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Daily Life and Demographics in Ancient Japan Michigan Monograph Series in Japanese Studies Number 63

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Daily Life and Demographics in Ancient Japan Michigan Monograph Series in Japanese Studies Number 63 Daily Life and Demographics in Ancient Japan Michigan Monograph Series in Japanese Studies Number 63 Center for Japanese Studies The University of Michigan Daily Life and Demographics in Ancient Japan William Wayne Farris Center for Japanese Studies The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, 2009 Open access edition funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities/ Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Humanities Open Book Program. Copyright © 2009 by The Regents of the University of Michigan Published by the Center for Japanese Studies, The University of Michigan 1007 E.Huron St. Ann Arbor, MI 48104-1690 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Farris, William Wayne. Daily life and demographics in ancient Japan / William Wayne Farris. p. cm. — (Michigan monograph series in Japanese studies ; no. 63) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-929280-49-0 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-929280-50-6 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Japan—Population—History. 2. Japan—Social conditions—To 1600. I. Title. II. Series. HB3651.F368 2009 95Z.01—dc22 2008044108 This book was set in Palatino Macron. Kanji set in Hiragino Mincho Pro W3. This publication meets the ANSI/NISO Standards for Permanence of Paper for Publications and Documents in Libraries and Archives (Z39.48—1992). ISBN 978-1-929280-49-0 (hardcover) PrinteISBNd in th978-1-929280-50-6e United States of (paper)America ISBN 978-0-472-12800-6 (ebook) ISBN 978-0-472-90196-8 (open access) The text of this book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ To Chong-mi CONTENTS List of Illustrations viii List of Tables ix Acknowledgments x Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Population Estimates , 700-1150 16 Chapter 2: Mortality Variables 38 Chapter 3: Background Factors 66 Conclusion 101 Appendix: A Brief Discussion of the Sources Wamyo sho and Shugai sho 107 Character List 112 Bibliography 114 Index 129 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. Wooden human figures. From Kaneko Hiroyuki, ed., Ritsuryo ki saishi ibutsu shusei, 9-12. 43 Figure 2. Pots with human faces. From Kaneko Hiroyuki, ed., Ritsuryo ki saishi ibutsu shusei, 92-93. 44 Figure 3. Clay horses. From Kaneko Hiroyuki, ed., Ritsuryo ki saishi ibutsu shusei, 130-31. 45 Figure 4. Model ovens. 46 Figure 5. Harness gear for oxen. From Kono Michiaki, Nihon noko gu shi no kisoteki kenkyu, 265. 68 vm TABLES Table 1. Pre-1945 Population Estimates for 589-1155. 3 Table 2A. Kito's Archipelago-wide* Estimates, 7,500 BCE-1150 (1983 version). 8 Table 2B. Kito's Estimates for Archipelago-wide* Population, 8100 BP-1150 (2000 version). 9 Table 3. Vital Statistics for Four Early Japanese Populations. 11 Table 4. Population (A), Administrative Villages (B), and Arable Land (C) by Province in Japan, 820-927, according to Sawada. 32-34 Table 5. Population by Province, Early Ninth, Tenth, and Mid-Twelfth Centuries. 34-36 Table 6. Regional Demographic Variations, 820-1150. 37 Table 7. Famine Records, 670-1100. 53 Table 8. Famine Years, Their Extent and Causes, 1100-1150. 53 Table 9. Climatological Trends, 700-1200. 55 Appendix Table. Arable Totals for Japan's Provinces. 109-11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work came about as a necessary preliminary task to writing a book about Japanese medieval population. After completing the first installment of my research almost twenty years ago in Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645-900,1 continued to collect data and interpretations bolster- ing my previous contentions. Since plunging into the writing of what even- tually became Japan's Medieval Population: Famine, Fertility, and Warfare in a Transformative Age, the pace and scope of work on ancient demography both in Japan and the United States has picked up speed. I would like to thank the Japan-U.S. Educational/Fulbright Commis- sion and the Social Science Research Council for funding a year-long stay at Tokyo University in 1999. Special gratitude goes to professors Murai Sho- suke and Sato Makoto and the Scholars for a New Ancient History based in Tokyo. Thanks also go to Professor Tomobe Ken'ichi for sponsoring my visiting professorships at Keio University in 2000 and 2003 and to Professor Hongo Kazuto for supporting my application to use the world-class facili- ties of Tokyo University's Historiographical Institute in 2001. The Northeast Asia Council of the Association for Asian Studies and the University of Ten- nessee provided financial support in that year. I especially appreciated the chance to talk to numerous scholars, including Kuroda Hideo, Amino Yo- shihiko, Ishii Susumu, Tamura Noriyoshi, Kito Hiroshi, and Saito Osamu. I feel the deepest gratitude to Han Chong-mi, a Ph.D. candidate at Tokyo University's Division of Comparative Literature, who assisted this project in ways so diverse I cannot list them all. Any mistakes, of course, are the responsibility of the author. INTRODUCTION Scholars have devoted considerable time and attention to the study of pop- ulation in the ancient era (here defined as terminating in 1150 CE). Meiji scholar Yokoyama Yoshikiyo (1826-79) was probably the first, but he was eventually followed by the doyen of ancient demographic and quantitative history, Sawada Goichi (1861-1931), whose remarkable Quantitative Research on Economics and Administration During the Nara Period still defines research three-quarters of a century later.1 Kito Hiroshi, a demographer of the Edo period, has stimulated recent interest with two monographs, the first com- ing in 1983 and a revised version appearing in 2000.2 The energy applied to such a seemingly remote and difficult topic has not been wasted since even those who have not investigated ancient popula- tion have admitted its importance. For many, such as George Sansom and John Hall, it was the driving force behind the need for more food and the widespread land clearance that reputedly unleashed elite greed and under- mined the Chinese-style state. For William McNeill, it was epidemic disease that caused population to stabilize or even decrease, thereby creating condi- tions in which a centralized, bureaucratic state could not long survive.3 This book attempts to synthesize previous work and analyze ancient population from several perspectives. To this end, it presents an historio- graphical overview of different figures, showing how they were computed as well as their strengths and weaknesses; makes estimates for the early eighth, mid-tenth, and mid-twelfth centuries; and then tries to evaluate those numbers in light of the relevant social and economic background. Critical variables include mortality parameters such as disease, famine, and war; factors indirectly indicating demographic trends and/or affecting fertility and longevity such as farming and agricultural technology; the labor market and industry; trade and the degree of urbanization; kinship, marriage, and the family; and commoner physical well-being as defined by everyday items (clothing, diet, sanitation, and housing). The central argument will be that the population of ancient Japan (ex- cluding Hokkaido and the Ryukyu chain) essentially remained static be- tween 700 and 1150, with a decrease occurring around 950.4 A major reason for this reversal of an earlier growth trend was the impact of pestilence, for INTRODUCTION which I have gathered much more data than were available in 1985, when I first addressed this issue.5 Famine and occasionally war exacerbated this shift. The drift toward lower population in the tenth and early eleventh cen- turies is readily visible in several areas: agriculture, where large tracts of land reverted to wilderness and peasants adapted technology to a lower worker- to-arable ratio; the labor market, where wages climbed and construction projects remained unfinished; industry, where labor-saving devices became common; and the demonetization of commerce and deurbanization of soci- ety. Only after 1050 did the population begin to recover to the level it had achieved in 700, as suggested indirectly by evidence from agriculture, trade, and cities. Hopefully, this essay will lead to new directions in research, even as it reinforces a well-known contention. HlSTORIOGRAPHICAL OVERVIEW As is readily apparent from Table 1, there is no dearth of numbers purporting to represent Japan's total population at various times throughout the ancient era. It is equally obvious that most "estimates" derive from the Buddhist traditions of Shotoku Taishi or the monk Gyoki and give modern scholars no idea about their method of calculation—if, indeed, they were computed at all. Leaving these aside, as well as the untenable numbers attributed to Ino Hidenori and the prewar Home Ministry (Naimusho chirikyoku), I shall concentrate on the figures proposed by prewar scholars Yokoyama Yoshiki- yo, Kimura Masakoto (1827-1913), and Sawada Goichi, and then proceed to examine postwar contributions. In evaluating the various estimates, I shall deal with three issues: the nature and validity of the sources, scholarly as- sumptions, and historical reasoning. The first attempt to calculate Japan's ancient population occurred in 1879, when Yokoyama Yoshikiyo, a legal and literary scholar, computed three numbers for ninth- and tenth-century Japan. According to Yokoya- ma, Japan contained 3,694,331 persons in 823, a total he derived as follows. Utilizing an 823 regulation (kyaku) presumably denoting all allotment fields (kubunden) in Kyushu at that time (65,677 cho), he argued that the island con- tained 13.3 percent of all administrative villages according to the generally reliable tenth-century encyclopedia Wamyo sho.6 A critical assumption was that each village throughout Japan had the same amount of kubunden. He then multiplied the number of cho in the 823 regulation by 7.5 (or divided by .133) to reach the total area of allotment fields in all Japan (492,557.5 cho). Thereupon, Yokoyama referred to household registers supposedly showing one cho supported 7.5 persons and multiplied to arrive at his total.
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