Cederland, Howard Palmer, Gaylord War Diary, USS Alabama , 1942–1944 War Diary, USS Ticonderoga , 1944–1945

O ral History Collection, United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland

Adair, Charles Eller, Ernest M.

U nited States Navy, Operating Archives Branch, Naval History Center, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, DC

Edmondson, Darwin Faust, E. F. (Oral History Transcript) Rubb, Douglas C. White, B. R.

U niversity of Tennessee, Knoxville, Special Collections, World War II Collection

Baggerman, William Bentley, Jack Clark, Edmund BIBLIOGRAPHY 233

Dermott, Robert J. Harris, Edward G. Harris, Ruth B. Kernowlski, Frank and Nell Lee, Walter Meeks, Vaughan Nash, Omar Schneider, Leslie C.

W estern Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri

A range of correspondence from a variety of individuals is held in the Collection’s World War II Letters. Carlson, Margaret A. Crustan, Edna Dickson, M. N. Goodheart, Winnie K. Johnson, Roe L. Kettle, Velma D. Miller, Frank D. Nelson, Charles Orville Robertson, Leslie F. Robinett, Oliver Eugene Smey, Lois E.

W illiam R. Perkins Library, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina

Eichelberger, Robert

Australia

Australian Archives

A range of military-related files are held in the Canberra, Sydney, and Melbourne repositories. Individual files are cited in relevant footnotes.

Australian War Memorial, Canberra

A range of private papers and other military records were consulted from this essential Australian resource. Major collections include the following: Bracht, William Henry Clemens, W. F. M. 234 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dalrymple-Hay, Ken H. Hackett, Alan Francis Hemery, John Peter Hooper, Alan Hopton, Peter Kearns, Richard Morris, B. M. Olson, William Robert Henry Parry-Okeden, W. N. Plank, D. L. Ross, J. C. Shearer, David Traill, A. J. Tratten, David Walmsby, Charles Wood, Kingsley

M itchell Library, State Library of New South Wales

Land, John

National Library of Australia

Marshall, A. J. Stone, Harry A.

New Zealand

Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand

Andrews, Ernest Stanhope Dee Family Fraser Family Gadel, David A. Veitch, H. C. Waterman Family

U nited Kingdom

I mperial War Museum, London

Barraclough, Edward M. C. Grace, Sir John BIBLIOGRAPHY 235

P rivately Held Papers

During the completion of this project, copies of diaries and letters held by private citizens were copied and sent to the authors. The following collection was cited. Bell, Harry John

Newspapers and Magazines

A vast array of newspapers and magazines has been consulted for the completion of this project. Some have been sourced through digitized collections available via repositories such as the National Library of Australia, UMI Newspaper Archives, and the archives function of Google News. Others were gathered from traditional library repositories, notably the collections of the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library, the State Library of New South Wales, and the National Library of Australia. Newspapers and magazines cited include the following: Adelaide Mail All Hands American Weekly Ames (IA) Daily Tribune Army Talk Asia Australian Women’s Weekly Bakersfield Californian Baltimore Afro-American Bismarck (ND) Tribune Boston Evening American Boston Herald Boston Traveler BP Magazine Burlington (NC) Daily Times Chicago Defender Chicago Tribune Coquille Valley (OR) Sentinel Council Bluffs (IA) Nonpareil Cumberland (MD) Sunday Times Daily Huronite (SD) Deseret (UT) News Edwardsville (IL) Intelligencer Film Daily Fort Worth Star-Telegram G alveston (TX) Daily News G rand Prairie 236 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hartford Courant Hollywood Reporter Honolulu Advertiser Honolulu Star-Bulletin Hutchinson (KS) News-Herald Joplin Globe K ingsport (TN) Times-News Leatherneck Lewiston (ME) Daily Sun Life Lima (OH) News Los Angeles Times Milwaukee Journal Montreal Gazette Motion Picture Daily New York Times Newsweek Oakland (CA) Tribune Magazine Pictorial Ogden (UT) Standards Examiner Our Navy Pacific Islands Monthly Panama City (FL) News Herald People Photoplay Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Port Arthur (FL) News Racine (WI) Journal-Times SALT Salt Lake Tribune San Antonio Express San Francisco Examiner San Mateo (CA) Times Sandusky (OH) Register Star-News SEAC Spokane (WA) Spokesman Review St. Petersburg (FL)Times Stage and Screen Evening Herald Sydney Morning Herald Τ heater Arts Time Times News (ID) Valley Morning Star (TX) Variety Village View Washington Post Wellsboro (PA) Gazette BIBLIOGRAPHY 237

Winnipeg Free Press Wisconsin State Journal Yank Yank Downunder

M otion Pictures

Many motion pictures are cited in this book. Some are generally available and were viewed on television or via the Internet. A number were viewed in the excel- lent collection of the Film Archive at the University of California, Los Angeles. We also exploited the files of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and published reviews held in a large range of specialist movie trade papers and the general media. A very useful anthology of South Seas films is Luis I. Reyes, Made in Paradise: Hollywood’s Films of Hawaii and the South Seas (Honolulu: Mutual Pub Co, 1995).

M otion pictures cited:

Aloha (Tiffany, 1931) Aloha Oe (Triangle Film Corporation, 1915) Aloma of the South Seas (Famous Players Lasky, 1926) Aloma of the South Seas (Paramount, 1941) Beachcomber, The (Hobart Bosworth Productions, 1915) Beyond the Blue Horizon (Paramount, 1942) Bird of Paradise (RKO, 1932) Birth of a Nation (Epoch, 1915) Bugs Bunny, “Bugs Nips the Nips” (Merrie Melodies, 1944) Call of the South Seas (Republic, 1944) Cobra Woman (Universal, 1944) Friendly Island (Twentieth Century Fox, 1953) Girl in Every Port, A (Fox, 1928) Hawaii Calls (RKO, 1938) Hawaiian Buckeroo (Twentieth Century Fox, 1938) Her Jungle Love (Paramount, 1938) Hula (Paramount, 1927) Hurricane, The (Paramount, 1938) Idol Dancer, The (First National, 1920) In One Life Time: A Celebration of Australian Life in the 20th Century (Centaur Pictures, 1997) Island of Lost Souls, The (Paramount, 1932) Isle of Forgotten Sins (Atlantis, 1943) Jack London in the South Seas (Martin Johnson, 1913) Jungle Princess, The (Paramount, 1936) King Kong (RKO, 1933) Loved by a Maori Chieftess (General Film Company, 1913) 238 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Maori Maid’s Love, A (Vita Film Corporation, 1916) Mister Roberts (Warner Bros., 1955) Moana of the South Seas (Famous Players Lasky, 1926) Moon and Sixpence, The (Loew and Lewin, 1942) Mr. Robinson Crusoe (Elton Productions, 1932) Mutiny on the Bounty (MGM, 1935) Nanook of the North (Les Frére Revillon, 1922) Never the Twain Shall Meet (MGM, 1931) On Our Merry Way (Benjamin Bogeaus Productions, 1948) Pardon My Sarong (Mayfair Productions/Universal, 1942) Popeye the Sailor, “Alona of the Sarong sSea ” (Paramount, 1944) Rainbow Island (Paramount, 1944) Rhythm of the Islands (Universal, 1943) Son of Fury (TCF, 1942) Song of the Islands (Twentieth Century Fox, 1941) Song of the Sarong (Universal, 1945) South of Pago Pago (United Artists, 1940) South of Tahiti (Universal, 1941) South Pacific (Twentieth Century Fox, 1958) South Seas Adventure (Stanley-Warner Cinerama, 1958) St. Lous Blues (Paramount, 1939) Star Spangled Rhythm (Paramount, 1942) Tabu (Murnau-Flaherty Productions, 1931) Target Japan (United States Navy, 1944) Tuttles of Tahiti (Sol Lesser, 1942) Two-Man Submarine (Columbia, 1944) Typhoon (Paramount, 1940) Waikiki Wedding (Paramount, 1937) White Savage (Universal, 1943) White Shadows in the South Seas (MGM, 1928) Wings Over the Pacific (Monogram, 1943)

P ublished Materials

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Archer, Jules. Jungle Fighters: A GI Correspondent’s Experiences in the New Guinea Campaign. New York: Julian Messner, 1985. Australian Army. Khaki and Green: With the Australian Army at Home and Overseas. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1943. Australian Army. Jungle Trail: An Official Publication: A Story of the Australian Soldier in New Guinea. Sydney: Department of the Army, 1944. Bailey, Beth, and David Farber. The First Strange Place: The Alchemy of Race and Sex in Worldr Wa II Hawaii. New York: Free Press, 1992. Barber, X. Theodore. “The Roots of Travel Cinema: John L. Stoddard, E. Burton Holmes, and the Nineteenth-Century Illustrated Travel Lecture.” Film History 5, (1993): 68–84. Barsam, Richard. The Vision of Robert Flaherty: The Artist as Myth and Filmmaker . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998. Becker, George J. James A. Michener . New York: Frederic Ungar Publishing, 1983. Behlmer, Rudy, ed. Memo from David O. Selznick. New York: Viking Press, 1972. Beidler, Philip D. “Mr. Roberts and American Remembering; or, Why Major Major looks like Henry Fonda.” Journal of American Studies 30, (1996): 47–64. Bennett, Judith A. Natives and Exotics: World War II and Environment in the Southern Pacific. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009. Bergerud, Eric. Touched with Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific . New York: Viking, 1996. Beros, Herbert E. The Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels and Other Verses. Sydney: F. H. Johnston, 1944. Berry, Henry. Semper Fi, Mac: Living Memories of the U.S. Marines in World War II. 1982. New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1987. Beveridge, Jean. AWAS: Women Making History. Chevron Island, Queensland: Boolarong Publications, 1988. Bikfala Faet: Olketa Solomon Aelanda rimembarem Wol Wo Tu = The Big Death: Solomon Islanders Remember rWorld Wa II. Suva: University of the South Pacific, 1988. Block, Geoffrey. The Richard Rodgers Reader. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Bourke, Joanna. An Intimate History of Killing: Face-to-Face Killing in Twentieth- Century Warfare. London: Granta Books, 1999. Bowman, Alice. Not Now Tomorrow = Ima nai ashita: Australian Civilian Nurses— Prisoners of the Japanese 1942–1945. Bangalow, N.S.W.: Daisy Press, 1996. Brawley, Sean, and Chris Dixon. “‘Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels and Brown Buddies’: An Exploration of Australian and American Perceptions of New Guinea Natives during the Pacific War.” International Journal of Historical Studies 1, (1988): 7–26. ———. “‘The Hollywood Native’: Hollywood’s Construction of the South Seas and Wartime Encounters with the South Pacific.” Sites: A Journal for South Pacific Cultural Studies 27, (1994): 15–29. 240 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Chapman, Frederick Spencer. The Jungle is Neutral. New York: W. W. Norton, 1949. Christie, Peter. “The Final Frontier?” The Local Historian 28, (1998): 54–55. Clagg, Sam E. The Marine Way . Parsons, WV: McLain Print Co., 1989. Claude, Varnell, and Barbara Young. Bushmaster . Privately published, 1990. Collins, Diane. Hollywood Down Under: Australians at the Movies, 1896 to the Present Day. Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1987. Colonna, Jerry. Who Threw That Coconut! New York: McCombs Publications, 1945. Condé, Anne-Marie. “‘The Ordeal of Adjustment’: Australian Psychiatric Casualties of the Second World War.” War and Society 15, (1997): 61–74. Converse, Elliot W., et al. The Exclusion of Black Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II. The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation’s Highest Military Decoration. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1997. Coombe, Jack D. Derailing the Tokyo Express: The Naval Battles for the Solomon Islands That Sealed Japan’s Fate. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1991. Cooze, Frank. Kiwis in the Pacific. Wellington, New Zealand: A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1945. Corkin, Frank R., Jr. Pacific Postmark: A Series of Letters from Aboard a Fighting Destroyer in the War Waters of the Pacific. Hartford, CT: Case, Lockwood, and Brainard, 1945. Costello, John. Love, Sex, and War: Changing Values, 1939–1945 . London: Collins, 1985. ———. Virtue Under Fire: How World War II Changed Our Social and Sexual Attitudes. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1985. Courtney, Susan. Hollywood Fantasies of Miscegenation: Spectacular Narratives of Gender and Race, 1903–1967. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005. Couvares, Francis G. Movie Censorship and American Culture. 2nd ed. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006. Crick, Malcolm. “Representations of International Tourism in the Social Sciences: Sun, Sex, Sights, Savings, and Servility.” Annual Review of Anthropology 18, (1989): 307–44. ———. “Tourists, Locals and Anthropologists: Quizzical Reflections on ‘Otherness’ in Tourist Encounters and in Tourism Research.” Australian Cultural History 10, (1991): 6–18. Crockett, C. Bernard. Australians, Americans, and Fuzzy Wuzzies: Christian Missions Help to Save the Pacific. Sydney: published privately, 1945. Curran, James. “‘Bonjour Paree!’: The First AIF in Paris, 1916–1918.” Journal of Australian Studies 60, (1999): 18–26. Dammann, Nancy. A WAC’s Story: From Brisbane to Manila . Sun City, AZ: Social Change Press, 1992. Damousi, Joy, and Marilyn Lake, eds. G ender and War: Australians at War in the Twentieth Century . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 242 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Darwin, Charles. The Voyage of the Beagle . 1890. Charleston, SC: Forgotten Books, 2007. Davis, Ronald L. Mary Martin: Broadway Legend. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. Dawes, Alan. Soldier Superb: The Australian Fights in New Guinea . Sydney: F. H. Johnston Publishing Company, 1943. Dean, Peter. “The Making of a General: Lost Years, Forgotten Battles: Lieutenant General Frank Berryman, 1894–1941.” PhD thesis, University of New South Wales, 2007. Debona, Guerric. “The Politics of Redeployment: Hollywood and the Literary Canon, 1934–1951 (Film, Aesthetic, Literary Adaptation).” PhD diss., Indiana University, 1996. Dening, Greg. Mr. Bligh’s Bad Language: Passion, Power, and Theater on the Bounty. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Dixon, Chris, and Sean Brawley. “‘Tan Yanks’ amid a ‘Semblance of Civilization’: African American Encounters with the South Pacific, 1942–1945.” In Through Depression and War: The United States and Australia , ed. Peter Bastian and Roger Bell, 92–109. Sydney: Australian-American Fulbright Association and the Australian New Zealand American Studies Association, 2002. Doherty, Tom. “Buna: The Red Arrow Division’s Heart of Darkness.” Wisconsin Magazine of History 77 , (1993–94): 109–38. Dornan, Peter. The Silent Men: Syria to Kokoda and on to Gona . Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1999. Douglas, Ngaire, and Norman Douglas. “P & O’s Pacific.” Journal of Tourism Studies 7, (1996): 2–14. Douglas, Norman. “They Came for Savages: A Comparative History of Tourism Development in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, 1884–1984.” PhD thesis, University of Queensland, 1994. Dower, John. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon, 1987. Downey, Bill. U ncle Sam Must Be Losing the War: Black Marine of the 51st . San Francisco: Strawberry Hill Press, 1982. Driberg, Jack H. The Savage as He Really Is . London: Routledge, 1929. Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 1903. Dunn, William J. Pacific Microphone. College Station, TX: A & M University Press, 1988. Dyja, Thomas. Walter White: The Dilemma of Black Identity in America. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2008. Edgar, Bill. Warrior of Kokoda: A Biography of Brigadier Arnold Potts. St. Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen and Unwin, 1999. Edwards, Susan E. “Photography and the Representation of the Other: A Discussion Inspired by the Work of Sebastiao Salgado.” Third Text 16/17, (1991): 157–72. Egeberg, Roger O. The General: MacArthur and the Man He Called ‘Doc.’ New York: Hippocrene Books, 1983. BIBLIOGRAPHY 243

Eisner, Lotte H. Murnau . London: Secker & Warburg, 1973. Ellery, Reg S. Psychiatric Aspects of Modern Warfare. Melbourne: Reede and Harris, 1945. Emory, Kenneth P. “Every Man His Own Robinson Crusoe.” Natural History 52, (1943): 8–15. ———. Castaway’s Baedeker to the South Seas . Honolulu: United States Navy, 1943. ———. South Seas Lore . Honolulu: The Museum, 1944. Engerman, David. “Research Agenda for the History of Tourism: Towards an International Social History.” American Studies International 32, (1994): 3–31. Fahey, James J. Pacific War Diary, 1942–1945. 1963. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992. Farber, David, and Beth Bailey. “The Fighting Man as Tourist: The Politics of Tourist Culture in Hawaii during World War II.” Pacific Historical Review 65, (1996): 641–60. Ferguson, Russell, et al., eds. Discourses: Conversations in Postmodern Art and Culture . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990. Ferro, Katarina, and Margit Wolfsberger, eds. Gender and Power in the Pacific: Women’s Strategies in a World of Change. Vienna: OSPG, 2003. Finkle, Lee. Forum for Protest: The Black Press during World War II. Canberry, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1975. Fisher, Robin, and Hugh J. M. Johnston, eds. From Maps to Metaphors: The Pacific World of George Vancouver. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1993. Flaherty, Francis Hubbard. “Setting up House and Shop in Samoa. The Struggle to Find Screen Material in the Lyric Beauty of Polynesian Life.” Asia (1925): 639–711. Fleming, E. J. Carole Landis: A Tragic Life in Hollywood . Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2005. Fordin, Hugh. Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II. New York: Ungar Publishing, 1986. Furman, Abraham L. Air Force Surgeon . New York: Sheridan House, 1943. Gardner, Jesse Henry. Beachheads and Black Widows: A South Pacific Diary . s.n, 1995. Geiger, Jeffrey. Facing the Pacific: Polynesia and the U.S. Imperial Imagination . Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, 2007. Gerster, Robin, and Peter Pierce. On the War-Path: An Anthology of Australian Military Travel . Melbourne: Melbourne University Publishing, 2004. Gordon, Bertram M. “Warfare and Tourism: Paris in World War II.” Annals of Tourism Research 25, (1998): 616–38. Gould, Carol Grant. The Remarkable Life of William Beebe: Explorer and Naturalist. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2004. Gray, Geoffrey G. A Cautious Silence: The Politics of Australian Anthropology . Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2007. Green, Anne Bosanko. One Woman’s War: Letters from the Women’s Army Corps, 1944–1946 . St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1989. 244 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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3 r d I n f a n t r y B a t t a l i o n , A u s t r a l i a n , 7 9 South Pacific, perceptions of, 127 , 1 6 t h I n f a n t r y D i v i s i o n , 5 2 1 2 8 , 1 7 7 2 3 r d I n f a n t r y D i v i s i o n vilification of, 140 , 141 see A m e r i c a l D i v i s i o n white servicemen, relations with, 2 5 t h I n f a n t r y D i v i s i o n , 5 1 , 1 1 6 1 3 8 , 1 4 0 2 6 t h I n f a n t r y B a t t a l i o n , A u s t r a l i a n , 9 1 white servicewoman, relations 5 1 s t R e g i m e n t , 1 2 7 with, 139 9 3 r d I n f a n t r y D i v i s i o n , 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 African American servicewomen see also African American white servicewomen, tensions servicemen with, 119 101 st Quartermaster Regiment, Afro-American, The Baltimore Unites States Army, 56 Pacific theatre, coverage of, 126–7 , 125th Regiment, Quartermaster’s 1 2 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 3 – 4 , 1 3 5 , S e c t i o n , 7 0 1 3 7 – 8 , 1 4 0 167 th Infantry Regiment, United All You Want to Know about New S t a t e s , 4 3 Caledonia, 8 4 200 th Field Artillery Division, 38 A l l e n , T . T . “ T o m , ” 4 1 2 2 7 t h R e g i m e n t , 7 0 Allied Geographic Section (AGS), 3 2 1 s t I n f a n t r y R e g i m e n t , 3 6 8 6 – 7 5 3 2 n d I n f a n t r y R e g i m e n t , 5 2 a l l i e d s e r v i c e m e n Islander women, sexual relations Aborigines, Australian, 135 w i t h , 7 0 – 1 , 7 5 – 6 , 7 7 , 1 2 9 – 3 0 , Act of Love, An – Ira Wolfert, 68 1 3 2 , 1 4 0 A d a i r , C h a r l e s , 8 2 s c i e n t i s t , a s , 8 , 8 8 – 9 0 , 1 7 6 A d a m s , J o s e p h Q . , 5 7 , 8 9 South Pacific, expectations of, 5 , African American servicemen 2 9 , 3 2 , 3 5 – 6 , 3 7 , 1 2 7 “civilizing” agents, represented as, S u i c i d e , 5 3 , 1 6 2 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 t o u r i s t , a s , 2 – 3 , 3 4 – 4 1 , 1 4 2 “double-consciousness” of, 125–6 allied servicewomen Islander women, perceptions of, 131 African American servicewomen, Islander women, sexual relations tensions with, 119 w i t h , 1 2 9 – 3 0 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 0 f e m a l e d e v i a n c e , a n d , 1 0 3 , 1 1 1 , racial and national identity, 1 1 6 – 1 7 t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n , 1 2 6 , 1 3 6 – 7 , 1 4 2 f r a t e r n i z a t i o n w i t h , 1 0 5 – 8 , 1 1 0 , South Pacific, expectations of, 127 1 1 1 – 1 2 , 1 1 5 – 1 6 256 INDEX allied servicewomen—Continued Bell, Harry John (Sergeant), 53 g e n d e r r o l e s , 1 0 2 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 – 1 5 , 1 2 1 B e n n e t t , J u d i t h , 6 – 7 , 6 5 , 1 9 0 h o m o s e x u a l i t y , 1 1 5 Berger, Meyer “Mike,” 151 m o r a l i t y , 1 1 6 – 1 7 , 1 1 8 Bernice B. Bishop Museum, 93 moralizing influence, as, 104 , B e r n s t e i n , M o r t o n ( L i e u t e n a n t ) , 3 7 1 1 2 , 1 2 3 B e r o s , B e r t , 6 0 novelty for servicemen, as, 103 B e v e r i d g e , J e a n , 1 1 4 – 1 5 p r e g n a n c y , 1 0 8 , 1 1 1 Beyond the Blue Horizon (1942), 127 , s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t , 1 1 3 151 South Pacific, perceptions of, Bird of Paradise ( 1 9 3 2 ) , 1 5 , 2 3 , 2 5 1 0 1 , 1 0 9 Birth of a Nation ( 1 9 1 5 ) , 1 6 , 1 7 t o u r i s t s , a s , 1 0 9 – 1 0 B l u e , M o n t e , 1 9 vulnerability of, 120–1 B o a z , F r a n k , 2 7 , 2 1 0 “women’s sphere,” challenging B o a z i a n c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n i s m , 9 6 , 9 7 boundaries of, 121–2 Boddie, William W., 141 see also f e m i n i n i t y ; W o m e n ’ s A r m y Boyle, Jean E. (Lieutenant), 139 Corps (WAC) B r e s n a h a n , J o s e p h i n e , 9 4 Aloha ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 2 2 – 3 B r i o n , I r e n e , 1 0 3 , 1 0 8 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 3 Aloha Oe ( 1 9 1 5 ) , 1 5 – 1 6 , 2 2 B r i s l i n , T o m , 2 8 Aloma of the South Seas ( 1 9 2 6 ) , 1 8 Brown, John (Master Sergeant), 33 Aloma of the South Seas (1941), 143–4 , B r o w n , J o h n M a s o n , 1 6 0 1 5 2 , 1 7 8 Brumley, David G., 54 A m e r i c a l D i v i s i o n , 3 9 , 5 1 , 5 2 , 6 9 , B u r c h e t t , W i l f r e d G . , 4 2 – 3 , 8 3 – 4 , 8 8 8 2 – 4 , 8 8 , 1 6 8 see also Pacific Treasure Island: Andrews, Ernest Stanhope “Stan,” 66 New Caledonia Arbor, Jesse W., 137 B u r g a n , J o h n , 6 8 , 9 1 , 1 1 3 Atkinson, Brooks, 158 Burke, John (Lieutenant Colonel), 71 Australian Army Education Service B u r n s , R o b e r t D . , 4 4 ( A A E S ) , 6 1 , 6 2 , 8 5 – 6 Australian servicemen and Call of the South Seas (1944), 146 servicewomen C a m p b e l l , A l f r e d S . , 4 5 , 5 8 , 9 1 see a l l i e d s e r v i c e m e n c a n n i b a l i s m , 1 4 , 2 8 , 5 8 , 6 0 , 8 4 – 6 , 9 9 , a u t h e n t i c i t y , 3 – 4 1 3 3 , 1 3 5 i n a u t h e n t i c a s a u t h e n t i c , 2 6 , 2 9 , 9 0 C a r i b b e a n , t h e , 1 6 2 , 1 7 2 A v e r y , A l a n , 4 7 Carter, Clarence (Sergeant), 132–3 Avery, Albert P. (Second Lieutenant), 117 C h a l i m a n , S a m u e l A . ( C o l o n e l ) , 4 8 Chavez, Dennis, Jr. (Lieutenant), 73 B a i l e y , B e t h , 2 , 3 5 C h e v a l i e r , A n n a , 2 0 Bain, Evan A. (Sergeant), 116 , 118 C h r i s t i e , P e t e r , 6 5 beachcomber, the c i v i l i z a t i o n v e r s u s s a v a g e r y , 1 5 , 1 9 , S o u t h S e a s t y p e , a s , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 9 , 4 9 , 2 2 , 3 1 , 3 5 , 4 5 , 4 9 , 5 1 – 2 , 5 6 – 6 0 , 5 5 , 9 0 , 1 4 9 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 4 , 8 6 , 8 9 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 1 0 4 , see also d e g e n e r a t i o n 1 1 2 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 5 – 6 , 1 4 2 , B e e b e , C h a r l e s W i l l i a m , 1 3 – 1 5 , 2 8 – 9 , 1 4 6 , 1 5 0 , 1 7 3 8 9 , 1 5 5 C l a g g , S a m E . , 5 4 , 9 0 Bell, Edward H., 168 C l a r k , E d m u n d , 4 3 INDEX 257

Clark, Elmer (Corporal), 98 D r e i e r , K a r l M . , 4 0 , 5 2 , 9 0 C l a r k , M a m o , 2 5 Driscoll, Joseph, 137 Cobra Woman (1944), 145–6 , 147 , 149 Du Bois, W(illiam) E(dward) C o l e , R e m s o n J . ( M a j o r ) , 7 0 B ( u r g h a r d t ) , 1 2 5 – 6 c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t y , 9 , 6 1 – 2 , 1 3 9 c o l o n i a l i g n o r a n c e , 8 1 , 8 3 E d m u n d s o n , D a r w i n , 3 3 , 3 4 , 5 0 , c o l o n i z a t i o n , 1 6 , 4 9 , 5 9 , 6 6 , 7 5 , 8 7 , 5 2 , 7 2 9 6 , 1 3 6 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 8 , 1 7 3 Egeberg, Roger (Doctor), 75–6 Corkin, Frank R. “Corky” (Ensign), E i c h e l b e r g e r , R o b e r t ( G e n e r a l ) , 4 3 , 4 8 1 , 2 , 1 1 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 6 0 , 6 7 , 6 9 , 7 8 – 9 , Eisenhower, Dwight D. (General), 161 8 2 – 3 , 6 9 Elbert, Samuel H. (Lieutenant), 70 c o m b a t f a t i g u e , 4 8 , 9 4 E p p e i s o n , J i m , 5 1 see also Guadalcanal Neurosis Estelle, Lamont, 132 C r i c k , M a l c o l m , 3 – 4 Crosby, Bing, 52 , 144 F a h e y , J a m e s , 1 0 2 c r u i s e s h i p s , 3 3 – 6 , 5 0 , 9 8 , 1 9 0 F a r b e r , D a v i d , 2 , 3 5 Crustan, Edna, 107 F a r r e l l , J . W . ( C a p t a i n ) , 1 0 C u p p , J a m e s , 3 6 femininity C u r r a n , J a m e s , 2 a l l i e d s e r v i c e w o m e n , a n d , 8 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 4 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 4 – 1 5 , 1 1 7 , D a m m a n , N a n c y , 1 0 8 , 1 1 6 1 2 1 , 1 7 7 Damousi, Joy, 102 F i j i , 3 9 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 5 9 , 6 6 , 7 0 , 7 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 1 0 , Davenport, William H., 128 1 2 2 , 1 7 3 D a w e s , A l a n , 5 0 F i j i a n s , 4 4 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 7 4 , 8 6 , 9 1 , 1 3 4 Dawson, Archie, 130 s e x u a l m o r a l i t y i n , 6 6 , 7 6 D e a n , M o n a , 1 3 1 – 2 1 South Seas image, congruous with, D e e , C o l l e e n , 1 0 3 , 1 1 0 7 0 , 7 4 , 1 1 0 , 1 7 6 d e g e n e r a t i o n , 1 5 , 4 9 , 1 1 3 F i l i p i n o w o m e n , 1 3 0 – 1 , 1 4 0 D e l R i o , D o l o r e s , 2 3 , 2 5 , 1 4 7 F l a h e r t y , R o b e r t J . , 1 7 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 , D e n i n g , G r e g , 2 4 2 2 , 2 5 D e r m o t t , R o b e r t J . , 1 0 , 3 2 , 4 0 F l e t c h e r , C o l i n , 7 9 disjunction between reality and Ford, Ruth, 115 representation F r a s e r , C h a r l e s , 3 , 6 8 – 9 Dorothy Lamour versus South Pacific F u n a f u t i , 1 2 7 , 1 3 6 I s l a n d e r W o m a n , 7 , 7 1 – 3 , 7 9 f u z z y - w u z z i e s , 4 4 , 8 9 , 1 0 9 , 1 2 0 South Seas versus South Pacific, xv , Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels, 60–2 7 , 1 1 – 1 2 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 5 4 , 8 8 , 1 5 7 see also Dorothy Lamour G a d e l , D a v i d , 7 4 syndrome Garrison, Ritchie (Lieutenant D i x o n , T r a v i s , 5 3 C o l o n e l ) , 3 4 , 8 2 Dorothy Lamour syndrome, 47 , Garvey, Marcus, 125 4 9 – 5 0 , 6 7 , 1 7 6 Gerger, Roy S. (Major General), 67 see also disjunction between reality G e r t s e r , R o b i n , 2 , 3 and representation ; Lamour, G i b b o n , W i l l i a m , 3 7 – 8 , 4 2 Dorothy Girl in Every Port, A ( 1 9 2 8 ) , 9 2 Downey, Bill, 127 , 136 Goodheart, Winnie K., 108 258 INDEX

Gordon, Bertram M., 2 Henniger, James M., 90 G r a c e , S i r J o h n ( A d m i r a l ) , 3 9 Herring, E. F. (Lieutenant General), d e G r a f f , G e o r g e ( C o l o n e l ) , 5 2 126 grass skirt H i c k e r s o n , H o w a r d , 1 3 9 , 2 1 8 s e x u a l a p p e a l , o f , 7 4 , 7 7 , 7 9 , 1 1 9 – 2 0 , see also 9 3 r d I n f a n t r y D i v i s i o n 130–1 H i e r y , H e r m a n J . , 6 5 S o u t h S e a s s i g n i f i e r , a s , 2 3 , 4 0 , 5 4 , Holt, R. D. (Sergeant), 117 6 4 , 6 9 , 7 1 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 7 , 9 1 , 9 3 , H o o p e r , A l a n E . ( L i e u t e n a n t ) , 3 9 , 4 5 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 2 , 1 3 0 – 1 6 7 , 8 1 s o u v e n i r , a s , 9 0 – 1 , 1 1 9 – 2 0 , 1 6 6 , 2 1 6 H o p e , B o b , 3 6 , 6 3 , 7 1 Greasso, Luiji J. (Corporal), 91 H o p t o n , P e t e r , 1 , 2 , 4 0 Green, Walter, 140 H o v o r k o , E d w a r d ( P r i v a t e ) , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 G r e e n e , R a y , 2 1 – 2 H o w a r d , L e s l e y , 2 2 Gregg, John A. (Bishop), 131 Hurricane, The ( 1 9 3 8 ) , 2 5 , 2 6 – 7 , 4 9 , Griffith, David Llewelyn Wark 5 9 , 1 4 4 “ D . W . , ” 1 6 G r i f f i t h , J o s e p h H . ( M a j o r ) , 3 9 , 5 3 , Idol Dancer, The ( 1 9 2 0 ) , 1 6 7 0 , 1 1 9 I n c e , T h o m a s , 1 5 , 1 6 , 2 2 G r i f f i t h s , A l l i s o n , 1 4 indigenous population G r i s w o l d , O . W . ( G e n e r a l ) , 3 9 , 4 9 C h r i s t i a n i z a t i o n o f , 5 8 – 9 , 8 6 , G r o v e s , W . C . ( M a j o r ) , 8 6 , 8 7 1 3 5 , 1 5 7 G u a d a l c a n a l , 3 8 , 4 5 , 5 8 , 7 2 , 7 5 , 9 1 , i g n o b l e s a v a g e s , a s , 5 8 , 6 8 , 8 5 9 4 , 1 3 4 , 1 7 8 infantilization of, 58 , 142 i n h o s p i t a b l e , a s , 5 1 – 2 , 5 3 , 5 6 – 7 , n o b l e s a v a g e s , a s , 5 8 , 6 0 – 1 , 6 2 , 1 6 3 – 4 6 8 , 8 5 G u a d a l c a n a l N e u r o s i s , 4 8 s e r v i c e m e n ’ s e n c o u n t e r s w i t h , 5 7 see also combat fatigue tourist attractions, as, 44 G u a m , 1 3 7 , 1 4 0 Western culture as detrimental to, G u a r e n t i , A r t h u r ( S e r g e a n t ) , 6 9 , 8 3 5 9 – 6 0 , 6 1 see also Melanesian women; H a c k e t t , A l a n F r a n c i s ( P r i v a t e ) , 5 7 P o l y n e s i a n w o m e n ; S o u t h H a l l , J a m e s N o r m a n , 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 1 , 3 2 Pacific masculinity H a l l , J o n , 2 6 , 4 2 , 1 4 7 i n t e r r a c i a l s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s , 1 5 , 1 6 , H a r a , M i n o r u , 5 3 1 7 , 1 8 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 6 5 , 6 8 , 1 1 8 Harris, Edward G., 41 d a n g e r s o f , 2 2 , 2 3 H a w a i i , 2 , 3 1 d i f f i c u l t i e s i n e x a m i n i n g , 7 5 H a w a i i a n w o m e n , 1 6 , 1 4 4 r a c i a l b o u n d a r i e s , 8 5 , 1 7 6 S o u t h S e a s s i t e , a s , 3 5 , 7 9 , 9 0 , 9 5 , see also African American 1 4 6 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 8 s e r v i c e m e n ; a l l i e d s e r v i c e m e n ; H a w k s , H o w a r d , 9 2 m i s c e g e n a t i o n H e a d , E d i t h , 2 6 Isle of Forgotten Sins (1943), 148 H e g g e n , T h o m a s see Mister Roberts Jack London and the South Seas H e m e r y , J o h n P e t e r , 7 7 ( 1 9 1 3 ) , 1 7 Henne, Charles A. (Second J a c k s o n , D o n a l d , 5 7 L i e u t e n a n t ) , 7 6 J o h n s o n , B i l l , 3 8 INDEX 259

J o h n s o n , L y n d o n B a i n e s , 3 4 , 3 9 M a c k e n z i e , J o h n , 6 5 J o h n s o n , M a r t i n , 1 7 M a d g e w i c k , R . B . ( C o l o n e l ) , 8 6 J o h n s o n , R o e , L . , 7 2 M a l i n o w s k i , B r o n i s l a w , 1 4 , 1 7 , 7 8 , 8 9 J o l l y , M a r g a r e t , 6 5 M a n c h e s t e r , W i l l i a m , 6 9 Mann, Glenn K.S., 5 , 7 K a h n , E . J . J r . , 6 0 , 7 2 , 8 1 Marbrey, Nolan V., 69 K e a r n s , R i c h a r d , 5 7 , 6 6 , 7 4 – 5 , 8 9 M a r k e y , E n i d , 1 6 K e n n e d y , B i l l , 3 8 , 5 1 Marshall, Brenda, 147 K e n n e d y , J o h n F i t z g e r a l d , 3 2 , 3 4 , Marshall, George, 158 4 0 , 5 1 , 6 1 Marshall, Richard J. (Major General), 40 Kettle, Velma D. (Lieutenant), 109 M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s , 3 7 , 8 9 K l i s t o n , T h e o d o r e ( P r i v a t e ) , 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 Martin, Fletcher P., 132 K o k o d a T r a i l , 1 , 6 0 – 2 M a r t i n , O l g a , 2 7 M a r t i n s e n , L e s , 7 0 L a k e , M a r i l y n , 1 0 2 M e a d , M a r g a r e t , 1 4 , 1 7 , 2 7 , 8 6 , 8 9 , 1 0 5 , L a m a n g n a , S a l v a t o r e , 3 2 1 3 9 , 2 1 8 Lamour, Dorothy M e e k s , V a u g h n B . , 4 2 , 5 8 life and death of, xiii, xiv “Meet the Marshalls,” 94 pinup girl, as, 150–1 M e l a n e s i a , 6 4 , 6 5 , 6 6 , 7 0 , 7 1 , 8 5 , 1 6 0 s a r o n g , a n d , x i i i , 7 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 2 9 , 6 9 , s e x u a l v a c u u m , a s , 7 – 8 , 9 , 6 3 , 6 8 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 1 – 2 , 1 5 3 , 7 5 , 7 9 , 1 0 2 , 1 6 4 1 5 4 , 1 7 7 , 1 7 9 Melanesian women sexualisation of, 122 , 131 a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f , 7 2 – 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 7 5 South Seas symbol, as, xiii-iv , 5 , i n v i s i b i l i t y o f , 8 , 6 6 , 7 3 – 4 , 1 6 5 2 5 , 4 2 , 4 4 , 7 1 , 1 2 7 , 1 5 0 Polynesian women, contrasted w a r t i m e s e r v i c e , 1 5 1 w i t h , 8 5 , 1 2 9 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 5 Lasky, Jesse L., 17–18 sexual relationships with, 78–9 , Leatherneck , 3 2 , 9 2 1 1 9 , 1 2 9 – 3 0 , 1 6 6 L e c k y , E d m u n d C . “ T e d ” ( M a j o r ) , 4 1 South Seas type, incongruous with, L e e , W a l t e r , 5 1 1 6 4 – 5 , 1 7 5 L e v i n , D a n , 3 3 , 3 7 Melanesians Life Magazine P o l y n e s i a n s , c o n t r a s t e d w i t h , 6 2 , South Pacific theatre, coverage of, 7 1 , 8 5 , 8 9 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 8 , 1 6 0 5 4 – 5 , 5 6 , 9 4 , 1 5 0 South Seas type, incongruous with, L i n d e r m a n , G e r a l d , 6 4 7 , 8 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 6 5 , 7 2 , 1 2 8 , L i n d s t r o m , L a m o n t , 6 , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9 , 1 6 4 – 5 , 1 7 5 1 5 6 , 1 6 0 M é l i è s , G a s t o n , 1 5 Lisle, Debbie, 2 , 3 M e l v i l l e , H e r m a n , 1 5 , 1 9 , 3 2 , 5 9 , 7 1 , Lodge, J. Norman, 140 1 5 7 , 1 6 7 , 1 6 8 L o g a n , J o s h u a , 1 6 0 , 1 6 1 – 2 , 1 6 9 – 7 0 , Meyer, Leisa D., 102 , 103 , 105 , 116 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 – 3 , 1 7 4 M i c h e n e r , J a m e s A . , 9 , 6 9 , 1 1 3 – 1 4 , L o n d o n , J a c k , 1 7 , 3 2 , 9 2 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 2 – 7 4 , Lost Island , 3 1 – 2 , 3 6 1 7 7 , 1 7 8 see also South Pacific ( f i l m ) ; Tales of M a c A r t h u r , D o u g l a s ( G e n e r a l ) , 7 5 the South Pacific MacCannell, Dean, 4 m i l i t a r y c e n s o r s h i p , 1 0 – 1 1 , 4 3 , 5 5 260 INDEX

military education National Geographic m a g a z i n e , 1 4 , 2 1 , black press, use of, 127–8 8 2 , 8 9 , 1 8 6 – 7 l a c k o f o f f i c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n , 8 5 N a u m e a n , E . ( S t a f f S e r g e a n t ) , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 mass-produced education Never the Twain Shall Meet ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 2 2 m a t e r i a l s , 8 2 , 8 6 N e w C a l e d o n i a , 3 , 1 1 , 3 8 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 4 , 5 3 , South Seas tradition, challenging 5 4 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 7 6 , 8 3 – 5 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 5 , o f , 9 5 – 6 , 9 7 – 9 , 1 7 6 1 0 2 , 1 0 9 , 1 3 2 , 1 4 0 – 1 South Seas tradition, reinforcing N e w G u i n e a , x i v , 1 , 7 , 1 1 , 3 7 – 4 3 , 4 4 , o f , 8 6 , 8 8 4 7 – 8 , 5 0 , 5 1 – 2 , 5 3 , 5 5 – 6 , 6 2 , 6 7 , 7 6 , Miller, Frank D., 72 8 1 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 9 1 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 9 , 1 3 3 M i l l e r , H e n r y S . ( C a p t a i n ) , 7 5 h e a d h u n t e r s , 1 3 3 Minier, Lee N., 53 n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n , 4 4 , 5 7 , 5 9 , 6 1 , 6 0 , m i s c e g e n a t i o n , 1 6 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 6 7 , 6 8 , 8 7 , 8 9 – 9 0 , 1 2 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 0 , 1 4 1 , 1 6 5 1 3 1 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , 1 3 8 see also African American w o m e n , x i v , 7 2 – 5 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 7 9 , 1 3 2 s e r v i c e m e n ; a l l i e d s e r v i c e m e n ; see also Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels; interracial sexual relations M e l a n e s i a ; M e l a n e s i a n w o m e n Mister Roberts , 9 , 1 1 1 , 1 5 8 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 3 N e w H e b r i d e s , 3 8 , 7 4 , 8 2 , 8 4 – 5 , 1 3 8 as subversion of South Seas genre, New Zealand Air Force, 103 1 5 8 – 6 1 , 1 6 2 Newton, Adolph, 130–1 Moana of the South Seas (1926), 17–18 N o o n a n , R a l p h ( M a j o r ) , 1 1 , 3 7 , 2 8 , 4 1 , M o n t e n e g r o , C o n c h i t a , 2 2 4 2 , 4 4 , 5 2 – 3 , 5 4 , 8 3 , 8 5 M o n t e z , M a r i a , 1 4 7 N o r d h o f f , C h a r l e s , 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 1 – 2 Moon and Sixpence, The (1942), 146 M o o r e , A a r o n , 1 1 O ’ B r i e n , F r e d e r i c k , 1 6 – 1 8 , 3 2 , 5 9 , 9 2 , M o o r e , H o w a r d , 5 8 9 8 , 1 0 9 M o o r e , M e r r i l l ( M a j o r ) , 9 0 s e e a l s o White Shadows in the South M o o r e , P e t e r , 1 6 8 Seas Morris, Basil M. (Major General), 120 O ’ B r i e n , P a t r i c i a ( P a t t y ) , 7 , 9 , 6 5 m o t i o n p i c t u r e s Olsen, Bill “Scoop” (William Robert p e d a g o g i c a l p o w e r o f , 4 – 5 , 6 , 7 , 1 4 , H e n r y ) , 4 2 , 5 1 2 1 , 2 8 , 3 2 , 3 5 , 4 3 – 4 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 8 o r i e n t a l i s m , 3 , 1 7 8 South Seas, evolving see also Said, Edward representations of, 6 , 13–28 , O s b o r n , H e n r y F a i r f i e l d , J r . , 1 3 1 4 3 , 1 4 5 – 6 O t h e r , t h e , 3 , 1 6 , 4 9 see also p r o d u c t i o n c o d e ; S o u t h see also orientalism Seas cinematic genre Ovalle, Priscilla Peña, 19 Mr Robinson Crusoe ( 1 9 3 2 ) , 2 3 M u r n a u , F ( r i e d r i c h ) W ( i l h e l m ) , 2 0 – 1 Pacific Treasure Island: New M u n s o n , W a l t , 9 2 Caledonia, 8 3 – 4 , 8 5 Mutiny on the Bount y , 2 4 – 5 , 4 9 , 1 6 1 P a c i f i c W a r c o m b a t n a r r a t i v e , 9 4 , 9 8 , 1 6 4 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 8 – 9 Naipaul, V.S., 4–5 palm trees National Association for the a r t i f i c e , a s , 9 3 Advancement of Colored People S o u t h S e a s s i g n i f i e r , a s , 3 7 , 5 1 , 5 4 , ( N A A C P ) , 1 4 0 6 6 , 7 7 , 9 1 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 0 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 4 INDEX 261

Pardon My Sarong ( 1 9 4 2 ) , 2 2 , 1 4 6 , 1 4 8 Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), Parry-Okeden, William N. 1 , 3 4 , 4 0 , 9 7 (Lieutenant Colonel), 41 Rubb, Douglas, C., 60 P e a r l H a r b o r , 3 2 , 3 6 , 4 2 , 8 1 , 9 6 , 1 4 7 , Ruff, William L., 52 148 P e l l e t i e r , A n g e l ( P r i v a t e ) , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 S a i d , E d w a r d , 3 , 4 9 Perdue, W. L. (Sergeant), 117 see also orientalism ; Other, the v o n P e t r , O t t o ( P r i v a t e ) , 5 9 S a m o a , 1 7 , 2 0 , 3 9 , 4 3 , 5 3 – 4 , 6 6 , 7 0 – 1 , P h i l i p p i n e s , 7 3 , 1 2 5 , 1 3 0 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 8 9 2 , 1 6 5 P i e r c e , P e t e r , 2 , 3 S a m u e l s o n , H y m a n ( C a p t a i n ) , 1 1 , Plank, D(erek) L. (Sergeant), 72 7 4 – 5 , 1 0 2 Pocket Guide to… (United States Army S a n b e r g , W a l t e r F . ( S t a f f S e r g e a n t ) , 1 1 s e r i e s ) , 8 8, 9 5 – 6, 9 7, 9 8, 1 0 9 Santa Cruz Islands (Solomon Islands), Polynesia 128 South Seas image, congruous with, s a r o n g 4 9 , 6 2 , 7 1 , 1 2 7 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 5 S o u t h S e a s s i g n i f i e r , a s , x i i i , 7 , 2 6 , Polynesian women 2 7 , 2 9 , 7 2 , 7 7 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 1 5 0 r a c i a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f , 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 2 – 3 , S a v i l l e , G o r d o n , 7 7 2 7 , 8 5 , 9 7 Schneider, Leslie C. (Private), 3 S o u t h S e a s t y p e , a s , 1 6 , 2 0 , 6 7 , S c h r i j v e r s , P e t e r , 1 , 6 , 7 , 6 4 7 1 , 7 4 , 1 6 5 s c i e n t i s t s ’ g a z e , 8 , 5 0 , 8 8 , 8 9 – 9 0 , 1 7 6 P o t t s , A r n o l d ( B r i g a d i e r ) , 3 9 S c o t t , E l l e n C h r i s t i n e , 2 8 P o u l t o n , J a c k , 4 1 S e l z n i c k , D a v i d O . , 1 8 , 2 3 p r o d u c t i o n c o d e , 7 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 3 – 4 , Serier, Thomas E., 39 2 5 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 1 4 7 s e x i n d u s t r y , 6 6 , 6 8 , 7 1 , 1 1 7 – 1 8 Production Code Administration sexual-vacuum counternarrative, 8 , ( P C A ) , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 1 4 7 9 , 9 4 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 5 , 1 3 1 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 4 , 1 6 6 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 8 – 9 r a c i a l i n - b e t w e e n e s s , 1 9 , 2 3 cinematic challenges to, 145–8 L a t i n a a c t r e s s e s , c a s t i n g o f , 1 9 , 2 2 , 2 3 Pacific theatre as sexual vacuum, Rainbow Island ( 1 9 4 4 ) , 9 , 1 4 5 , 6 3 – 7 9 1 5 2 – 5 , 1 7 7 S h a n k m a n , P a u l , 6 5 Rhythm of the Islands (1943), 148 S h e a r e r , D a v e ( D a v i d ) , 4 4 R i c h a r d s , E l i z a b e t h , 2 Shelby, R. S. (Lieutenant), 57 R o b e r t s , E . P . S . “ E d w i n , ” 3 8 , 5 8 S h u p e , S a v i l l e , 9 8 R o b e r t s o n , L e s l i e F . ( P r i v a t e ) , 7 2 S i n c l a i r , A . J . M . ( M a j o r ) , 4 8 , 5 0 Robinett, Oliver Eugene (Captain), S l o t k i n , R i c h a r d , 6 3 3 , 3 4 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 1 0 7 – 8 , 1 1 2 Smey, Lois E. (Corporal), 101 Robinson, Bruce (Medical Officer), s o c i a l r e a l i t y , 3 4 7 , 6 6 , 7 6 , 8 9 S o l l e r , G e r a l d ( P r i v a t e ) , 5 3 Robinson Crusoe , 1 4 , 9 3 S o l o m o n I s l a n d s , 4 8 , 5 0 , 5 4 , 5 7 , 6 6 , 6 8 , R o b s o n , R . W . , 6 2 , 7 3 , 8 6 8 2 – 3 , 8 8 – 9 , 9 6 , 1 0 2 – 3 , 1 0 7 , 1 2 8 , R o o s e v e l t , E l e a n o r , 1 1 2 , 1 2 2 1 3 4 , 1 3 8 , 1 6 7 , 1 7 9 Ross, J. C. (Lieutenant), 40 S o l o m o n I s l a n d e r w o m e n , 6 8 , 7 1 R o t h s c h i l d , D a v i d , 5 0 , 5 2 S o l o m o n I s l a n d e r s , 5 7 , 7 1 , 9 1 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 8 Royal Air Force (RAF), 150 see also Melanesia 262 INDEX

Son of Fury , 146 , 147 Strejan, Frank E. (Private), 117 Song of the Islands, 145 , 148 S t r o m b e r g , H u n t , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 1 Song of the Sarong , 1 4 6 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 8 S t u r m a , M i c h a e l , 7 , 9 , 2 4 , 6 5 South of Tahiti , 146 , 147 S t y l e s , E d w i n , 5 5 South Pacific (Rodgers and Swanke, G.F. (Lieutenant), 57 Hammerstein stage and film S y k e s , J o s e p h , 6 9 m u s i c a l ) , 3 8 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 9 – 7 3 S o u t h P a c i f i c m a s c u l i n i t y , 2 0 , 2 6 , Tabu ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 2 0 – 2 2 8 , 2 9 , 8 6 T a h i t i , 1 8 , 1 9 – 2 0 , 2 1 , 3 1 , 3 8 , 6 9 , 7 0 – 1 “black sexuality” as dangerous, 120 T a h i t i a n w o m e n , 2 4 – 5 , 1 6 0 s a v a g e m a l e I s l a n d e r s , 1 2 8 Tales of the South Pacific , 9 , 1 1 3 , 1 4 3 , S o u t h S e a s 1 6 4 – 9 , 1 7 7 – 8 attempts to recreate in the South themes of, 164–5 P a c i f i c , 9 1 see also South Pacific ( f i l m ) remedy to over-civilization, as, 19 Tanambogo (Solomon Islands), 57 s e x u a l i s e d , 6 5 , 9 9 , 1 0 5 , 1 1 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 6 Tarsia, Richard (Sergeant), 114 t o u r i s m a s s e n s u a l , 3 7 T a y l o r , Z a c h a r y , 9 8 , 9 9 t r o p i c a l p a r a d i s e , a s , 4 – 5 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 3 , T h a l b e r g , I r v i n g , 1 8 3 7 – 9 , 8 4 T h o m p s o n , A r t h u r I . ( C a p t a i n ) , 7 6 , 1 4 1 see also disjunction between reality T o l b e r t , F r a n k , 6 9 and representation T o m l i n s o n , G e o r g e E . , 5 1 , 5 8 S o u t h S e a s c i n e m a t i c g e n r e , 5 , 9 , 2 1 – 9 , T o r r e s , R a q u e l , 1 9 , 2 2 1 4 3 – 5 5 t o u r i s m box office success, of, 28 s o u v e n i r s , 2 , 9 0 , 1 5 9 c r i t i c i s m o f , 2 7 – 8 , 1 4 3 – 4 , 1 4 8 – 9 s t u d i e s , 2 – 3 e d u c a t i o n , a s , 2 7 w a r t i m e , 2 – 7 , 3 1 – 4 7 e v o l u t i o n o f , 1 4 – 1 6 , 1 9 , 1 4 3 – 5 t o u r i s t s ’ g a z e , 2 , 3 2 , 4 0 South Seas tradition Traill, A. J. (Sergeant), 66 favourability of Polynesia over T r a t t e n , D a v i d ( C h a p l a i n ) , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 1 , 7 6 M e l a n e s i a , 8 5 , 1 6 5 , 1 7 1 T r e a d w e l l , M a t t i e , 1 1 1 , 1 1 3 s e x u a l i s e d n a t u r e o f , 7 , 6 3 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 T r o b r i a n d I s l a n d s , 5 5 , 7 7 wartime reinforcement of, 145–8 Trobrianders, sexualisation of, 77–8 wartimes challenge to South Sea t r o p i c a l n e u r a s t h e n i a , 4 9 t r a d i t i o n , 1 5 7 , 1 7 5 T u b b s , V i n c e n t , 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 5 , see also Lamour, Dorothy ; motion 1 3 8 pictures ; South Seas cinematic s ee also Afro-American, The genre ; South Seas woman, the Tuttles of Tahiti (1942), 146 , 148 South Seas woman, the, xv Two Per Cent Fear , 6 8 , 9 1 r e p r e s e n t e d v i a c o s t u m i n g , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 9 see also Burgan, John s e x u a l i s a t i o n o f , 7 , 8 , 1 7 , 2 2 , 2 8 , Two-Man Submarine (1944), 149 2 9 , 6 9 – 7 0 , 7 4 , 9 1 Typee , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 9 see also Lamour, Dorothy S t a n t o n , E d d i e A l l a n , 7 8 United Service Organization (USO), S t e e d , I r a R e a d e r ( S t a f f S e r g e a n t ) , 7 0 6 3 , 1 2 2 , 1 3 0 S t e v e n s o n , R o b e r t L o u i s , 1 4 , 3 2 , 3 7 , 4 3 , U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v y 5 9 , 8 4 , 9 2 , 1 6 8 perpetuation of the South Seas S t i r l i n g , W . M . “ M a t t h e w , ” 9 7 t r a d i t i o n , 9 2 – 4 INDEX 263

United States servicemen and White, Geoffrey M., 6 , 139 servicewomen W h i t e , O s m a r , 6 , 1 3 9 see a l l i e d s e r v i c e m e n W h i t e , R i c h a r d , 2 United States Women’s Army Corps W h i t e , W a l t e r , 1 2 5 , 1 3 6 – 7 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 2 see Women’s Army Corps (WAC) White Savage ( 1 9 4 3 ) , 1 4 5 , 1 4 6 , 1 4 7 , USS Alabama , 9 3 1 4 8 , 1 4 9 USS Montpelier , 102 White Shadows in the South Seas (1919 n o v e l ) , 1 6 , 1 8 , 5 9 , 1 0 9 Van Dyke, W(oodbridge) S(trong), 18 White Shadows in the South Seas V a n d e r b e e , R a l p h . , 8 3 ( 1 9 2 8 f i l m ) , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 5 9 Vandercock, Jack, 138 W i e l a n d , J a m e s , 2 V a s e y , R u t h , 2 8 W i l s o n , M a r y , 9 0 V e i t c h , H e n r y C h a r l e s , 4 5 , 8 9 , 1 0 2 W i l s o n , R o b , 1 7 4 v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e , 7 5 – 6 , 1 1 2 , 1 4 1 W i l s o n , S l o a n , 9 8 V e r a , F e r n a n d o , 9 1 Wings over the Pacific ( 1 9 4 3 ) , 1 4 9 – 5 0 V i b e r t , L u c i e n , 8 4 – 5 W o m e n ’ s A r m y C o r p s ( W A C ) , 1 0 1 , Vidal, Gore, 4 1 0 3 , 1 0 5 , 1 0 6 – 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 , Viola, Lawrence E. (Captain), 121 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 6 – 1 7 , 1 1 8 , 1 3 9 Vouza, Jacob (Sergeant Major), 134–5 see also allied servicewomen

W a l m s b y , C h a r l e s , 3 9 You and the Native, 8 6 , 8 7 – 8 , 9 5 , 9 6 Wanaka , 3 4 Wayman, Martha A. (Lieutenant), 37 , Z e l e n i e t z , M a r t y , 5 4 1 , 5 5 , 9 1 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 2 0 Z i m m e r , J o s e p h ( C o l o n e l ) , 5 2 , 5 3 , Weise, Selene, H. C., 101 , 103 , 106–7 , 7 1 , 7 2 1 0 9 – 1 0 , 1 1 4 Z i n o , B a r t , 2